Suchergebnisse

This article is part of a research conducted as part of the Support Program for Doctoral Studies of Shota Rustaveli Georgian National Science Foundation.This article is part of a research conducted as part of the Support Program for Doctoral Studies of Shota Rustaveli Georgian National Science Foundation.Name of the research – "Interdisciplinary analysis of the complex system of the Abkhazian conflict by the method 4D-RAV-17" (grant number – PHDF‐18‐1147). The method is a combination of well-known and innovative approaches and techniques. This article is part of the abovementioned research. The complex system of the Abkhazian conflict in this article received a conditional definition – the Abkhazian crisis. The political component of the complex system is accordingly called the Abkhazian political crisis and is the main object of research in the framework of the article.The article is aimed at solving a specific scientific and applied task – at determining a scientifically based method for the positive transformation of the Abkhazian political crisis and the transition to a new level of political order – to the Abkhazian security community.The article considers the possibility of carrying out work on the development and implementation of a new, alternative to the existing, peacemaking process, which can be based on the policy of the transition of the Abkhazian political crisis to a new political order.Consecutive transition tools are the following:• building a model of the structure of the Abkhazian political crisis;• The concept of awareness of common threats;• The concept of the Abkhazian security community.The work can be attributed to the following studies: Abkhazian Studies; Conflicts and Peace Studies, Crisis Studies, Security Studies, Political Studies and International Studies.The practical significance of the work and novelty. As a result of a reflective analysis of the past and existing political and scientific discourse, the absence of holistic research and the dominance of reductionism in the perception and description of the Abkhazian crisis and individual conflicts – its components - were first shown. In scientific works, a mostly complex and multi-component conflict is taken down to a hybrid and scientifically unreasonable formulation – "Georgian-Abkhazian" conflict. This wording also dominates in political discourse and even in international documents.As a result of a thoroughful analysis and synthesis of the information received, for the first time a brief and conditional definition was given to the complex system of the Abkhazian conflict – "Abkhazian crisis".As a result of this research, for the first time, at a scientific level, security threats are considered as a resource for peacemaking and the Concept of awareness of common threats is formulated.Also, for the first time (in the case of the Abkhazian crisis), the well-known Theory of the Security Community for International Relations of Karl Deutsch was proposed. It was adapted to the specifics of this conflict, not only related to the dimension of international relations. The political component of the crisis was classified in the research and a model of the Abkhazian political crisis was proposed, which includes both the domestic and international components of the crisis. The presented definition – "mixed conflict" theoretically resolved the conflict between supporters to define this conflict as "internal, local" and those who consider it "international". This is a useful solution for other political conflicts of the post-Soviet Union space, in particular, for the "Donbas crisis".From a theoretical and practical points of view, attention was drawn to the fact that Security Studies are considered a subsystem of studies in the field of International Studies, which does not allow the effective use of existing scientific achievements in these fields for mixed conflicts.The article proposes specific innovative ideas for implementing these approaches and techniques. This article proposes solutions to the problems of increasing the effectiveness of the peacemaking process. The task itself has an innovative character, since basically researches conducted earlier in this area (around the Abkhazian conflict) is more focused on the Conflicts Studies, rather than Peace Studies. In particular, this concerns the lack of research aimed at studying the effectiveness of peacemaking processes.As a result of formalization of the results obtained, the article presents new political concepts – neologisms, which until now have not been used (or not sufficiently used) in relation to this issue. Among them the following may be outlined: "Abkhazian crisis"; "Mixed conflict", "secessionists of Abkhazia"; "unionists of Abkhazia"; "irredentists of Abkhazia"; "Internationalization of the peacemaking process"; "legitimacy of peacemaking formats"; "democratization of the negotiation process"; "Abkhazian Security Community".As a result of the conducted work, an algorithm of stage-by-stage actions is presented, which can lead to a way out of the crisis and a transition to a new level of management culture and political order. It also provides specific practical recommendations that can be used by the participants in the process.Research on improvement of this model is ongoing, the following articles are being prepared, and negotiations are conducted on implementation with representatives of the participating parties at the expert and political levels.This research may be useful for those interested in the Abkhazian issue, as well as for adapting and using the approaches and techniques described in this article to improve the quality of peacemaking processes to resolve other conflicts and crises. ; Данная статья является частью исследования, проводимого в рамках Программы поддержки докторантских работ Грузинского национального фонда науки имени Шота Руставели. Наименование исследования – «Интердисциплинарный анализ комплексной системы Абхазского конфликта методом 4D-RAV-17» (номер гранта – PHDF‐18‐1147). Метод представляет из себя совокупность известных и инновационных подходов и техник.Данная статья является частью исследования, проводимого в рамках Программы поддержки докторантских работ Грузинского национального фонда науки имени Шота Руставели. Наименование исследования – «Интердисциплинарный анализ комплексной системы Абхазского конфликта методом 4D-RAV-17» (номер гранта – PHDF‐18‐1147). Метод представляет из себя совокупность известных и инновационных подходов и техник.Данная статья является частью указанного исследования. Комплексная система Абхазского конфликта в данной статье получила условное определение – Абхазский кризис. Политическая составляющая комплексной системы – соответственно названа Абхазским политическим кризисом и является главным объектом исследования в рамках статьи.Статья направлена на решение конкретной научно-прикладной задачи – на определение научно обоснованного метода для позитивной трансформации Абхазского политического кризиса и перехода к новому уровню политического порядка – к Абхазскому сообществу безопасности.В статье рассматривается возможность проведения работы по разработке и внедрению нового, альтернативного существующему, миротворческого процесса, в основу которого может лечь политика перехода Абхазского политического кризиса к новому политическому порядку. Инструментами последовательного перехода являются:• построение модели структуры Абхазского политического кризиса.• Концепция осознания общих угроз.• Концепция Абхазского сообщества безопасности.Работа может быть отнесена к исследованиям: Абхазии (Abkhazian Studies); конфликтов и мира (Conflicts and Peace Studies), кризисов (Crisis Studies), проблем безопасности (Security Studies), политики (Political Studies) и международных отношений (International Studies).Практическая значимость работы и новизна. В результате рефлексивного анализа прошлого и существующего политического и научного дискурса, впервые было показано отсутствие холистических исследований и доминирование редукционизма в восприятии и в описании Абхазского кризиса и отдельных конфликтов – его составляющих. В научных работах в основном сложный и многосоставной конфликт сводиться к гибридной и научно-необоснованной формулировке – «грузино-абхазский» конфликт. Данная формулировка доминирует также в политическом дискурсе и даже в международных документах.В результате тщательного анализа и синтеза полученной информации, впервые было дано краткое и условное определение комплексной системы Абхазского конфликта – «Абхазский кризис».В результате данного исследования впервые, на научном уровне, угрозы безопасности рассматриваются в качестве миротворческого ресурса и сформулирована Концепция осознания общих угроз.Также впервые (в случае Абхазского кризиса) была предложена к рассмотрению известная Теория сообщества безопасности для международных отношений Карла Дойча. Она была адаптирована к специфике данного конфликта, не относящегося только к измерению международных отношений. В исследовании была произведена классификация политической составляющей кризиса и предложена модель Абхазского политического кризиса, включающая в себя и внутреннюю, и международные составляющие кризиса. Представленная дефиниция – «смешанный конфликт» – теоретически решила конфликт между сторонниками определять этот конфликт как «внутренний, локальный» и теми, кто считает его «международным». Это полезное решение и для других политических конфликтов постсоветского пространства, в частности, для «Донбасского кризиса».С теоретической и с практической точек зрения было обращено внимание на тот факт, что исследования в области безопасности (Security Studies), рассматриваются подсистемой исследований в сфере международных отношений (International Studies), что не позволяет эффективно использовать существующие в этих сферах научные достижения к смешанным конфликтам.В статье предлагаются конкретные инновационные идеи для внедрения данных подходов и техник. Данная статья предлагает решение задач повышения эффективности миротворческого процесса. Сама задача носит инновационный характер, так как в основном исследования, проводимые ранее в данной сфере (вокруг Абхазского конфликта), в большей степени ориентированы на исследование конфликтов (Conflicts Studies), а не миротворчества (Peace Studies). В частности, это касается дефицита исследований, направленных на изучение эффективности миротворческих процессов.В результате формализации полученных результатов, в статье приведены новые политические понятия – неологизмы, до данного момента не используемые (или не в достаточной степени используемые) по отношению к данной проблематике. Среди них можно выделить следующие: «Абхазский кризис»; «смешанный конфликт», «сецессионисты Абхазии»; «унионисты Абхазии»; «ирредентисты Абхазии»; «интернационализация миротворческого процесса»; «легитимность миротворческих форматов»; «демократизация переговорного процесса»; «Абхазское сообщество безопасности».В результате проведенной работы представлен алгоритм поэтапных действий, который может привести к выходу из кризиса и переходу к новому уровню культуры управления и политическому порядку. Также приведены конкретные практические рекомендации, которые могут быть использованы участниками процесса.Исследования по совершенствованию данной модели продолжаются, подготавливаются следующие статьи, ведутся переговоры по внедрению с представителями сторон-участниц на экспертном и политическом уровне.Данное исследование может быть полезным для тех, кто интересуется Абхазским вопросом, а также для адаптации и использования, изложенных в статье подходов и техник для повышения качества миротворческих процессов по урегулированию других конфликтов и кризисов. ; Дана стаття є частиною дослідження, проведеного в межах Програми підтримки докторантських робіт Грузинського національного фонду науки імені Шота Руставелі. Найменування дослідження – «Інтердисциплінарний аналіз комплексної системи Абхазького конфлікту методом 4D-RAV-17» (номер гранту – PHDF-18-1147). Метод являє собою сукупність відомих і інноваційних підходів і технік.Дана стаття є частиною дослідження, проведеного в межах Програми підтримки докторантських робіт Грузинського національного фонду науки імені Шота Руставелі. Найменування дослідження – «Інтердисциплінарний аналіз комплексної системи Абхазького конфлікту методом 4D-RAV-17» (номер гранту – PHDF-18-1147). Метод являє собою сукупність відомих і інноваційних підходів і технік.Дана стаття є частиною зазначеного дослідження. Комплексна система Абхазького конфлікту в даній статті отримала умовне визначення – Абхазька криза. Політична складова комплексної системи – відповідно названа Абхазькою політичною кризою і є головним об'єктом дослідження в межах статті.Стаття спрямована на вирішення конкретного науково-прикладного завдання – на визначення науково обґрунтованого методу для позитивної трансформації Абхазької політичної кризи і переходу до нового рівня політичного порядку – до абхазького співтовариства безпеки.У статті розглядається можливість проведення роботи з розробки і впровадження нового, альтернативного наявному, миротворчого процесу в основу якого може лягти політика переходу Абхазької політичної кризи до нового політичного порядку. Інструментами послідовного переходу є:• побудова моделі структури Абхазької політичної кризи;• Концепція усвідомлення загальних загроз;• Концепція Абхазької спільноти.Робота може бути віднесена до досліджень: Абхазії (Abkhazian Studies); конфліктів і миру (Conflicts and Peace Studies), криз (Crisis Studies), проблем безпеки (Security Studies), політики (Political Studies) та міжнародних відносин (International Studies).Практичне значення роботи і новизна. У результаті рефлексивного аналізу минулого і наявного політичного та наукового дискурсу, уперше було показано відсутність холістичних досліджень і домінування редукціонізму у сприйнятті і в описі Абхазької кризи і окремих конфліктів – її складових. У наукових роботах в основному складний і багатоскладовий конфлікт зводитися до гібридного і науково-необґрунтованого формулювання – «грузино-абхазький» конфлікт. Дане формулювання домінує також у політичному дискурсі і навіть у міжнародних документах.У результаті ретельного аналізу і синтезу отриманої інформації уперше було дано короткий і умовне визначення комплексної системи Абхазького конфлікту – «Абхазька криза».У результаті даного дослідження вперше, на науковому рівні, загрози безпеки розглядаються в якості миротворчого ресурсу і сформульована Концепція усвідомлення загальних загроз.Також уперше (у разі Абхазької кризи) була запропонована до розгляду відома Теорія спільноти безпеки для міжнародних відносин Карла Дойча. Вона була адаптована до специфіки даного конфлікту, який не належить тільки до вимірювання міжнародних відносин. У дослідженні була проведена класифікація політичної складової кризи і запропонована модель Абхазької політичної кризи, що включає в себе і внутрішню, і міжнародну складові кризи. Представлена дефініція – «змішаний конфлікт» теоретично вирішила конфлікт між прихильниками визначати цей конфлікт як «внутрішній, локальний» і тими, хто вважає його «міжнародним». Це корисне рішення і для інших політичних конфліктів пострадянського простору, зокрема, для «Донбаської кризи».З теоретичної і з практичної точок зору було звернено увагу на той факт, що дослідження в галузі безпеки (Security Studies) розглядаються підсистемою досліджень у сфері міжнародних відносин (International Studies), що не дозволяє ефективно використовувати наявні в цих сферах наукові досягнення до змішаних конфліктів.У статті пропонуються конкретні інноваційні ідеї для впровадження даних підходів і технік. Дана стаття пропонує вирішення завдань підвищення ефективності миротворчого процесу. Сама задача носить інноваційний характер, оскільки в основному дослідження, проведені раніше у даній сфері (навколо абхазького конфлікту), більшою мірою орієнтовані на дослідження конфліктів (Conflicts Studies), а не миротворчості (Peace Studies). Зокрема, це стосується дефіциту досліджень, спрямованих на вивчення ефективності миротворчих процесів.У результаті формалізації отриманих результатів, у статті наведені нові політичні поняття – неологізми, що до даного моменту не використовуються (або не в достатній мірі використовуються) щодо даної проблематики. Серед них можна виокремити наступні: «Абхазька криза»; «змішаний конфлікт», «сецессіоністів Абхазії»; «уніоністи Абхазії»; «ірредентистів Абхазії»; «Інтернаціоналізація миротворчого процесу»; «Легітимність миротворчих форматів»; «Демократизація переговорного процесу»; «Абхазьке співтовариство безпеки».У результаті проведеної роботи представлений алгоритм поетапних дій, який може призвести до виходу з кризи і переходу до нового рівня культури управління і політичного порядку. Також наведені конкретні практичні рекомендації, які можуть бути використані учасниками процесу.Дослідження щодо вдосконалення даної моделі тривають, готуються наступні статті, ведуться переговори із впровадження з представниками сторін-учасниць на експертному і політичному рівні.Дане дослідження може бути корисним для тих, хто цікавиться Абхазьким питанням, а також для адаптації і використання викладених в статті підходів і технік для підвищення якості миротворчих процесів щодо врегулювання інших конфліктів і криз.

[EN] The traditional financial theory proposes that the main objective of a company should be to maximize the wealth of its shareholders, which, in practice, means maximizing the market price of the securities they hold. This objective has generated an abundant literature and a wide controversy about the effects of financial decisions on the value of companies. In this sense, far from the situation of perfect markets analysed by Merton Miller and Franco Modigliani in their seminal works of 1958 and 1961, research in recent decades has shown the relevance of frictions in capital markets such as transaction costs, agency costs, bankruptcy costs or the taxes on the value of firms. In this context, there are many studies that have shown the tax consequences of the company's financial policies. From this perspective, the static trade-off theory establishes that the value of a company will reach its peak when the opposing effects of two forces are balanced: the tax deductibility of interest payments and the increase in bankruptcy costs associated with an increase of the level of debt. Likewise, dividends are also affected by the tax laws of the countries, given the different tax treatment of the distribution of cash compared to its retention. Within the imperfections of the financial markets, deserves special mention the agency theory approach, according to which dividends and debt can be effective instruments to reduce conflicts between the different stakeholders of the company. More specifically, the distribution of dividends or the increase of firm debt are believed to mitigate the possibility of opportunistic behaviour into the firms as dividends and debt reduce the resources under managers' control and are susceptible to be used in search of their interests and not to maximize the wealth of the investors. Precisely, the agency approach allows to incorporate informational asymmetries between insiders and outsiders, which endows the decisions of dividends and capital structure of a new function. Thus, these financial policies become signals that convey reliable information about the profitable investment opportunities available to the company. A feature of recent research in business finance and corporate governance is the international dimension that these studies have taken, addressing various institutional and legal environments. In this sense, the Law & Finance approach proposed by La Porta et al. (1999, 1997, 1998, 2000), according to which, two types of legal systems can be distinguished: countries whose legal systems come from the Anglo-Saxon or common law tradition tend to offer more adequate protection to investors than countries whose laws they are born in the context of civil or continental law. Taking this approach to the field of dividend policy, there are two hypotheses that explain the relationship between the legal structure of countries and the distribution of profits of companies. The first states that a legal system that offers adequate protection to investors boosts the distribution of dividends as a form of compensation for those shareholders (the outcome hypothesis). The alternative explanation raises that poor legal protection leads companies to distribute higher dividend ratios as a way to make up for the shortcomings of the environment (the substitute hypothesis). Both hypotheses have received considerable empirical support in different places and times. Combining the different theoretical approaches outlined above, it is worth asking whether the incidence of taxes on financial decisions can be modelled by the level of protection enjoyed by shareholders. In other words, the question arises about the relationships between the information transmitted by financial decisions in situations of low legal protection and the effect of taxes on such decisions. All this highlights the convenience of jointly analysing the mechanisms of corporate governance and taxes when investigating financial policies. In parallel with these investigations, there is another line of research that has studied the interaction between the institutional environment and the financial structure of the company, showing how the quality of corporate governance practices influences the relationship between taxes and indebtedness decisions. According to this view, the possible transfers of resources between shareholders and creditors are translated into variations in the flows subject to tax. And, given that the institutional environment modifies the possibility of such transfers, a concatenation is established between the three elements (taxes, legal environment and financial policy) that advise their joint study. Starting from the theoretical foundations previously outlined, this doctoral thesis seeks to perform an analysis of the dividend policy and the capital structure of Brazilian companies. Somehow, paradoxical as it may seem, a doctoral thesis is the result of the doctoral student's individual work and the imprint that his directors, professors and colleagues leave on the Doctorate Program. Therefore, it is not surprising that this doctoral thesis is inscribed in a field of corporate finance broken by professors of the Interuniversity Doctorate Program in Research in Business Economics. When writing these pages, it is inevitable to evoke previous doctoral theses such as that of professors Valentín Azofra Palenzuela on the explanatory factors of the capital structure of Spanish companies, Alberto de Miguel Hidalgo on the interrelation of investment decisions, financing and dividends, Juan Antonio Rodríguez Sanz on the ownership structure or Chabela de la Torre and Ignacio Requejo on the influence of the ownership structure on the company's financial strategy. This means the choice of research topic, with which I have tried to benefit from the knowledge of those who preceded me and, at the same time, take a step forward in the path of knowledge. The choice of Brazil is not capricious but this country is a unique case for the joint study of the tax and institutional effects on corporate decisions since, despite offering relatively little legal protection to minority shareholders and suffering from certain shortcomings in terms of corporate governance, in recent years it has made a considerable effort to improve the quality of its institutional environment while at the same time implementing significant changes in its fiscal order. Both actions have mutual implications and constitute a unique opportunity to advance our knowledge on the subject. Thus, in order to compensate for the deficient protection of minority shareholders the Stock Exchange of the State of Sao Paulo (B3), which is the official Stock Exchange of Brazil, created in 2000 the so-called Novo Mercado (NM). Companies voluntarily joining it are obliged to adopt corporate governance practices that are stricter than those required by national legislation. This process is based on the idea of "functional convergence" proposed by Coffee (1999), according to which, in countries with institutional deficiencies, due to the difficulties of reforming national legislation, it must be the capital markets that take the initiative in adopting government improvement measures. Aiming at granting companies a certain margin of time to gradually improve their operation until they were able to meet the requirements of the NM, the B3 launched the Level 1 and Level 2, which are intermediary categories with stricter requirements of corporate governance than those required by Brazilian legislation and, at the same time, less demanding than those of the NM. In this way, the Brazilian setting constitutes a unique environment for studying the effects of corporate governance on the financial decisions of companies by bringing together companies that, despite being subject to the same institutional framework, are exposed to different requirements of corporate governance. Therefore, the present doctoral thesis prevents the results and conclusions from being biased by institutional and cultural differences between countries. Likewise, the Brazilian case allows us to assess the extent to which a market-level reform that did not have the support of national legislative changes, can replace or amend the institutional deficiencies of the country as a whole. Another institutional aspect in which we deepen in this doctoral thesis is related to the influence of the Brazilian tax legislation in the financial decisions of companies. Specifically, Brazil is the only emerging country that has implemented a system of Allowance for Corporate Equity (ACE), called "interest on equity (IOE)", whose purpose is to allow companies to deduct a notional interest rate for the use of own resources and not only for the use of the debt. A peculiar feature of the IOE is that companies can only enjoy tax deductions by its use when they distribute part of their equity to shareholders. Thus, the IOE is a clear alternative to payout and, in spite of presenting features and functions quite similar to dividends, such as its usefulness to reduce agency conflicts, to signal investment opportunities, to attract shareholders who value the feeling of security, and to provide shareholders liquidity, its tax treatment presents great differences, since, when considered a financial expense, it can be deducted in the balance of the company before the calculation of taxes, thus generating a tax deduction. On the other hand, in the case of dividends, the tax base is determined by the adjusted net profit, without the company being able to obtain tax deductions for the distribution of dividends. The tax treatment of personal income is also different for dividends and for IOE. While shareholders are tax exempt when they receive dividends, they taxed on incomes from IOE and this tax varies according to the type of beneficiary shareholder. Therefore, the tax advantages derived from the use of IOE depend not only on the capital structure of the company but also on its ownership structure. This feature opens the door to consider whether the importance of fiscal considerations in the payout policy may be conditioned by the identity of the company's shareholders. In the same way, the existence of the IOE allows companies to have an alternative non-debt tax shield, with lower bankruptcy costs and that also retains the non-fiscal characteristics of the debt, such as, its signalling effect or its capacity to mitigate agency conflicts. Based on the framework described above, the main objective of this doctoral thesis is to analyse, using the idiosyncrasies of the Brazilian institutional framework, the influence of corporate governance, taxes and the ownership structure on dividends and capital structure decisions of companies. This general objective is specified in two more specific objectives: 1- To analyze if and how the adoption of the NM affects the dividend policy and the capital structure of Brazilian companies. 2- Based on the relevance of taxes in payout decisions and the capital structure of companies, to analyze the moderating role of the ownership structure in said relationship. This sequence of objectives structures this doctoral thesis. Thus, after this introduction, in Chapter 2 we consider the effect of the incorporation into the NM on financing and dividend decisions. This chapter describes the characteristics of the Brazilian institutional environment and the reform undertaken by B3 to improve the protection of investors through the creation of different market levels. Then, we verify if and how the incorporation to the NM and the intermediate levels affects the decisions of dividends and corporate financing, both as mechanisms used by companies to mitigate their agency conflicts. Next, we incorporate the differences in taxation between dividends and IOE to verify the moderating effect of firms' ownership structure. This analysis is carried out in Chapter 3, in which we detail the tax consequences of the use of dividends and IOE for companies and shareholders and, subsequently, we verify whether and how the identity of the dominant shareholders affects the relationship between taxes and payout decisions. A similar study is undertaken in Chapter 4, in which the effect of the IOE on the capital structure is extended. In this chapter, we expose the similarities between leverage and the IOE and also the differences in their tax treatment, which depend on the ownership structure of firms. Subsequently, in this chapter we analyze the effect of taxes on financing decisions, incorporating the moderating role of the identity of the shareholders in this relationship. This doctoral thesis is closed with a chapter that contains the main conclusions, the results are discussed from a critical perspective and future lines of research are suggested. To facilitate the overview of our research, in Figure 1 we propose a simplified scheme. By way of advancement of our results, we find that Brazilian companies voluntarily incorporated into the NM distribute less dividends and are less leveraged than their counterparts operating in the other segments of B3. This suggests that the NM plays an important role and can be an element that replaces other mechanisms aimed at improving trust between companies and shareholders, namely, dividends and debt. The results also indicate that the incidence of taxes on payout and capital structure decisions depends on the ownership structure of the companies. We have detected that in companies with a predominant presence of individual (or family) shareholders or with pyramidal structures in their chain of owners, taxes seem to be a determining factor in financing or payout decisions. Contrariwise, in companies owned by institutional shareholders, fiscal considerations appear to be irrelevant in the formulation of financial policy. Given the above, this doctoral thesis posits that reforms undertaken in the capital markets stand as an alternative mechanism to overcome the legal deficiencies that prevent countries from improving the quality of the corporate governance. We also conclude that the importance of taxes in corporate decisions is affected by the ownership structure. This indicates that the effectiveness of the efforts undertaken to reduce the debt tax bias is conditioned by the corporate shareholding structure.

Addressing issues such as the one that is intended to be developed in these Unes and that is proposed in the title, are interesting insofar as they become challenges not only theoretical but practical.The term Orange Economy in addition to pretending to offer a chromatic distinctive seems to want to locate us in a particu­lar context with equally singular impacts Déribéré (1964). The study carried out on the subject and contained in the manual: «The orange economy.An infinite opportu­nity" by Felipe Buitrago Restrepo and lván Duque Márquez, expresses the importance of the creative and cultural industries in the development of countries like ours, where the economy is not very diverse compared to Mexico, the United States and Spain,among others.But what is the Orange economy? And what makes it up? The Orange economy has been defined by the IDB (lnter-American Devel­opment Bank) as the set of activities that in a chain-linked way allow ideas to be transformed into cultural goods and ser­vices, whose value is determined by their intellectual property content. The orange universe is composed of cultural economy and creative industries, in whose intersection are the conventional cultural industries and support areas far creativity (www.iadb. org, 26 Sep. 2018).Culture and knowledge are undoubtedly the economic components that generate wealth, it seems to be the slogan proclaimed by the Orange Economy. These elements are not new to Colombia as they have always been present in the national scenario. lt has been said and recognized that Colombian talent is indisputable not only locally, regionally, nationally, but also globally as well as its ancestral wealth in knowledge and tradi­tions that are organized in consolidated knowledge to conserve cultural diversity which in turn is the source of creativity and innovation.Only until now do they seem to have value in an economy that had previously down­played their importance and prominence, even reflected in sorne artistic and cultural activities that barely survive despite the talent, innovation and knowledge they pos­sess. However, it must also be recognized that sorne artistic activities have had better luck than others, referring to the little ar much support they have received. Within these could be mentioned the cinema, sorne visual and scenic arts, music and fashion. lt is evident then that the contribution that ideas and cultural activities can offer to a national economy has begun to be recog­nized within this orange framework,as long as there is support, incentives and guar­antees that facilitate their insertion in the economic cycle and not leave it to the fate ar influence of a few.Reconciling the relationship between econo­my and culture is not an easy task, given that far creative minds the monetary character with which they want to value and measure is odious and uncomfortable, perhaps be­cause it does not really represent the cre­ative and innovative value they possess. In addition, the lack of recognition of their work as legitimate, which deserves to have all the conditions and opportunities that are lacking, often leads them to swell the informality of their activities, denying them the opportunity to participate in a chain of value that benefits everyone.On the other hand, Buitrago and Duque in their manual, (p. 47) consider the econo­my and the expensive culture of the same coin: one is the abstract representation of its symbolic value and the other is its quan­titatively precise validation, then comes to being the coin itself, the creation of both (p. 48) given the factors that are found in it: productive capacity, seriousness, solidity, entrepreneurial spirit or the values of the society that receive it. l n these, societies use their most important cultural symbols and their most recognized historical icons to adorn and support their value (p. 49).In this arder of ideas, to achieve in the real­ity and Colombian context that culture and economy complement each other and are seen as faces of the same coin, will be the biggest challenge that this Orange Economy proposal has to face, which shows to have political will, thanks to the current positions of its proponents.lt will be necessary, then, innovative and creative business models that allow trans­forming ideas into cultural goods and ser­vices whose value is determined by their intellectual property content and will un­doubtedly be present, making use of the new and modern technologies of information and communication, in arder to contribute and promote connectivity to the insertion of these creative and cultural industries, thus contributing to the creative value cha in, accompanied by education and preservation of heritage, in this so-called Orange Economy. ; bordar temas como el que se pretende de­sarrollar en estas líneas y que se encuentra planteado en su título, resultan interesantes en la medida que se convierten en retos no solamente teóricos sino prácticos. El término Economía Naranja además de pretender brindar un distintivo cromático pareciera querer ubicarnos en un contexto particular con unos impactos igualmente singulares Déribéré (1964). El estudio reali­zado sobre el tema y contenido en el manual: «La economía naranja. Una oportunidad in­finita» de Felipe Buitrago Restrepo e lván Duque Márquez, expresa la importancia de las industrias creativas y culturales en el desarrollo de países como el nuestro, don­de la economía es poco diversa comparada con las deMéxico, Estados Unidos y España, entre otras. Pero ¿Qué es en sí la economía Naranja? ¿Y qué la compone?, La economía Naranja ha sido definida por el BID (Banco Intera­mericano de Desarrollo) como el conjunto de actividades que de manera encadenada permiten que las ideas se transformen en bienes y servicios culturales, cuyo valor está determinado por su contenido de propie­dad intelectual. El universo naranja está compuesto por la economía cultural y las industrias creativas, en cuya intersección se encuentran las industrias culturales con­vencionales y las áreas de soporte para la creatividad (www.iadb.org, 26 sep. 2018). Cultura y conocimiento sin duda son los componentes económicos que generan ri­queza, parece ser la consigna que proclama la Economía Naranja. Estos elementos no son nuevos para Colombia en la medida que siempre han estado presentes en el escena­rio nacional. Se ha dicho y reconocido que el talento colombiano es indiscutible no solo a nivel local, regional, nacional, sino también mundial al igual que su riqueza ancestral en saberes y tradiciones que se organizan en conocimiento consolidado para conservar la diversidad cultural que a su vez es origen de creatividad e innovación.Solo hasta ahora parecen tener valor dentro de una economía que antes les había res­tado importancia y protagonismo, viéndose reflejado incluso en algunas actividades artísticas y culturales que escasamente lo­gran sobrevivir pese al talento, innovación y conocimiento que poseen; sin embargo, se debe reconocer también que algunas actividades artísticas sí han contado con mayor suerte que otras, refiriéndose al poco o mucho apoyo que han recibido. Dentro de estas se podrían mencionar el cine, al­gunas artes visuales y escénicas, la música y la moda. Se manifiesta entonces, que se ha empezado a reconocer dentro de este marco naranja el aporte que las ideas yac­tividades culturales pueden brindar a una economía nacional, siempre y cuando se cuente con apoyo, incentivos y garantías que faciliten su inserción en el ciclo económico y no dejárselo a la suerte o a la influencia de unos pocos. Conciliar la relación entre economía y cul­tura, no es tarea fácil dado que para las mentes creativas el carácter monetario con el que se le quiere valorar y medir le resulta odioso e incómodo, quizá porque no representa realmente el valor creativo e innovador que ellos poseen. Además, la falta de reconocimiento a su trabajo como legítimo, que merece contar con todas las condiciones y oportunidades de las cuales se carece, los lleva muchas veces a engrosar la informalidad de sus actividades, negán­doles así, la oportunidad de participar en una cadena de valor que beneficie a todos.Por otra parte, Buitrago y Duque en su ma­nual, (pág. 47), consideran a la economía y la cultura cara de una misma moneda: una es la representación abstracta de su valor simbólico y la otra es su validación cuanti­tativamente precisa, viene entonces a ser la moneda en sí misma la creación de ambas (pág. 48), dada los factores que en ella se encuentran: capacidad productiva, seriedad, solidez, espíritu emprendedor o los valores de la sociedad que la acogen. En estas, las sociedades se valen de sus símbolos cul­turales más importantes y de sus íconos históricos más reconocidos para adornar y respaldar el valor de las mismas (Pág. 49). En este orden de ideas, lograr en la realidad y contexto colombiano que la cultura y la economía se complementen y se vean cara de una misma moneda, será el reto mayor que tiene que enfrentar esta propuesta de Economía Naranja que muestra contar con voluntad política, gracias a las posiciones actuales de sus proponentes. Se necesitarán, entonces modelos de ne­gocios innovadores y creativos, que permi­tan transformar ideas en bienes y servicios culturales cuyo valor esté determinado por su contenido de propiedad intelectual y sin duda estarán presentes, haciendo uso de las nuevas y modernas tecnologías de la infor­mación y comunicación, con el fin de aportar e impulsar la conectividad a la inserción de estas industrias creativas y culturales, con­tribuyendo así, a la cadena de valor creativa, acompañada por la educación y preservación del patrimonio, en esta llamada Economía Naranja. ; Aborder des questions telles que celles qui sont censées etre développées dans ces lignes et qui sont soulevées dans son titre est intéressant dans la mesure ou elles de­viennent des défis non seulement théoriques mais pratiques. Le terme Économie Orange, en plus de pré­tendre offrir une distinction chromatique, semble vouloir nous situer dans un contexte particulier aux impacts tout aussi singuliers, Déribéré (1964). L.:étude réalisée sur le sujet et le contenu dans le manuel: «t.:économie orange. Une opportunité infinie» de Felipe Buitrago Restrepo et lván Duque Márquez, souligne l'importance des industries créa­tives et culturelles dans le développement de pays comme le nótre, ou l'économie n'est pas tres diversifiée par rapport a celles du Mexique, des États-Unis et de l'Espagne.Mais qu'est-ce que l'économie orange? Et qu'est-ce qui la compase? La BID (Banque interaméricaine de développement) a défini t.:économie Orange comme un ensemble d'activités permettant de transformer les idées en idées de biens et services culturels, dont la valeur est déterminée par le contenu de leur propriété intellectuelle. t.:univers orange est constitué de l'économie culturelle et des industries créatives, a l'intersection de laquelle se trouvent les industries cultu­relles conventionnelles et les espaces de soutien a la créativité (www.iadb.org, 26 sept. 2018). La culture et le savoir sont sans aucun doute les composants économiques génératrices de richesse, et semblent etre le slogan pro­clamé par l'économie orange. Ces éléments ne sont pas nouveaux en Colombie car ils ont toujours été présents dans le scénario national. ll a été dit et reconnu que le talent colombien est indiscutable non seulement au niveau local, régional, national, mais aussi mondial,ainsi que sa richesse ancestrale en savoirs et traditions organisés en savoirs consolidés pour préserver la diversité cultu­re lle, qui a son tour origine de la créativité et de l'innovation.Jusqu'a présent, ils semblent avoir de la valeur dans une économie qui auparavant avait minimisé leur importance et leur no­toriété, reflétant meme certaines activités artistiques et culturelles qui survivent a peine malgré le talent, l'innovation et les connaissances qu'ils possedent. Cependant, il faut aussi reconnaitre que certaines acti­vités artistiques ont eu plus de chance que d'autres, en référence au peu ou beaucoup de soutien qu'elles ont re¡;u. Parmi ceux-ci, on peut citer le cinéma, certains arts visuels et scéniques, la musique et la mode. l l est ainsi manifesté que, dans ce cadre orange, la contribution que les idées et les activités culturelles peuvent apporter a une économie nationale ont commencé a etre reconnues, a condition qu'il existe un soutien, des in­citations et des garanties qui facilitent leur insertion dans le cycle économique, sans laisser au sort ou a l'influence de quelques­uns.Réconcilier la relation entre l'économie et la culture n'est pas une tache facile étant donné que, pour les esprits créatifs, le caractere monétaire avec lequel ils veulent valoriser et mesurer est odieux et inconfortable; pour la raison que cela ne représente pas vraiment la valeur créative et innovante qu'ils possedent. En outre, le manque de reconnaissance de leur travail comme légitime, mérite de béné­ficier de toutes les conditions et opportunités qui leur manquent pour souvent les conduire a grossir l'informalité de leurs activités, les privant ainsi de la possibilité de participer a une chaine de valeur qui profite a tout le monde.D'autre part, Buitrago et Duque, dans leur manuel (page 47), considerent l'économie et la culture coOteuse d'une meme piece: l'une est la représentation abstraite de sa valeur symbolique et l'autre est sa validation quantitative précise, puis étant la monnaie elle-meme la création des deux (page 48), compte tenu des facteurs qui s'y trouvent: capacité de production, sérieux, solidité, es­prit d'entreprise ou valeurs de la société qui la rec;:oit. Dans ces, les sociétés utilisent leurs symboles culturels les plus importants et leurs icónes historiques les plus reconnues pour orner et soutenir leur valeur (p. 49).Dans cet ordre d'idées, est réalisé que dans la réalité et le contexte colombien, la culture et l'économie se completent et soient confron­tés au meme probleme, qui constituera le plus grand défi auquel cette proposition de l'économie orange doit faire face, ce qui montre la volonté politique , grace aux po­sitions actuelles de ses partisans. lls seront alors nécessaires que des mo­deles commerciaux innovants et créatifs permettant de transformer des idées en biens et services culturels dont la valeur est déterminée par leur contenu de propriété intellectuelle et, sans aucun doute, ils se­ront présents, en utilisant les technologies nouvelles et modernes de l'information et de la communication, afin de contribuer et de promouvoir la connectivité a l'insertion de ces industries créatives et culturelles, contribuant ainsi a la chaine de valeur de la création, accompagnée par l'éducation et la préservation du patrimoine, dans cette soi-disant économie orange.

La ciudad estimó su población de 345.769 pobladores para 1934, habitando 38.000 viviendas en 2100 manzanas con tas solo 1640 instalaciones telefónicas. Tuvo una extensión de 15 km. entre Santa Lucía y Rionegro, por 5 km. de ancho en 1935, con muchos y grandes intersticios vacíos y sin desarrollos al sur y al occidente. El Centro de la ciudad tuvo alta congestión vehicular, a pesar de sus buses y 48,59 km. de líneas de tranvía en 1933. Poseía un aeropuerto privado de Scadta, en el Municipio de Bosa. No contó a comienzos de los treintas con las infraestructuras urgentes en acueducto, alcantarillado ni manejo de residuos sólidos. Las formas de crecimiento urbano características en 1932 fueron la "informal" y la "barraca", que aplazaban el proceso de urbanización y privilegiaban la construcción de las edificaciones. En 1933, se creó el Instituto de Acción Social de Bogotá, para resolver el problema de vivienda y obras públicas en los barrios obreros. Los obreros llevaron una existencia sórdida, antihigiénica, hacinada, con 5,2 miembros por familia, bajos ingresos y con niños y niñas trabajadores. Se relacionó pobreza con hambre y por primera vez con la nutrición. Se asociaron la higiene y la moral en las habitaciones paupérrimas. Se relocalizaron los moradores pobres de los cerros de Bogotá, del proyecto del Paseo Bolívar, en el barrio Centenario en 1938. La urbanización posterior a la ciudad existente fue la gran oportunidad para modernizar la ciudad y que fuera digna de denominarse Capital de la República. Se creó del Departamento de urbanismo en 1933, con Karl Brunner como su primer director al inicio de 1934, y se dispusieron en este Departamento las secciones de Urbanizaciones, Plano Futuro y Arquitectura. Se demandó "el proyecto de planeamiento". Brunner adelantó estudios para urbanizar el occidente y sur de la ciudad, pero no se aprobó ni se conoció bajo su dirección, un plano del futuro desarrollo de la ciudad. La ciudad contó con un Plan de Obras para el Cuarto Centenario propuesto y aprobado inicialmente en 1933 y finalmente modificado en 1935, tras el cual se siguieron proponiendo nuevas obras. En 1938 Bogotá contó con un plano actualizado de la ciudad existente. La ciudad adelantó estadísticas y estudios sociales con el "Departamento de Estadística e Investigación Social" y consideró imprescindible la elaboración de un "censo general". Se modernizaron las entidades municipales, se reorganizaron el Laboratorio de Sanidad, los roperos y restaurantes escolares, los Institutos profesionales para varones y para mujeres y, las licencias y policías específicos para el Departamento de Circulación y Tránsito. Ante el atraso de la urbanización, del acueducto, sus obras de captación, embalse, purificación y conducción, la Nación aportó recursos. Ésta también financió la construcción de la Biblioteca Nacional y del Campus de la Universidad Nacional. Sobre predios donados, el Municipio, con algunos recursos de la Gobernación, construyó el Estadio Municipal El Campín. Se construyeron tramos cortos pero importantes del Paseo Bolívar, Av. Jiménez, Av. Liévano, Av. Caracas, carrera Norte (séptima), Santiago de Chile. En alcantarillado se planteó la construcción de colectores y canales de cuerpos de agua. Respecto de la energía, el tema central crítico fue su ensanche, por el aumento de la demanda, que hicieron necesarias las plantas de El Charquito, y la de El Salto. Se continuó extendiendo la red del tranvía hasta 1938. Se construyeron edificios de la Bolsa de Bogotá y del Instituto Federico Lleras Acosta, el teatro al aire libre de la Media Torta y las 500 casas para obreros en el barrio del Centenario. Se construyeron escuelas para niños y para niñas. Se terminaron y dotaron plazas de mercado, nuevo matadero y pabellón par expendio de carnes. Se construyeron hornos crematorios de basuras. Las Juntas de Mejoras públicas de los barrios continuaron gestionando las obras de pavimentos, alcantarillas, escuelas públicas, plazas de mercado y kioscos sanitarios. La ciudad jardín y el movimiento moderno estuvieron presentes durante la discusión del Plan de Obras del IV Centenario. El Registro Municipal refirió congresos, conferencias internacionales y nacionales, artículos y reseñas, con las diferencias conceptuales de Ciudad Jardín y el Movimiento Moderno de la Arquitectura. Se abordaron: el urbanismo, la vivienda popular, los barrios insalubres y su higienización y las 'casas baratas', el crecimiento de las ciudades y de sus centros, su historia y evolución, el patrimonio natural y construido y la arquitectura. Se mencionaron las ciudades satélites, sus "cinturones verdes", los suburbios, la relación ciudad campo, el planeamiento regional, el metropolitalismo, el régimen especial para la ciudad capital, la zonificación, las vías radiales o diagonales versus los trazados ortogonales. Se redujeron las exenciones para aumentar la tributación y financiar las obras del Centenario, imponiendo normas científicas y modernas de cálculo tributario. Se organizó el sorteo de la Lotería del Centenario para costear las obras. Se creó el Fondo Rotatorio de Fomento social y el Banco Central Hipotecario para estimular el ahorro para vivienda. También se aprobó el impuesto de valorización. Nos comparamos con otras naciones con relación a las migraciones a sus ciudades capitales, las ventajas y desventajas de las ciudades modernas, el ensanche de las calles, la sanidad, el estado del bienestar social, la pobreza, los barrios populares, las finanzas municipales, el tráfico y las condiciones habitables de las viviendas. Se recibieron muchos saludos al Centenario de Bogotá, desde otros municipios nacionales y ciudades extranjeras. Se decretó para 1938 levantar el "censo civil de la República" de edificaciones y población. Se realizó la Exposición Nacional del IV Centenario, con el apoyo de la Nación y del Departamento. La modernización fue la tarea central que se propuso Bogotá para considerarse de manera diferenciada La Capital de la República. Se discutía la municipalización o privatización de los servicios municipales, la elección de alcaldes por los Concejos y no por el Gobernador. El nuevo espíritu cívico dejo de ser de los empresarios o asociaciones privadas para estar desarrolladas por las entidades municipales. Algunas élites municipales dieron importancia a las condiciones sociales de la propiedad, su función social, discutiendo privilegiar prioritariamente a las clases bajas sobre las medias. Se pretendió modernizar las costumbres, el aseo, divulgar el deporte y las granjas urbanas. Se mencionó modernizar la demografía con la pasterización de la leche, "las prácticas anticoncepcionales, el aborto y la esterilización". Se impulsó un "sistema de ahorro postal". El Paseo Bolívar se planteó como una franja sanitaria y una bella vía sobre el paisaje de la ciudad, y como un reconocimiento de las clases menos pudientes con derecho a vivienda urbanizada, como el barrio Centenario. Se llevaron a cabo la construcción de Barrios para empleados Muequetá, Las Mercedes, y para obreros, entre otros el Calderón Tejada. Se continuó insistiendo en otorgarle a Bogotá el carácter de Distrito Capital. Se llevaron a cabo las festividades del Centenario entre el 20 de julio y el 7 de agosto de 1938 en muchos lugares distintos de la ciudad. Se reconoció al Fundador y a los indígenas Chibchas. La celebración de los Juegos Bolivarianos en los nuevos estadios de la Universidad Nacional y el Nemesio Camacho, acogieron de forma permanente el foot ball en la cultura Bogotana. Se modernizó el manejo del tránsito en la ciudad con la compra de buses. ; Abstract: The city: In 1934, the city estimated that its population was 345,769 inhabitants, living in 38,000 homes over 2,100 blocks, and with 1,640 telephone lines. In 1935, the city was 15 km long from Santa Lucía to Rionegro, and 5 km wide, with many large vacant areas and no development to the south and west. In 1933, the city center had considerable traffic congestion, despite its buses and 48.59 km of tram lines. Scadta private airport operated in the municipality of Bosa. In the early 1930s, the city lacked urgently needed aqueduct, sewer, and solid waste management infrastructure. In 1932, the main styles of urban growth were "informal" and "slums," which delayed urbanization and favored self-build construction. In 1933, the Institute of Social Action of Bogotá was created to solve housing and public works problems in the working-class neighborhoods. The workers lived in sordid, unhygienic, overcrowded conditions, with 5.2 members per family, low income, and child labor. Poverty gave rise to hunger, and the impact of nutrition was understood for the first time. Poor hygiene and dubious morals were associated with the housing of the very poor. In 1938, the impoverished residents living on the slopes of Bogotá's mountainsides were relocated to the Paseo Bolivar project in the Centenario neighborhood. Urbanization: The city's subsequent urbanization was a great opportunity to modernize and make the city worthy of its denomination Capital of the Republic. The Department of Urban Planning was created in 1933, with Karl Brunner at the helm as the first director in early 1934. The department included divisions for Urbanization, Future Plans, and Architecture. "Project Planning" was in demand. Brunner led studies to urbanize the western and southern parts of the city, but no plan for the future development of the city was approved or distributed under his direction. The city's Quadricentennial Work Plan was initially approved in 1933 and modified in 1935, after which new works continued to be proposed. By 1938, Bogotá had an up-to-date map of the existing city. The Department of Statistics and Social Research gathered statistics and undertook social studies on the city, and decided that it was essential to do a general census. The municipal agencies were modernized, and reorganization was done of the Health Laboratory, school clothing and food programs, professional institutes for men and women, licenses, and the Traffic and Transit Police force was created. Given the shortcomings in the urban aqueduct system, the nation contributed resources for channeling water, reservoirs, purification, and water distribution. It also financed the construction of the National Library and the National University campus. The municipality, with some resources from the departmental government, built the Nemésio Camacho El Campín Stadium on donated land. Short but important sections of the roads Paseo Bolívar, Av. Jiménez, Av. Liévano, Av. Caracas, Carrera Norte (Carrera 7), and Av. Santiago de Chile were built. The construction of water collectors and channels was considered for the sewage system. In terms of electricity, the critical issue was increasing production to meet increasing demand, which made the El Charquito and El Salto plants necessary. The tramway network continued to spread until 1938. The Bogotá Stock Exchange, the Federico Lleras Acosta Institute, and the Media Torta amphitheater were built, as well as 500 houses for workers in the Centenario neighborhood. Schools for boys and girls were built. Markets were built and provisioned, along with a new slaughterhouse and meat dispensary. Garbage incinerators were built. Neighborhood Public Improvement Boards continued to organize paving projects, sewer systems, public schools, markets, and healthcare posts. The Garden City and the Modern Movement were part of the discussion of the Quadricentennial Public Works Plan. Municipal records mention congresses, national and international conferences, articles and reviews, addressing the different concepts of the Garden City and the Modern Architecture Movement. The issues examined included: urbanism, self-build housing, sanitation and unhealthy neighborhoods and "cheap housing," the growth of cities and their centers, their history and evolution, natural and constructed heritage, and architecture. Satellite cities, green belts, suburbs, city-greenspace proportions, regional planning, metropolitanism, a special planning regime for the capital district, zoning, and radial or diagonal roadways versus grid plan roadways were discussed. Modern and scientific tax calculation standards were used to reduce tax exemptions and increase revenues to finance the Quadricentennial works. The Centennial Lottery was created to help finance the works. The Revolving Fund for Social Development and the Central Mortgage Bank were created to encourage savings for housing. The land betterment tax was created. Colombia looked to other countries to compare itself in terms of migration to the capital cities, the advantages and disadvantages of modern cities, the widening of the streets, healthcare, social welfare, poverty, working-class neighborhoods, municipal finances, traffic, and housing conditions. Many municipalities around the country and foreign cities sent greetings to Bogotá for the Quadricentennial. It was decided that a census of buildings and people would be done in 1938. The Quadricentennial National Exhibition was held, with the support of the nation and the department. Modernization was Bogotá's main goal so that the Capital of the Republic would be seen as different. The municipalization or privatization of municipal services was discussed, as was the proposal to have City Council elect the mayor, instead of being appointed by the departmental governor. Municipal agencies set the tone for the new civic spirit, instead of businesses or private associations. Some municipal decision-makers stressed the importance of the social aspects of property, its social function, arguing in favor of prioritizing the lower-income classes over the middle classes. The aim was to modernize practices, cleanliness, encourage sports and urban gardens. The population would be modernized with the pasteurization of milk, "contraceptive practices, abortion and sterilization." A postal savings bank was created. Paseo Bolívar was conceived to be a greenspace and a beautiful lookout over the city, and also as recognition that the less affluent classes have the right to urban development, such as the Centenario neighborhood. Neighborhoods such as Muequetá and Las Mercedes were built for company employees, and others were built for laborers, such as Calderón Tejada, among others. Importance was placed on continuing to transform Bogota into a Capital District. The Quadricentennial festivities were held between July 20 and August 7, 1938 in locations throughout the city. The city's founder and the Chibcha indigenous origins were commemorated. The Bolivarian Games were hosted in the new stadium at the National University and the Nemésio Camacho El Campín stadium, which is the permanent home of "football" in Bogota. Traffic management in the city was modernized with the purchase of buses. Keywords: Bogotá, urban history, modernization, urban planning. ; Maestría

The ongoing urbanization process all around the globe is likely to increase transport-related negative externalities e.g., congestion, air pollution, climate change etc. The situation is severe in rapidly expanding cities where the demand for motorized transport is increasing. This has increased the pressure on the policy makers to devise policies to tackle the problem. Derived from the urbanization process, this thesis considers following objectives. 1. Investigation of the policy measures in a simulation framework a) to abate the transport negative externalities while considering the inter-relationship between different externalities and b) to achieve the politically motivated goals. 2. Development of a computationally efficient model to simulated heterogeneous traffic conditions. With the first objectives, the idea is to investigate the policy measures in the context of industrialized nations; this is addressed in the first part of the thesis. In a simulation environment, marginal social cost pricing allows to correct for the inefficiencies due to exclusion of external costs from behavioral decision making process and to derive real-world policy recommendations. The first part investigates and compares the effect of congestion pricing on emissions levels and the effect of emission pricing on congestion levels while considering heterogeneity in the individual attributes and choice behavior. Derived from the inter-relationship between the two externalities, a joint internalization of vehicular congestion and emissions is proposed. It is applied to a real-world scenario of the Munich metropolitan area in Germany. It is found that the joint internalization moves the car transport system towards the optimum, measured by a strong decrease of congestion and emission costs. In this context, it has been shown for analytical models considering more than one externality, that the correlation between the externalities needs to be taken into account. Typically, in order to avoid overpricing, this is performed by introducing correction factors which capture the correlation effect. However, the correlation structure between, say, emission and congestion externalities changes for every congested facility over time of day. Additionally, the possible efficiency gains highly depend on the implicit price elasticity of demand, which again, depends on the availability of substitutes to car travel. For the Munich case study, it is shown that the iterative calculation of prices based on cost estimates from the literature allows to identify the amplitude of the correlation between the two externalities under consideration. Further, at the disaggregated level, the results show that pricing emissions moves individuals to shorter distance routes, whereas pricing congestion pushes towards longer distance routes. That is, despite the correlation between the two externalities, isolated pricing strategies influence route choice behavior by tendency into opposite directions. In real-world politics, policy setting often follows so-called 'backcasting' approaches where predefined goals are set, and policy measures are implemented to reach those goals. The first part also presents an parametric approach to identify the gap between toll levels derived from environmental damage cost internalization and toll levels to achieve the political goal of 20% reduction in GHG emissions of transport sector until 2020 with respect to 1990 levels. For this purpose, the damage costs internalization is applied to the scenario of Munich metropolitan area again and shown that the desired reduction in CO2 emissions is not reached. Further application of the parametric internalization approach with damage cost estimates from the literature yields toll levels that are by a factor of 5 too low in order to reach the predefined goal. When aiming at emission costs reductions of 20%, the damage cost estimates are even by a factor of 10 too low. It is shown that the major contribution to the overall emission reduction stems from behavioral changes of (reverse) commuters rather than from urban travelers; under some circumstances, the latter even increase their CO2 emission levels. An economic assessment indicates that a toll equivalent to 5 times of the toll from the damage cost internalization approach increases the system welfare 6 times. The second part treats the second objective mainly in the context of the industrializing nations where mixed traffic conditions prevail. In such conditions, it becomes necessary to develop a heterogeneous traffic flow model to include all vehicle classes while keeping the model equally computationally efficient. In this direction, the second part proposes a fast Spatial Queue Model (SQM) to produce realistic flow dynamics by introducing backward traveling holes for mixed traffic conditions. In the proposed approach, the space freed by a leaving vehicle on the downstream end of the link is not available immediately to the following vehicle, rather depends on the speed of backward traveling holes. This results in triangular Fundamental Diagrams (FDs) for traffic flow such that the slope of the left branch is approximately equal to the minimum of the vehicle speed and link speed whereas the slope of the right branch is approximately equal to the speed of the backward traveling holes. With the help of FDs from the simulation of several vehicle classes, it is demonstrated that as the maximum speed of the vehicle class decreases, the density at which the maximum flow is achieved, increases and the maximum flow decreases. In a similar direction, the second part also introduces the seepage link dynamics to the SQM. The seepage is predominately common on the urban streets of most of the industrializing nations. In this model, due to higher maneuverability and smaller size, smaller vehicles (e.g., bicycle, motorbike) move continuously across the gaps between the stationary or almost stationary vehicles and come in front of the queue to leave prior to other queued vehicles. The FDs from simulation of equal modal split of car and bicycle show that the flow characteristics of bicycle is marginally affected by the presence of cars but on the contrary, the flow characteristics of the car is significantly affected by the presence of bicycles. Further, it has been shown that in a traffic stream, seepage is more effective for faster seep mode (e.g., motorbike) than slower seep mode (e.g., bicycle). Finally, in the second part, a comparison of the computational performances from the simulations using various traffic and link dynamics of the queue model is presented. An additional data structure to maintain the backward traveling holes, increases the average simulation time marginally for all three sample sizes (1%, 10%, 100%). However, the look up for seep mode on every link of the network is appeared to be resource intensive with respect to the other link dynamics of the queue model. The rate of increase in the average simulation time using the seepage link dynamics for different sample sizes is significantly higher than the rate of increase in the average simulation time of other link dynamics of the queue model. The third part integrates the two objectives and presents a real-world scenario of Patna, India with a goal of reduction in emissions externality towards sustainable transport. This part exhibits the steps for demand generation and calibration of the scenario. The urban demand is generated using the trip diaries whereas the external demand is generated using hourly trip counts. For the latter, Cadyts is extended to mixed traffic conditions. To include the diverse income effects in the behavioral decision making process of the individual, the individual income is included in the scoring function. The scenario is calibrated to evaluate the Alternative (mode) specific constants (ASCs) for different modes. The calibrated scenario is used for policy testing. Based on the traffic characteristics and composition, a bicycle superhighway is proposed along the existing railway line. An iterative process is proposed to identify the optimum locations of the connectors between bicycle superhighway and existing network. A whatif policy measure is considered in which motorbike is also allowed on the bicycle superhighway. Both policy measures increase the share of the bicycle significantly. To estimate the emissions for the two policy measures, the Emission Modeling Tool (EMT) is extended to mixed traffic conditions. It is shown that if only bicycle is allowed on the bicycle superhighway, significant reduction in emissions are observed in the inner city. However, as soon as the motorbike is also allowed on it, significant increase in the emissions are observed along the bicycle superhighway in the inner city of Patna which emphasizes the need of enforcements to stop motorbikes on the bicycle superhighway. With this, the third part demonstrates that significant reduction in emissions can be obtained in the situations where a pricing measure is difficult to implement. To summarize, this thesis focuses on the evaluation of policy measures in a simulation framework to extract the valuable information for the policy makers to tackle the problem of negative transport externality in the industrialized nations as well as industrializing nations. For the latter, this thesis also extends a computationally efficient traffic flow model to simulate the heterogeneous traffic conditions. Finally, with several case studies, the thesis shows the scope of devising policy recommendations based on the scenario specifications. ; Es ist anzunehmen, dass die aktuell stattfindende globale Urbanisierung negative externe Effekte des Verkehrssektors wie z.B. Stau, Luftverschmutzung sowie den Klimawandel verstärkt. Die Situation ist besonders schwerwiegend in aktuell stark wachsenden Städten, in denen auch die Verkehrsnachfrage steigt. Somit steigt der Druck auf politische Entscheidungsträger Maßnahmen zu ergreifen, um den genannten Problemen entgegenzuwirken. Ausgehend von diesem Spannungsfeld, verfolgt die vorliegende Dissertation folgende Ziele: 1. Die Untersuchung von Maßnahmen in einem Simulationsmodell a) zur Verringerung der negativen externen Effekte unter Berücksichtigung der gegenseitigen Abhängigkeiten der verschiedenen externen Effekte sowie b) zum Erreichen politisch motivierter Ziele. 2. Entwicklung eines laufzeiteffizienten Modells zur Simulation heterogener Verkehrsbedingungen. In Bezug auf das erste Ziel, werden zunächst Maßnahmen im Kontext industrialisierter Länder untersucht; dies stellt den ersten Teil der Dissertation dar. Hierfür wird ein Simulationsmodell verwendet, in welchem eine Bepreisung auf Basis marginaler sozialer Kosten eine Korrektur der Ineffizienzen, die aufgrund der Nichtberücksichtigung von externen Kosten in Entscheidungsprozessen entstehen, ermöglicht und somit die Ableitung von Maßnahmenempfehlungen erlaubt. In diesem ersten Teil der Dissertation wird die Auswirkung von Staubepreisung auf Emissionen sowie die Auswirkung von Emissionsbepreisung auf Stau untersucht und verglichen, wobei die Heterogenität in den Attributen der Individuen sowie in deren Entscheidungsverhalten in Betracht gezogen wird. Auf Basis der beiderseitigen Abhängigkeit zwischen den genannten externen Effekten, wird eine gleichzeitige Internalisierung von Stau- und Emissionseffekten vorgeschlagen. Diese Maßnahme wird in einem realistischen Simulationsszenario für die Metropolregion München angewendet. Es kann gezeigt werden, dass die vorgeschlagene gleichzeitige Internalisierung das Verkehrssystem des motorisierten Individualverkehrs in Richtung des Systemoptimums bewegt, was durch einen starken Rückgang in Stau- und Emissionskosten charakterisiert ist. In diesem Zusammenhang wurde für analytische Modelle, die mehr als einen externen Effekt betrachten, gezeigt, dass die Korrelation zwischen den externen Effekten berücksichtigt werden muss. Um eine Überbepreisung zu vermeiden, werden typischerweise Korrekturfaktoren verwendet, die den Korrelationseffekt aufgreifen. Die Korrelationsstruktur zwischen Emissions- und Stauexternalitäten ändert sich jedoch für jede bestaute Infrastruktur im Laufe des Tages. Weiterhin hängen mögliche Effizienzgewinne stark von der impliziten Preiselastizität der Nachfrage ab, welche wiederum von der Verfügbarkeit von Alternativen zur Fortbewegung mit dem Auto abhängt. Für das München-Szenario wird gezeigt, dass die iterative Berechnung von Preisen auf Basis von Kostenschätzungen aus der Literatur eine Bestimmung des Ausmaßes der Korrelation der beiden berücksichtigten externen Effekte erlaubt. In einer disaggregierten Betrachtung zeigen die Ergebnisse weiterhin, dass eine Emissionsbepreisung die Verkehrsteilnehmer dazu veranlasst kürzere Routen zu wählen, während eine Staubepreisung zur Wahl längerer Routen bewegt. Dies bedeutet, dass trotz der Korrelation beider externer Effekte, isolierte Bepreisungsstrategien das Routenwahlverhalten tendenziell in gegensätzliche Richtungen beeinflussen. In realer Politik basiert die Festlegung von Maßnahmen häufig auf sogenannten Backcasting-Ansätzen, bei denen im Voraus Ziele definiert und Maßnahmen in Kraft gesetzt werden, um diese Ziele zu erreichen. Im ersten Teil der Dissertation wir ferner ein parametrischer Ansatz vorgestellt, mit dem der Unterschied zwischen der nötigen Mauthöhe zur Internalisierung der Umweltschadenskosten und der nötigen Mauthöhe zum Erreichen des politischen Ziels einer 20-prozentigen Reduktion von Treibhausgasemissionen (GHG) des Verkehrssektors bis 2020 gegenüber dem Niveau von 1990 ermittelt werden kann. Zu diesem Zwecke wir die Internalisierung der Schadenskosten abermals auf das Szenario für die Metropolregion München angewendet. Es wird gezeigt, dass die gewünschte Reduktion der CO2-Emissionen nicht erreicht wird. Eine weitere Anwendung des parametrischen Internalisierungsansatzes mit Schadenskostenschätzungen aus der Literatur führt zu Mauthöhen, die um einen Faktor 5 zu niedrig sind, um das gesetzte Ziel zu erreichen. Um Reduktionen der Emissionskosten von 20% zu erreichen, sind die Schadenskostenschätzungen sogar um einen Faktor 10 zu niedrig. Es wird gezeigt, dass der Hauptbeitrag zur Emissionsreduktion eher auf Verhaltensänderungen der Auspendler als auf jenen der innerstädtischen Verkehrsteilnehmer basiert; unter bestimmten Umständen erhöht sich sogar der CO2-Ausstoß der Letzteren. Eine ökonomische Untersuchung deutet darauf hin, dass eine Maut, die dem Fünffachen der Maut auf Basis der Schadenskosteninternalisierung entspricht zu einer sechsfachen Steigerung der Wohlfahrt im Gesamtsystem führt. Im zweiten Teil der Dissertation wird das zweite Ziel (Entwicklung eines laufzeiteffizienten Modells zur Simulation heterogener Verkehrsbedingungen) hauptsächlich im Kontext von Entwicklungsländern behandelt, in denen häufig heterogene Verkehrsverhältnisse vorherrschen. Diese Bedingungen erfordern die Entwicklung eines heterogenen Verkehrsflussmodells, um alle Fahrzeugklassen einschließen zu können, während die rechentechnische Effizienz des Modells erhalten bleibt. Daher wird im zweiten Teil der Dissertation ein schnelles Spatial Queue Model (SQM) vorgestellt, mit dem realistische Verkehrsflussdynamiken durch Berücksichtigung sich rückwärtsbewegender Lücken unter heterogenen Verkehrsbedingungen produziert werden. In diesem Ansatz steht der Raum, der frei wird, wenn sich ein Fahrzeug Richtung Ende der Netzwerkkante bewegt, nicht unmittelbar für nachfolgende Fahrzeuge zur Verfügung, sondern hängt vielmehr von der Geschwindigkeit der sich rückwärts bewegenden Lücken ab. Dies führt zu dreiecksförmigen Fundamentaldiagrammen Fundamentaldiagrammen (FDs) des Verkehrsflusses, sodass die Steigung des linken Asts näherungsweise gleich dem Minimum aus Fahrzeuggeschwindigkeit und Netzwerkkantengeschwindigkeit ist, während die Steigung des rechten Asts näherungsweise gleich der Geschwindigkeit der sich rückwärts bewegenden Lücke ist. Mit Hilfe der FDs der Simulation verschiedener Fahrzeugklassen wird gezeigt, dass mit abnehmender Höchstgeschwindigkeit der Fahrzeugklasse die Dichte, bei der der höchste Verkehrsfluss erreicht wird, steigt und der maximale Verkehrsfluss sinkt. Mit einem ähnlichen Ziel werden im zweiten Teil der Disseration ferner sog. Seepage Link Dynamics in das SQM integriert. Seepage (Durchschlängeln) ist ein typisches Phänomen auf urbanen Straßen in den meisten Entwicklungsländern. Seepage beschriebt das Phänomen, dass sich kleinere Fahrzeuge wie bspw. Fahrräder oder Motorräder aufgrund ihrer höheren Manövrierbarkeit und ihrer geringeren Größe kontinuierlich durch die Lücken zwischen stehenden oder fast stehenden anderen Fahrzeugen bewegen und somit zum Ende der Warteschlange vorrücken und diese vor den anderen Fahrzeugen verlassen. Die FDs von Simulationen mit gleichem Modal Split von Autos und Fahrrädern zeigen, dass die Flusseigenschaften der Fahrräder nur marginal durch das Vorhandensein von Autos beeinflusst werden, während die Flusseigenschaften von Autos signifikant durch das Vorhandensein von Fahrrädern beeinflusst werden. Weiterhin wurde für einen Verkehrsstrom gezeigt, dass Seepage effizienter für schnellere Verkehrsmittel wie z.B. Motorräder ist als für langsamere. Schließlich wird im zweiten Teil der Dissertation ein Vergleich der rechentechnischen Performanz aus verschiedenen Simulationen, in denen die unterschiedlichen Verkehrs- und Kantendynamiken des Queue-Modells verwendet werden, gezogen. Die zusätzliche Datenstruktur zur Behandlung der sich rückwärts bewegenden Lücken erhöht die durchschnittliche Simulationszeit nur marginal in allen drei verwendeten Simulationssamples (1%, 10%, 100%). Die nötigen Zwischenspeicherung zur Berücksichtigung von sich durchschlängelnden Fahrzeugen auf den einzelnen Kanten (Seepage) hingegen stellt sich als ressourcenintensiv im Vergleich zu den sonstigen Kantendynamiken des Queue-Modells dar. Die Steigerungsrate der durchschnittlichen Simulationszeit bei Berücksichtigung von Seepage Link Dynamics ist signifikant höher als die Steigerungsraten der durchschnittlichen Simulationszeit der anderen Linkdynamiken des Queue-Modells. Im dritten Teil der Dissertation werden die beiden Ziele zusammengeführt und anhand eines realistischen Simulationsszenarios für Patna in Indien veranschaulicht mit dem Ziel externe Effekte durch Emissionen zu reduzieren und ein nachhaltiges Verkehrssystem zu erreichen. In diesem Teil der Dissertation werden die Schritte zur Generierung der Verkehrsnachfrage sowie zur Kalibrierung des Szenarios dargelegt. Die städtische Verkehrsnachfrage wird auf Basis von Reisetagebüchern erstellt, während der Pendlerverkehr auf Basis stündlicher Verkehrszählungen generiert wird. Für Zweiteres wird das Kalibrierungstool Calibration od dynamic traffic assignments (Cadyts) zur Berücksichtigung heterogener Verkehrsbedingungen angepasst. Um unterschiedliche Einkommenseffekte in den verhaltensbasierten Entscheidungsprozess der Verkehrsteilnehmer einzubeziehen, wird das individuelle Einkommen in die Bewertungsfunktion integriert. Das Szenario wird kalibriert, um die alternativenspezifische (verkehrsmittelspezifische) Konstante Alternative (mode) specific constants (ASCs) für verschiedenen Verkehrsmittel auszuwerten. Das kalibrierte Szenario wird zur Maßnahmenuntersuchung verwendet. Ausgehend von den Charakteristika des Verkehrsgeschehens und der Zusammensetzung der Verkehrsmittel, wird ein Fahrradschnellweg (Bicycle Superhighway) entlang einer existierenden Eisenbahnlinie vorgeschlagen. Ein iterativer Prozess wird verwendet, um die optimalen Orte für Verbindungen zwischen dem Fahrradschnellweg und der existierenden Infrastruktur zu bestimmen. Dies wird mit einem Alternativszenario, in dem auch Motorräder auf dem Fahrradschnellweg zugelassen sind, verglichen. Beide Maßnahmen tragen zu einer signifikanten Erhöhung des Fahrradanteils bei. Um die Emissionen unter beiden Maßnahmen abzuschätzen wird das Emission Modeling Tool (EMT) für heterogenen Verkehrsbedingungen erweitert. Es wird gezeigt, dass signifikante Reduktionen der Emissionen in der Innenstadt zu verzeichnen sind, falls Fahrräder als einziges Verkehrsmittel auf den Fahrradschnellwegen erlaubt sind. Sobald jedoch auch Motorräder auf dem Fahrradschnellweg zugelassen werden, ist ein signifikanter Anstieg der Emissionen entlang des Fahrradschnellwegen in der Innenstadt von Patna zu beobachten, was die Notwendigkeit solche Verkehrsmittel von Fahrradschnellwegen zu verbannen verdeutlicht. Hierdurch wird im dritten Teil der Dissertation gezeigt, dass signifikante Emissionsreduktionen auch unter Bedingungen, in denen die Umsetzung von Bepreisungsmaßnahmen schwierig ist, erreicht werden können. Zusammenfassend liegt der Schwerpunkt dieser Dissertation auf der Bewertung von Bepreisungsmaßnahmen mittels eines Simulationsmodells mit dem Ziel nützliche Informationen für Entscheidungsträger abzuleiten, die geeignet sind, um negativen externen Effekten des Verkehrs sowohl in Industrie- als auch Entwicklungsländern entgegenzuwirken. Für letztere wird in dieser Arbeit ein effizientes Verkehrsflussmodell zur Simulation heterogener Verkehrsbedingungen vorgestellt. Schließlich wird in mehreren Fallstudien das Spektrum möglicher Maßnahmen auf Basis verschiedener Szenarien gezeigt.

L'affermazione delle cosiddette "democrazie costituzionali" dotate di costituzioni rigide, ha portato a compimento un complesso processo storico ed ha condotto alla realizzazione quasi completa del "costituzionalismo", dove la legge, per la prima volta, viene sottoposta ad un giudizio di tipo assiologico. In tale contesto è di notevole importanza il complicato e delicato lavoro del giudice costituzionale, il quale deve interpretare la Costituzione, nel cui tessuto sono introdotti direttamente una serie di principi contenenti valori etico-politici , la cui applicazione non assume più la forma classica sillogistica della sussunzione, bensì della ponderazione. Le più note teorie giuscostituzionaliste e dell'argomentazione giuridica hanno dedotto che i principi sono delle norme di ottimizzazione che descrivono un valore da realizzare il più possibile, con riguardo a quanto risulta effettivamente realizzabile, sia sotto il profilo fattuale che giuridico, talché il loro adempimento non dipende soltanto dalle possibilità reali, ma anche da quelle giuridiche, oltre che da regole e da principi controversi. Nell'interpretazione costituzionale, seguendo il metodo argomentativo, la gerarchia assiologica, la scala di priorità tra i principi costituzionali diversi si rende necessaria, perché essa si riferisce a particolari tipi di norme date da una stessa fonte del diritto, ossia la Costituzione: nel balancing test tra diritti concorrenti la Corte Suprema americana parla di preferred position per taluni diritti riconducibili ad un valore costituzionale primario, come la libertà di espressione e di associazione, la libertà religiosa, i diritti della personalità e di partecipazione politica. Ma anche la nostra Corte Costituzionale è continuamente costretta a scegliere nel caso da decidere, con ragionevolezza e proporzionalità, non solo nell'ipotesi di giudizi di eguaglianza, alla luce dell'art. 3 della costituzione, ma anche quando, nel reperire la norma parametro, deve scegliere tra principi, diritti e valori contrastanti, come ad esempio tra diritto di libertà individuale e diritto alla salute o tra diritto di proprietà e di impresa e riconoscimento del valore "primario" del paesaggio. La difficile ricerca di una gerarchia tra i valori costituzionalmente tutelati esige un'opera continua e incessante di ridefinizione e di ri-armonizzazione dei principi costituzionali sulla base degli elementi specifici forniti dai casi da decidere. Gli enunciati costituzionali debbono perciò tener fermo un nucleo identificativo del valore originariamente tutelato, domandando, nel contempo, attraverso una ragionevole varietà di interpretazioni e di applicazioni, di essere continuamente rimodellati ed adeguati alla storia e alla politica, nonché al mutare delle assunzioni di senso e dei significati sociali. I principi che si trovano alla base delle costituzioni, e attorno ai quali i documenti costituzionali si sono formati, con l'aprirsi di nuovi orizzonti e di nuovi problemi, debbono continuamente essere aggiornati, rielaborati e ricomposti in un insieme dotato di senso. Essi hanno bisogno di rinnovata giustificazione da un interprete dotato di un peculiare ed elevato habitus giuridico, idoneo a rendere un giudizio complesso e articolato come quello di costituzionalità. . Dal punto di vista della metodologia ermeneutica, l'habitus del giudice costituzionale corrisponde alla precomprensione critica, attraverso la quale si può individuare se il giudizio costituzionale sia stato effettuato da un giudice privo di habitus e invalidare tale giudizio, anche a prescindere dalla corretta motivazione del giudice stesso. Se poi si tiene presente che la Costituzione è essa stessa il risultato dell'interpretazione dei principi costituzionali, risulta di tutta evidenza l'importanza di un "circolo ermeneutico" tra i principi conformatori della società e valutazioni della società stessa. Nel giudizio costituzionale la circolarità ermeneutica è molto accentuata, infatti, tra il giudice interprete, la collettività e la Costituzione, oggetto interpretato, si instaura un intimo rapporto circolare diacronico, dal momento che la Costituzione contiene dei principi e dei valori appartenenti alla società della quale lo stesso giudice costituzionale fa parte. Nell'attività giudiziale della Corte costituzionale italiana è possibile riscontrare l'accezione scettica dell'interpretazione giuridica, tipica dei sistemi di common law: laddove, sul piano della creatività, le sentenze interpretative di rigetto, sentenze additive e sentenze manipolative sono tutte varianti suggerite o imposte dalla necessità nei singoli casi di un unico modello di pronuncia del giudice delle leggi, che in presenza di determinate condizioni, consente di superare i confini prestabiliti dai canoni legali dell'interpretazione giudiziaria per addentrarsi verso una funzione che non è solo etero-integrativa del diritto ordinamentale e costituzionale, ma anche suppletiva del potere legislativo. L'utilizzo dell'ermeneutica giuridica, come metodo d'interpretazione, trova particolare rilievo dinanzi alle Corti de-statalizzate operanti in ambiti giuridici ad ordinamento pluristatale come la Corte di Giustizia dell'Unione Europea e dinanzi alle Corti Costituzionali di diversi Stati, riconoscendo l'attività creativa ed etero-integrativa da parte del giudice costituzionale di civil law. Tramite la precomprensione critica e la circolarità tradica e diadica, l'ermeneutica giuridica si pone sempre più come metodo interpretativo indispensabile per l'interpretazione dei principi fondamentali, preesistenti al testo Costituzionale, e per la costruzione e l'impiego dei cosiddetti "parametri non scritti", utilizzati, a volte, dai giudici costituzionali italiani, al di là dei limiti tracciati dal metodo giuridico argomentativo: dove il punto di partenza del ragionamento deduttivo-assiologico dovrà sempre esser il testo scritto, dal quale l'interprete potrà denotare il valore del principio. Pur riconoscendosi nell'alveo delle teorie scettiche dell'interpretazione giudiziale, la metodologia ermeneutica offre una valutazione della decisione di costituzionalità capace di non lasciare alla discrezionalità del giudice uno spazio illimitato, dal momento che precomprensione critica e circolarità ermeneutica, dalle quali discende la canonistica ermeneutica, garantisce un metodo per la controllabilità del giudizio, senza che possa sfociare in decisioni arbitrarie o di opportunità politica. Dopo la riforma del titolo V, con il novellato art.117, primo comma, della Costituzione, la dottrina giuscostituzionalista ha parlato di una possibile estensione della legalità costituzionale, qualora i principi discendenti dal diritto comunitario-europeo ed internazionale andrebbero ad integrare i parametri ermeneutici utilizzati nel giudizio di costituzionalità: nel caso in cui il giudice a quo, in via incidentale, e lo Stato e le Regioni, in via diretta, sollevassero la questione di costituzionalità, per violazione del suddetto articolo della Costituzione. L'estensione della legalità costituzionale, tuttavia ha, anche, il suo risvolto "inverso", nel caso in cui fossero i principi esterni a ledere i principi fondamentali dell'ordinamento Costituzionale Repubblicano. Nel contemporaneo costituzionalismo europeo, che accomuna più vicende ordinamentali diverse, risulta essere di peculiare interesse l'esperienza giuridica della Svezia, una delle più solide ed efficienti democrazie mondiali, caratterizzata da un' antica tradizione costituzionale e da una lunga vaganza del controllo di costituzionalità delle leggi. Quest'ultime, fino a poco tempo fa, venivano interpretate dalle Corti nell'assoluto rispetto e subordinazione alla volontà storica del legislatore. Ultimamente, con l'entrata della Svezia nell'Unione Europea, a seguito delle recenti riforme costituzionali ed attraverso l'introduzione di un controllo di costituzionalità diffuso, le corti svedesi stanno gradualmente cambiando i loro tradizionali criteri interpretativi, per una più ampia ed efficace tutela dei diritti umani, nell'ambito giuridico costituzionale ed europeo. ; The claim of so-called "constitutional democracy" with rigid constitutions has completed a complex historical process and has led to the almost complete implementation of "constitutionalism", where for the first time the law is submitted to a value judgment. In this context, it is of great importance to the complicated and delicate work of the Constitutional Judge, who must interpret the Constitution, whose tissue directly holds a set of principles containing ethical and political values, and whose application does have the classic syllogistic form of subsumption, but that of weighting. Most of the Laws are rules, i.e. require something to run to the occurrence of specific conditions, and, therefore, one can refer to them as "conditional rules". In addition, rules can take a categorical form, such as total ban on access. If the rule is valid and applicable, it is absolutely crucial to impose the exact performance means that the rule prescribes. If this happens, one can determine whether the provisions were complied with or not. For the theories of constitutionalism and of the legal argumentation, principles, however, are rules that require that some value shall be fully accomplished with regard to what is actually feasible, both at the legal and factual levels. Consequently, principles are "rules of optimization", thus characterized by the fact that these can be viewed in differing degrees, and because the measurement of their performance depends not only on real possibilities, but also on legal ones, as well as issues on rules and principles. Following the method of the legal argumentation, in the constitution interpretation, hierarchy, the priorities among the various constitutional principles, is necessary so that it refers to specific types of norms laid down by the same source of law, the Constitution: in the balancing test between competing interests, the U.S. Supreme Court talks about preferred position for certain rights related to a primary constitutional value, such as freedom of expression and association, religious freedom, personal rights, and political participation. But even Italian Constitutional Court is constantly forced to choose according to what is being decided on, not only in the event of equality judgments according to Article 3 of the Constitution, but also when, in raising the standard parameter, it must choose - for example - between the right to individual freedom and right to health, or between property and company rights and recognition of the value of "primary" value of the context. The difficult search for a hierarchy of constitutionally protected values requires constant work and constant redefining and re-harmonizing of constitutional principles on the basis of the details provided by the cases to be decided upon. The statements should therefore take constitutional firm identification of an originally protected core value, requiring at the same time, through a variety of reasonable interpretations and applications, to be continually reshaped and adapted to history and politics, and to the effect of changing assumptions and of social meanings. The principles that lie at the heart of constitutions and upon which constitutional documents were formed, with the opening of new horizons and new challenges, must be continually updated, revised and put back together reasonably. They require renewed justification by judge with particular juridical habitus and critical pre-understending: he/she must have acquired, throughout his/her legal career, technical skills needed to make appropriate assessments in constitutional judgment. From the prospective of hermeneutic methodology, the habitus of the Constitutional Judge corresponds to critical pre-understanding through which one can identify whether the constitutional judgment was conducted by a judge lacking a habitus and invalidate that judgment, even regardless of proper motivation presented by the Judge. If one bears in mind that the Constitution itself is the result of the interpretation of constitutional principles, the importance of a "hermeneutic circle" between the principles in accordance with assessments of society and society itself is quite evident. In Constitutional judgement, hermeneutic circularity is highly stressed, in fact, between the court interpreter and the Constitution, the subject interpreted; it establishes a circular diachronic relationship, since the Constitution contains the principles and values belonging to the society which the constitutional Judge is part of. In the activity of the Italian Constitutional Court, it is possible to find the skeptical conception of legal interpretation, typical of common law systems: where, in terms of creativity, the Constitutional Court, through the "manipulative decisions", exceeding the legal boundaries of legal interpretation, integrates the constitutional law and carries a substitute function of the State legislature. The use of the "juridical hermeneutic" as a method of interpretation is particularly relevant before de-nationalized courts operating in legal fields having multi-state regulations, as the Court of Justice of the European Union and before the Constitutional Courts of several countries, recognizing the creative activity by the constitutional judges of civil law. Through the pre-comprehension and the circularity triadic and dyadic , the juridical hermeneutic, has became an indispensable element for interpretation of fundamental principles and for the construction and use of so-called "unwritten parameters" used, sometimes, by Italian constitutional Judges, leaping the methods based on logical argumentation techniques, for which the judge-interpreter must begin his/her legal reasoning always from the written text, to denote the value of the principle. Although the methodology hermeneutic belongs to the skeptical theory of the judicial interpretation, it provides an assessment of constitutional decision without leaving unlimited space to the will of the Judge, since hermeneutics secures a method for the controllability of the interpretive process, to prevent to the judgment of constitutionality is arbitrary or political. After the constitutional reform of 2001, the doctrine has spoken of a possible extension of constitutional legality, because the new Article 117, first paragraph, of the Constitution allows the principles descendants from European Union law and international conventions of integrate parameters of the constitutional control on the State laws. The extension of constitutional legality could have its inverse implication in the case some international law violates the fundamental principles of Italian Republican Constitution. In the contemporary European constitutionalism, that unites various juridical cultures, it appears to be of particular interest the juridical experience of Sweden: one of the most solid and efficient democracies in the world, characterized by an old constitutional tradition and a long absence of a control of constitutionality over state laws. Until recently, all the laws were interpreted by the swedish courts in full compliance and subordination to the will of the historical legislator. Lately, with the entry of Sweden in the European Union, following the recent constitutional reforms and through the introduction of a more stronger "widespread" control of constitutionality, the Swedish courts are gradually changing their traditional interpretation criteria for a more comprehensive and effective protection of human rights. ; Dottorato di ricerca in Persona, impresa e lavoro: dal diritto interno a quello internazionale (XXVIII ciclo)

Relevance of research topic. Recent decades have seen a growing concern for the prospects of today's youth. Major problems of young people are related to pervasive destructive and inappropriate behaviour: delinquency, aggression, bullying, drug abuse etc. (Holt, Jones, 2008; Strachan, Côté, Deakin, 2011). These problems are the result of changing social factors: both parents work full-time, single-parent families, unattended children at home (Strachan et al., 2011). Successful personality development depends on a number of external factors: family, school, positive role models, purposefully and deliberately chosen way of self-realization and leisure time activities. The role of a family for the child's positive personality development is in particular highlighted (Vierimaa et al., 2012). Close and solid relationships between children and parents ensure the consistent feeling of security and confidence (Carr, 2014). Affectionate relations between parents and children influence the formation of close links with other people (Holt, Knight, 2014; Steinberg, 2014). The importance of attachment becomes apparent in adolescence – the period of psychological and social transition from childhood to adulthood (Nawaz, 2011). Early parent–child relationship plays a vital role in this period. Attachment and relationship with parents change in the period of adolescence, young people becoming more independent from their parents. In this period the parent–child attachment weakens as young people are faced with new challenges; they seek independence and self-sufficiency, develop their self-identity. Researchers have noted that secure attachment to family gives adolescents a more secure emotional basis which they can always rely on. Gained self-confidence and affectionate relations help adolescents in developing and maintaining relationships with peers (Nawaz, Gilani, 2011). As adolescents spend most of the time without parents, their personality development is strongly influenced not only by parents, but also by peers (Arnon et al., 2008). Therefore, it is important for adolescents to establish or strengthen the existing relationships with friends (Nawaz, 2011). The time spent with peers enables them to develop and maintain social relationships outside the family, to be independent from their parents, to build their future adult identity, express their needs and develop their culture in a group of peers (Arnon et al., 2008). Communication and time spent with peers is not just having fun in one's leisure time but also an important part of socialization process (Arnon et al., 2008). Meaningful leisure activities have a positive impact on adolescents' development: prevent risky behaviour with negative consequences for the future; ensure better academic achievements; involve into community activities and help to pursue a career in adulthood (Fredricks, Eccles, 2010). Meaningful leisure activities include participation in sporting activities, which, according to scientific research, is one of the most popular after-school activities among adolescents (Šukys, 2008; Tomik et al., 2012). Parental mission is to guide the child into activities that, through continuous participation, would build the child's self-confidence and ability to solve problems, teach aim setting and instil values (Warner et al., 2015). Deliberate practice and its advantages have been widely researched (Strachan et al., 2011; Vierimaa et al., 2012). Participation in sports is one of social activities that has a positive effect on a child's development. This attractive activity with respectable image can lead to positive social changes. Participation in sporting activities gives children the opportunity to enjoy high-quality leisure time; children become more disciplined and active in many different spheres (Rottensteiner et al., 2013). Although organized youth sports provide meaningful activities to millions of children, sociological studies suggest that the number of children engaged in sporting activities is constantly decreasing, and children's negative attitude towards sports, alienation and passiveness is becoming a serious problem (Smoll et al., 2011). Most of researchers acknowledge that parents have the greatest influence in sporting activities of their children (Lavoi, Stellino, 2008; Dorsch et al., 2009; Sapieja et al., 2011; Nunomura, Oliveira, 2013; Holt, Knight, 2014; Knight, Holt 2014; Dorsch, Smith, 2016), that participation in youth sport is the process where parents play the most important role (Sanchez-Miguel et al., 2013). Initially children enjoy sports for small achievements; later on sport becomes a motivating factor, an interesting and meaningful activity that eventually becomes a lifestyle (Wells et al., 2005; Perrotta, Pannelli, 2014; Prichard, Deutsch, 2015; McMillan et al., 2016) passed on to children and grandchildren, i.e. to the next generations. In order to involve children into sporting activities from the early age and to achieve progress in fully disclosing their talents it is necessary to create a favourable environment in the early years of the child's personality development and parents play a very important role in this process (Sánchez-Miguel et al., 2013; Legg et al., 2015; Dorsch et al., 2015; Dorsch, Smith, 2016). The child's success in sports can be regarded as the parents' merit too (Bailey et al., 2013). Parents can shape the child's behaviour and give the right direction (Lavoi, Stellino, 2008; Arthur-Banning et al., 2009; Smoll et al., 2011). Parents are involved in disclosing and recognizing the child's talent (Côté, Vierimaa, 2014), experienced joy from participation in sporting activities (McCarthy, Jones, 2007), understanding the athletic competence (Lee et al., 2008), competition anxiety and stress management experience (Gould et al. 2012), and development of psychological skills (MacNamara et al., 2010). Family relations is the context where answers to questions how and why participation in sporting activities changes the child's thinking and behaviour. Such issues as the role of parents in this process and how they cope with this role, how sporting activities modify not only children's but also parents' personality orientations, behaviour and communication in the family. Research problem. The analysis of Lithuanian and foreign studies in the context of research topic revealed the following problem aspects: only very few athlete children can remain in sports without emotional and financial support from their family (O'Connor, 2011); not all parents are interested in sports and not all parents understand the importance of education through sports (O'Rourke et al., 2014); little is known about the influence of children's participation in sports on parents, their motivation and experience (Wiersma, Fifer, 2008) little is known about the relationship between children's participation in sport and their communication in the family and with peers. Therefore, there is a need to find out how parental involvement in youth sport could be strengthened and supported by recognizing the prospects of children and respecting parental experiences. Research object – educational interaction between parents and adolescents in sports. Research goal – reveal the educational interaction between parents and adolescents in sports. Research objectives: 1. Theoretically ground the educational interaction between parents and adolescents in sports. 2. Disclose the links between participation in sporting activities and attachment to parents and peers among athlete and non-athlete adolescents. 3. Disclose parental experiences related to the involvement into children's sporting activities. 4. Disclose adolescents' experiences related participation in sporting activities and relationship with parents. Expected outcomes of research (hypotheses): 1. A hypothesis that the relationship of athletic children with parents is more affectionate compared to that of non-athletic peers is proposed. 2. A hypothesis that adolescents with longer athletic experience are more attached to parents compared to adolescents with less athletic experience is proposed. Scientific novelty and practical significance of the dissertation The findings of scientific studies done in Lithuania and abroad on family involvement into adolescents' activities are significant in terms of importance of attachment to parents in the period of adolescence. However, integrated research into children's attachment to parents and peers in the context of sport is scarce, and no studies analysing parent–child experiences related to sport and revealing the educational interaction were done in Lithuania. Thus there is insufficient scientific information in this area. Therefore the scientific novelty of the dissertation is grounded on three levels: theoretical, empirical and practical. On the theoretical level this dissertation presents and substantiates the expanded concepts and interpretations of attachment to parents, attachment to peers and educational interaction between parents and children. Until now the constructs representing attachment to parents, attachment to peers, adolescents' participation in sporting activities were analysed in scientific studies as separate issues. In this dissertation these constructs are united into an integral and continuous process of educational interaction between parents and children. A modern theoretical model of educational interaction between parents and children developed and theoretically grounded in this dissertation is significant for its scientific novelty. On the empirical level a quantitative survey of adolescents was conducted in this dissertation in order to analyse the importance of attachment and communication within the family in the period of adolescence. The experiences of parents stemming from the involvement in their children's sporting activities and the experiences of adolescents related to the participation in sporting activities and relations with parents were disclosed in the qualitative survey. Both surveys were combined by a mixed method. These complementing surveys enabled to get a deeper and clearer understanding of parent–adolescent relations and attachment to family in the background of sporting activities. It is not only new approach in the context of Lithuanian research but also expands the available results of empirical research from foreign countries. This approach was used not only with the aim to find out how different variables related to sporting activities (attachment to family, attachment to peers, coaches' input) acting together may add to the expression of positive educational interaction between parents and children in sporting activities. Another new thing is that for the first time in research literature adolescents' attachment to parents is operationalized by two variables (attachment to parents and attachment to peers) reflecting their participation in sporting activities in order to find out, which variable is more important in the period of adolescence. On the practical level the results and conclusions of this dissertation may first of all help managers of sport clubs, organizations, school staff and educators to better understand how parents – by creating positive and supporting relations in sporting activities of their teenage children – may add to the achievement of the goals and objectives and in this way educate democratically minded youth ready to actively engage in social and public life. Secondly, this dissertation is relevant and has a practical value for the promotion of positive development of adolescents and responsible parenting. It opens a new view for professionals (coaches, sport educators, sport psychologists) working with athletes and their parents to the variety of experiences and through the knowledge gained increase the wellness of athletes and their parents. Thus, the clearer aspects of family attachment and experiences of athlete adolescents in their relations with parents may help to improve the skills not only of athlete adolescents but also of their parents and coaches. It should be noted that the findings of this dissertation were implemented in practice – a new intervention programme facilitating the parental involvement in children's sporting activities has been developed. More information about this educational programme is available at www.lisinskiene.com. CONCLUSIONS 1. Scientific literature analysis revealed that parent–child educational interaction in sport is a bi-directional system. Parents influence children: they learn to be emphatic, self-disciplined, self-respected, they build communication skills, and plan their daily routine. Children influence parents because involvement in the child's sport naturally changes parents and modifies their lives: parental daily routine alters, their cognition, knowledge and emotions change, their circle of contacts increases, interpersonal relations with the child, in the family, with other participants in sports also change. Marital relations of parents also alter through the child's participation in sport, some parents start playing sports. Parent–child educational interaction in sport depends on financial and psychological support from parents, the child's physical and emotional security, the coach's positive education strategy, competence and authority. Educational interaction in sport is possible by more active attraction of parents into children's sport; not making pressure on athletic children; motivating them to play sports through psychologically supporting environment; providing continuous training possibilities for coaches. 2. The investigation into the relationship between the adolescents' sporting activities and attachment to family and peers revealed that athlete adolescents' relations with parents are more intensively expressed in all scales: communication, trust and alienation compared to non-athlete adolescents. No relationship was found between adolescents' participation in sport and attachment to peers. 3. Interviews with parents revealed the importance of the coach's role for strengthening parent–child interaction in sport. Parent–child educational interaction in sport depends on the coaching strategy selected by the coach and the degree and form of parental involvement in children's sport. Parents of athlete adolescents acknowledge the benefit of positive coaching and education strategy selected by the coach. This understanding confirms the importance of positive tri-dimensional interaction among parents, children and coaches. However, a phenomenon that has a negative effect on this interaction: parents find it difficult to admit the children's growing attachment to coach. The contraposition to close relations between the child and the coach demonstrated by parents may encourage the alienation between parents and children in sport. 4. Interviews with athlete adolescents revealed that parental involvement into children's sport is more important in the early period of sporting life and becomes less appreciable or unwelcome when children gain sporting experience. In the background of parent–child interrelations in sporting activities adolescents alienation from parents is more common than communication and trust. Alienation of older adolescents from parents in sports has several causes: growing children seek to be independent from their families in sports, some parents behave inappropriately in youth sport and embarrass their children. Interviews with athlete adolescents revealed that some parents demonstrate substandard behaviour in relation to their children, have no loyalty towards other participants of the sporting activity. However, financial support remains and important factor of parental support in all levels of sporting experience. The degree and form of parental involvement into children's sport influences the effectiveness of parent–child educational interaction. The degree and form of involvement chosen by the parents are not always appropriate and encouraging, and not always acceptable to adolescents.

Relevance of research topic. Recent decades have seen a growing concern for the prospects of today's youth. Major problems of young people are related to pervasive destructive and inappropriate behaviour: delinquency, aggression, bullying, drug abuse etc. (Holt, Jones, 2008; Strachan, Côté, Deakin, 2011). These problems are the result of changing social factors: both parents work full-time, single-parent families, unattended children at home (Strachan et al., 2011). Successful personality development depends on a number of external factors: family, school, positive role models, purposefully and deliberately chosen way of self-realization and leisure time activities. The role of a family for the child's positive personality development is in particular highlighted (Vierimaa et al., 2012). Close and solid relationships between children and parents ensure the consistent feeling of security and confidence (Carr, 2014). Affectionate relations between parents and children influence the formation of close links with other people (Holt, Knight, 2014; Steinberg, 2014). The importance of attachment becomes apparent in adolescence – the period of psychological and social transition from childhood to adulthood (Nawaz, 2011). Early parent–child relationship plays a vital role in this period. Attachment and relationship with parents change in the period of adolescence, young people becoming more independent from their parents. In this period the parent–child attachment weakens as young people are faced with new challenges; they seek independence and self-sufficiency, develop their self-identity. Researchers have noted that secure attachment to family gives adolescents a more secure emotional basis which they can always rely on. Gained self-confidence and affectionate relations help adolescents in developing and maintaining relationships with peers (Nawaz, Gilani, 2011). As adolescents spend most of the time without parents, their personality development is strongly influenced not only by parents, but also by peers (Arnon et al., 2008). Therefore, it is important for adolescents to establish or strengthen the existing relationships with friends (Nawaz, 2011). The time spent with peers enables them to develop and maintain social relationships outside the family, to be independent from their parents, to build their future adult identity, express their needs and develop their culture in a group of peers (Arnon et al., 2008). Communication and time spent with peers is not just having fun in one's leisure time but also an important part of socialization process (Arnon et al., 2008). Meaningful leisure activities have a positive impact on adolescents' development: prevent risky behaviour with negative consequences for the future; ensure better academic achievements; involve into community activities and help to pursue a career in adulthood (Fredricks, Eccles, 2010). Meaningful leisure activities include participation in sporting activities, which, according to scientific research, is one of the most popular after-school activities among adolescents (Šukys, 2008; Tomik et al., 2012). Parental mission is to guide the child into activities that, through continuous participation, would build the child's self-confidence and ability to solve problems, teach aim setting and instil values (Warner et al., 2015). Deliberate practice and its advantages have been widely researched (Strachan et al., 2011; Vierimaa et al., 2012). Participation in sports is one of social activities that has a positive effect on a child's development. This attractive activity with respectable image can lead to positive social changes. Participation in sporting activities gives children the opportunity to enjoy high-quality leisure time; children become more disciplined and active in many different spheres (Rottensteiner et al., 2013). Although organized youth sports provide meaningful activities to millions of children, sociological studies suggest that the number of children engaged in sporting activities is constantly decreasing, and children's negative attitude towards sports, alienation and passiveness is becoming a serious problem (Smoll et al., 2011). Most of researchers acknowledge that parents have the greatest influence in sporting activities of their children (Lavoi, Stellino, 2008; Dorsch et al., 2009; Sapieja et al., 2011; Nunomura, Oliveira, 2013; Holt, Knight, 2014; Knight, Holt 2014; Dorsch, Smith, 2016), that participation in youth sport is the process where parents play the most important role (Sanchez-Miguel et al., 2013). Initially children enjoy sports for small achievements; later on sport becomes a motivating factor, an interesting and meaningful activity that eventually becomes a lifestyle (Wells et al., 2005; Perrotta, Pannelli, 2014; Prichard, Deutsch, 2015; McMillan et al., 2016) passed on to children and grandchildren, i.e. to the next generations. In order to involve children into sporting activities from the early age and to achieve progress in fully disclosing their talents it is necessary to create a favourable environment in the early years of the child's personality development and parents play a very important role in this process (Sánchez-Miguel et al., 2013; Legg et al., 2015; Dorsch et al., 2015; Dorsch, Smith, 2016). The child's success in sports can be regarded as the parents' merit too (Bailey et al., 2013). Parents can shape the child's behaviour and give the right direction (Lavoi, Stellino, 2008; Arthur-Banning et al., 2009; Smoll et al., 2011). Parents are involved in disclosing and recognizing the child's talent (Côté, Vierimaa, 2014), experienced joy from participation in sporting activities (McCarthy, Jones, 2007), understanding the athletic competence (Lee et al., 2008), competition anxiety and stress management experience (Gould et al. 2012), and development of psychological skills (MacNamara et al., 2010). Family relations is the context where answers to questions how and why participation in sporting activities changes the child's thinking and behaviour. Such issues as the role of parents in this process and how they cope with this role, how sporting activities modify not only children's but also parents' personality orientations, behaviour and communication in the family. Research problem. The analysis of Lithuanian and foreign studies in the context of research topic revealed the following problem aspects: only very few athlete children can remain in sports without emotional and financial support from their family (O'Connor, 2011); not all parents are interested in sports and not all parents understand the importance of education through sports (O'Rourke et al., 2014); little is known about the influence of children's participation in sports on parents, their motivation and experience (Wiersma, Fifer, 2008) little is known about the relationship between children's participation in sport and their communication in the family and with peers. Therefore, there is a need to find out how parental involvement in youth sport could be strengthened and supported by recognizing the prospects of children and respecting parental experiences. Research object – educational interaction between parents and adolescents in sports. Research goal – reveal the educational interaction between parents and adolescents in sports. Research objectives: 1. Theoretically ground the educational interaction between parents and adolescents in sports. 2. Disclose the links between participation in sporting activities and attachment to parents and peers among athlete and non-athlete adolescents. 3. Disclose parental experiences related to the involvement into children's sporting activities. 4. Disclose adolescents' experiences related participation in sporting activities and relationship with parents. Expected outcomes of research (hypotheses): 1. A hypothesis that the relationship of athletic children with parents is more affectionate compared to that of non-athletic peers is proposed. 2. A hypothesis that adolescents with longer athletic experience are more attached to parents compared to adolescents with less athletic experience is proposed. Scientific novelty and practical significance of the dissertation The findings of scientific studies done in Lithuania and abroad on family involvement into adolescents' activities are significant in terms of importance of attachment to parents in the period of adolescence. However, integrated research into children's attachment to parents and peers in the context of sport is scarce, and no studies analysing parent–child experiences related to sport and revealing the educational interaction were done in Lithuania. Thus there is insufficient scientific information in this area. Therefore the scientific novelty of the dissertation is grounded on three levels: theoretical, empirical and practical. On the theoretical level this dissertation presents and substantiates the expanded concepts and interpretations of attachment to parents, attachment to peers and educational interaction between parents and children. Until now the constructs representing attachment to parents, attachment to peers, adolescents' participation in sporting activities were analysed in scientific studies as separate issues. In this dissertation these constructs are united into an integral and continuous process of educational interaction between parents and children. A modern theoretical model of educational interaction between parents and children developed and theoretically grounded in this dissertation is significant for its scientific novelty. On the empirical level a quantitative survey of adolescents was conducted in this dissertation in order to analyse the importance of attachment and communication within the family in the period of adolescence. The experiences of parents stemming from the involvement in their children's sporting activities and the experiences of adolescents related to the participation in sporting activities and relations with parents were disclosed in the qualitative survey. Both surveys were combined by a mixed method. These complementing surveys enabled to get a deeper and clearer understanding of parent–adolescent relations and attachment to family in the background of sporting activities. It is not only new approach in the context of Lithuanian research but also expands the available results of empirical research from foreign countries. This approach was used not only with the aim to find out how different variables related to sporting activities (attachment to family, attachment to peers, coaches' input) acting together may add to the expression of positive educational interaction between parents and children in sporting activities. Another new thing is that for the first time in research literature adolescents' attachment to parents is operationalized by two variables (attachment to parents and attachment to peers) reflecting their participation in sporting activities in order to find out, which variable is more important in the period of adolescence. On the practical level the results and conclusions of this dissertation may first of all help managers of sport clubs, organizations, school staff and educators to better understand how parents – by creating positive and supporting relations in sporting activities of their teenage children – may add to the achievement of the goals and objectives and in this way educate democratically minded youth ready to actively engage in social and public life. Secondly, this dissertation is relevant and has a practical value for the promotion of positive development of adolescents and responsible parenting. It opens a new view for professionals (coaches, sport educators, sport psychologists) working with athletes and their parents to the variety of experiences and through the knowledge gained increase the wellness of athletes and their parents. Thus, the clearer aspects of family attachment and experiences of athlete adolescents in their relations with parents may help to improve the skills not only of athlete adolescents but also of their parents and coaches. It should be noted that the findings of this dissertation were implemented in practice – a new intervention programme facilitating the parental involvement in children's sporting activities has been developed. More information about this educational programme is available at www.lisinskiene.com. CONCLUSIONS 1. Scientific literature analysis revealed that parent–child educational interaction in sport is a bi-directional system. Parents influence children: they learn to be emphatic, self-disciplined, self-respected, they build communication skills, and plan their daily routine. Children influence parents because involvement in the child's sport naturally changes parents and modifies their lives: parental daily routine alters, their cognition, knowledge and emotions change, their circle of contacts increases, interpersonal relations with the child, in the family, with other participants in sports also change. Marital relations of parents also alter through the child's participation in sport, some parents start playing sports. Parent–child educational interaction in sport depends on financial and psychological support from parents, the child's physical and emotional security, the coach's positive education strategy, competence and authority. Educational interaction in sport is possible by more active attraction of parents into children's sport; not making pressure on athletic children; motivating them to play sports through psychologically supporting environment; providing continuous training possibilities for coaches. 2. The investigation into the relationship between the adolescents' sporting activities and attachment to family and peers revealed that athlete adolescents' relations with parents are more intensively expressed in all scales: communication, trust and alienation compared to non-athlete adolescents. No relationship was found between adolescents' participation in sport and attachment to peers. 3. Interviews with parents revealed the importance of the coach's role for strengthening parent–child interaction in sport. Parent–child educational interaction in sport depends on the coaching strategy selected by the coach and the degree and form of parental involvement in children's sport. Parents of athlete adolescents acknowledge the benefit of positive coaching and education strategy selected by the coach. This understanding confirms the importance of positive tri-dimensional interaction among parents, children and coaches. However, a phenomenon that has a negative effect on this interaction: parents find it difficult to admit the children's growing attachment to coach. The contraposition to close relations between the child and the coach demonstrated by parents may encourage the alienation between parents and children in sport. 4. Interviews with athlete adolescents revealed that parental involvement into children's sport is more important in the early period of sporting life and becomes less appreciable or unwelcome when children gain sporting experience. In the background of parent–child interrelations in sporting activities adolescents alienation from parents is more common than communication and trust. Alienation of older adolescents from parents in sports has several causes: growing children seek to be independent from their families in sports, some parents behave inappropriately in youth sport and embarrass their children. Interviews with athlete adolescents revealed that some parents demonstrate substandard behaviour in relation to their children, have no loyalty towards other participants of the sporting activity. However, financial support remains and important factor of parental support in all levels of sporting experience. The degree and form of parental involvement into children's sport influences the effectiveness of parent–child educational interaction. The degree and form of involvement chosen by the parents are not always appropriate and encouraging, and not always acceptable to adolescents.

Relevance of research topic. Recent decades have seen a growing concern for the prospects of today's youth. Major problems of young people are related to pervasive destructive and inappropriate behaviour: delinquency, aggression, bullying, drug abuse etc. (Holt, Jones, 2008; Strachan, Côté, Deakin, 2011). These problems are the result of changing social factors: both parents work full-time, single-parent families, unattended children at home (Strachan et al., 2011). Successful personality development depends on a number of external factors: family, school, positive role models, purposefully and deliberately chosen way of self-realization and leisure time activities. The role of a family for the child's positive personality development is in particular highlighted (Vierimaa et al., 2012). Close and solid relationships between children and parents ensure the consistent feeling of security and confidence (Carr, 2014). Affectionate relations between parents and children influence the formation of close links with other people (Holt, Knight, 2014; Steinberg, 2014). The importance of attachment becomes apparent in adolescence – the period of psychological and social transition from childhood to adulthood (Nawaz, 2011). Early parent–child relationship plays a vital role in this period. Attachment and relationship with parents change in the period of adolescence, young people becoming more independent from their parents. In this period the parent–child attachment weakens as young people are faced with new challenges; they seek independence and self-sufficiency, develop their self-identity. Researchers have noted that secure attachment to family gives adolescents a more secure emotional basis which they can always rely on. Gained self-confidence and affectionate relations help adolescents in developing and maintaining relationships with peers (Nawaz, Gilani, 2011). As adolescents spend most of the time without parents, their personality development is strongly influenced not only by parents, but also by peers (Arnon et al., 2008). Therefore, it is important for adolescents to establish or strengthen the existing relationships with friends (Nawaz, 2011). The time spent with peers enables them to develop and maintain social relationships outside the family, to be independent from their parents, to build their future adult identity, express their needs and develop their culture in a group of peers (Arnon et al., 2008). Communication and time spent with peers is not just having fun in one's leisure time but also an important part of socialization process (Arnon et al., 2008). Meaningful leisure activities have a positive impact on adolescents' development: prevent risky behaviour with negative consequences for the future; ensure better academic achievements; involve into community activities and help to pursue a career in adulthood (Fredricks, Eccles, 2010). Meaningful leisure activities include participation in sporting activities, which, according to scientific research, is one of the most popular after-school activities among adolescents (Šukys, 2008; Tomik et al., 2012). Parental mission is to guide the child into activities that, through continuous participation, would build the child's self-confidence and ability to solve problems, teach aim setting and instil values (Warner et al., 2015). Deliberate practice and its advantages have been widely researched (Strachan et al., 2011; Vierimaa et al., 2012). Participation in sports is one of social activities that has a positive effect on a child's development. This attractive activity with respectable image can lead to positive social changes. Participation in sporting activities gives children the opportunity to enjoy high-quality leisure time; children become more disciplined and active in many different spheres (Rottensteiner et al., 2013). Although organized youth sports provide meaningful activities to millions of children, sociological studies suggest that the number of children engaged in sporting activities is constantly decreasing, and children's negative attitude towards sports, alienation and passiveness is becoming a serious problem (Smoll et al., 2011). Most of researchers acknowledge that parents have the greatest influence in sporting activities of their children (Lavoi, Stellino, 2008; Dorsch et al., 2009; Sapieja et al., 2011; Nunomura, Oliveira, 2013; Holt, Knight, 2014; Knight, Holt 2014; Dorsch, Smith, 2016), that participation in youth sport is the process where parents play the most important role (Sanchez-Miguel et al., 2013). Initially children enjoy sports for small achievements; later on sport becomes a motivating factor, an interesting and meaningful activity that eventually becomes a lifestyle (Wells et al., 2005; Perrotta, Pannelli, 2014; Prichard, Deutsch, 2015; McMillan et al., 2016) passed on to children and grandchildren, i.e. to the next generations. In order to involve children into sporting activities from the early age and to achieve progress in fully disclosing their talents it is necessary to create a favourable environment in the early years of the child's personality development and parents play a very important role in this process (Sánchez-Miguel et al., 2013; Legg et al., 2015; Dorsch et al., 2015; Dorsch, Smith, 2016). The child's success in sports can be regarded as the parents' merit too (Bailey et al., 2013). Parents can shape the child's behaviour and give the right direction (Lavoi, Stellino, 2008; Arthur-Banning et al., 2009; Smoll et al., 2011). Parents are involved in disclosing and recognizing the child's talent (Côté, Vierimaa, 2014), experienced joy from participation in sporting activities (McCarthy, Jones, 2007), understanding the athletic competence (Lee et al., 2008), competition anxiety and stress management experience (Gould et al. 2012), and development of psychological skills (MacNamara et al., 2010). Family relations is the context where answers to questions how and why participation in sporting activities changes the child's thinking and behaviour. Such issues as the role of parents in this process and how they cope with this role, how sporting activities modify not only children's but also parents' personality orientations, behaviour and communication in the family. Research problem. The analysis of Lithuanian and foreign studies in the context of research topic revealed the following problem aspects: only very few athlete children can remain in sports without emotional and financial support from their family (O'Connor, 2011); not all parents are interested in sports and not all parents understand the importance of education through sports (O'Rourke et al., 2014); little is known about the influence of children's participation in sports on parents, their motivation and experience (Wiersma, Fifer, 2008) little is known about the relationship between children's participation in sport and their communication in the family and with peers. Therefore, there is a need to find out how parental involvement in youth sport could be strengthened and supported by recognizing the prospects of children and respecting parental experiences. Research object – educational interaction between parents and adolescents in sports. Research goal – reveal the educational interaction between parents and adolescents in sports. Research objectives: 1. Theoretically ground the educational interaction between parents and adolescents in sports. 2. Disclose the links between participation in sporting activities and attachment to parents and peers among athlete and non-athlete adolescents. 3. Disclose parental experiences related to the involvement into children's sporting activities. 4. Disclose adolescents' experiences related participation in sporting activities and relationship with parents. Expected outcomes of research (hypotheses): 1. A hypothesis that the relationship of athletic children with parents is more affectionate compared to that of non-athletic peers is proposed. 2. A hypothesis that adolescents with longer athletic experience are more attached to parents compared to adolescents with less athletic experience is proposed. Scientific novelty and practical significance of the dissertation The findings of scientific studies done in Lithuania and abroad on family involvement into adolescents' activities are significant in terms of importance of attachment to parents in the period of adolescence. However, integrated research into children's attachment to parents and peers in the context of sport is scarce, and no studies analysing parent–child experiences related to sport and revealing the educational interaction were done in Lithuania. Thus there is insufficient scientific information in this area. Therefore the scientific novelty of the dissertation is grounded on three levels: theoretical, empirical and practical. On the theoretical level this dissertation presents and substantiates the expanded concepts and interpretations of attachment to parents, attachment to peers and educational interaction between parents and children. Until now the constructs representing attachment to parents, attachment to peers, adolescents' participation in sporting activities were analysed in scientific studies as separate issues. In this dissertation these constructs are united into an integral and continuous process of educational interaction between parents and children. A modern theoretical model of educational interaction between parents and children developed and theoretically grounded in this dissertation is significant for its scientific novelty. On the empirical level a quantitative survey of adolescents was conducted in this dissertation in order to analyse the importance of attachment and communication within the family in the period of adolescence. The experiences of parents stemming from the involvement in their children's sporting activities and the experiences of adolescents related to the participation in sporting activities and relations with parents were disclosed in the qualitative survey. Both surveys were combined by a mixed method. These complementing surveys enabled to get a deeper and clearer understanding of parent–adolescent relations and attachment to family in the background of sporting activities. It is not only new approach in the context of Lithuanian research but also expands the available results of empirical research from foreign countries. This approach was used not only with the aim to find out how different variables related to sporting activities (attachment to family, attachment to peers, coaches' input) acting together may add to the expression of positive educational interaction between parents and children in sporting activities. Another new thing is that for the first time in research literature adolescents' attachment to parents is operationalized by two variables (attachment to parents and attachment to peers) reflecting their participation in sporting activities in order to find out, which variable is more important in the period of adolescence. On the practical level the results and conclusions of this dissertation may first of all help managers of sport clubs, organizations, school staff and educators to better understand how parents – by creating positive and supporting relations in sporting activities of their teenage children – may add to the achievement of the goals and objectives and in this way educate democratically minded youth ready to actively engage in social and public life. Secondly, this dissertation is relevant and has a practical value for the promotion of positive development of adolescents and responsible parenting. It opens a new view for professionals (coaches, sport educators, sport psychologists) working with athletes and their parents to the variety of experiences and through the knowledge gained increase the wellness of athletes and their parents. Thus, the clearer aspects of family attachment and experiences of athlete adolescents in their relations with parents may help to improve the skills not only of athlete adolescents but also of their parents and coaches. It should be noted that the findings of this dissertation were implemented in practice – a new intervention programme facilitating the parental involvement in children's sporting activities has been developed. More information about this educational programme is available at www.lisinskiene.com. CONCLUSIONS 1. Scientific literature analysis revealed that parent–child educational interaction in sport is a bi-directional system. Parents influence children: they learn to be emphatic, self-disciplined, self-respected, they build communication skills, and plan their daily routine. Children influence parents because involvement in the child's sport naturally changes parents and modifies their lives: parental daily routine alters, their cognition, knowledge and emotions change, their circle of contacts increases, interpersonal relations with the child, in the family, with other participants in sports also change. Marital relations of parents also alter through the child's participation in sport, some parents start playing sports. Parent–child educational interaction in sport depends on financial and psychological support from parents, the child's physical and emotional security, the coach's positive education strategy, competence and authority. Educational interaction in sport is possible by more active attraction of parents into children's sport; not making pressure on athletic children; motivating them to play sports through psychologically supporting environment; providing continuous training possibilities for coaches. 2. The investigation into the relationship between the adolescents' sporting activities and attachment to family and peers revealed that athlete adolescents' relations with parents are more intensively expressed in all scales: communication, trust and alienation compared to non-athlete adolescents. No relationship was found between adolescents' participation in sport and attachment to peers. 3. Interviews with parents revealed the importance of the coach's role for strengthening parent–child interaction in sport. Parent–child educational interaction in sport depends on the coaching strategy selected by the coach and the degree and form of parental involvement in children's sport. Parents of athlete adolescents acknowledge the benefit of positive coaching and education strategy selected by the coach. This understanding confirms the importance of positive tri-dimensional interaction among parents, children and coaches. However, a phenomenon that has a negative effect on this interaction: parents find it difficult to admit the children's growing attachment to coach. The contraposition to close relations between the child and the coach demonstrated by parents may encourage the alienation between parents and children in sport. 4. Interviews with athlete adolescents revealed that parental involvement into children's sport is more important in the early period of sporting life and becomes less appreciable or unwelcome when children gain sporting experience. In the background of parent–child interrelations in sporting activities adolescents alienation from parents is more common than communication and trust. Alienation of older adolescents from parents in sports has several causes: growing children seek to be independent from their families in sports, some parents behave inappropriately in youth sport and embarrass their children. Interviews with athlete adolescents revealed that some parents demonstrate substandard behaviour in relation to their children, have no loyalty towards other participants of the sporting activity. However, financial support remains and important factor of parental support in all levels of sporting experience. The degree and form of parental involvement into children's sport influences the effectiveness of parent–child educational interaction. The degree and form of involvement chosen by the parents are not always appropriate and encouraging, and not always acceptable to adolescents.

Relevance of research topic. Recent decades have seen a growing concern for the prospects of today's youth. Major problems of young people are related to pervasive destructive and inappropriate behaviour: delinquency, aggression, bullying, drug abuse etc. (Holt, Jones, 2008; Strachan, Côté, Deakin, 2011). These problems are the result of changing social factors: both parents work full-time, single-parent families, unattended children at home (Strachan et al., 2011). Successful personality development depends on a number of external factors: family, school, positive role models, purposefully and deliberately chosen way of self-realization and leisure time activities. The role of a family for the child's positive personality development is in particular highlighted (Vierimaa et al., 2012). Close and solid relationships between children and parents ensure the consistent feeling of security and confidence (Carr, 2014). Affectionate relations between parents and children influence the formation of close links with other people (Holt, Knight, 2014; Steinberg, 2014). The importance of attachment becomes apparent in adolescence – the period of psychological and social transition from childhood to adulthood (Nawaz, 2011). Early parent–child relationship plays a vital role in this period. Attachment and relationship with parents change in the period of adolescence, young people becoming more independent from their parents. In this period the parent–child attachment weakens as young people are faced with new challenges; they seek independence and self-sufficiency, develop their self-identity. Researchers have noted that secure attachment to family gives adolescents a more secure emotional basis which they can always rely on. Gained self-confidence and affectionate relations help adolescents in developing and maintaining relationships with peers (Nawaz, Gilani, 2011). As adolescents spend most of the time without parents, their personality development is strongly influenced not only by parents, but also by peers (Arnon et al., 2008). Therefore, it is important for adolescents to establish or strengthen the existing relationships with friends (Nawaz, 2011). The time spent with peers enables them to develop and maintain social relationships outside the family, to be independent from their parents, to build their future adult identity, express their needs and develop their culture in a group of peers (Arnon et al., 2008). Communication and time spent with peers is not just having fun in one's leisure time but also an important part of socialization process (Arnon et al., 2008). Meaningful leisure activities have a positive impact on adolescents' development: prevent risky behaviour with negative consequences for the future; ensure better academic achievements; involve into community activities and help to pursue a career in adulthood (Fredricks, Eccles, 2010). Meaningful leisure activities include participation in sporting activities, which, according to scientific research, is one of the most popular after-school activities among adolescents (Šukys, 2008; Tomik et al., 2012). Parental mission is to guide the child into activities that, through continuous participation, would build the child's self-confidence and ability to solve problems, teach aim setting and instil values (Warner et al., 2015). Deliberate practice and its advantages have been widely researched (Strachan et al., 2011; Vierimaa et al., 2012). Participation in sports is one of social activities that has a positive effect on a child's development. This attractive activity with respectable image can lead to positive social changes. Participation in sporting activities gives children the opportunity to enjoy high-quality leisure time; children become more disciplined and active in many different spheres (Rottensteiner et al., 2013). Although organized youth sports provide meaningful activities to millions of children, sociological studies suggest that the number of children engaged in sporting activities is constantly decreasing, and children's negative attitude towards sports, alienation and passiveness is becoming a serious problem (Smoll et al., 2011). Most of researchers acknowledge that parents have the greatest influence in sporting activities of their children (Lavoi, Stellino, 2008; Dorsch et al., 2009; Sapieja et al., 2011; Nunomura, Oliveira, 2013; Holt, Knight, 2014; Knight, Holt 2014; Dorsch, Smith, 2016), that participation in youth sport is the process where parents play the most important role (Sanchez-Miguel et al., 2013). Initially children enjoy sports for small achievements; later on sport becomes a motivating factor, an interesting and meaningful activity that eventually becomes a lifestyle (Wells et al., 2005; Perrotta, Pannelli, 2014; Prichard, Deutsch, 2015; McMillan et al., 2016) passed on to children and grandchildren, i.e. to the next generations. In order to involve children into sporting activities from the early age and to achieve progress in fully disclosing their talents it is necessary to create a favourable environment in the early years of the child's personality development and parents play a very important role in this process (Sánchez-Miguel et al., 2013; Legg et al., 2015; Dorsch et al., 2015; Dorsch, Smith, 2016). The child's success in sports can be regarded as the parents' merit too (Bailey et al., 2013). Parents can shape the child's behaviour and give the right direction (Lavoi, Stellino, 2008; Arthur-Banning et al., 2009; Smoll et al., 2011). Parents are involved in disclosing and recognizing the child's talent (Côté, Vierimaa, 2014), experienced joy from participation in sporting activities (McCarthy, Jones, 2007), understanding the athletic competence (Lee et al., 2008), competition anxiety and stress management experience (Gould et al. 2012), and development of psychological skills (MacNamara et al., 2010). Family relations is the context where answers to questions how and why participation in sporting activities changes the child's thinking and behaviour. Such issues as the role of parents in this process and how they cope with this role, how sporting activities modify not only children's but also parents' personality orientations, behaviour and communication in the family. Research problem. The analysis of Lithuanian and foreign studies in the context of research topic revealed the following problem aspects: only very few athlete children can remain in sports without emotional and financial support from their family (O'Connor, 2011); not all parents are interested in sports and not all parents understand the importance of education through sports (O'Rourke et al., 2014); little is known about the influence of children's participation in sports on parents, their motivation and experience (Wiersma, Fifer, 2008) little is known about the relationship between children's participation in sport and their communication in the family and with peers. Therefore, there is a need to find out how parental involvement in youth sport could be strengthened and supported by recognizing the prospects of children and respecting parental experiences. Research object – educational interaction between parents and adolescents in sports. Research goal – reveal the educational interaction between parents and adolescents in sports. Research objectives: 1. Theoretically ground the educational interaction between parents and adolescents in sports. 2. Disclose the links between participation in sporting activities and attachment to parents and peers among athlete and non-athlete adolescents. 3. Disclose parental experiences related to the involvement into children's sporting activities. 4. Disclose adolescents' experiences related participation in sporting activities and relationship with parents. Expected outcomes of research (hypotheses): 1. A hypothesis that the relationship of athletic children with parents is more affectionate compared to that of non-athletic peers is proposed. 2. A hypothesis that adolescents with longer athletic experience are more attached to parents compared to adolescents with less athletic experience is proposed. Scientific novelty and practical significance of the dissertation The findings of scientific studies done in Lithuania and abroad on family involvement into adolescents' activities are significant in terms of importance of attachment to parents in the period of adolescence. However, integrated research into children's attachment to parents and peers in the context of sport is scarce, and no studies analysing parent–child experiences related to sport and revealing the educational interaction were done in Lithuania. Thus there is insufficient scientific information in this area. Therefore the scientific novelty of the dissertation is grounded on three levels: theoretical, empirical and practical. On the theoretical level this dissertation presents and substantiates the expanded concepts and interpretations of attachment to parents, attachment to peers and educational interaction between parents and children. Until now the constructs representing attachment to parents, attachment to peers, adolescents' participation in sporting activities were analysed in scientific studies as separate issues. In this dissertation these constructs are united into an integral and continuous process of educational interaction between parents and children. A modern theoretical model of educational interaction between parents and children developed and theoretically grounded in this dissertation is significant for its scientific novelty. On the empirical level a quantitative survey of adolescents was conducted in this dissertation in order to analyse the importance of attachment and communication within the family in the period of adolescence. The experiences of parents stemming from the involvement in their children's sporting activities and the experiences of adolescents related to the participation in sporting activities and relations with parents were disclosed in the qualitative survey. Both surveys were combined by a mixed method. These complementing surveys enabled to get a deeper and clearer understanding of parent–adolescent relations and attachment to family in the background of sporting activities. It is not only new approach in the context of Lithuanian research but also expands the available results of empirical research from foreign countries. This approach was used not only with the aim to find out how different variables related to sporting activities (attachment to family, attachment to peers, coaches' input) acting together may add to the expression of positive educational interaction between parents and children in sporting activities. Another new thing is that for the first time in research literature adolescents' attachment to parents is operationalized by two variables (attachment to parents and attachment to peers) reflecting their participation in sporting activities in order to find out, which variable is more important in the period of adolescence. On the practical level the results and conclusions of this dissertation may first of all help managers of sport clubs, organizations, school staff and educators to better understand how parents – by creating positive and supporting relations in sporting activities of their teenage children – may add to the achievement of the goals and objectives and in this way educate democratically minded youth ready to actively engage in social and public life. Secondly, this dissertation is relevant and has a practical value for the promotion of positive development of adolescents and responsible parenting. It opens a new view for professionals (coaches, sport educators, sport psychologists) working with athletes and their parents to the variety of experiences and through the knowledge gained increase the wellness of athletes and their parents. Thus, the clearer aspects of family attachment and experiences of athlete adolescents in their relations with parents may help to improve the skills not only of athlete adolescents but also of their parents and coaches. It should be noted that the findings of this dissertation were implemented in practice – a new intervention programme facilitating the parental involvement in children's sporting activities has been developed. More information about this educational programme is available at www.lisinskiene.com. CONCLUSIONS 1. Scientific literature analysis revealed that parent–child educational interaction in sport is a bi-directional system. Parents influence children: they learn to be emphatic, self-disciplined, self-respected, they build communication skills, and plan their daily routine. Children influence parents because involvement in the child's sport naturally changes parents and modifies their lives: parental daily routine alters, their cognition, knowledge and emotions change, their circle of contacts increases, interpersonal relations with the child, in the family, with other participants in sports also change. Marital relations of parents also alter through the child's participation in sport, some parents start playing sports. Parent–child educational interaction in sport depends on financial and psychological support from parents, the child's physical and emotional security, the coach's positive education strategy, competence and authority. Educational interaction in sport is possible by more active attraction of parents into children's sport; not making pressure on athletic children; motivating them to play sports through psychologically supporting environment; providing continuous training possibilities for coaches. 2. The investigation into the relationship between the adolescents' sporting activities and attachment to family and peers revealed that athlete adolescents' relations with parents are more intensively expressed in all scales: communication, trust and alienation compared to non-athlete adolescents. No relationship was found between adolescents' participation in sport and attachment to peers. 3. Interviews with parents revealed the importance of the coach's role for strengthening parent–child interaction in sport. Parent–child educational interaction in sport depends on the coaching strategy selected by the coach and the degree and form of parental involvement in children's sport. Parents of athlete adolescents acknowledge the benefit of positive coaching and education strategy selected by the coach. This understanding confirms the importance of positive tri-dimensional interaction among parents, children and coaches. However, a phenomenon that has a negative effect on this interaction: parents find it difficult to admit the children's growing attachment to coach. The contraposition to close relations between the child and the coach demonstrated by parents may encourage the alienation between parents and children in sport. 4. Interviews with athlete adolescents revealed that parental involvement into children's sport is more important in the early period of sporting life and becomes less appreciable or unwelcome when children gain sporting experience. In the background of parent–child interrelations in sporting activities adolescents alienation from parents is more common than communication and trust. Alienation of older adolescents from parents in sports has several causes: growing children seek to be independent from their families in sports, some parents behave inappropriately in youth sport and embarrass their children. Interviews with athlete adolescents revealed that some parents demonstrate substandard behaviour in relation to their children, have no loyalty towards other participants of the sporting activity. However, financial support remains and important factor of parental support in all levels of sporting experience. The degree and form of parental involvement into children's sport influences the effectiveness of parent–child educational interaction. The degree and form of involvement chosen by the parents are not always appropriate and encouraging, and not always acceptable to adolescents.

[spa] - Introducción El fenómeno de la estacionalidad se ha convertido en una de las preocupaciones más generalizadas en el mundo del turismo. En el caso de Mallorca, su importancia ha ido íntimamente ligada al crecimiento del producto de sol y playa, cuya materia prima depende de las condiciones climáticas, las cuales, en la zona mediterránea se caracterizan por su variabilidad estacional. Tradicionalmente esta circunstancia ha servido como base para explicar la estacionalidad y asumirla como un fenómeno inevitable, sobre el cual, no se podía hacer nada. Sin embargo, con el paso del tiempo los comportamientos y las motivaciones de los turistas han ido cambiando, y en consecuencia, han aparecido nuevos productos turísticos, que han contribuido a diversificar la oferta de la isla. - Contenido de la investigación Dentro del actual escenario turístico, coexisten los paquetes estandarizados asociados al sol y playa, con nuevas fórmulas postfordistas, más flexibles e individualizadas, que se adaptan a la autonomía de cada turista. Frecuentemente, se ha identificado esta diversificación productiva con el camino a seguir para lograr la desestacionalización del destino, por lo cual, ha sido uno de los objetivos prioritarios dentro de las políticas públicas y privadas, que se han impulsado para luchar contra la estacionalidad. El resultado es un modelo multiproducto, que abarca todo el territorio de la isla, y que ha originado cambios en la configuración espacio-temporal del turismo. El modelo territorial-turístico vigente, va más allá de la franja litoral formando un todo incluido, que requiere de nuevos marcos analíticos y propositivos, que desde la geografía del turismo, pueden aportarse a través de modelos teóricos y análisis empíricos de carácter local. Este proceso de diversificación y segmentación de la demanda ha posibilitado el alargamiento del período de apertura de los establecimientos turísticos y un aumento (con oscilaciones) del número de turistas durante las temporadas baja y media, sin embargo, a pesar de los esfuerzos realizados, el turismo sigue estadísticamente sin desestacionalizarse. Los resultados obtenidos a partir del cálculo del índice de Gini, han mostrado como la tasa de crecimiento en la llegada de turistas ha seguido siendo muy superior durante los meses de verano, y consecuentemente, el éxito de las iniciativas para la desestacionalización ha quedado mitigado. Partiendo de la idea de que para la sociedad local la estacionalidad es un problema que debe solucionarse, y habiéndose dedicado numerosos esfuerzos económicos para ello, sorprende que no se haya logrado invertir la tendencia, aún más, si tal y como se demuestra en esta investigación que la isla dispone de unos productos y una demanda potencial para poder avanzar hacia un modelo turístico más equilibrado tanto a nivel temporal como territorial. En base a todo ello, se ha planteado la necesidad de reinterpretar el fenómeno de la estacionalidad del turismo en la isla de Mallorca. Al respecto, se observó que en la mayoría de los casos la estacionalidad se ha analizado como una cuestión negativa para cualquier destino turístico, y en cambio pocas veces se ha hecho referencia a sus efectos positivos. Con lo cual, se echaba en falta un marco de análisis e interpretación adecuado a la complejidad del problema que se presenta. Así pues, se ha planteado la hipótesis de que para el caso de Mallorca, quizás los impactos positivos que tiene la estacionalidad, juegan un papel mucho más importante del que se le ha supuesto hasta el momento, y por lo tanto, explicarían el cierto conformismo de los actores locales respecto a la temporalidad que presenta el modelo turístico que reina en la isla. Para poder abordar esta cuestión, se ha diseñado una metodología que permita analizar la estacionalidad desde una óptica transversal e integral, incorporando la actitud de los distintos actores que conforman el destino turístico, tanto los que pueden afectar al turismo como los que pueden verse afectados por él. El objetivo que se ha perseguido, ha sido el de poder conocer las distintas posturas tanto a favor como en contra de cada una de las partes implicadas, con el propósito de identificar impactos negativos y positivos derivados de la estacionalidad y la desestacionalización. - Conclusión A pesar de que la realidad observada, se caracteriza por una diversidad de visiones, se ha podido concluir que la estacionalidad se ha convertido en un estilo de vida para el conjunto de los actores socio-económicos de la isla, que se sustenta sobre un frágil equilibrio entre los impactos negativos y los positivos que de ella se derivan. Esta circunstancia pone de manifiesto la importancia que tiene aportar nuevas herramientas de trabajo, que permitan llevar a cabo un control sobre las actitudes de los actores del destino hacia la estacionalidad del modelo turístico que impera en la isla. Para ello, se han realizado una serie de recomendaciones metodológicas para incorporar la participación de todos los actores del turismo, de una forma real, consensuada y eficaz, que permita reforzar el enfoque integral que se requiere para la planificación y gestión de un fenómeno tan complejo como el de la estacionalidad del turismo. ; [cat] - Introducció El fenomen de l'estacionalitat s'ha convertit en una de les preocupacions més generalitzades en el món del turisme. En el cas de Mallorca, la seva importància ha anat íntimament lligada al creixement del producte de sol i platja, la matèria prima del qual, depèn de les condicions climàtiques, que a la zona mediterrània es caracteritzen per la seva variabilitat estacional. Tradicionalment aquesta circumstància ha servit com a fonament per explicar l'estacionalitat i assumir-la com un fenomen inevitable, sobre el qual, no es podia fer res. Ara bé, amb el pas del temps els comportaments i les motivacions dels turistes han anat canviant, y en conseqüència, han aparegut nous productes turístics, que han contribuït a diversificar l'oferta de la illa. - Contingut de la investigació Dins l'actual escenari turístic, coexisteixen els paquets estandaritzats associats al sol i platja, amb noves fórmules postfordistes, més flexibles i individualitzades, que s'adapten a l'autonomia de cada turista. Freqüentment, s'ha identificat aquesta diversificació productiva com el camí a seguir per aconseguir la desestacionalització de la destinació, i per tant, ha estat un dels objectius prioritaris dintre de les polítiques públiques i privades, que s'han impulsat per a lluitar contra l'estacionalitat. El resultat es un model multiproducte, que abasta tot el territori de la illa, i que ha originat canvis en la configuració espai-temps del turisme. El model territorial-turístic vigent, va més enllà de la franja litoral formant un tot inclòs, que requereix de nous marcs analítics i propositius, que des de la geografia del turisme, poden aportar-se a través de models teòrics i anàlisis empírics de caràcter local. Aquest procés de diversificació i segmentació de la demanda ha possibilitat l'allargament del període d'obertura dels establiments turístics i un augment (amb oscil•lacions) del nombre de turistes durant les temporades baixa i mitja, però, a pesar dels esforços realitzats, el turisme segueix estadísticament sense desestacionalitzar-se. Els resultats obtinguts a partir del càlcul de l'índex de Gini, han mostrat com la taxa de creixement de l'arribada de turistes ha seguit sent molt superior durant els mesos d'estiu, i conseqüentment, l'èxit de les iniciatives per a la desestacionalització ha quedat mitigat. Partint de la idea de que per a la societat local l'estacionalitat és un problema que cal solucionar, i havent-s'hi dedicat nombrosos esforços econòmics per això, sorprèn que no s'hagi aconseguit invertir la tendència, més encara, tenint en compte tal i com es demostra amb aquesta investigació, que la illa disposa d'uns productes i una demanda potencial per a poder avançar cap a un model turístic més equilibrat tant a nivell temporal com territorial. En base a tot això, s'ha plantejat la necessitat de reinterpretar el fenomen de l'estacionalitat del turisme a la illa de Mallorca. Al respecte, es va observar que en la majoria dels casos l'estacionalitat s'ha analitzat com una qüestió negativa per a qualsevol destinació turística, i en canvi poques vegades s'ha fet referència als seus efectes positius. Així doncs, es trobava a faltar un marc d'anàlisi i interpretació idoni per a la complexitat del problema que es presenta. Sobre això, s'ha plantejat la hipòtesi de que en el cas de Mallorca, tal volta els impactes positius que té l'estacionalitat, juguen un paper molt més important del que se li ha suposat fins al moment, i per lo tant, explicarien el cert conformisme dels actors locals respecte a la temporalitat que presenta el model turístic que regna a la illa. Per a poder tractar aquesta qüestió, s'ha dissenyat una metodologia que permet analitzar l'estacionalitat des d'una òptica transversal i integral, incorporant l'actitud dels distints actors que conformen la destinació turística, tant els que poden afectar al turisme com els que poden veure's afectats per ell. L'objectiu que s'ha perseguit, ha estat el de poder conèixer les distintes postures tant a favor com en contra de cada una de les parts implicades, amb el propòsit d'identificar impactes negatius i positius derivats de l'estacionalitat i la desestacionalització. - Conclusió A pesar de que la realitat observada, es caracteritza per una diversitat de visions, s'ha pogut concloure que l'estacionalitat s'ha convertit amb un estil de vida pel conjunt d'actors socio-econòmics de la illa, el qual es sustenta sobre un fràgil equilibri entre els impactes negatius i els positius que d'ella se'n deriven. Aquesta circumstància posa de manifest la importància que té el fet d'aportar noves eines de treball que permetin dur a terme un control sobre les actituds dels actors del destí respecte a l'estacionalitat del model turístic que impera a la illa. Per això, s'han realitzat una sèrie de recomanacions metodològiques encaminades a incorporar la participació de tots els actors del turisme, d'una forma real, consensuada i eficaç, que permeti reforçar l'enfocament integral que es requereix per a la planificació i gestió d'un fenomen tan complex como el de l'estacionalitat del turisme. ; [eng] - Introduction. The phenomenon of seasonality has become one of the most generalized worries in the world of tourism. In the case of Mallorca, its importance has been intimately linked to the growth of sunshine and beaches, whose prime material depends on climate conditions, which are characterized in the mediterranean area for its seasonal variability. Traditionally this circumstance has served as a base for explaining seasonality and assuming it to be an inevitable phenomenon, which we can do nothing about. However, the behavior and motivations of tourists have changed with the passing of time, and as a consequence new tourist products have appeared and diversified what the island offers. - Research content. Inside the current tourist scene, two standardized packages of sunshine and beach coexist with new postfordist formulas. These are more flexible and individualized and are adapted to each tourist's autonomy. This productive diversification has been frequently identified as the way to get rid of seasonality in this destination, which has been one of the priorities within the public and private politics since they started the fight against seasonality. The result is a multi-product that covers all the territory of the island and has started changes in the configuration of temporal space in tourism. The current territorial-touristic model goes further than the coastal strip, which requires new analytical and propositional frameworks, which from the geography of tourism can be provided through theoretical models and empirical analysis of local character. This process of diversification and segmentation of the demand has made the lengthening of the opening period of tourist establishments and an increase (with oscillations) in the number of tourists in the high and low seasons a possibility. However, despite the efforts, tourism statistically continues to be seasonal. The results obtained from the calculation of Gini's index have shown that the growth rate of tourist arrivals has continued to be much higher during the summer months. Consequently, the success of the initiatives to stop seasonality has remained appeased. Based on the idea that for the local society seasonality is a problem that needs to be solved and also having dedicated numerous economic efforts to it, it's surprising that they have failed to reverse the trend, even more when as shown in this investigation, the island has products and a potential demand to be able to move towards a more balanced temporal and territorial touristic model. Based on all this, the necessity to reinterpret the phenomenon of tourism seasonality in the island of Mallorca has been raised. In respect to that, it has been observed that the majority of seasonality cases have been analyzed as a negative issue for any touristic destination and has seldom made references to its positive effects. Whereby they were missing analytical framework and adequate interpretation to the complexity for the problem at hand. Therefore, in the case of Mallorca the hypothesis has been proposed that maybe the positive impacts of seasonality play a much more important role than what was thought up until now, which would explain the true conformism of local stakeholders in respect to the timing that the touristic model of the island presents. To be able to approach this issue, a methodology that allows us to analyze seasonality from transverse and integral optics has been designed incorporating the attitude of distinct stakeholders that conform the tourist destination; both the ones whom can affect tourism and that can see themselves affected by it. The objective that has been pursued is to have the ability to get to know the different positions both for and against the parties involved with the intent to identify positive and negative impacts of seasonality and lack of seasonality. - Conclusion. Despite the observed reality that is characterized by a variety of visions, it has been concluded that seasonality has become a lifestyle for all the socio-economic stakeholders on the island, which is based on a fragile balance between the positive and negative impacts that come from it. For this, they have carried out a series of methodological recommendations to incorporate the participation of all the stakeholders in tourism, in a real way, consensual and effective, that reinforces the integral focus that is required for the planning and management of such a complex phenomenon like seasonality of tourism.

En la arena educativa, uno de los focos de tensión irresuelto en la actualidad es el propio de las relaciones entre la escuela pública y la escuela privada. Los partidarios de cada opción participan en un debate apasionado con posiciones sustentadas básicamente en argumentos religiosos, políticos y sociales y ello, ante la carencia de estudios que posibiliten el conocimiento de la génesis y desarrollo de la escuela privada y permitan su tratamiento propiamente educativo. En consecuencia se ha determinado seguir el devenir histórico de la conformación de un sistema de instrucción nacional público y privado junto con el concepto de libertad de enseñanza, garante entre otros de la libertad de creación de centros, al menos desde el liberalismo doceañista hasta los albores de la Guerra Civil en un triángulo matriz cuyos vértices quedan determinados en cada momento histórico por ia ideología gubernamental, la todopoderosa actuación de la Iglesia católica y las siempre escasas partidas económicas dedicadas a la instrucción. El trabajo sigue la metodología de la investigación histórica tradicional procurando interpretar los hechos acaecidos basándose en documentos históricos. El punto de partida no puede ser otro que el R.D. de 1 de julio de 1902 documento que conforma un instrumento de inspección estatal de escuelas privadas que tradicionalmente habían quedado fuera de su control y la documentación consiguiente de más de un centenar de centros educativos que solicitan los trámites de apertura y funcionamiento dirigidos a la Universidad Literaria de Sevilla. Ellos son una fuente de información primigenia acerca de los cuadros de enseñanza (asignaturas, gabinetes y material científico) y documentos de filiación (certificados de buena conducta y residencia )entre otros, además de las condiciones de moralidad e higiene en que se desenvolvían .imprescindibles en la autorización del establecimiento. En esos momentos históricos , la necesaria reforma educativa en cuanto a leyes educativas, planes de estudios, contenidos.etc, cede paso al pulso, estatista de una parte; confesional de otra, por el control político e ideológico de la escuela. A comienzos del s. XX la ciudad de Huelva alcanza elevados índices demográficos y económicos debidos en buena parte a la actividad minera. Así, las necesidades de la población se traducen, bajo la premisa de la mejora de los servicios públicos, a veces en manos privadas, en una mayor demanda de agua, mercados de abastos y escuelas, entre otros. En 1901 el Gobernador civil propondrá al Consistorio una profunda reforma en el abastecimiento de aguas . Urge trazar una red apropiada que provea de agua potable a la población. A este problema se le une poco después, en el verano, las obras de la nueva plaza de abastos que quedarán paralizadas debido a problemas en el ensamblaje metálico de la cubierta .En lo referente a las escuelas, no pocas veces los planteamientos educativos quedarán en un segundo plano, advirtiéndose principalmente el coste que suponen las subvenciones, gratificaciones, construcciones, pago de haberes. en un mapa escolar variopinto donde toman acomodo la escuela pública - nacional, la católica, 1a escuela laica y un colegio. Otro de los problemas que preocupa ai consistorio es el de la mendicidad de oficio, que será estudiado en la Comisión de Beneficencia y el abaratamiento de los artículos de primera necesidad, aspectos de una sociedad en rápido crecimiento. El estudio de la escuela primaria privada requiere el establecimiento de cortes cronológicos. En el primero, que abarca desde principios de siglo hasta 1923 se hace patente el desarrollo "autónomo" de los colegios religiosos aprovechando los pactos con la Iglesia, las confrontaciones políticas, los beneficiosos procedimientos administrativos , al menos en lo relativo a la titulación^ la desidia que acompañaba estos temas. Con Primo de Rivera, el restablecimiento del R.D. de i de julio de 1902 y la proliferación de escuelas y colegios de congregaciones e institutos religiosos. El planteamiento novedoso de la escuela unificada de manos de la República y su programa laico y secular izad or culminará con disposiciones que dictarán la supresión de subvenciones a colegios religiosos, la incautación de sus edificios y la desaparición de algunos colegios. La escuela no oficial de Huelva forma un mosaico complejo y variado. Junto a la escuela de la mina surgida a partir de 1873 con la llegada de capitales extranjeros para la explotación de los criaderos de minerales y a escuela evangélica, tan ligada a ella y algunas pocas escuelas privadas no confesionales .laicas y racionalistas toleradas y vigiladas de cerca , ya en la capital, ya en la provincia, por los servidores de la Iglesia católica. Junto a unos pocos colegios para hijos de obreros, los colegios de primera y segunda enseñanza, garantes de una educación de calidad para la pujante clase media y los colegios y escuelas de órdenes, institutos y congregaciones religiosas, que se asientan en la capital y en desarrolladas localidades provinciales para ofertar junto a una educación de calidad otra de caridad para los más desfavorecidos. Queda patente la importancia de la escuela católica > parte medular del sistema educativo y ello por un doble motivo; por el número creciente de escuelas y colegios establecidos, y por la colonización creciente de sus enseñanzas en el currículo , sin olvidar el papel inspector que ejercen en el resto de escuelas, Restan las escuelas particulares, las más numerosas, las que se encuentran diseminadas por toda la geografía onubense, de corte mayoritariamente femenino si se atiende a la dirección y clientela y que subsiste a duras penas con exiguos pagos o cicateras subvenciones de los ayuntamientos a cambio de matricular a un determinado número de alumnos pobres, aliviando así las sonrojantes listas de matriculación escolar. El mapa escolar ha de completarse con la labor educativa y social de Manuel Siurot en sus Escuelas del Sagrado Corazón de Jesús, transmisor de las enseñanzas de Manjón y !a Escuela Francesa , verdadero referente educativo capitalino que perdura actualmente, Finaliza este trabajo reparando en los protagonistas inmediatos del hecho educativo: el profesorado y el alumnado. Dividido el periodo acotado en cuatro décadas , se estudian en cada una las titulaciones y obligaciones de maestros y maestras, haciendo referencia a los planes de estudio y, cuando los datos lo permiten, reparar en aspectos tales como el estado civil, procedencia, edad y número de maestros y maestras, así como la oferta educativa y los niveles de asistencia en las escuelas públicas, privadas, de patronato y subvencionadas, aspectos que permiten caracterizar la escuela en el periodo mencionado. Esta es nuestra contribución al conocimiento de la escuela privada, conocimiento modesto tanto por la dimensión local como por el estudio de una documentación que refleja parcialmente la realidad, pues si bien es cierto que hemos seguido fielmente todos los documentos de los archivos mencionados, también es cierto que por el camino se han quedado cientos de escuelas "amigas" que quedan fuera de control aunque aún perduren en la memoria. Queda abierta una vía para futuras investigaciones. ; In the educational arena, one of the tension focal points still unresolved at present Is the one belonging to the relationship between the state school and the private (Independent) school. Supporters of each option take part in a passionate debate with positions essentially sustained by religious, political and social arguments due to the lack of studies that make possible the understanding of the genesis and development of the private (independent) school and enable their proper educational treatment. Consequently, it has been determined to follow the historical development of configuration of a national state and private education system together with the concept of academic freedom, guarantor of, among others, the freedom of establishment of centres, at least from the doceanista liberalism to the dawn of the Civil War in a matrix triangle whose vertices are determined in each historical period by the governmental ideology, the powerful action of the Catholic Church and the always scarce economic funds devoted to instruction. The study follows the methodology of traditional historical research trying to interpret the events based on historical documents. The starting point can not be other than the Royal Decree of 1st July 1902, a document that functions as a state inspection instrument of private (independent) schools that had traditionally been beyond its control and the consequent documentation of more than a hundred education centres applying for the opening and operation procedures directed to the Literary University of Seville. They are a primal source of information with regards to teaching charts (subjects, offices and scientific equipment) and affiliation documents (certificates of good behaviour and residence) among others, including the morality and hygiene conditions where they were working, essential for the approval of the establishment. In those historical moments, the necessary educational reform in terms of education laws, curricula, contents.etc, gives way to the arm wrestle, state-controlled on the one hand, confessional on the other, for the political and ideological control of the school. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the city of Huelva reaches high demographic and economic indices largely due to the mining activity. Thus, the population necessities are translated, under the premise of improving public services, sometimes in private hands, in a higher demand for water, food markets and schools among others. In 1901 the Civil Governor will propose to the City Council a major remodelling of the water supply, it urges to design an appropriate network for providing drinking water to the population. This concern is joined shortly after, in summertime, by the building work of the new food market that will be paralysed due to problems with the metallic structure of the roof. With regards to schools, not rarely educational approaches will remain in the background, noticing mainly the costs involving subsidies, school fees, building work, salary payments.in a diverse school map that accomodates the state elementary school - the national, the Catholic, the secular school and a secondary school. Other problems that concern the City Council are the proffesional begging, which will be studied by the Charity Committee, and the price reduction of prime necessity goods, aspects of a society in rapid growth, The study of the private elementary school requires the establishment of chronological frames. In the first one, spanning from the beginning of the century until 1923, is patent the "autonomous" development of religious schools taking advantage of pacts with the Church, political confrontations, beneficial administrative procedures, at least in terms of qualifications, or the apathy that accompanied these issues. With Primo de Rivera, the restoration of the Royal Decree of 1st July 1902 and the proliferation of elementary and secondary schools of religious congregations and religious high schools. The original approach of the unified school thanks to the Republic and its lay and secular plan will culminate in provisions that will dictate the abolition of subsidies to religious schools, the seizure of their buildings and the dissapearance of some schools. The non-official school of Huelva forms a complex and varied mosaic. Together with the school of the mine emerged from 1873 with the arriving of foreign capital for the exploitation of mineral farms and the Evangelical school, so bound to it and a few non-religious private schools, secular and rationalist tolerated and closely monitored, in the capital and the province, by the servants of the Catholic Church. Together with a few schools for the children of labourers, primary and secondary schools, guarantors of a quality education for the burgeoning middle class and elementary and secondary schools of religious orders, high schools and religious congregations, that establish themselves in the capital and in developed provincial localities to offer besides a quality education, a charity one for the most deprived people, it becomes clear the importance of the Catholic school, core of the education system and this is obvious for two reasons: because of the growing number of established primary and secondary schools, and the growing colonisation of their teachings in the curriculum, not forgetting the inspector role they play in the other schools. It remains to mention private home-schools, the most numerous ones, which are scattered throughout the geography of Huelva, mainly for girls if we look into their management and customers, and that hardly survive with meagre payments or stingy subsidies from Town Councils in exchange of enrolling a certain number of poor pupils, relieving in that way the embarrasing school enrolment lists. The school map should be completed with the educational and social work of Manuel Siurot in his schools of the Sagrado Corazón de Jesús, transmitter of the Manjon and French School pedagogies, real capital educational model that currently endures. This paper finishes noticing the immediate leading figures in the educational process: teachers and pupils. Dividing the chosen period in four decades, the qualifications and duties of teachers are estudied in each of them, referencing to the curricuium and, when data allows it, notice aspects such as marital status, origin, age and number of teachers as well as the educational provision and attendance standards of state schools, private (independent) schoois, sponsored schools and subsidised schools, ail aspects that allow to picture the school in the mentioned period of time. This is our contribution to the knowledge of the private (independent) school, modest knowledge for both the local dimension and the study of documentation that reflects the reality only partially, even if we have accurateily followed all the documents of the mentioned archives, it is also true that we had left behind hundred of private "child-friendly" schools (escuelas "amigas3) outside our matter of study even if they still endure in our memory, An avenue for future research remains open.

Mary Swain, photo taken at her home on January 10, 2014 ; The New Zion Community Advocates worked with community members age 80 years and older to have contributed to the history of Ogden city. The interviews looked at the legacy of the interviewees through armed services, work, social life, church, NAACP and educational systems in an environment where their culture was not predominant. This program has received funding from the Utah Humanities Council and the Utah Division of State history. ; The following is an oral history interview with Mary Swain conducted on January 10, 2014 by Deborah George. ; 15p.; 29cm.; 2 bound transcripts; 4 file folders. 1 sound disc: digital; 4 3/4 in. ; Oral History Program Mary E. Swain Interviewed by Deborah M. George 10 January 2014 Oral History Program Weber State University Stewart Library Ogden, Utah Mary E. Swain Interviewed by Deborah M. George 10 January 2014 Copyright © 2014 by Weber State University, Stewart Library Mission Statement The Oral History Program of the Stewart Library was created to preserve the institutional history of Weber State University and the Davis, Ogden and Weber County communities. By conducting carefully researched, recorded, and transcribed interviews, the Oral History Program creates archival oral histories intended for the widest possible use. Interviews are conducted with the goal of eliciting from each participant a full and accurate account of events. The interviews are transcribed, edited for accuracy and clarity, and reviewed by the interviewees (as available), who are encouraged to augment or correct their spoken words. The reviewed and corrected transcripts are indexed, printed, and bound with photographs and illustrative materials as available. Archival copies are placed in Special Collections. The Stewart Library also houses the original recording so researchers can gain a sense of the interviewee's voice and intonations. Project Description The New Zion Community Advocates worked with community members age 80 years and older to have contributed to the history of Ogden city. The interviews looked at the legacy of the interviewees through armed services, work, social life, church, NAACP and educational systems in an environment where their culture was not predominant. This program has received funding from the Utah Humanities Council and the Utah Division of State history. ____________________________________ Oral history is a method of collecting historical information through recorded interviews between a narrator with firsthand knowledge of historically significant events and a well-informed interviewer, with the goal of preserving substantive additions to the historical record. Because it is primary material, oral history is not intended to present the final, verified, or complete narrative of events. It is a spoken account. It reflects personal opinion offered by the interviewee in response to questioning, and as such it is partisan, deeply involved, and irreplaceable. ____________________________________ Rights Management Special Collections All literary rights in the manuscript, including the right to publish, are reserved to the Stewart Library of Weber State University. No part of the manuscript may be published without the written permission of the University Librarian. Requests for permission to publish should be addressed to the Administration Office, Stewart Library, Weber State University, Ogden, Utah, 84408. The request should include identification of the specific item and identification of the user. It is recommended that this oral history be cited as follows: Swain, Mary E., an oral history by Deborah M. George, 10 January 2014, WSU Stewart Library Oral History Program, Special Collections, Stewart Library, Weber State University, Ogden, UT. iii Mary Swain, photo taken at her home on January 10, 2014 Abstract: The following is an oral history interview with Mary Swain conducted on January 10, 2014 by Deborah George. DG: Okay I'm Debbie George, I'm here today to interview Mrs. Mary Swain. We are in her home in her luscious living room and we're going to start our oral history interview. So tell me your full name. MS: My name is Mary Ellen Swain DG: What is your birth date? MS: May 9th, 1937. DG: And are we related at all? MS: No, we are not. DG: What are you doing now in your life? MS: I am just having fun, enjoying my grandchildren. I have been traveling quite a bit. I have gone on a few cruises, and I am just enjoying a life of leisure. DG: Alright wonderful. So tell me some of the important lessons that you have learned throughout your life. MS: Well let me start back when I was in Arkansas. My father worked for the railroad and he came here about a year before we did. When we were told that we were going to come to Utah, I got a book and I started reading all about Utah. I thought, "That is a religious state. Things are going to be so different than they are here in Arkansas." 1 You know in Arkansas, we were aware that we were segregated. We knew that we had our schools there, and we knew that there were other schools there, but we knew where we were supposed to be. Everybody knew what they were supposed to do. When I began attending Elementary school here in Utah, I had very high expectations for change. I did meet a lot of people and built a lot of strong friendships. One of the girls that I had become friends with was named Ruth. One day, Ruth and I had planned on going to her house after school. Ruth asked her mother if I could visit and her mother agreed. I asked my mother if I could go with Ruth to her house, and my mother agreed. With both of our parents approving the idea, Ruth and I got on a bus and went to her house, I had not been in Utah very long and I was not familiar with the area. She lived somewhere up on the bench above Washington Boulevard. When we arrived at her house, her mother said, "No Ruth. You cannot play with her. WI did not know that she was colored!" Ruth broke into tears and her mother asked me to leave. This was the funny part. I left, but I didn't know where to go. I could not find my way back home. I wandered around. That was very frightening. I was so afraid. I knew that I lived on 25th Street, and I knew that I lived west. I walked until I could see a big hotel that we lived by. I had finally found my home and I was so happy to get there. The next day at school, Ruth apologized. We were best friends you know. I was just shocked because I had no idea that would happen in Utah. I thought I could have white friends in Utah. I thought that I could have all kinds of friends. There were Japanese, Hispanics, and Caucasian, a little bit of every race in my 2 classes. I thought that was great. I thought Utah was the place, but that was one of the worst experiences. I did sing in the choir, and going from church to church, we were always welcomed with open arms. We never had anyone say anything about our race. We would just walk in with the choir and sing. We would go out and we would go back home. Nothing was said, and I could not figure that out. I wondered why could I sing with them at church, but I could not visit them in their homes. DG: That surprised you? MS: Yes, that was shocking to me. As I think about it now, it was funny that I got lost when I was going back home from Ruth's home. I think I had been in Utah for about eight days. DG: Wow, eight days! MS: Yes, I had no idea where anything was. I was just going home with her. I was happy to be in mixed company. It was just something I had looked forward to doing. DG: What was your proudest moment? MS: I think that my proudest moment is the birth of my children. Not just the birth of one specific child, but the birth of all my children. I have been blessed with seven children and nineteen grandchildren. I am also proud that I have been able to work in different areas. I have had some good jobs. I have been blessed in so many ways. I remember a time before I became eligible for each job, a friend and I were going to work in a 3 cannery to peel tomatoes. We were so excited about it. We got a ride out there because we were young children, and our parents did not own a vehicle. When we got there, the supervisor had a long line of people. We had called ahead of time and were told that he needed people to work for him. When he saw us, he told us that he could not hire us because he could not hire colored people. We had to walk all the way back to Ogden from Clearfield. That was a bad experience. Even though we had to walk all the way back to Ogden, we were not angry or upset about tit. We laughed at it, and came on back to Ogden. I had that same experience with so many jobs I had looked forward to being hired onto before. Colored people would not be hired in many areas at that time. I did enjoy elementary school though. I have a lot of good memories of elementary school. I cannot say I have many from junior high or high school. When I began Junior High, there were a lot of dances that were held at my school. There were only three black people in my school and were all females, so we would not attend the dances because we never had a partner to go with. We were not allowed to dance with white males and they were not allowed to dance with black females, so I missed out on that. I remember a time when a Japanese boy asked me to dance with him. There were no special events on this day like prom or anything, it was just a normal Friday afternoon. I was so excited to have the opportunity to dance and as he began walking towards me, a few guys started teasing him and he ran off. I was not going to let that spoil my time, and I did not let that make me dislike 4 people. I felt sorry for the guy because I was no stranger to rejection. Being rejected did not hurt me. While working with Ogden City Schools, the social worker and I were going to do a home study with a family. While we were in this home, the social worker said to me, "I am going to write them up because there are no books being displayed anywhere in side of this home." They had a Jet magazine, and Ebony magazine on the coffee table. She said she had never heard of them before. I informed her that is how we learn about our history. That is how we know what is going on in the Black community. We take Utah history classes in our schools, but we do not learn much about Black History. One of the Psychologists was writing a program for under privileged students, but not including the areas where most of the blacks lived. I asked him where the black students were going to go when they needed help. His reply was, "blacks take care of themselves. They do not need help. They are usually well behaved. They rarely have behavioral problems, and when they do, they can go see their school counselor. Blacks have always taken care of their own problems." I told him, "If you think that makes me feel better then you are wrong. We were born oppressed. We have just learned to live in the society that we were born in. We have adjusted to being treated as second class citizens. We take care of our own issues because people like you refuse to help us. We have problems just like everyone else in the world does. We do not have access to the same resources as you do. We have worked two and sometimes even three jobs just to make ends meet." 5 Although we lived on 25th street, we were not able to eat in any of the restaurants on the street, or any other eating establishment for that matter, unless it was owned by a black person. There was only one of two black school teachers in the Ogden area. When I came here in the 40's, there were employment opportunities working with the railroad system and the government. They were not the best jobs. If you would go and apply at any of the local stores, they would tell you that you could iron the clothes and unpack the boxes. No matter how busy they were up in the front of the store, we were never allowed to go up to the front and sell anything. We were not even allowed to greet customers. Although, when you have the support of your church, family, and local black community, at the end of the day everything is not all that bad. When we tried to buy a home located on Polk Street in Ogden, we were unable to do so because the realtor that we were working with told us that if he sold that home to us, he would be run out of Ogden by his peers. There were several black businesses here when I first moved her. Blacks owned beauty shops, clubs, dry cleaners, hotels, and new paper companies just to name a few. Somehow we got systematically destroyed in that area. I am not quite sure how or what happened, but one by one, the businesses started to disappear. DG: Thank you so much, Mrs. Swain. This concludes our interview. 6

Diese Studie untersucht die Gründe und Probleme der Kinderheirat und deren Auswirkungen auf die Schulbildung von Mädchen im Mecha Distrikt von West Gojam, Amhara Region, Äthiopien, wo Kinderheirat die Regel ist und wo die Einbeziehung von Mädchen in die formale Bildung im nationalen, wie auch im regionalen Vergleich, gering ist. Diese Studie basiert auf primären und sekundären Methoden der Datensammlung. Die primäre Datensammlung dauerte sieben Monate von April 2003 bis Januar 2004 in zwei Feldforschungsphasen. Im ersten Monat wurden Vorab-Befragungen in Haushalten durchgeführt, mit deren Hilfe Grundinformationen gesammelt und Fokus-Familien ausgewählt wurden. In den folgenden Monaten wurden Tiefeninterviews in Fokus-Familien und mit Schlüsselinformanten durchgeführt, sowie die Zeit zu teilnehmender Beobachtung genutzt und es wurden Fallstudien und Diskussionen mit Fokus-Gruppen durchgeführt, begleitet von Video- und Foto-Dokumentation. Die Daten wurden also in der Feldforschung nach der "klassischen" Kombination mehrerer ethnologischer Methoden gesammelt. Ich habe meine ethnologischen Feldforschungen in zwei Bauernsiedlungen im Mecha District durchgeführt. Bachema, 5 km von der Distrikthauptstadt entfernt, befindet sich klimatisch in der Tiefland-Klimazone (qolla), während sich Rim, in etwa 40 km Entfernung von der Distrikthauptstadt, auf mittlere Höhe in der wäyna däga zone befindet. Ich habe auch kurze Besuche bei anderen Bauernsiedlungen gemacht, die weiter oben in der däga-klimazone liegen, und habe mich dort in Gesprächen über Heiratsbräuche und Kinderheiratspraktiken informiert. Während meiner ethnologischen Feldforschung in den Siedlungen im Mecha Distrikt wurde die lokale Sprache, Amharisch, als Kommunikationssprache verwendet. Die Studie gibt einer Annäherung an "emische" Sichtweisen und "Detailaufnahmen" den Vorrang vor Generalisierungen. Daraus ergibt sich ein ethnologischer Feldforschungsansatz, der so wenig formalisiert wie möglich ist und sich auf ausgewählte Familien und deren Netzwerke konzentriert. Studien über Frühheirat und Schulbildung von Mädchen wurden bisher auf der Meso-Ebene behandelt und generalisiert, die auf quantitativen Basisdaten beruhten. Folglich wurden die Einflüsse der lokalen sozio-kulturellen Umgebung und der ökonomischen Strukturen auf Frühheirat und Schulbildung von Mädchen vernachlässigt. Während meiner Feldforschung habe ich durch Beobachtung und Teilnahme den Alltag dokumentieren können und konnte an vielen sozialen, religiösen Ereignissen teilnehmen, insbesondere an Hochzeitsfesten. In einer Netzwerkstudie habe ich die Motive, die Eltern dazu bewegen, ihre Kinder, vor allem die Töchter, früh zu verheiraten, genauer untersucht, die ihrerseits den Schulbesuch verhindern, erschweren oder zum Abbruch bringen. In diesem Zusammenhang habe ich den großen Einfluß der Familie, der nahen Verwandschaft und der Dorfgemeinschaft auf die Frühverheiratung erkannt. Der lokale soziokulturelle Druck und die ökonomischen Strukturen in ihrer Auswirkung auf die "Gender"-Sozialisation und die Schulbildung bilden den Kern dieser Studie. Aus dieser Perspektive habe ich den sozialen und ökonomischen Druck beider Geschlechter, Mädchen/Jungen, und Frauen/Männer, untersucht. Im Untersuchungsgebiet wird der Jungfräulichkeit vor der Ehe hoher soziokultureller Wert beigemessen und ein Mädchen über 14 Jahre alt gilt als qomo qär (unverheiratbar, d.h. eheuntauglich). Dieser Umstand wird als Peinlichkeit und Blamage von den Eltern und vom Mädchen selbst empfunden. Das Mädchen wird als ökonomische Last für die Eltern angesehen und ihre häuslichen Aufgaben, wie die ihrer Mutter, werden als unproduktiv gewertet - obwohl ihr Beitrag, allein in Arbeitszeit bemessen, aber auch in ihrer Diversifizierung ökonomischer Aktivitäten, einschließlich der Landwirtschaft, höher ist als der der Männer. Auf der Basis eingehender Interviews mit Familien und mit frühverheirateten Schülerinnen im Untersuchungsgebiet hat diese Studie zu Tage gefördert, daß der Trend des Alters bei der ersten Heirat von 10 auf 7 und von 12 auf 9 Jahre gefallen ist. Mit anderen Worten, die Mehrheit der Mütter hat zwischen 10 und 12 geheiratet, wogegen die Mehrheit der Mädchen heute im Alter zwichen 7 und 9 heiratet. Genauer, das Durchschnittsalter bei der Erstheirat für die Generation der Mütter ist 11 Jahre, hingegen für die Generation der Töchter ist es auf 8 gesunken. Obwohl in der Literatur allgemein bekannt ist, daß Frühheirat in den bäuerlichen Gesellschaften in der Amhara Region Äthiopiens vorkommt, wurde in dieser Studie festgestellt, daß der Trend, entgegen meinen Erwartungen, im Untersuchungsgebiet wächst. Der Grund dieses Trends muß weiter untersucht und analysiert werden. Auf der Basis der vorläufigen Ergebnisse dieser Studie habe ich einen zwietätigen Erkundungsworkshop "Early Marriage and Girls' Education in Mecha Woreda" (Sept. 18 -19, 2004) in Merawi, Verwaltungssitz des Woreda, durchgeführt. Dieser Workshop bot die Gelegenheit, das ethnographische Material, das ich gesammelt habe, zu diskutieren und die tieferen Gründe für die Frühverheiratung herauszuarbeiten. Naturgemäß gibt es vielfältige interaktive und komplexe sozio-kulturelle Strukturen und Druck für die Bewahrung, Akzeptanz und sogar zunehmende Praxis der Frühverheiratung im Untersuchungsgebiet. Die kritischen Faktoren für die Zunahme der Frühverheiratung sind Armut, Landknappheit, daher Fragmentierung des Familienbesitzes, und Lebensunsicherheiten. Die Hauptursachen, warum Eltern ihre Kinder, vor allem die Töchter, früh verheiraten, können folgendermaßen zusammengefasst werden: 1) Ökonomisch gut situierte Bauernfamilien können mit anderen gut situierten Familien nur durch die Heirat ökonomische Allianzen bilden; 2) 18-Jahre alte Söhne aus ärmlichen Bauernfamilien können Land von der lokalen Bauernorganisation nur dann beanspruchen, wenn sie verheiratet sind, wobei nach dem Alter der Braut bzw. Ehefrau nicht gefragt wird; 3) Aufgrund der zunehmenden Armut neigen die Eltern dazu, alle ihre Kinder zeitgleich zu verheiraten, um die hohen Kosten im Zusammenhang mit den Hochzeitsfeierlichkeiten zu verringern; 4) Hauptanliegen von Bauernfamilien ist es, aufgrund der Lebensunsicherheiten, die Zukunftssicherung durch Heiratsallianzen zu bewerkstelligen. Als Ergebnis wünschen sich die Eltern, ihre Kinder verheiratet zu sehen, bevor sie selbst alt werden und sterben. Die Töchter "heiraten aus" aufgrund der patrilokalen Residenz nach der Eheschließung, was aus Sicht der Eltern "verlorene" Investition, z. B. für die Schulbildung, bedeutet. Die "einheiratenden" Mädchen, ihrerseits, kommen mit Pflichten, aber nicht mit Rechten. An dieser Stelle ist erwähnenswert, daß die soziokulturellen Motive der Frühheirat geschlechtsspezifisch sind. Im Vergleich zu den Jungen werden die Mädchen früher verheiratet, um das Alt-Jungfern-Stigma zu vermeiden und um sie vor vorehelichem Geschlechtsverkehr zu schützen - was bei Jungen weniger restriktiv gehandhabt wird. Obwohl ökonomische Motive und Lebenunsicherheiten treibende Kräfte für die Frühverheirat beider Geschlechter sind, tragen auch die sozioluturellen Wertvorstellungen, die man der "Fraulichkeit" und "Jungfräulichkeit" beimißt, zur hohen Rate der Frühverheiratung bei Mädchen bei. Daher besteht ein Bedarf, das kindliche Leben und das Leben von Mädchen unter der Herrschaft der Männer zu untersuchen, und wie diese den Zugang zu formaler Erziehung und deren Erfolg, insbesondere der Töchter, behindert. Die Möglicheiten, mit denen Mädchen und Frauen sich behelfen, die sozialen Erwartungen und die realen Herausforderungen des Lebens in Einklang zu bringen, sind in den Fallstudien dargestellt. In der Tat ist die Spanne der möglichen Verhaltensweisen viel größer, als die akzeptierten sozialen Normen sie ahnen lassen. Die Kluft zwischen dem idealen Verhaltensmuster und dem tatsächlichen Auslebensspielraum ist offenkundig. Diese Arbeit will einen Beitrag leisten zu einer Aufklärung über die schädlichen Folgen der Kinderheirat am Beispiel der Mädchen, deren Entwicklung im allgemeinen sowohl bildungsmäßig, gesundheitlich und sozial behindert wird. Es werden auch Vorschläge für weitere Forschung und für Gegenmaßnahmen unterbreitet. ; This study examines issues pertaining to early marriage and its effects on girls' education in rural Ethiopia, with special reference to Mecha Woreda in West Gojjam, Amhara Region, where early marriage is most common and girls' participation in formal education is very low by national as well as regional standards. The study employed primary and secondary methods of data collection. The primary data collection took seven months (between April 2003 and January 2004) in two phases of fieldwork. The first month was devoted to conduct preliminary household surveys, based on which baseline information was gathered and focus families were selected. The remaining months were devoted to conduct personal in-depth interviews with focus families and key informants, participant observation, extended case studies and focus group discussions coupled with video-tape recording and photographing. In short, in the field, most of the data were collected through the "classical" combination of ethnographic methods. I conducted the ethnographic fieldwork research among Bachema and Rim peasant communities of Mecha Woreda (District). Bachema, 5 km away from the woreda's capital, is situated in the lowland (qolla) ecological zone, whereas Rim, about 40 km away from the woreda's capital, is situated in the midland (wäyna däga) ecological zone. I also made shorter visits to other peasant communities in the highland (däga) ecological zone and conducted informal discussions there about marriage customs and early marriage practices. In conducting the ethnographic fieldwork among the rural communities of Mecha Woreda, the local language (Amharic) was used as a means of communication. The study lays emphasis on in-depth and detailed aspects of the issue at hand rather than on generalization. From this emerged an ethnographic fieldwork approach as little formalized as possible, with special attention paid on focus families and extended case studies. Studies on early marriage as well as girls' education in Ethiopia have focused on meso-level generalizations based on base-line surveys and quantitative methods. As a result, the local socio-cultural and economic structures surrounding early marriage and girls' education have been neglected. In everyday observation and participation over the period of the ethnographic study, I documented the daily life as well as numerous social, religious and especially wedding ceremonies. In a network study, I observed and investigated factors motivating parents to arrange early marriages for their children, particularly for daughters; and to send or not to send them to the locally available formal school. Through this method, I detected the impact of family or kinship networks as well as of social-village networks on parents' decision to arrange an early marriage for their daughters, or sending them to the local formal school. The local socio-cultural pressures and economic structures underlying gender socialization and formal schooling among the ethnographic research settings are the core of this research. From this perspective, I examined the social as well as economic dimensions of both, "boy-men's" and "girl-women's" lives. In the studied agrarian communities, the social and cultural pressures on girls to marry at an early age are very strong. A high social and cultural value is attached to virginity until marriage for girls, and an unmarried girl above the age of 14 is locally labeled as qomo qär (unmarriageable), which is an embarrassment or a disgrace to her family as well as to herself. She is also considered an economic burden to her family since her involvement in domestic tasks at home, like her mother's, is valued as unproductive, though her contribution in terms of time invested in diversified economic, including agricultural, activities is higher than males'. Based on personal in-depth interviews with focus families and with early-married female pupils in the ethnographic research sites, the study reveal that the trend of the age at first marriage is getting down from 10 to 7 years and from 12 to 9 years. In other words, the majority of mothers were married between the ages of 10 to 12, whereas the majority of the daughters are now married between the ages of 7 to 9. More specifically, the average age at first marriage for the mothers' generation is 11, whereas it is 8 years for the daughters' generation. Though it is commonly acknowledged in the literature that early marriage is most common among the rural communities of the Amhara Region of Ethiopia, this study reveal the trend, contrary to my expectation, that the prevalence rate of early marriage is increasing among the ethnographic research settings. The underlying reason behind this trend remains to be further investigated and analyzed. On the basis of the preliminary findings, I have organized a two-day exploratory workshop on "Early Marriage and Girls' Education in Mecha Woreda" (September 18-19, 2004) at Merawi, the woreda's capital. The workshop has proved to be a good opportunity to discuss the ethnographic material which I had collected so far and to identify the root-causes of early marriage and reasons for not sending girls to the locally available formal schools. The workshop has proved to be a good opportunity to identify locally appropriate strategies for challenging the negative aspects of early marriage and then to promote girls' formal schooling in the study area. Of course, there are various interactive and complex economic and socio-cultural structures and pressures accounted for the endurance, acceptance, and even the increasing trend of the practice of early marriage among the studied peasant communities. The most critical factors contributing to the highest prevalence rates of early marriage among the ethnographic research settings are family poverty, shortage of land due to fragmentation of family farm plots, and life insecurities. The major factors forcing parents to arrange early marriage for their children, particularly for daughters, can be summarized as follows: (1) Economically well-to-do peasant families can forge economic alliances with the relatively well-to-do families only through their children's marriage; (2) Sons who attain the age of 18 from land-poor families can claim land from the local Peasants' Association only if they got married, without taking into account the age of their brides. On the other hand, land-rich families with adult sons arrange a marriage for them just to maintain their landholdings. In both cases, the brides are usually below the age of 11; (3) Due to the aggravating family poverty, peasant parents tend to arrange the marriage for all of their children at the same time, in order to avoid the problem of preparing wedding feasts for each of them; (4) Securing children's future through marriage alliance is the major concern of peasant families due to life insecurities. As a result, the parents desire to see their children married or settled before becoming old or passing away. The daughters "marry out" because of patrilocality after marriage, so that their parents consider "investments" in them as a lost. Here it is worth mentioning that the socio-cultural motives behind early marriage are gender-specific. As a result, compared to boys, most girls get married at an earlier age just to avoid the qomo qär-stigma (fear of girls being unmarriageable after the age of 14) and to protect them from pre-marital sex, which is not equally scorned for boys. In this context, though economic motives and life insecurities are the major driving forces of early marriage for both sexes, socio-cultural values related to "femininity" and "virginity" have also contributed to the comparatively higher prevalence rate of early marriage among girls. Hence, there is a need for examining the pre-marital life of girls in the light of the overall control of women's life through men, on the one hand, and how this affects girls' access to and success in formal education, on the other. The ways in which girls and women manage to balance social expectations and real life challenges are demonstrated and analyzed in the extended case studies. My observations reveal that, in reality, the range of possible behavior is far wider than the superficially accepted social norms would suggest. In this context, the gap between the ideal patterns of behavior and the real ones becomes obvious. Furthermore, the gap between the national laws/policies legislating against early marriage/promoting girls' education and that of the local practices and realities is thoroughly examined in the light of the local peoples' reasons for arranging early marriage for their daughters, instead of sending them to the locally available formal school. The study reveals that parents' decisions on arranging early marriage for their daughters are usually based on gender differential expectations and values. In the first place, parents have the fear that their daughters will be unsuccessful in the formal schooling as compared to their sons. For most parents, the only successful vocation for the "girl-child" is to be a wife and mother. This motivates parents to give their daughters in marriage at an early age so that they can achieve social recognition in their community. As a result, parents prefer to invest on educating their sons rather than their daughters. In general, economic and social structures, life insecurities and the gender ideology are the main causes of early marriage, particularly for girls. The study examines the harmful consequences of early marriage on girls' overall-development in general and their participation in formal schooling in particular and concludes by suggesting possible areas for further research and future intervention.

This guide accompanies the following article: Daniel H. Nickolai, Steve G. Hoffman, and Mary Nell Trautner. 2012. 'Can a Knowledge Sanctuary also be an Economic Engine? The Marketing of Higher Education as Institutional Boundary Work', Sociology Compass 6(3):205–18.Authors' introductionThe marketing of higher education refers to a structural trend towards the adoption of market‐oriented practices by colleges and universities. These organizational practices blur the boundary between knowledge‐driven and profit‐driven institutions, and create tensions and contradictions among the three missions of the 21st‐century university: knowledge production, student learning, and satisfying the social charter. In this article, we highlight the historical contexts that nurtured the marketing of higher education in the US and Europe and explore the dilemmas that arise when market logics and business‐oriented practices contradict traditional academic values. We demonstrate that managing these dilemmas is a contested process of policing borders as institutional actors struggle to delineate the proper role of the university in a shifting organizational climate.Authors recommendArum, Richard and Josipa Roksa. 2011. Academically Adrift: Limited Learning on College Campuses. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.A book that asks a fundamental question in higher education: "How much are students actually learning?" The results do not reflect well on the institution. Arum and Roksa conduct longitudinal tests of critical thinking and analytic reasoning skills on a cohort of students at a variety of universities and colleges. They find that a majority of respondents demonstrate little to no improvement in learning outcomes. Even students who improve show modest gains. The authors' analysis of student surveys suggests that a major culprit is a combination of low rigor in the curriculum, a lack of effort among students, and the overly modest expectations of instructors.Barnett, Ronald. 2010. 'The Marketised University: Defending the Indefensible.' Pp. 39–51 in The Marketisation of Higher Education and the Student as Consumer, edited by M. Molesworth, R. Scullion and E. Nixon. New York: Routledge.Barnett suggests that debates about the effects of marketization on higher education often reflect pre‐existing ideologies about the nature of markets in general. He presents numerous arguments in favor of the conception of students as consumers. For example, the increased power students receive in choosing where and from who to take classes may encourage accountability and actually improve the learning experience as students take a more active role in charting their own course through their education. Barnett also reminds readers that different institutions create different contexts and the extent to which market models of higher education are applicable are largely dependent on these different contexts.Berman, Elizabeth Popp. 2012. Creating the Market University: How Academic Science Became an Economic Engine. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.An in‐depth historical sociology of the entrepreneurial university, this book explores when and why academic science become increasingly tethered to commercial interests over the last four decades. Berman focuses primarily on patenting trends and the political history of patenting law, as well as the development of biotech entrepreneurship and the emergence of university‐industry incubators. She argues that the trend toward an entrepreneurial model were largely driven by the ideals of government officials about the importance of translating scientific and technological innovation into economic growth, along the way creating the organizational environment necessary to enable market‐oriented research to flourish.Kleinman, Daniel Lee. 2003. Impure Cultures: University Biology and the World of Commerce. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press.Kleinman provides an in‐depth look into the daily work culture of a plant pathology lab at the University of Wisconsin. This participant observation study includes ambitious critiques of the dominant agency‐oriented approaches within science and technology studies by focusing on issues of structural constraint and institutional power. This study is especially good at demonstrating how university biologists are deeply, athough indirectly, constrained by commercial interests. The influence is not easily found in conflicts of interest or day‐by‐day decision making of scientists, who by and large conduct themselves ethically and in the fashion predicted by Mertonian norms of science. Instead, the culture of commerce impacts an array of daily lab practices, including the baseline epistemological assumptions around what is a "significant" finding. In the world of plant pathology, a successful trial is determined in relation to the metrics established by the field's resource dependency on the agro‐chemical industry.Leslie, Larry L. and Gary P. Johnson. 1974. 'The Market Model and Higher Education.'The Journal of Higher Education 45:1–20.This landmark article is among the first to interrogate the use of a market model as it applies to higher education. The authors trace several key legislative measures that altered federal funding practices and gave students discretion in choosing which schools would receive the most funding. While the authors draw similarities between market practices and the process of funding higher education through students, they also question the extent to which a market model of higher education is applicable. Drawing a contrast between higher education funding practices and a perfectly competitive market model, they provide an important critique of a funding system still in use today.McMillan, Jill J. and George Cheney. 1996. 'The Student as Consumer: The Implications and Limitations of a Metaphor.'Communication Education 45:1–15.This article warns of the dangers involved in recasting students as consumers. McMillan and Cheney synthesize arguments about the traditional goals of education and how treating students as consumers can threaten traditional classroom relations and alienate students from the learning process. Implicit in their discussion is an argument for more traditional classroom approaches to fostering democratic citizenship skills through critical analysis and communal sharing of ideas. They explicitly reject the notion of education as a product (rather than a process) and the demand for professors to deliver the product in the most entertaining and efficient manner.Owen‐Smith, Jason and Walter W. Powell. 2002. 'Standing on Shifting Terrain: Faculty Responses to the Transformation of Knowledge and Its Uses in the Life Sciences.'Science Studies 15:3–28.An interview‐based study of 80 scientists from two university campuses, this paper provides a typology of faculty identities and research strategies at the nexus of academic and commercial research within the life sciences. The typology includes "old" and "new school" orientations to commercial research as well as hybrid categories somewhere between these two extremes, such as "engaged traditionalists" and "reluctant entrepreneurs." Eschewing simplistic analyses that either condemn or glorify the commercial engagements of academics, Owen‐Smith and Powell point out that these various positions have created both novel fault lines and innovative research within the life sciences.Radder, Hans. 2010. The Commodification of Academic Research: Science and the Modern University. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press.This book is an edited collection of essays on the history, extent, and contemporary impacts of commodification on academic research in the US and Europe. Most of the essays converge at the intersection of science studies and research policy, but are written by an impressively eclectic group of authors pulled from philosophy, sociology, government studies, epidemiology, genomics, and bioethics.Vallas, Steven Peter and Daniel Lee Kleinman. 2008. 'Contradiction, Convergence and the Knowledge Economy: The Confluence of Academic and Commercial Biotechnology.'Socio‐Economic Review 6:283–311.This is an interview‐based study of biotech science that develops a theory of the "asymmetrical convergence" that characterizes the two sides of the university‐industry relation. Vallas and Kleinman describe the work situations of university and commercial scientists to show that there has been a convergence of norms and practices across academic and corporate institutional domains. The authors show that the open discovery ideals of academic science have been increasingly integrated the entrepreneurial values and practices imported from the private sector. Simultaneously, commercial laboratories brought scientific practices and concepts into their workplaces. However, the convergence is asymmetrical, in the sense that both fields of practice are dominated by the profit motive and bottom‐line economic development rather than the communal norms of public science.Online materialsResearch Commercialization and SBIR Centerhttp://center.ncet2.org/This web‐based organization provides an online venue for faculty and students to take virtual workshops and webinars on how to engage in research capitalization and entrepreneurial training. The site includes a variety of resources for faculty and graduate students looking to transition into industry jobs. This site also provides researchers interested in the marketization of higher education a glimpse into a cottage industry that has emerged to provide training services for academics looking to capitalize their research and pedagogy.The Institute for Triple Helix Innovationhttp://www.triplehelixinstitute.org/thi/ithi_drupal/An organization focused on facilitating cross‐sector (academia, industry, and government) collaborations in the production and dissemination of scientific research aimed at economic growth. Another example of a cottage industry established to promote research capitalization and professional networks aimed at knowledge transfer and research capitalization.Documentary, "College Inc." (2010)http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/collegeinc/This 55‐minute video from PBS' Frontline series examines the emergence of, demand for, and debates surrounding the consequences of for‐profit universities such as the University of Phoenix. Available streaming online until October 19, 2012, thereafter only as DVD purchase. Supplemental materials on the College, Inc. webpage include: (1) a teaching guide with lesson plans, discussion questions, student handouts, and lesson extensions; (2) responses from the colleges and universities highlighted in the video; (3) articles, reports, and documents related to for‐profit education; (4) transcripts of interviews conducted with numerous investors, reporters, lobbyists, and college presidents; and (5) a transcript and audiocast of the full program.Documentary, "Declining by Degrees: Higher Education at Risk" (2005)http://www.decliningbydegrees.org/This 120‐minute video from PBS examines the impact of market forces in higher education, specifically discussing factors such as declining government support for public education, changes to student loan programs, the pressure to attract students, college rankings, and college sports. The documentary shows viewpoints from administrators, students, and faculty. A companion book is available for purchase through the program's webpage.Sample syllabusThe "Marketization of Higher Education" article can be successfully incorporated in several types of undergraduate and graduate courses, including Introductory Sociology, Sociology of Education, Organizations and Institutional Change, and Science and Technology.For introductory or education‐focused courses, the article provides a succinct history of the relationship between higher education and the broader society while demonstrating how social institutions respond to social and cultural expectations/needs in different historical and national contexts. The article includes a short summary of the historical and contextual differences in the European and American models of higher education.For more advanced students of organizations, the article provides a case study demonstrating how macro level institutional changes influence organizational climate and social actors' perceptions of their own work. Further, advanced or graduate seminars in education may choose to highlight the various debates about the role of (higher) education in an increasingly knowledge‐based economy.Focus questions
 Discuss examples of how market logics may have influenced your coursework, choice of classes, or commitment to a class.
 What do you think about the informal economy and buying and selling course notes and study materials?
 Discuss examples in which you put more or less effort into a class based on your perception of the course's bottom‐line benefit to your post‐graduation career and/or income.
 How might the pressures faced by professors to bring in research funds from industry or venture capital influence their work and commitment to the classroom? In your experience, does this seem to be more common within those subject areas where knowledge capitalization is fairly common, such as biotech or computer science? Or, can we see the influence of knowledge capitalization in humanities or social sciences too?
 To the extent that students have adopted an understanding of higher education as a commercial exchange, in which they are customers who pay for grades, etc., what might be some ways in which we could change that perception? What changes would faculty need to make in order to change student attitudes? Administrators? Students themselves?
Seminar/Project ideasExploring Institutional BoundariesInterview a few other undergraduate students plus at least one faculty. Ask students questions such as why they decided to come to college, how they decided which college to attend, what they like and do not like about their college education, and what they hope to get out of their college experience. Ask faculty to provide their perspective on why they became a professor, what they like about their job and what they dislike, and what they see as the purpose of college and what students should get out of the college experience. In what ways do faculty and student perspectives converge, and how do they differ? Do any of the differences suggest blurring boundaries between missions of the university (knowledge production, student learning, and satisfying the social charter)?Marketization in Your College/UniversityDo a content analysis of official university admissions brochures, websites, and videos. What messages does the college want you to get from these materials? In what ways might the marketization of higher education be evident in such materials? If the university makes historical materials available, ask students to compare such materials over time to discern an increase in marketization, and how such processes are manifested. Do admissions materials for undergraduates and graduate students emphasize the same things? What differences do you note? Why do you think such differences do or do not exist?