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Among the most controversial features of the Nuremberg Trial have been the repeated efforts of the Allied Powers to prove that the law created by the London Agreement and the Charter of the International Military Tribunal attached to this Agreement was but declaratory of already existing rules of general international law, and that the verdict of the Tribunal, apart from its immediate purpose of retribution, must be considered as the first attempt in history to establish a legal precedent destined to act as a powerful deterrent against possible future resort to illegal war. The Final Report on the Nuremberg Trial, submitted by the American Representative to the President of the United States, reiterates these dominant ideas by declaring: "The four nations, through their prosecutors and through their representatives on the Tribunal, have enunciated standards of conduct … by which the Germans have been condemned" and which "will become the condemnation of any nation that is faithless to them." Moreover, this document emphasizes what is termed "the power of the precedent" by asserting that "no one can hereafter deny or fail to know that the principles on which the Nazi leaders are adjudged to forfeit their lives constitute law—and law with a sanction."

The year 1930 has been marked by the eighteenth (ordinary) session of the Permanent Court of International Justice, which began on June 16,1930, and continued until August 26, 1930, and by the nineteenth (extraordinary) session, which began on October 22, 1930, and ended on December 6, 1930; by the rendering of Advisory Opinion No. 17, on the question of the Greco-Bulgarian " Communities" ; by the rendering of Advisory Opinion No. 18, on the question relating to the Free City of Danzig and the International Labor Organization; and by the rendering of an important order in the Franco-Swiss Zones case. During this year, also, Judge Frank B. Kellogg was elected to fill the vacancy caused by the resignation of Charles Evans Hughes, i.e., to serve from September 17, 1930, to December 31, 1930; and nineteen members of the Court were elected for the new term of nine years, beginning on January 1, 1931. The Protocol for the Revision of the Statute of the Court failed to come into force, as anticipated, on September 1, 1930, and the court continues, at any rate for the time being, under the unamended statute.

During the year 1929, the Permanent Court of International Justice
held two sessions, and handed down three judgments and three formal
orders. The sixteenth (extraordinary) session of the court began on May
13, 1929, and ended on July 12, 1929; and the seventeenth (ordinary) session began on July 8, 1929, and ended on September 10, 1929. At the sixteenth session, the court gave an order in the " Case Concerning the Denunciation by China of the Treaty of November 2, 1865, between China and Belgium" ; an order in the " Case Concerning the Factory at Chorzow (Indemnities)" ; a judgment (No. 14) in the " Case Concerning the Payment of Various Serbian Loans Issued in France" ; and a judgment (No. 15) in the " Case Concerning the Payment in Gold of the Brazilian Federal Loans Issued in France." At the seventeenth session, it gave an order in the " Case of the Free Zones of Upper Savoy and the District of Gex," and a judgment (No. 16) in the " Case Relating to the Territorial Jurisdiction of the International Commission of the River Oder." In addition to these activities, extensions of its jurisdiction and changes in the court's structure, which have been previsaged, make the year notable in the history of the court.

Several important events have marked the seventh year in the history of the Permanent Court of International Justice. The court was in session at The Hague from February 6, 1928, to April 26, 1928 (thirteenth session); from June 15, 1928, to September 13, 1928 (fourteenth session); and from November 12, 1928, to November 21, 1928 (fifteenth session). It handed down two advisory opinions (Nos. 15 and 16) and two judgments (Nos. 12 and 13), and several important orders. It lost the services of two eminent judges through the resignation of Judge John Bassett Moore and the death of Judge André Weiss. A settlement was reached with the Netherlands Government of the long-standing question as to the privileges and immunities of the judges and registry officials; and, what is perhaps more important for the court's future, the signatories of the court's protocol of signature began the consideration of changes in the court's statute in the light of seven years' experience. The seventh year marks progress in the establishment of the court's position as the chief agency in the world for the international administration of justice, as it marks also changes which will affect the future of the court.

"Der umkämpfte Charakter internationaler Klimapolitik macht nicht an der Zivilgesellschaft halt. Für die Erklärung der komplexen Politikprozesse ist es unzureichend, Zivilgesellschaft als eine in sich homogene vermittelnde Einheit gegenüber dem Staat zu begreifen. Anhand von Ansätzen der neo-gramscianischen Internationalen Politischen Ökonomie wird im vorliegenden Beitrag ein alternatives Verständnis dargestellt, das soziale Kräfte hingegen im Kontext von Auseinandersetzungen um Hegemonie in den Blick nimmt. Die Begriffe des Staates bzw. der Zivilgesellschaft in internationalisierter Staatlichkeit - hier dem internationalen Klimaregime - können so konzeptionell bestimmt werden. Davon ausgehend wird die internationale Klimapolitik als hegemoniales Konfliktfeld beschrieben, in der der Klimawandel ,strategisch selektiv' bearbeitet und so die neoliberale Hegemonie im Bereich des Ökologischen abgesichert wird. Während im Akteursfeld sozialer Bewegungen und NGOs die dort dominanten Akteure diesen hegemonialen Konsens durch ,konfliktive Kooperation' stützen, zeigt sich hier ebenso die Formierung eines gegen-hegemonialen Projekts. Getragen wird dieses von Akteuren, die sich auf nationaler wie auch internationaler Ebene neu konstituieren und zugleich Ausdruck einer Zuwendung globaler Bewegung zur internationalen Klimapolitik sind." (Autorenreferat)

"The ability to prioritise long-term goals above short-term gratifications is crucial to living a healthy and happy life. We are bombarded with temptations, whether from fast-food or faster technologies, but the psychological capacity to manage our lives within such a challenging environment has far-reaching implications for the well-being not only of the individual, but also society as a whole.The Routledge International Handbook of Self-Control in Health and Wellbeing is the first comprehensive handbook to map this burgeoning area of research by applying it to health outcomes and personal well-being. Including contributions from leading scholars worldwide, the book incorporates new research findings that suggest that simply inhibiting our immediate impulses isn't the whole story; there may be more options to improve self-control than simply by suppressing the ego.Divided into six coherent sections, the book provides an overview of the research base before discussing a range of interventions to help improve self-control in different contexts, from smoking or drinking too much to developing self-control over aggression or spending money. The only definitive handbook on this far-reaching topic, this essential work will appeal to researchers and students across health and social psychology, as well as related health sciences. "--Provided by publisher

In 2017 the International Court of Justice (ICJ or Court) made only procedural decisions, one on preliminary objections, one on counterclaims, and two on provisional measures. Three other new applications were made to the Court, all linked to earlier cases: Malaysia applied for the revision, and interpretation, of the judgment in the Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh case; and Costa Rica brought a case against Nicaragua concerning their land boundary in the area of Los Portillos, the latest in a long line of cases between the two states. Judges Ronny Abraham (France), Dalveer Bhandari (India), Antonio Cançado Trindade (Brazil), and Abdulqawi Yusuf (Somalia) were reelected to the Court, and one new judge, Nawaf Salam (Lebanon) was elected. The UK failed to secure the reelection of its judge, Christopher Greenwood. For the first time since the establishment of the ICJ, the UK will have no judge on the Court. This failure may be taken as an indication of its declining influence in international relations, arguably attributable in part to Brexit, and it marks the end of the convention that each permanent member of the Security Council will have a judge of its nationality on the Court. Nor was the UK able to prevent a request by the UN General Assembly (passed by ninety-four in favor to fifteen against, with sixty-five abstentions) for an Advisory Opinion on the legal consequences of the separation of the Chagos Archipelago from Mauritius in 1965—a sensitive issue for the UK, and one that has already been the subject of much litigation.

¿Por qué los gobiernos se endeudan internacionalmente, tanto como para arriesgarse a quebrar? ¿Por qué permanecen fuera de los mercados financieros durante un tiempo después del impago? Este documento desarrolla un modelo cuantitativo de impago soberano con costes de impago endógenos para proponer una respuesta nueva y unificada a estas preguntas. En el modelo, el gobierno tiene un incentivo para endeudarse en los mercados financieros internacionales debido a una diferencia entre la tasa de interés mundial y el rendimiento sobre el capital nacional, que surge de una fricción en el sector bancario interno. Dada la exposición de los bancos a la deuda soberana, el impago soberano les causa pérdidas, que se traducen en una crisis financiera. Al decidir sobre el reembolso de su deuda, el gobierno compara estos costes con la ventaja de no reembolsar a los inversores internacionales. Después del impago, el país solo vuelve a participar en los mercados financieros internacionales una vez que los bancos se han recuperado, porque solo entonces pueden de nuevo asignar eficientemente cada unidad marginal de inversión. La exclusión surge de manera endógena. El modelo puede generar niveles significativos de deuda interna y externa, spreads realistas, reducciones de crédito interno y PIB cuantitativamente plausibles en episodios de impago, y períodos de exclusión del mercado financiero internacional posterior al impago de una duración realista ; Why do governments borrow internationally, so much as to risk default? Why do they remain out of financial markets for a while after default? This paper develops a quantitative model of sovereign default with endogenous default costs to propose a novel and unified answer to these questions. In the model, the government has an incentive to borrow internationally due to a difference between the world interest rate and the domestic return on capital, which arises from a friction in the domestic banking sector. Since banks are exposed to sovereign debt, sovereign default causes losses for them, which translate into a financial crisis. When deciding upon repayment, the government trades off these costs against the advantage of not repaying international investors. After default, it only reaccesses international capital markets once banks have recovered, because only then are they able to efficiently allocate the marginal unit of investment again. Exclusion hence arises endogenously. The model is able to generate significant levels of domestic and foreign debt, realistic spreads, quantitatively plausible drops of lending and output in default episodes, and periods of postdefault international financial market exclusion of a realistic duration