Suchergebnisse

El problema que enfrenta esta investigación es la percepción de los niños y las niñas que no suelen ser consultados sobre la forma en que conciben el mundo y los elementos que se requieren para su bienestar. En este sentido, se pregunta a los niños por el significado de la niñez, de la calidad de vida y por la calidad de la educación. La metodología mediante la cual se trabajó con los niños, se basa en obtener sus narrativas y sus dibujos en procesos de diálogo en los que ellos pudieron discutir sobre estos temas y nos ofrecieron sus enunciados y sus dibujos. El marco teórico respecto a las principales categorías que se trabajan en la tesis intenta profundizar en el concepto de infancia que se aborda históricamente y sobre la niñez escolarizada. Además, se examina críticamente la perspectiva que concibe al niño en función de lo que será cuando ya no sea niño (moratoria). La infancia es considerada aquí como una representación social, porque no es algo evidente ni natural. A continuación, se discute el asunto de la perspectiva de derechos que surge en la posguerra colombiana y que es una perspectiva importante, pero no suficiente para tratar la infancia. Finalmente, se consideran los espacios de encierro infantil, en función de la seguridad. Respecto a la calidad de vida, se examinan los trabajos relativos al desarrollo humano y el desarrollo sostenible en relación con la satisfacción de todas las necesidades humanas. Se examinan las dimensiones y los indicadores con los que se mira la calidad de vida en general, y luego, la calidad de vida en la infancia. En relación con la calidad de la educación, se enfrenta la dicotomía entre calidad y cobertura educativa, especialmente en un país que requiere altos niveles educativos en función de su desarrollo. Las políticas públicas relacionadas con la cobertura y la evaluación de la educación reducen a esta a la preparación para el trabajo, en una perspectiva de competencias. La percepción infantil, en cambio, se refiere a otros aspectos diferentes a los previstos en las políticas. Los resultados se presentan de acuerdo con las expresiones de los niños, consignadas en sus enunciados y en sus dibujos, que son interpretados mediante un análisis textual y gráfico. En este orden, los niños definieron la niñez como juego. Aquí incluyen: juegos con otros, los juguetes, juegos con los padres, juegos electrónicos. Cuando los niños dicen lo que quieren ser "cuando sean grandes", no expresan un proyecto de vida, sino un deseo actual sobre algo que no pueden realizar. La calidad de vida la ubican en sus relaciones familiares, porque, para las niñas y los niños que entrevistamos en este trabajo, son los padres quienes les proporcionan todo lo que necesitan para vivir. En ese espacio, encuentran que la violencia, que identifican con el conflicto, deteriora la calidad de vida, y esta puede darse entre los padres, de los padres con ellos y entre los compañeros. Además, relacionan la calidad de vida con el cuidado del medio ambiente natural, en el cual se incluyen. Reclaman la posibilidad de comunicación con los padres y los demás miembros de la familia y con los compañeros. Piensan que para que haya una buena convivencia se necesita tolerancia y respeto. Para ellos, las aulas son signo de calidad educativa, dependiendo del estado de la construcción. En la relación entre la calidad de vida y la calidad educativa se refieren a la felicidad como propósito de la infancia, en una perspectiva eudemonista y no deontológica. Ellos quieren ser felices ahora. La discusión sintetiza los conceptos de niñez y de calidad de vida de acuerdo con las perspectivas infantiles frente a las teorías más recurridas. Es preciso saber que la guerra que ha azotado al país durante más de 6 décadas ha dejado marcas en los niños y en las instituciones que influyen en el significado de la familia y de la escuela. El medio ambiente es un tema central para los niños que revelan una conciencia en la que el ser humano no es el centro del planeta sino que está integrado a un sistema que reclama respeto y cuidado. Los niños revelan en muchos comentarios una distancia epistemológica que les permite una perspectiva analítica frente a algunas actuaciones que les da un poder de reflexión y de crítica. La escuela, en el contexto de violencia intrafamiliar y política de la región, es un oasis de paz y de creatividad. Se muestran agradecidos con los profesores por eso. Las conclusiones sintetizan los hallazgos y la discusión respecto a los tres temas trabajados en la tesis: significados de la niñez, significados de la calidad de vida y significados de la calidad de la educación. ; The problem facing this research is the opinion of children who are not usually consulted about the way they conceive the world and the elements that are required for their well-being. In this sense, children are asked about the meaning of childhood, the quality of life and the quality of education. The methodology used to work with the children is based on obtaining their narratives and drawings in dialogue processes in which they could discuss these issues and offer us their statements and drawings. The theoretical framework with respect to the main categories that work in the thesis tries to deepen in the concept of childhood that is approached historically and on schooled childhood. In addition, the perspective that conceives the child based on what it will be when he is no longer a child (moratorium) is critically examined. Childhood is considered here as a social representation, because it is not obvious or natural. Next, we discuss the issue of the rights perspective that emerged in the postwar period and that is an important perspective, but not enough to deal with childhood. Finally, the spaces for child confinement are considered, depending on security. Regarding the quality of life, work related to human development and sustainable development in relation to the satisfaction of all human needs is examined. The dimensions and indicators that look at the quality of life in general, and then the quality of life in childhood are examined. In relation to the quality of education, the dichotomy between quality and educational coverage is faced, especially in a country that requires high levels of education in function of its development. Public policies related to the coverage and evaluation of education reduce education to preparation for work, from a competency perspective. Children's perception, on the other hand, refers to other aspects different from those foreseen in the policies. The results are presented according to the expressions of the children, consigned in their sentences and in their drawings, which are interpreted through a textual and graphic analysis. In this order, the children defined childhood as a game. Here include: games with others, toys, games with parents, electronic games. When children say what they want to be "when they grow up," they do not express a life project, but a current desire about something they cannot do. The quality of life place it in their family relationships, because it is the parents who provide everything they need to live. In that space, they find that violence, which they identify with conflict, deteriorates the quality of life, and this can occur between parents, parents with them and between classmates. In addition, they relate the quality of life with the care of the natural environment, in which they are included. They demand the possibility of communication with parents and other members of the family and with their classmates. They think that for there to be a good coexistence, tolerance and respect are needed. For them, the classrooms are a sign of educational quality, depending on the state of construction. In the relationship between quality of life and educational quality, they refer to happiness as the purpose of childhood, in a eudaemonic and non-deontological perspective. They want to be happy now. The discussion synthesizes the concepts of childhood and quality of life according to the perspectives of children against the most recurrent theories. It is necessary to know that the war that has lashed the country for more than 6 decades has left marks on children and on institutions that influence the meaning of family and school. The environment is a central theme for children that reveal an awareness in which the human being is not the center of the planet but is integrated into a system that demands respect and care. Children reveal in many comments an epistemological distance that allows them a critical perspective in front of some actions that give them a power of reflection and criticism. The school, in the context of intrafamily and political violence in the region, is an oasis of peace and creativity. They are grateful to the teachers for that. The conclusions synthesize the findings and the discussion regarding the three themes dealt with in the thesis: meanings of childhood, meanings of the quality of life and meanings of the quality of education. ; Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación

Introducción, objetivos y justificación Esta tesis doctoral analiza, con perspectiva cuir y decolonial, la (re)producción de la sexualidad no normativa palestina en el cine israelí y en el cine palestino. Se centra concretamente, por un lado, en el cine israelí mainstream que se exporta a festivales LGTB internacionales y, por el otro, en la resistencia que se articula desde Palestina a estos discursos hegemónicos. Los objetivos de este texto son, por tanto: el análisis de los mecanismos fílmicos que producen la sexualidad palestina como Otra, el de los que resisten dicha producción, y el archivo y registro de los filmes que participan de estos corpus discursivos. La pertinencia y la relevancia ética, política y científica de esta investigación están justificadas por el contexto de creciente violencia racista e islamófoba, que instrumentaliza las experiencias y los discursos de las personas disidentes del género y de la sexualidad; así como por la escasez de un corpus bibliográfico que registre y explore los mecanismos fílmicos que sostienen, vehiculan, naturalizan y se resisten a la construcción colonial de la sexualidad palestina no normativa. Marcos de la investigación y metodología El marco epistemológico y teórico en el que se encuadra este trabajo lo mantiene anclado a: la producción de saberes situados y fronterizos, consciente de las relaciones de poder que se entretejen con la elaboración y difusión de conocimiento; la capacidad performativa y subversiva del discurso, único instrumento de aprehensión de la realidad; los feminismos interseccionales y cuir; y, por último, las teorías críticas acerca del orientalismo y el homonacionalismo. Concibo además el cine, hecho fílmico, como acto cinematográfico y como dispositivo discursivo, una tecnología (de género) más. El análisis fílmico desarrollado en estas páginas es una operación de producción de sentido, la transformación del espacio textual (el objeto-filme) en texto, con el objetivo de desmenuzar los mecanismos naturalizadores del discurso: cómo se fabrica la Verdad al invisibilizar, por un lado, la construcción de la imagen como representación de la realidad y, por otro, las relaciones de poder (coloniales, raciales, de género, funcionales, de clase). En contra de la idea de un abanico infinito de interpretaciones, el límite de éstas (los límites de pertinencia del texto) lo marca su sujeción a la historia y los propios límites del espacio textual fílmico. La muestra de análisis está compuesta por quince obras israelíes y once palestinas. Las primeras son cortos o largometrajes producidos y/o distribuidos con ayuda estatal que se promocionan en festivales internacionales LGTB. Las segundas son obras palestinas que resisten tanto el sistema normativo de sexo/género/deseo como las relaciones de poder coloniales, disidencias que no se articulan de forma paralela o separada, sino que se (re)producen mutuamente. Resultados y conclusiones Una de las conclusiones preliminares es que en los discursos israelíes analizados se articulan también mecanismos de resistencia, igual que en los palestinos hay rastro de normatividad y hegemonía. Aunque estos hallazgos sí sean comentados, su análisis pormenorizado sería objeto de nuevas líneas de investigación. Este trabajo, siguiendo los objetivos previamente diseñados y justificados, se centra en los mecanismos hegemónicos de los discursos israelíes y en las prácticas de resistencia de los discursos palestinos; y así es como son distribuidos los resultados y las conclusiones. Son cinco las ideas principales que circulan en los discursos hegemónicos israelíes analizados: (1) se naturaliza el proceso de fabricación de una Verdad determinada, invisibilizando las relaciones de poder en el ejercicio de la representación fímica; (2) se dibujan dicotomías maniqueas, jerarquizadas y excluyentes que producen diferencias insalvables entre los espacios imaginados de Israel y Palestina; (3) el mimetismo (que el sujeto colonizado pase por colono) es la única resolución posible del conflicto, pero su fracaso es un rasgo inherente a él; (4) el deseo y las relaciones de poder circulan entrelazadas en la mirada unidireccional de Israel a Palestina; y (5), la ausencia de Palestina en la mayoría de los filmes contribuye a la construcción de la subjetividad israelí, que se edifica sobre exclusiones con marcas nacional, étnica y de género. Respecto a los discursos palestinos de resistencia, son éstos los mecanismos principales que se inscriben en las obras analizadas: (1) desplazamiento de las narrativas hegemónicas y producción de contranarrativas, (2) hibridación de las subjetividades, cuerpos y territorios, y (3) problematización de la violencia y el poder que se entretejen con el deseo. Futuras líneas de investigación abarcarían, principalmente, la des-orientalización de la reflexión sobre el homonacionalismo, el racismo y la islamofobia, analizando los mecanismos que los (re)producen en los artefactos culturales, activismos y subjetividades de este "Occidente" imaginario, más concretamente en el sur de Europa, en el estado español, en este mismo Madrid que co-habitamos. ; Introduction, Objectives and Justification This thesis analyzes the (re)production of Palestinian non-normative sexuality in Israeli and Palestinian cinemas, from a queer and decolonial point of view. It is specifically focused, on the one hand, on the Israeli mainstream cinema that is exported to international LGBT film festivals. And, on the other hand, it focuses on the resistance that Palestine articulates in order to face those hegemonic discourses. Then, the objectives of this thesis are: the analysis of filmic mechanisms that produce Palestinian sexuality as an Other, the analysis of the ones that resist that production, and the archive and record of the films that shape this discursive corpus. The scientific, political, and ethical pertinence and relevance of this research are justified by the increase of racism and Islamophobia, which use queer experiences and discourses as a tool; as well as by the scarcity of a bibliographic body that explores the filmic mechanisms holding, vehiculating, naturalizing, and resisting the colonial construction of Palestinian non-normative sexuality. Theoretical Framework and Methodology This research is theoretically and epistemologically framed in: the production of situated and border knowledge, aware of the intertwined power relations; the performative and subversive dimension of discourse, which is the only tool for apprehending reality; intersectional and queer feminisms; and critical theories on orientalism and homonationalism. Besides, I conceive cinema, the filmic fact, as an act and a discursive dispositive: another technology (of gender). The film analysis I have developed is an operation that produces meaning, it is the transformation of textual space (the film object) into text, with the goal of scrutinizing the naturalizing mechanisms of discourse. Those mechanisms invisibilize the fact that images are not a representation but the production of reality; and they invisibilize colonial, colonial, racial, gender, and class power relations as well. Against the idea of an infinite range of interpretations, their limits (the limits of text pertinence) are set by its subjection to history and by the limits of the film's own textual space. The research sample consists of fifteen Israeli and eleven Palestinian films. The first ones are short or full-length films, produced and/or distributed with state funds, promoted in LGBT international film festivals. The second ones are Palestinian works resisting both the normative sex/gender/desire system and colonial power relations; those dissidences do not occur separately neither in parallel, but they mutually (re)produce each other. Results and Conclusions There are resistance mechanisms within analyzed Israeli discourses, as well as there are traces of normativity and hegemony within Palestinian works. Their analysis would lead to possible future lines of research. In this thesis, following the previously designed and justified objectives, I separate the conclusions based on their link to hegemonic (Israeli) discourses or resistance (Palestinian) ones. Five main ideas circulate within hegemonic discourses: (1) the process of making up a specific Truth is naturalized by invisibilizing the power relations attached to the representation practice itself (the debate about who writes and who is written); (2) they draw hierarchic and excluding dichotomies, which produce insurmountable differences between the imagined spaces of Israel and Palestine; (3) the only possible resolution of the conflict is mimicry (the colonized trying to pass as colonizer), but its failure is an integral part of it; (4) power relations and homoeroticism circulate interwoven relations within the Israeli gaze at Palestine; and (5), Palestinian absence in most of the films contributes to the production of Israeli subjectivity, built on national, ethnic and gender exclusions. According to the analyzed Palestinian discourses, the main mechanisms that show resistance are: (1) destabilizing of hegemonic narratives and production of counter-narratives; (2) hybridity of subjectivities, bodies and territories; and (3) making problematic the relations among violence, power, and eroticism. Future lines of research would mainly include the un-orientalizing of the debate about homonationalism, racism, and Islamophobia, analyzing the mechanisms that (re)produce them in the cultural works, in the activism and in the subjectivities that are located inside this imaginary "West" –southern Europe, Spain, and inside this same Madrid that we inhabit. ; Programa Oficial de Doctorado en Investigación en Medios de Comunicación ; Presidente: Luz Gómez García.- Secretario: Rocío Navarro Comas.- Vocal: Remedios Zafra Alcaraz

[spa] El presente trabajo parte de la constatación de la falta de adecuación del órgano de gobierno del Poder judicial al Estado autonómico, y primordialmente la pretende superar proponiendo la territorialización del Consejo General del Poder Judicial. Para lograr este objetivo se considerará idónea la instauración de unos Consejos de Justicia autonómicos que cumplan en plenitud las funciones de gobierno del Poder judicial a escala territorial (los nombramientos, los ascensos, las inspecciones, las selecciones o el régimen disciplinario). De esta forma la opción que se entenderá como una propuesta ideal en esta obra es otorgar elementos de descentralización al gobierno del Poder judicial que permitan la articulación de Consejos de Justicia que ejerzan en plenitud funciones gobernativas de la función jurisdiccional en sus ámbitos territoriales, y este objetivo llevado a las últimas consecuencias pasará por una reforma constitucional en un sentido federal que promueva un nuevo modelo, sin los límites actuales, fijados en parte por la jurisprudencia constitucional. Pero el presente trabajo de investigación también aporta una importante dosis de realismo reconociendo que esta vía requeriría la consecución de consensos y de mayorías políticas, complicadas de alcanzar de acuerdo con la coyuntura existente actualmente. Así, la obra pone en evidencia que el intento de la creación de estos órganos no sólo se manifestó durante los debates constituyentes, reflejándose en enmiendas concretas que proponían su creación, sino también en los trámites parlamentarios de varias Leyes desde los inicios del período democrático en 1978; siendo una cuestión que siempre ha sido presente, sin que nunca haya llegado a prosperar. Teniendo en cuenta esta situación, se destaca que en la mayoría de los Estatutos de Autonomía aprobados durante el período de 2006 a 2011 se incluyeron regulaciones y previsiones sobre los Consejos de Justicia, que en mayor parte aún permanecen en vigor, sin que a día de hoy aún no se hayan desarrollado. Seguidamente se entiende que la STC 31/2010, de 28 de junio, sobre el Estatuto catalán de 2006 deja la puerta abierta a la posibilidad de articular una territorialización del órgano gobierno del Poder judicial mediante la reforma de la Ley Orgánica del Poder Judicial, impulsando unos Consejos configurados en un plano similar al de las Salas de Gobierno o las Juntas de Jueces. Y es por este motivo, y para dar plenitud a la obra, que también se expone la propuesta de desarrollar los Consejos que han proyectado las reformas estatutarias, y que están mayoritariamente en vigor, principalmente proponiendo la reforma de la Ley Orgánica del Poder Judicial, desde el entendimiento que la STC 31/2010, de 28 de junio, está dejando una puerta abierta a esta opción; pero también se contempla la de generalizarlos como órganos meramente consultivos a la espera de que llegue dicha reforma. Otras vías que se exploran -siendo conscientes de las dificultades coyunturales existentes, pero también para contribuir a exponer múltiples soluciones prácticas- son la del procedimiento del artículo 150.2 CE, las cláusulas subrogatorias o la relectura de la Constitución y de los Estatutos de Autonomía. ; [eng] This research project takes as its starting point the proven inadaptation of the judiciary's governing body to the reality of the autonomous state. Principally, it aims to address this issue by proposing the territorial division of the General Council of the Judiciary. In order to achieve this aim it would be desirable to establish a number of Councils of the Judiciary for the autonomous states, which would exercise full governance over the judiciary (i.e. nomination, promotion, inspection, selection and disciplinary system) at the regional level. Thus, it is contended herein that the ideal option would be to decentralise certain aspects of the governance of the judiciary in order to enable the creation of Councils of the Judiciary, which would exercise comprehensive governance of the judicial function within their territorial scope. Taken to its ultimate conclusion, this decentralisation would develop into constitutional reform of a federal nature that would in turn promote a new model, free of the current limitations that have been put into place in part due to constitutional jurisprudence. However, this project also injects an important dose of realism into the scenario by recognising that the aforementioned solution would require consensus and political majorities, which would be difficult to achieve under the current conditions. Consequently, this project demonstrates that the intention to create these bodies has not only manifested itself in the corresponding debates, and is thus reflected in specific amendments proposing their creation, but has also manifested itself in the parliamentary proceedings for various laws since the beginning of the democratic period in 1978. Indeed, it is an issue that has always been present, albeit one that has never met with success. Taking these circumstances into consideration, it should be noted that the majority of the Statutes of Autonomy approved from 2006 to 2011 included regulations and provisions for Councils of the Judiciary. For the most part, these remain in force, despite not having been implemented to date. It would therefore follow that Supreme Court Ruling 31/2010 of 28 June on the 2006 Statute of Autonomy for Catalonia leaves open the possibility of adding a territorial dimension to the governance of the judiciary by means of a reform of the Spanish Judiciary Act, thereby creating Councils with a similar setup to that of the Governing Chambers or Judges' Boards. It is for this reason, and in order to extend the scope of this project to its fullest, that we also explore the possibility of creating the Councils that have been provided for in the statutory reforms and which mostly remain in force; principally, by proposing the reform of the Spanish Judiciary Act (on the understanding that Supreme Court Ruling 31/2010 of 28 June leaves open that possibility), but also conceiving them in a more generalised sense as bodies of a merely advisory nature, at least while awaiting the aforementioned reforms. With the aim of presenting a number of practical solutions, other avenues that are explored -taking into account the difficulties presented by the current climate- include the procedure provided for in article 150.2 of the Spanish Constitution, subrogation clauses, and a rereading of the Constitution and the Statutes of Autonomy. ; [cat] El present treball parteix de la constatació de la falta d'adequació de l'òrgan de govern del Poder judicial a l'Estat autonòmic, i primordialment es pretén superar proposant la territorialització del Consell General del Poder Judicial. Per aconseguir aquest objectiu es considerarà idònia la instauració d'uns Consells de Justícia autonòmics que compleixin en plenitud les funcions de govern del Poder judicial a escala territorial (els nomenaments, els ascensos, les inspeccions, les seleccions o el règim disciplinari). D'aquesta manera l'opció que s'entendrà com una proposta ideal en aquesta obra és la d'atorgar elements de descentralització al govern del Poder judicial que permetin l'articulació de Consells de Justícia que exerceixin en plenitud funcions governatives de la funció jurisdiccional en els seus àmbits territorials, i aquest objectiu portat a les últimes conseqüències passarà per una reforma constitucional en un sentit federal que promogui un nou model, sense els límits actuals, fixats en part per la jurisprudència constitucional. Però el present treball d'investigació també aporta una important dosi de realisme reconeixent que aquesta via requeriria aconseguir consensos i majories polítiques, que són complicades d'aconseguir d'acord amb la conjuntura existent actualment. Així, l'obra posa en evidència que l'intent de creació d'aquests òrgans no només es va manifestar durant els debats constituents, reflectint-se en esmenes concretes que proposaven la seva creació, sinó també en els tràmits parlamentaris de diverses Lleis des dels inicis del període democràtic el 1978; essent una qüestió que sempre ha estat present, sense que mai hagi arribat a prosperar. Tenint en compte aquesta situació, es destaca que en la majoria d'Estatuts d'Autonomia aprovats durant el període de 2006 a 2011 es varen incloure regulacions i previsions sobre els Consells de Justícia, que en major part avui en dia encara romanen en vigor, sense que en l'actualitat encara no s'hagin desenvolupat. Seguidament s'entén que la STC 31/2010, de 28 de juny, sobre l'Estatut català de 2006 deixa la porta oberta a la possibilitat d'articular una territorialització de l'òrgan de govern del Poder judicial mitjançant la reforma de la Llei Orgànica del Poder Judicial, impulsant uns Consells configurats en un pla similar al de les Sales de Govern o les Juntes de Jutges. I és per aquest motiu, i per a donar plenitud a l'obra, que també s'exposa la proposta de desenvolupar els Consells que han projectat les reformes estatutàries, i que estan majoritàriament en vigor, principalment proposant la reforma de la Llei Orgànica del Poder Judicial, des de la concepció de que la STC 31/2010, de 28 de juny, està deixant la porta oberta a aquesta opció; però també es contempla la de generalitzar-los com a òrgans merament consultius a l'espera de que arribi aquesta reforma. Altres vies que s'exploren –essent conscients de les dificultats conjunturals existents, però també per contribuir a exposar múltiples solucions pràctiques- són la del procediment de l'article 150.2 CE, les clàusules subrogatòries o la relectura de la Constitució i dels Estatuts d'Autonomia.

Esta investigación se ha centrado en el estudio de la consanguinidad, como forma restrictiva en las relaciones de parentesco durante el Antiguo Régimen. Matrimonio y organización social formaban un tándem inseparable y la consanguinidad era uno de las principales estrategias en donde consensuar alianzas familiares. La consanguinidad matrimonial era una práctica prohibida por la Iglesia, pero estaba regulada por ella misma: las dispensas matrimoniales se convierten en el medio para validar estas alianzas prohibidas. La finalidad de este trabajo ha sido el conocer la evolución de la consanguinidad en sus diferentes formas, su incidencia en el matrimonio y su repercusión social. Se ha conocido de dónde surge el concepto de consanguinidad, no solo de forma canónica, sino las implicaciones sociales que el mismo conlleva. Las interpretaciones desde la Historia social, la Antropología, el Derecho canónico, la Sociología e incluso la biometría, han sido esenciales para poder abordar este tema, con empleo de nuevas categorías de análisis sobre el matrimonio, las estrategias sociales y las alianzas entre familias. Es evidente que durante el Antiguo Régimen nos encontramos en plena fase de cambio y transformaciones. En primer lugar se definió una muestra en torno a los registros matrimoniales de matrimonios consanguíneos, con lo que se han detectado diferentes modelos, pudiendo medir cuantitativamente el impacto de la consanguinidad en determinadas zonas. Ha sido necesario emplear documentación procedente de archivos diocesanos, con objeto de conocer en profundidad la práctica católica en torno a la consanguinidad, completándolo con documentación de archivos y bibliotecas nacionales e internacionales. El uso de diferentes escalas en esta tesis, nos ha ayudado a entender la complejidad del problema, en dos niveles que van desde las Diócesis españolas, pasando por Madrid, hasta Roma. Así hemos podido descifrar el funcionamiento de este tipo de alianzas y su validación por parte de la Iglesia. Luego se ha investigado la casuística de las dispensas matrimoniales y toda la teoría canónica de los impedimentos. El parentesco comienza a ser reglamentado, con una teoría sobre impedimentos, a partir del Concilio de Trento, con restricciones hasta el cuarto grado de consanguinidad. Se ha profundizado en la variación y tipología de los impedimentos matrimoniales, como base jurídica que maneja la Iglesia durante la Edad Moderna. El entramado de vías, para poder resolver y legitimar las dispensas matrimoniales, ha sido otro de nuestros objetivos, abordado en la tercera parte de la tesis doctoral. Existe toda una serie de instituciones que regulan y legislan las dispensas matrimoniales, desde la Dataría Apostólica al Tribunal de Penitenciaría. El empleo de fuentes vaticanas ha permitido conocer la complejidad existente durante la Edad Moderna. El discurso de la consanguinidad y su argumentación tiene dos vías claramente enfrentadas, como es la legislación católica frente a la potestad del Estado. Además, hemos sido capaces de analizar toda la estructura que regula el parentesco, desde los expedicioneros hasta la misma autoridad del Papa. La transición de los siglos XVIII y XIX, muestra toda una serie de cambios, a partir de la política regalista existente en España. Las tensiones de España, frente a la Dataría Apostólica de Roma, tienen una continuidad a lo largo del XVIII y una fuerte ruptura a principios del siglo XIX. La obtención de dispensas tenía una serie de requisitos, y uno de ellos era el económico y las tasas evolucionan paulatinamente, aunque hemos comprobado que en determinados momentos, no tienen un precio fijo. El inicio del siglo XIX, esta cuestión llegará a su punto máximo, con la promulgación del Decreto de Urquijo en 1799, donde se rompe con Roma, en cuanto a la solicitud de dispensas matrimoniales. Se otorga una mayor autonomía a los Obispos en esta materia, creándose diferentes problemas en las diócesis. El sistema, en cuanto a la regulación de las dispensas y el parentesco, comienza a fragmentarse en el siglo XIX. La última parte de nuestro trabajo se ha trasladado al estudio de caso, de diversas familias en el Reino de Murcia. Se ha procurado de establecer ciertos indicadores, en función de diferentes variables biométricas, en donde poder estudiar a fondo familias en las que se emplea la consanguinidad como estrategia matrimonial. Se han seleccionado dos tipos de grupos sociales para realizar este análisis: oligarquías urbanas y poblaciones rurales. La consanguinidad se convierte, no solo en una estrategia matrimonial, sino una forma de organización, pero con mecanismos de parentesco distintos, pues en las zonas agrarias la consanguinidad presenta un carácter múltiple. El objetivo era perpetuar la parentela. Con todo ello se ha conseguido establecer una nueva interpretación sobre la consanguinidad, en cuanto a su regulación y prohibición. Se ha conseguido profundizar en toda la práctica referente a la concesión de dispensas matrimoniales en España. Práctica hasta el momento abordada levemente, pero determinante en la comprensión de diversos aspectos sociales, políticos y económicos. En conjunto, este trabajo a contribuido a comprender la fragmentación de un modelo de familia, establecido por la Iglesia en que los enlaces consanguíneos estaban prohibidos. This research has focused on the study of consanguinity, as restrictively kinship relations during the Old Regime. Marriage and social organization formed an inseparable tandem and inbreeding was one of the main strategies where consensus family alliances. Consanguinity marriage was a practice forbidden by the Church, but was regulated by herself: marriage dispensations become the means to validate these alliances prohibited. The purpose of this work was to determine the evolution of inbreeding in its different forms, its impact on marriage and its social impact. It has been known where the concept of consanguinity arises not only from canonical form, but the social implications that it entails. Interpretations from social history, anthropology, canon law, sociology and even biometrics, have been essential to address this issue, with the use of new categories of analysis on marriage, social strategies and alliances between families. It is clear that during the old regime we are in the throes of change and transformation. First a sample was defined around the marriage records of consanguineous marriages, which have been detected different models can quantitatively measure the impact of inbreeding in certain areas. It has been necessary to use documents from diocesan archives in order to learn more about the Catholic practice around inbreeding, complete with documentation of national and international files and libraries. The use of different scales in this thesis, it has helped us understand the complexity of the problem, on two levels ranging from Spanish Diocese, to Madrid, to Rome. So we were able to decipher the workings of such alliances and its validation by the Church. Then it investigated the casuistry of marriage dispensations and all the canonical theory of the impairments. The relationship begins to be regulated, with a theory about impediments, since the Council of Trent, restricted to the fourth degree of consanguinity. It has deepened variation and typology of the impediments to marriage as the legal basis that manages the Church in the Modern Age. The network of roads in order to solve and legitimize the marriage dispensations, has been one of our objectives addressed in the third part of the thesis. There is a whole series of institutions that regulate and legislate marriage dispensations, from the Court of Dataria Apostolic Penitentiary. Vatican sources employment has shown the existing complex during the Modern Age. The speech of consanguinity and his argument has two clearly opposing ways, as is the Catholic law against State authority. Furthermore, we have been able to analyze the entire structure that regulates the relationship, from the same "expedicioneros" to papal authority. The transition from the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, shows a number of changes from the existing royalist policy in Spain. Tensions of Spain, facing the Apostolic dates from Rome, have a continuity throughout the eighteenth and a strong break in the early nineteenth century. Obtaining waivers had a number of requirements, and one of them was the economic and rates evolve gradually, but we found that at certain times, they have a fixed price. The early nineteenth century, this question will reach its peak, with the promulgation of Decree Urquijo in 1799, where it breaks with Rome, regarding the request for marriage dispensations. Greater autonomy given to the bishops in this matter, creating different problems in the diocese. The system, in terms of regulating waivers and kinship begins to fragment in the nineteenth century. The last part of our work has shifted to the case study of several families in the Kingdom of Murcia. Efforts have been made to establish certain indicators, in terms of different biometric variables, in which to thoroughly study families in which inbreeding is used as a marriage strategy. We have selected two types of social groups to perform this analysis: urban oligarchies and rural populations. Inbreeding becomes not only a double strategy, but a form of organization, but with different mechanisms of kinship, as in farming areas inbreeding it has a multiple character. The aim was to perpetuate the relatives. Yet it has managed to establish a new interpretation on consanguinity, in terms of regulation and prohibition. It has managed to deepen the practical concerning the granting of marriage dispensations in Spain. Practice so far addressed slightly, but crucial in the understanding of various social, political and economic aspects. Overall, this work has contributed to understanding the fragmentation of a family model established by the Church in which consanguineous links were banned.

U godini kada obilježavamo 250. obljetnicu hrvatskoga šumarstva, a u tijeku je 169. godina od utemeljenja Hrvatskoga šumarskoga društva i tiskanja 139. godišta našega znanstveno-stručnoga i staleškog glasila Šumarski list, interesantno je baciti pogled na tekstove iz prvih godišta tiskanja časopisa, pa i povući paralelu s današnjicom.Već u prvome godištu 1877 god. pozornost nam privlači članak Adolfa Danhelovskog "Predlozi o štednji drva u proizvadjanju francezkih duga", u kojemu kaže da se postupak proizvodnje neznatno poboljšao, "premda ova vrst robe zaslužuje, da se najvećom štednjom proizvadja, dočim su njoj namijenjeni najkrasniji hrastici". To mora raditi "vješt radnik", jer se inače može "mnogo drva potratiti …., a užje se duge imaju izradjivati od tanjih stabalah ili trupacah". Nastavno, preporuča se radi uštede sortirati trupce sukladno dužini i širini zadanih dimenzija dužica, a slijede ostale preporuke za uštedu. Povucimo sada paralelu s tadašnjim razmišljanjem i preporukama glede štednje i današnjim rasipanjem nacionalnog bogatstva, korištenjem "najkrasnijih hrastika", tako da netržišna cijena sortimenata omogućuje proizvodnju poluproizvoda, a ne visoko finaliziranih proizvoda s velikom dodanom vrijednošću i maksimalnom zaposlenošću. Najžalosnije je kada se furnirski sortiment kamuflira u pilanski prozvod za izvoz, čime se "izvoze" i radna mjesta za kojima plačemo. O tome smo detaljnije pisali u uvodniku ŠL br. 5-6/2012. "Odnos šumarstva i prerade drva". Stoga se ne slažemo s tvrdnjom resornog ministra izrečenoj u razgovoru poslije Konferencije za tisak o kojoj pišemo u rubrici Aktualno, da su potpisani netržišni ugovori s drvoprerađivačima spasili domaću preradu drva od inozemne konkurencije. Za nas je i dalje to način rasipanja nacionalnog bogatstva i trenutačni probitak za račun pojedinaca, a ne za opće dobro.Članak iz trećeg godišta, 1879. god. Alex. Nik. Schultz podnaslovom "Sedam glavnih točaka šumskoga gospodarstva i njihova teoretično-praktična uporaba" započinje motom: "Proizvadjanje najveće kvantitativne i kvalitativne množine drva na najmanjoj površini: i čim vrlije gospodarstvo". U članku navodi kako šumsko gospodarstvo dijeli djelatnosti na temeljne i pripomoćne. Temeljne su računarstvo i prirodoslovlje, a pomoćne: tehnologija, zakonodavstvo, državoznastvo, računovodstvo povijest i geografija. Razdioba praktičnih struka šumskog gospodarstva dijeli na: "gojenje šume, b) zaštita šume zajedno s šumskom stražom, c) šumska poraba za jedno sa šumskom tehnologijom, d) šumska procjena zajedno s uredbom obhodnje i obračunanjem vriednosti i e) šumska uprava i šumsko ravnateljstvo". Ako razmislimo o poanti i današnjem poštivanju mota članka, zaključujemo da se sugerira maksimalno moguće korištenje proizvodnosti pojedinog šumskog staništa, a njegova bi degradacija predstavljala katastrofu. Komentirajući spomenutih sedam točaka, ponajprije navodi da je prva i glavna točka upravljanja i rada "teoretično i praktično naobraženo gospodarstveno osoblje da se može šumom koristno i potrajno gospodariti". Pita se "kako može čovjek uobće, koji neima niti pojma o neophodno nuždnih znanosti, upravljati šumom s mnogimi njezinimi osebujnosti". Druga glavna točka je samostalno odgovorno vođenje gospodarstva "bez pohlepe za dobitkom". Treća točka govori ponajviše o načinima obnove sastojina – umjetnim načinom ili prirodnim pomlađivanjem. U četvrtoj točci bilježimo zaključak: "Pošteni šumar, koji znade računati, ne će nikada privoliti, da njegov gospodar, kada se u momentanoj novčanoj neprilici snadje, te bude prisiljen, uteći se šumi, postane žrtvom takvih švindlera i šumskih pustošnika, te će svu svoju duševnu snagu upotriebiti, da ono što se ne da izbjeći, ograniči bar na najmanji prostor i s obzirom na budućnost". Peta točka tiče se "šumske porabe zajedno sa šumskom tehnologijom i važnija je nego što se na prvi čas čini", a detaljnije obrazlažući zaključuje da joj treba posvetiti dužnu pozornost prateći razvoj i primjenu novih tehnologija. Šesta točka obuhvaća "šumsku taksaciju zajedno s uredjenjem obhodnje i vriednostnim obračunom", a sve spomenute točke međusobno se isprepleću i potrebno ih je ne razdvajati, "jer bez poznavanja jedne ne da se druga izvesti". O sedmoj točci "k šumskoj upravi i ravnateljstvu šuma" nema se što posebno reći kaže on, jer je uglavnom obuhvaćena u prethodnim točkama, ali zaključuje kako prema staroj poslovici "od glave riba smrdi, a preneseno na šumsku industriju: ne valja li ravnateljstvo, to ne valja ni cielo šumsko podčinjeno osoblje. To vriedi kod svake grane gospodarstva, a potvrdjuju to i nebrojeni dokazi u čovječjem družtvenom životu i u svih strukah". Na kraju mi zaključujemo ovaj tekst s porukom – usporedite sami!Uredništvo ; The 250th anniversary of Croatian forestry and the 169th year of the foundation of the Croatian Forestry Association and the publication of the 139th issue of the scientific-professional and specialist magazine Forestry Journal offer an ideal opportunity to look back at the texts published in the first issues and draw a parallel with present times. The very first volume from the year 1877 contains an interesting article by Adolf Danhelovski "Recommendations on saving wood in the production of French staves", which states that the production process has improved slightly "although this type of goods requires maximal saving in its production, since they are produced of the most beautiful oak trees". Work should be performed by a "skilful labourer", otherwise much of the wood "might go to waste". Narrower staves should be made of thinner trees or logs". Furthermore, logs should be classified according to the length and width of stave dimensions required. Other recommendations for saving follow. Let us draw a parallel with the present manner and recommendations related to saving and present squandering of national resources by using "the most beautiful oak forests", so that the non-market prices of the assortments allows the production of semi-finished goods and not high-quality products with a high added value and maximal employment. What is detrimental is the fact that veneer assortments are camouflaged into sawmill products intended for export; this also means "export" of working places which we sorely need. We discussed this in more detail in the Editorial of the Forestry Journal No. 5-6/2012, "The relationship between forestry and wood processing". This is why we do not agree with the words of the competent minister said after a Press conference, which we discuss in the column Current Affairs. The minister claimed that non-market contracts with wood processors had saved home wood processing from foreign competition. We continue to perceive this as a way of squandering national wealth for momentary gain of an individual and not for the benefit of the society as a whole. The article published in the third year of publication in 1879, written by Alex. Ni. Sshulz and entitled "Seven main points of forest management and their theoretical-practical use" starts with a motto: "Production of he highest quantitative and qualitative amount of wood in the smallest area: and the best management". According to the article, forest management activities are divided into basic and auxiliary. The basic activities are mathematics and natural sciences and the auxiliary ones are technology, law-making, political sciences, book keeping, history and geography. Practical parts of forest management are divided into "a) silviculture, b) forest protection together with forest surveillance, c) use of forests together with forest technology, d) forest inventory with rotation and calculation of value and e) forest administration and forest directorate". From the present standpoint, the motto of the article suggests maximum possible use of the productivity of a particular forest site, whose degradation would mean catastrophe. In his comment of the seven points that follow, the author stresses that the first and the main point of management and work lies in "highly educated management personnel who posses theoretical and practical knowledge for useful and sustainable management of forests". He asks himself: "How can a person who has absolutely no knowledge of the basic sciences manage such a highly complex system as a forest?" The second point is independent management devoid of "greed for profit". The third point is primarily concerned with stand regeneration methods - artificial or natural regeneration. The fourth point contains a conclusion: "An honest forester who knows how to calculate will never allow his master, who, if faced with financial problems and forced to exploit his forest, to become a victim of swindlers and forest exploiters, and will use all his spiritual strength to at least limit what is unavoidable to the smallest space with regard to the future". The fifth point refers to "use of forests together with forest technology, which is more important that might seem at first glance". In his detailed explanation, the author concludes that the development and application of new technologies should be given due importance. The sixth point comprises "forest taxation together with rotations and value calculation". All the above points are mutually intertwined and cannot be separated from one another, "since without knowing one it is impossible to perform another". In the author´s words, the seventh point concerning "forest administration and forest directorate" requires no comments because everything is contained in the previous points, but he concludes that, as the old proverb says, "the fish rots from the head down", or translated into forest industry: if the directorate is no good, then the entire subordinate personnel will be no good. This refers to all branches of economy, and has been proven myriad of times in the human society and in all the professions". We conclude this text with the message – compare!Editorial Board

作為社會主義國家中央計劃的遺產,國民經濟和社會發展五年計劃/規劃是調節中國經濟社會與空間發展的重要工具。隨著中國政治經濟的轉型,五年計劃/規劃也經歷了多次顯著的轉變。尤其在"十一五"時期,五年規劃體系分別在三個地理尺度上加強了其中的空間規劃元素和地位。這包括在國家層面提出主體功能區劃,在區域層面加強區域空間規劃功能,在市縣層面進行規劃體制改革。 ; 目前,學術界還未有對五年計劃/規劃在中國轉型中所扮演的角色展開深入研究,特別是空間規劃如何轉變和行使空間管治功能。基於此,本論文採用管治的視角,構建一個基於過程的概念分析框架,以揭示五年計劃/規劃體系中的空間規劃元素轉變的基本原理和機制,也即在於探討各利益主體、制度、規劃管理和機制如何作用於五年規劃中空間規劃的發展,以及空間規劃在地方具體管治事務上的成效。具體而言,論文試圖回答以下三個相關研究問題。第一,五年規劃為何要植入新的空間規劃方法?第二,"十一五"期間,將空間規劃植入五年規劃體系的機制是什麼?第三,植入的空間規劃是否能有效的進行空間管治?通過分析空間規劃內容在國家五年計劃/規劃體系中的演變特點,以及結合江蘇省"十一五"期間的兩個案例(區域和城市兩個尺度)的研究,論文得出以下結論: ; 隨著市場化改革和經濟權力下放,中國空間發展的政治經濟環境發生了重要變化。這在客觀上需要五年計劃/規劃體系中的空間規劃內容做出相應的調整。初期,空間規劃的形式體現在以部委主導的發展項目;改革開放到"十五"計畫期間,空間規劃的形式主要體現在劃定特殊的政策區域;"十一五"規劃以來,空間規劃則以空間分類引導與約束並舉的空間發展政策框架形式出現。"十一五"以來轉變的目的是使經濟規劃與空間規劃的結合更加緊密,以克服中國當前空間管治的各種困境。但是,這種在空間規劃方法上的創新也受到了來自地方層級政府和不同規劃部門的挑戰,為其實施帶來了一些不確定因素。 ; 在區域尺度上,論文選取了江蘇省五年規劃體系中的沿江規劃作為案例。研究發現,作為省政府自上而下引導區域協調發展和區域經濟整合,約束空間無序開發的手段,沿江規劃的發展高度依賴於地方的政治經濟環境,反應了省內複雜的空間管治機制。沿江規劃稍早於省"十一五"規劃出臺。隨後,省政府將沿江規劃進行調整並植入五年規劃體系。其主要目的是為了加強沿江規劃的政治地位,以克服其早期實施時出現的危機。調整後的沿江規劃進一步突出了空間管治、區域協調發展和可持續性的目標。但是,在規劃實際實施中,沿江規劃戰略成為區內城市政府為資本積累推動新的發展項目的工具,而區域協調發展和空間可持續性問題反而被一再忽略。 ; 在城市尺度上,論文選取了國家發改委主導的蘇州"十一五"市縣規劃改革作為案例。其改革的目的主要是加強規劃協調和發展控制。然而,蘇州"十一五"時期的發展表明,市"十一五"規劃中所植入的空間規劃框架儘管加強了空間發展約束和引導的內容,但實際上其無力調整市域部門分割的空間管治關係。這主要是因為,地方的空間規劃受到來自中央規劃部門的條例、法規和指標控制等垂直管理體系的約束。另外,為了創造土地財政和刺激地方發展,城市政府試圖突破自上而下的規劃控制指標和操縱地方規劃的資料,尤其是土地開發。為此,蘇州"十一五"規劃中的空間規劃處於一個嵌套的規劃管理環境。空間規劃進而成為中央和地方在空間管治理念上博弈的犧牲品。這種空間規劃的創新,不但無法融合部門割裂的規劃功能,更不能觸動地方政府對土地財政依賴,因此無法建立空間管制的機制。 ; 總體上,經濟增長仍然是地方最為重要的規劃管治問題,進而決定了空間規劃中政治的走向。目前的空間規劃理念還主要是緩解經濟增長的限制性因素,如土地供應緊張和環境門檻提升等,而非為了建立有效的空間管治機制。 ; As a legacy of the socialist state with central planning, Five-Year Planning (FYP) is very important in regulating socio-economic and spatial development even in post-reform China. Along with the changing context of political economy, the plan has experienced remarkable transformation in the last several decades. Particularly, during the 11th FYP Period, the FYP system emphasized spatial planning at different geographic scales, such as incorporating Major Function-Oriented Zoning (MFOZ) ...

Today research in linguistics and discourse analysis is increasingly turning its attention to web-mediated communication, looking at genres which – whether they be derived from migration of traditional genres to the web, or generated anew in the Hypermedia Computer-Mediated Environment (Hoffman/Novak 1996) – exhibit properties that are peculiar to this environment (e.g. hypertextuality, dispersion across different layers of the hypertext, configuration in lexias, etc.), making them at least partially different from traditional printed texts. Hence the question of whether the repertoire of analytical tools developed for the latter is suitable for use in the analysis of web-mediated genres. This question has been posed in various methodological perspectives (i.e. text linguistics: e.g. Garzone 2002; genre analysis: e.g. Askehave/Ellerup Nielsen 2005, Garzone 2007; Giltrow/Stein 2009; Santini/Meheler/Sharoff 2010; argumentation theory: Carter 2000; Lewiński 2010; Degano 2012, etc.) This chapter focuses on the weblog, a relatively 'young' web-mediated genre, which has traditionally been seen as characterised by three main constitutive features – the reverse chronology of its entries, the frequent updating, and the combination of links with personal commentary (cf. e.g. Miller/Shepherd 2004: 4; Herring/Kouper et al. 2005: 1) – and by a typically individualistic existential dimension, having originated as a form of communication especially suitable for self expression (Herring/Scheidt et al. 2005; Miller/Shepherd 2004, 2009; Garzone 2012). Another recurrent peculiarity of the blog is that in most cases it consists of two different text formats, posts and comments, which are communicatively heterogeneous and have different characteristics. This chapter uses corpus linguistics to investigate the genre of the weblog, starting with a discussion of the criteria to be applied in the construction of a corpus of texts belonging to this genre, in consideration of its distinctive characteristics, first and foremost the presence of comments in addition to posts. In particular, the analysis focuses on the so called 'blawgs', i.e. blogs used for the dissemination of legal knowledge and for debate in the field of the law. This is one of a diversified range of textual forms in specialised and professional communication into which blogs have evolved, largely losing their original individualistic dimension. Blawgs are quite numerous today being used for various different purposes, e.g. academic and professional duties, forms of scholarship, scholarly conversations and exchanges, instant academic publication (Berman 2006, 2007; Kerr 2006; Solum 2006; Volokh 2006). They also represent a genre that enables writers in this area of specialization to reach much larger audiences than those traditionally addressed. The main purpose of this chapter is to explore the distinctive features of the blawg as a genre in order to verify the degree to which it has changed evolving from a personal, diary-like format at the intersection between private and public (Miller/Shepherd 2004) into a form of academic, professional or journalistic expression, and whether this evolution has been so extensive as to jeopardise its generic integrity. A further aim is to assess the degree of variation within the genre, considering different types of law blogs. The corpus on which this study is based comprises texts from five legal blogs, three from the UK and two from the US, and is examined on the basis of textual evidence retrieved by means of computerized analysis, using Wordsmith Tools 5.0 (Scott 2011). The traits considered are part of the core generic features of the blawg, with special attention for indicators that are associated with the personal/existential component, and in particular self-mention (Hyland 2001), as well as the lexical verbs associated with it, especially metadiscursive and narrative verbs. Some other elements of metadiscourse are also examined as providing evidence of a strong personal authorial presence, in keeping with the originally personal and individualistic character of the genre. In order to identify the peculiarities of the texts analysed within the more general picture of legal communication, the data obtained from the blawg corpus are compared with data relative to other types of (meta)legal texts: research papers included in the law section of the CADIS corpus (courtesy of University of Bergamo, group coordinated by M. Gotti), and with awards from Kluwer Bank, issued from 1998 to 2002. In addition to the literature on web communication referred to above, the specific analytical toolkit deployed in this research includes studies on blogs from various disciplinary perspectives (e.g. Blood 2002; Herring/Kouper et al. 2005; Herring & Paolillo 2006; Puschmann 2007; Giltrow/Stein eds 2009; Myers 2009; Grieve/Biber et al. 2010) as well as studies of law blogs, mainly by legal scholars (e.g. Caron 2006; Kerr 2006). References Askehave, Inger / Ellerup Nielsen, Anne 2004. Webmediated Genres – A Challenge to Traditional Genre Theory. Working Paper nr. 6. Aarhus: Center for Virksomhedskommunication. Berman, D. 2007. More grist for the blog-scholarship debate [Blog post]. Sentencing Law and Policy, March 19, 2007. http://sentencing.typepad.com/sentencing_law_and_policy/2007/03/more_grist_ for_.html. Berman, D. A. (2006). Scholarship in action: The power, possibilities and pitfalls for law professor blogs. Public Law and Legal Theory Working Series n. 6, Center for Interdisciplinary Law and Policy Studies, the Ohio State University Mortz College of Law, http://ssrn.com/abstract=898174. Blood, Rebecca 2002. Weblogs: A History and Perspective. In We've Got Blog. How Weblogs are Changing our Culture. Cambridge, MA. Perseus, 7-16. Caron, Paul L. 2006, Are Scholars Better Bloggers? Bloggership: How Blogs are Transforming Legal Scholarship. Washington University Law Review, 84/5: 1025-1042. Caron, Paul L. 2006. Are Scholars Better Bloggers? Bloggership: How Blogs are Transforming Legal Scholarship. Washington University Law Review, 84/5: 1025-1042. Carter, Locke M. 2003. Argument in hypertext: Writing strategies and the problem of order in a nonsequential world. Computers and Composition. 20, 3-22. Degano, Chiara 2012. Argumentative Genres on the Web: The Case of Two NGOs' Campaigns. In Campagna, Sandra / Garzone, Giuliana (eds) Evolving Genres in Web-mediated Communication. Bern: Peter Lang, 99-129. Garzone G. 2012. Where Do Web Genres Come from? The Case of Blogs. In Campagna, Sandra / Garzone, Giuliana (eds) Evolving Genres in Web-mediated Communication. Bern: Peter Lang, 227-253. Garzone, Giuliana 2002. Describing E-commerce Communication. Which Models and Categories for Text Analysis?. In Evangelisti, Paola / Ventola, Eija (eds). TEXTUS (English in Academic and Professional Settings). 14/2, 279-296. Garzone, Giuliana 2007. Genres, Multimodality and the World-Wide Web: Theoretical Issues. In Garzone / Catenaccio / Poncini (eds), 15-30. Giltrow, Janet / Stein, Dieter 2009. Genres in the Internet. Innovation, Evolution and Genre Theory. In Giltrow, Janet / Stein, Dieter (eds) Genres in the Internet: Issues on the Theory of Genres. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1-25. Grieve, Jack / Biber, Douglas / Friginal, Eric / Nekrasova, Tatiana 2010. Variations Among Blogs: A Multi-dimensional Analysis. In Mehler, Alexander / Sharoff, Serge/ Santini, Marina. Genres on the Web: Computational Models and Empirical Studies 1st ed. New York: Springer, 303-322. Henninger, Daniel 2006. When Blogs Rule. We'll All Talk Like --- Wall Street Journal, April 21, 2006, A17. Herring, Susan / Paolillo, John C. 2006. Gender and Genre Variation in Weblogs. Journal of Sociolinguistics 10/4, 439-459. Herring, Susan C. / Kouper, Inna / Paolillo, John C. / Scheidt, Lois Ann / Tyworth, Michael / Welsch, Peter / Wright, Elijah / Yu, Ning 2005. Conversations in the Blogosphere: An Analysis 'From the Bottom Up'. Proceedings of the 38th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences. IEEE. Herring, Susan C. / Scheidt, Lois Ann / Wright, Elijah / Bonus. Sabrina 2005. Weblogs as a bridging genre. Information Technology & People 18/2, 142-171. Hoffman, Donna L. / Novak, Thomas P. 1996. Marketing in Hypermedia Computer-Mediated Environments: Conceptual Foundations. Journal of Marketing. 60(July), 50-68. Hyland, Ken 2001. Humble Servants of the Discipline? Self-mention in Research Articles. English for Specific Purposes. 20/3, 207-226. Hyland, Ken 2005. Metadiscourse. Exploring Interaction in Writing. London: Continuum. Kerr, Orin S. 2006. Blogs and the Legal Academy, George Washington University Public Law and Legal Theory Working Paper No. 203, Available at http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/cf_dev/AbsByAuth.cfm?per _id=328150, accessed 1 October 2012. Lewiński, Marcin. 2010. Internet political discussion forums as an argumentative activity type. A pragma-dialectical analysis of online forms of strategic manoeuvring in reacting critically. Amsterdam: SicSat. Available online: at , accessed 1 October 2012. Miller, Carolyn R. / Shepherd, Dawn 2004. Blogging as Social Action: A Genre Analysis of the Weblog. In Gurak, Laura et al. (eds) Into the Blogosphere: Rhetoric, Community, and Culture of Weblogs. , retrieved 04/08/2010. Miller, Carolyn R. / Shepherd, Dawn 2009. Questions for Genre Theory from the Blogosphere. In Giltrow, Janet / Stein, Dieter (eds) Genres in the Internet: Issues on the Theory of Genres. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 263-290. Myers, Greg 2009. The Discourse of Blogs and Wikis. London: Continuum. Puschmann, Cornelius 2009. Lies at Wal-Mart. Style and the Subversion of Genre in the Life at Wal-Mart blog. In Giltrow, Janet / Stein, Dieter (eds) Genres in the Internet: Issues on the Theory of Genres. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 49-84. Santini, Marina / Mehler, Alexander/ Sharoff, Serge. 2010. Riding the Rough Waves of Genre on the Web. In Mehler, Alexander/ Sharoff, Serge/ Santini, Marina. Genres on the Web: Computational Models and Empirical Studies. Scott, Mike 2011. Wordsmith Tools 5.0. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Solum, Lawrence B. 2006. Blogging and the transformation of legal scholarship. Paper presented at Bloggership: How blogs are transforming legal scholarship, http://ssrn.com/paper=898168 Volokh, Eugene 2006. Scholarship, blogging and trade-offs: On discovering, disseminating and doing. Paper presented at Bloggership: How blogs are transforming legal scholarship. Washington University Law Review, 84/5, 1089-110. Available at: http://digitalcommons.law.wustl.edu/lawreview/ vol84/iss5/5

Die Frage, warum eine Gerichtsentscheidung zum Prüfungsgegenstand eines außerordentlichen Grundrechtsschutzmittels werden sollte, ist nicht a priori zu beantworten. Um judikatives Unrecht zu sanktionieren, könnte man an Stelle des außerordentlichen Rechtsbehelfs noch einen weiteren Rechtsbehelf im ordentlichen Rechtsweg vorsehen. Der Grund, warum dieser Weg nicht vorzuziehen ist, lässt sich nicht durch die Annahme erklären, dass die Mentalität der Fachrichter für die Wahrung der Grundrechte weniger geeignet sei als die der Verfassungsrichter. Der politische Modus der Verfassungsrichterwahl gewährleistet nicht unbedingt die Qualifikation für einen Hüter der Verfassung. Die Notwendigkeit der Urteilsverfassungsbeschwerde ist ebenso wenig direkt aus dem Wesen bzw. Begriff der Verfassungsbeschwerde herzuleiten. Es kommt vielmehr auf das Spezifikum der Justizstruktur oder des Gerichtsverfahrens eines bestimmten Staates an. Viele Konzeptionen über das außerordentliche Grundrechtsschutzmittel sind gerade daran gekoppelt. Aus der genetischen Untersuchung lässt sich erkennen, dass in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland die Verselbständigung des Verfassungsgerichtswesens, dem die Normenkontrolle obliegt, einen wichtigen Ausgangspunkt für die Einführung der Verfassungsbeschwerde bildete. Nach der Vorstellung des Gesetzgebers sollte das Rechtsinstitut der Verfassungsbeschwerde vor allem dem Einzelnen ermöglichen, selbst die einem Gerichtsurteil zugrunde liegende Norm beim BVerfG vorzulegen und sie anzugreifen. Auch für den Fall, dass ein Gerichtsurteil zum unmittelbaren Beschwerdegegenstand wird, stellt sich das Verfahren der Verfassungsbeschwerde eher als ein neuer Modus der Normenprüfung dar denn als Korrektur einer unrichtigen rechtskräftigen Gerichtsentscheidung; die Entscheidung des BVerfG enthält in aller Regel eine – zumindest konkludente – Grenzziehung hinsichtlich des gesetzgeberischen Spielraums. In Korea ist das Rechtsinstitut der Verfassungsbeschwerde zweigeteilt: zum einen gibt es die Verfassungsbeschwerde gemäß § 68 Abs. 1 KVerfGG und zum anderen diejenige gemäß § 68 Abs. 2 KVerfGG. Diese Zweiteilung der Verfassungsbeschwerde hängt nicht zuletzt mit dem Ausschluss der Gerichtsurteile vom statthaften Beschwerdegegenstand zusammen; wegen des Fehlens des Instituts der Urteilsverfassungsbeschwerde musste in Korea noch eine weitere Art der Verfassungsbeschwerde eingeführt werden, damit der Betroffene die vom Ausgangsgericht unterlassene Vorlage einer entscheidungserheblichen Norm nachholen kann, was in Deutschland in der Form der sog. verdeckten Rechtssatzverfassungsbeschwerde erfolgt. Ansonsten orientiert sich die koreanische Verfassungsbeschwerde im Ganzen und Großen am deutschen Vorbild. Die Grundlage für eine solche Orientierung am deutschen Vorbild ist die Verselbständigung des Normenkontrollgerichts. In der Tat bildet die Normenprüfung das Hauptfeld der koreanischen Verfassungsbeschwerde. Aber warum sollte die Normenkontrollkompetenz dem Verfassungsgericht zugeordnet werden? Darauf gibt etwa die Cappelletti'sche Erklärung keine befriedigende Antwort. Die Auffassung Cappellettis, dass die Mentalität der gewöhnlichen Richter im Civil-Law-Rechtskreis für die Verfassungsjudikatur nicht geeignet sei, ist übertrieben; ihr kommt allenfalls eine provisorische Geltung zu. Der Grund für die Errichtung des Verfassungsgerichts liegt vielmehr darin, dass die verhältnismäßig große Struktur der traditionellen höchsten Gerichtshöfe im Civil-Law-Rechtskreis und die damit verbundene breite Anrufungsmöglichkeit der Gerichtshöfe durchaus als bewahrenswert anzusehen ist, während die Wahrung der Rechtseinheit im verfassungsrechtlichen Bereich einer kleineren Gerichtsorganisation bedarf. Eine solche Erwägung gilt auch für Korea, obwohl der KOGH bislang seine relativ kleine personelle Struktur beibehält; es gibt in Korea einen großen Bedarf an höchstinstanzgerichtlicher Rechtsprechung und somit erscheint es überaus wünschenswert, etwa durch die Aufteilung des KOGH in mehrere Senate und deren fachliche Spezialisierung die Kapazität des Gerichts zu vergrößern. Um nicht nur die Entwicklung der Verfassungsgerichtsbarkeit, sondern auch die der Fachgerichtsbarkeit zu fördern, empfiehlt sich durchaus die Zweiteilung der gesamten Gerichtsorganisation, d.h. die institutionelle Trennung der beiden Gerichtsbarkeiten. Zwischen der Verselbständigung des Normenkontrollgerichts und der Einführung der Urteilsverfassungsbeschwerde besteht eine enge Korrelation. Im Hinblick auf die Normenkontrollkompetenz des BVerfG beschloss der deutsche Gesetzgeber die Einführung der (Urteils-)Verfassungsbeschwerde. Die Befugnis des BVerfG zur authentischen Verfassungsauslegung, die auch dem Gesetzgeber gegenüber verbindlich ist, gibt ferner einen Ansatz für die Entwicklung einer differenzierten verfassungsgerichtlichen Prüfungsdichte bei der Urteilsverfassungsbeschwerde. Die Auswirkung der institutionellen Nichtzulassung der Urteilsverfassungsbeschwerde auf die verfassungsgerichtliche Normenprüfung lässt sich am koreanischen Beispiel gut erkennen: Wegen des Fehlens des Instituts der Urteilsverfassungsbeschwerde ist das KVerfG regelmäßig nicht in der Lage, seinen Prüfungsumfang auf einen individualisierten Normenteil einzugrenzen. Das Gericht kann ebenso wenig erwarten, dass ihm die Fachgerichte ihre Sachverhaltswürdigung bzw. Fallanschauung vermitteln. Wegen des Umstands, dass das Verfassungsgericht das Gesetz losgelöst von seiner konkreten Anwendung abstrakt und generell überprüfen muss, leidet die Rationalität der verfassungsgerichtlichen Entscheidung gegebenenfalls erheblich. Allerdings ist zu beachten, dass die Einführung der Urteilsverfassungsbeschwerde in Korea ein neues Problem aufwerfen könnte. Vor allem könnte das KVerfG durch die Flut von Urteilsverfassungsbeschwerde in starkem Maße überlastet werden. Die prozessualen Steuerungsmittel wie etwa die Eintragung mangelhafter Verfassungsbeschwerden in das Allgemeine Register, die Auferlegung einer Missbrauchsgebühr, die strenge Anwendung des Erfordernisses der Substantiierung bzw. des Grundsatzes der Subsidiarität der Verfassungsbeschwerde bringen ihrerseits so viele Probleme mit sich, dass sie wenig empfehlenswert erscheinen. Stattdessen wäre es besser, über ein Outsourcing eines Teils der Verfassungsbeschwerden nachzudenken, wie es von der ehemaligen Verfassungsrichterin Karin Graßhof vorgeschlagen worden ist. Daneben ist noch in Erwägung zu ziehen, ob das bestehende koreanische Vorprüfungsverfahren nicht dahin reformiert werden sollte, dass in Zukunft die Kammern nicht nur unzulässige Verfassungsbeschwerden filtern können, sondern auch offensichtlich unbegründete. Bei der Beurteilung der Erfolgsaussichten der Urteilsverfassungsbeschwerde könnte eine Differenzierung zwischen der unmittelbaren und der mittelbaren Grundrechtsverletzung dienlich sein: Für die mittelbare Grundrechtsverletzung sollte der Prüfungsmaßstab das Willkürverbot sein, wie es in dieser Arbeit rekonstruiert worden ist. Für die unmittelbare Grundrechtsverletzung wäre die Schumann'sche "Umdenken-Methode" maßgeblich; die verfassungsgerichtliche Rechtsprechung ist jedenfalls dadurch gekennzeichnet, dass sie der gesamten öffentlichen Gewalt gegenüber verbindlich sein sollte. Dies darf auch bei der Kontrolle der Zweiten bzw. der Dritten Gewalt niemals außer Acht gelassen werden. ; Why should an improper judicial decision require an extraordinary remedy for the protection of fundamental rights? This question cannot be answered in an a priori manner; instead of an extraordinary remedy, we could design another judicial process to correct a wrong decision rendered by a regular court. If this method is unpreferable, the objection should be explained substantially. But it does not seem persuasive to assume that the mentality of the regular judges is less suitable for the protection of fundamental rights than that of constitutional court judges. Political elements in the appointment of constitutional court judges do not necessarily qualify them to be guardians of the constitution. Neither can the need for an extraordinary remedy against judicial decisions be directly derived from the nature or the definition of the constitutional complaint. What is significant is rather the specific structure and jurisdiction of courts in a given state, from which various principles regarding the extraordinary remedy can be drawn. The historical approach makes it clear that the introduction of the constitutional complaint is related to the establishment of a special court for judicial review of the constitutionality of legislation. According to the prevailing opinion of the fathers of the German Federal Constitutional Court Act, the constitutional complaint was designed to be a pathway to judicial review of a statute on which the decision of a regular court was based. Even though a complaint is filed apparently against a judicial decision, its procedure represents itself mostly as another mode of judicial review of the law rather than as a reexamination of the final decision. At least in effect, the decision of the constitutional court on a constitutional issue restricts legislative discretion. In Korea, there are two types of constitutional complaint: one is regulated under Section 68.1 of the Korean Constitutional Court Act, the other under Section 68.2 of the same act. The acceptance of both types of constitutional complaint was due to the exclusion of the possibility to file a constitutional complaint against judicial decisions. This exclusion means that the unconstitutionality of a statute applied by a regular court also cannot be alleged by means of the general – i.e. the former type of – constitutional complaint. In compensation, the latter type of the constitutional complaint had to be introduced in order to give an individual a chance to allege the unconstitutionality of a statute on which a judicial decision is based. Apart from this aspect, the constitutional complaint in Korea is similar to the German model as both Germany and Korea have special courts for judicial review. Indeed, a significant number of complaints filed with the Korean Constitutional Court concern the unconstitutionality of legislation. Nevertheless, why should the task of judicial review be assigned to the constitutional court? Cappelletti did not provide a satisfactory answer to this question. His explanation, that the mentality of regular judges in civil law regions is unsuitable for the task, seems to be an exaggeration; it can serve at most as a provisional argument. The establishment of a special court for judicial review was rather due to the fact that the relatively large organization of the highest courts in civil law regions and the accordingly broad access to them were considered worth preserving while a small court is more apt to achieve legal unity, particularly in relation to constitutional issues. Regardless of the relatively small structure of the current Korean Supreme Court, such a historical precedent has significant meaning for Korea; the Korean people are longing for greater access to the highest court; thus, it seems desirable to enlarge the capacity of the court by establishing several specialized divisions. In order to promote the development not only of constitutional jurisprudence but also of other types of jurisprudence, it is highly advisable to have a separate constitutional court in addition to the regular courts. A narrow correlation exists between establishing a special court for judicial review and introducing the institution of the constitutional complaint against judicial decisions. First, with respect to the very power of the Federal Constitutional Court to control the constitutionality of statutes, the German legislature decided to introduce this institution. Second, the ability of the Court to interprete the constitution authoritatively – i.e. with binding effect even against the legislature – also gives insight into the intensity of review in dealing with constitutional complaints filed against court decisions. The situation of Korean constitutional jurisdiction shows what influence the prohibition against lodging a complaint against court decisions can have over judicial review of statues. Because of its inability to control the constitutionality of judicial interpretation – i.e. the meaning of a law as applied to a given case – the Constitutional Court is neither able to narrow the scope of review to an individualized subrule, nor can it expect the regular courts to provide their factual and legal assessment of the case. Isolated from its concrete application, a statute must always be reviewed in a general and abstract manner. This explains why the opinions of the Constitutional Court sometimes seem irrationally broad and inexpedient to solve the constitutional problem in a particular case. On the other hand, we should acknowledge that making it possible to file constitutional complaints against court decisions can also cause difficulties. Most significantly, the Constitutional Court may become overburdened by a flood of constitutional complaints against court decisions. However, procedural means such as recording defective complaints in the General Register, imposing court fees on the abuse of the constitutional complaint or strictly applying the requirement of substantiation or the principle of subsidiarity to the constitutional complaint may also have negative effects; thus, they do not seem advisable for the Korean judiciary. Instead, it would be better to consider outsourcing some constitutional complaints, as proposed by the former judge of the German Federal Constitutional Court, Karin Graßhof. In addition, we should ponder whether the present preliminary examination system should be reformed in order that the three-judge chamber can not only decide upon the inadmissibility of constitutional complaints but also dismiss obviously ungrounded ones. In deciding whether a constitutional complaint filed against a court decision should be granted, it would be useful to differentiate between a direct and an indirect violation of fundamental rights. In the latter case, the criterion for granting complaints should be the arbitrariness test as reconstrued in this dissertation. In the former case, the method proposed by Schumann – i.e. regarding a judicial decision as a legislative one – is significant. The key point is that the judgment of the constitutional court on a constitutional issue has binding effect against the entire public authority including the legislature. Even in controlling the second and the third power, this should not be disregarded.

학위논문 (석사)-- 서울대학교 대학원 : 철학과(서양철학전공), 2012. 2. 정호근. ; The objective of this thesis is to elucidate the concept of the general will and to make Rousseau's point clear by refuting criticisms which determine the general will as totalitarianism. To this end, I would like to reconstruct the concept of the general will by focusing on Rousseau's paradoxical expression of 'forcing to be free'. Because I think that it is possible to get a correct understanding of the general will through paying attention to this phrase. There are two kinds of 'forcing to be free' in the theory of Rousseau's General will. One is found in the notorious passage arguing that whoever refuses to obey the general will must be forced to be free in the Book 1 chapter 7 of On Social Contract. The other is implicit one in the passage discussing the conditions of the general will in the Book 2 chapter 3 and Book 2 chapter 7(part 4 chapter 8). I would like to examine these problems respectively and try to show that Rousseau's ultimate point consists in not 'forcing' but 'freedom'. Conclusively, the authentic difficulty of interpreting of Rousseau's logic is that nevertheless 'forcing to be free' is necessary to the production of the general will, he permit the possibility of failure of this process in practice. Rousseau's theory of the popular sovereignty argues that the foundation of legitimacy of the state does not consist in the divine or natural foundation but in the autonomous will of the people. Despite this theoretical postulate, the people appear to not only rational and social unity, but also always potentially the multitude as disordered gathering of individuals who are vulnerable to a capricious passion. On the one hand, the people's general will should make a society legitimate, particular deliberation of the people may be contingent and could make an erroneous decision on the other. As a result, Rousseau introduces the legislator or the civil religion which is external to a people in order to transform a multitude into unified people. However, because of the very reason that people are still and always multitude, they consequently could not obey this foreign authority so the problem regarding difficulty of self-ruling of the people remains unsolved. At a glance, Rousseau's theory of popular sovereignty seems to optimistic assertion that the people should and could govern itself. But Rousseau's pessimistic claim that the ideal people cannot be naturally given, but must be constructed by constant effort should not be overlooked as well. Finally, the introduction of the legislator or the civil religion is not contradictory to the principle of popular sovereignty because the success or failure of this heteronomous agency is uncertain and the popular sovereignty keeps still its autonomy. The problems are described as follows: the general will aiming at common good could fell to mere will of all by acquiring of a particular will possessed by some individuals. In the same way, the people who should be unitary and organic are degenerated into a blind multitude and the citizen who must be active and rational in the collective deliberation into a passive, passionate subject. The principle of the popular sovereignty claiming that good law makes a good people but the origin of the good law must be also the people, and the fact that primitive people does not have any capacity to legislate such good law is the source of the circular logic Rousseau engages. It also suggests that the self-ruling of the people is not easily attainable project by the introduction of the legislator or the civil religion because after the initial social contract, passionate, irrational and apolitical properties of the human being who had had those attributes in the state of nature cannot be completely eradicated. So the state of the society in Rousseau is more vulnerable than the traditional reading in that there is always the danger of reemergence of the state of nature. The fact that the sovereignty belongs to the people but the people do not have such capacity to exert the sovereignty is the central ambiguity derived from the theory of popular sovereignty in Rousseau. Rousseau's democracy as self-ruling of the people, therefore, remains always incomplete, contestable and unfinished democracy. This paradox of Rousseau is deduced from the consistent, thorough accomplishment of the principle of the freedom. In other words, Rousseau's premises arguing that the legitimacy of the politics does not have any transcendent and ultimate ground and its source is a unique source of will of the people as free being even permit the freedom to refuse their freedom. That is to say, individual citizens must be forced to be free but also can have the (natural) freedom not to be forced to have (civil and moral) freedom. In short, as though effective denaturalization is necessarily required to make man into citizen, it remains a process without a priori guarantee. Thus, the binary oppositions which support Rousseau's whole system, such as oppositions between the society and nature, the people and multitude and the general will and the will of all always have the possibility of confusion in practice. That danger renders the general will only transient or temporary in the conflictual process of politics. The fundamental problem of politics suggested by Rousseau is that the passage from the state of nature to the state of society is necessary, but is also very difficult and could not be achieved entirely. In conclusion, all these considerations show that Rousseau's political philosophy does not defense the alleged totalitarianism but is the philosophy of 'freedom' in the strict and consistent sense of the word. ; 본 논문의 목적은 을 중심으로 루소의 일반의지 개념의 정체를 해명하고, 이를 전체주의로 규정하는 비판들로부터 루소의 논지를 명료하게 하는 것이다. 이를 위해 나는 '자유롭도록 강제'된다는 루소의 역설적인 표현을 중심으로 일반의지 개념을 재구성하고자 하며, 이 점에 주목할 때 비로소 일반의지 개념에 대한 정확한 이해가 가능하다고 본다. 루소의 일반의지 이론에서는 크게 두 가지의 '자유롭도록 강제됨'이 나타난다. 하나는 일반의지를 거부하는 자들이 자유롭도록 강제되어야한다고 주장하는 1부 7장의 주장이며 다른 하나는 2부 3장 및 2부 7장(4부 8장)에서 일반의지의 성립 조건을 논의하는 대목에서 드러난다. 나는 이들을 각각 살펴보고 루소의 궁극적인 강조점은 강제가 아니라 자유에 있음을 보여주고자 한다. 결론적으로, 루소의 논리를 따를 때 나타나는 진정한 난점은 자유롭도록 강제하는 과정이 일반의지의 산출을 위해 필수적임에도 불구하고, 실천적으로는 이것이 실패할 수 있는 여지를 허용하는 데에 있다. 루소의 인민주권론은 국가 정당성의 토대가 신적인 것이나 자연적인 근거에 있다는 견해를 부정하고 인민의 자율적인 의지가 정치적 권위의 원천이라고 주장한다. 그런데 인민은 항상 이성적이고 사회적인 질서정연한 통일체인 것이 아니라 또한 잠재적으로 정념에 좌우되기 쉬운 개인들의 무질서한 모임으로서 다중으로 현상하기도 한다. 즉 한편으로 인민의 일반의지는 사회를 정당한 것으로 만드는 조건이지만, 다른 한편으로 인민들의 개별 심의는 우연적이며 오류를 범할 수 있는 것이다. 따라서 루소는 다중을 인민으로 만들기 위해서 입법자와 시민종교와 같은 인민 외부의 권위를 도입한다. 그러나 인민은 그들이 다중이라는 바로 그 이유로 이러한 외부적 권위에 복종하지 않을 수도 있기 때문에, 인민이 스스로를 통치하는 것에 관한 난점은 해결되지 않는다. 일견 루소의 인민주권론은 인민이 인민 자신을 통치해야 한다는 낙관적 주장으로 보이지만, 인민은 그 자체로 주어지거나 발견될 수 없으며 다만 이상적 인민으로 구성되어야 한다는 루소의 비관적 주장 역시 간과되어서는 안 된다. 결국 입법자나 시민종교의 도입은 인민주권의 원리와 상충되는 것이 아닌데, 이러한 타율적 장치의 성공 여부는 불확실하여 인민주권은 여전히 그 자율성을 지니기 때문이다. 문제는 공동이익을 지향해야 할 일반의지가 각 개인이 갖는 특수의지의 득세에 의해 한갓 전체의지로 전락할 위험, 통일적이고 유기적이어야 할 인민이 무지몽매하고 개별적인 다중으로 전락할 위험, 집단적인 심의에 있어 능동적이고 합리적이어야 할 시민이 수동적이고 정념에만 사로잡힌 신민으로 전락할 위험에 있다. 좋은 법이 좋은 인민을 만들지만 좋은 법의 출처는 또한 인민이어야 한다는 인민주권의 원리, 그리고 최초의 인민은 그러한 입법을 할 수 있는 역량을 가지지 못하는 다중이라는 상황이 루소가 사로잡힌 순환 논리의 원천이다. 그런데 사회계약 이후에도 인간이 자연 상태에서 갖던 감성적, 비합리적, 비정치적 속성은 완전히 해소되지 않으며, 이는 입법자나 시민종교 같은 장치를 통해서도 인민의 자기통치가 온전히는 달성될 수 없는 난제임을 보여준다. 이처럼 루소의 사회 상태는 항상 부분적으로나마 자연 상태가 돌발할 수도 있는 위험을 갖는다는 점에서 취약한 것이다. 주권은 인민에 속하지만 인민은 스스로를 직접 통치할 수 있는 역량을 결여한다는 것이 루소의 인민주권론이 보여주는 애매성이다. 그러므로 인민의 자기통치로서 루소의 민주주의는 항상 불완전하여 계속해서 갱신되고 수정되어야 하는 미완의 민주주의로 남는다. 루소에서 이러한 역설은 자유의 원리를 일관되게 관철시키게 됨에서 귀결된다. 즉 정치의 정당성에는 어떠한 선험적이고 궁극적인 토대도 없다는 것, 인민은 자유로운 존재로서 그들의 의지만이 정치적 정당성의 유일한 원천이라는 루소의 전제는 그들이 스스로의 자유를 거부할 자유마저도 허용한다. 다시 말해 각 개인은 일반의지의 실현을 위해서 자유롭도록 강제되어야 하지만, 이들은 '자유롭도록'(즉 시민적 자유와 도덕적 자유) 강제되지 않을 수 있는 자유(즉 자연적 자유)를 가질 수도 있다. 요컨대 인간을 시민으로 만들기 위해서는 효과적인 탈자연화가 요구되지만, 이는 보증없는 과정이다. 따라서 루소의 체계를 떠받치는 이항대립, 즉 사회와 자연, 인민과 다중, 일반의지와 전체의지는 항상 실천적으로는 혼동될 위험을 가지며 이러한 위험은 일반의지가 정치의 갈등적인 과정 속에서 단지 일시적으로만 가능한 것으로 만든다. 루소가 보여주는 정치의 근본 문제는 자연 상태로부터 사회 상태로의 이행이 필수적이지만, 동시에 이것이 매우 어렵고 온전히 달성될 수 없다는 것이다. 결론적으로 이러한 탐구는 루소의 철학이 전체주의를 대변하는 것이 아니라 여전히 '자유'의 철학이며, 그것도 매우 일관적인 의미에서 그러함을 보여준다. ; Master

From Cybercultural studies to new Web science, Media and Communication theory engage in analyzing scientific models of the Internet that are mostly homogeneous : models built on the faith in the universal language of networked information and tending to creating norms and/or rules for network communication. There are new cultural, economical and even political institutions appearing that rely on a vehicular model that is widely accepted, although criticized.In my thesis I come back to the sources of this criticism by opening a vernacular perspective, which is a concept borrowed from socio-linguistics and reinterpreted under the light of network culture. It allows to think about the relation between values (the vulgar, the popular, the trivial) and media practices of groups manifested as Internet folklore. From the point of view of a local theory (Jacques Perriault), the vernacular perspective opens a field of analysis understood as composite (Joëlle Le Marec), that is a complex of unstable relations between discourse and matter, technologies and their uses, practices, representations and norms. Folklore, by definition formalist and traditional, transforms itself within network culture to become a media process based on appropriation and commentary, two of the most crucial characteristics of the Internet thought of as meta-medium (Philip Agre). Folklore and vernacular provide important elements to sketch a cultural theory of information and communication in terms of « triviality »' (Yves Jeanneret) – a culture defined by is mediations and transformations. This thesis, by investigating archeologically the archives of Internet's micro-history to dig out its folklore, analyzes dynamically contexts that have allowed the social information of contemporary network culture.Studying two periods of network history that are defined partly by the tools of access to the Internet (Usenet in the 80's and early 90's and the Web 1.0 in the 90's and the 2000's), my research takes a close look at how Internet folklore is invented, experiment, produced and reproduced interacting with content-management media (emailing and newsgroups, homepages, blogs). These apparatuses are seen as « architexts » (following French semiology in media interfaces), which content cannot be understood without an analysis of their system and forms (their « metaforms ») and the process of computer and cultural codes that defined their context of production.A first series of case studies dig out the roots of Internet folklore, its emergence within the first large-scale virtual community : Usenet – and in particular the alt. newsgroup hierarchy. From ASCII Art to Flame Wars and through the pantheon of Net.legends, I show how the leisure and experimental use of communication and information processing rules allow the users to confront the difficulties and dead-ends of collective regulation. The Usenet public, celebrating and participating in network folklore, is testing instruments that give power in writing and expressing opinions. These situations are named « metatexts » : they develop commentaries and folkloric theories on the complex problem of « metarules ». From an Internet micro-historical point of view, they are the basis of a sub-culture that reinvented public discourse within a network context : commenting, conversing, evaluating and filtering, all through the computer media.A second series of case studies approaches network folklore from another angle. Through and experience of participant-observation, I borrow the outlook of two generations of Internet artists on Web popular creativity. The first generation, net.art, considered as pioneer in art happening on the Web in the mid-90's, starts a process of valuing and mediating amateur creativity in the homepages. The second generation, the surfclubs, recipient to the net.art heritage in the context of Web 2.0, give a new understanding and context to network cultural practices within collective blog networks inspired from image forums, the new territories of emergence for network folklore. The eye of Net art channels the observation of a specific evolution of network vernacular : conflicts about the value and the legitimation of this cultural « popular » matter seem to resolve in the new mainstream tendencies of the social Web. New leisure figures appear, between amateur and professional network practices, inspired by the aesthetic and the informational value of Internet folklore. This issue opens up new discussion on the socio-economics of network culture.The vernacular perspective updates the conflictual relations between, technology, society and culture that have built the Internet and marked its history. Its shows that they are dialogic articulations between users' creativity and institutional norms that structure the network environment. It uncovers little known archives that reveal the voices of the actors of this cultural micro-history. it signals epistemological problems about material and methods for network culture analysis by suggesting that this should be handled from the bottom up, accompanying the emergence of media practice in the cultural economy of today's Web. ; De la perspective cyberculturelle aux nouvelles sciences du Web, les Sciences de l'Information et de la Communication étudient des modèles scientifiques d'Internet marqués par une forme d'homogénéité : celle portée par la croyance en un langage universel de l'information et tendant vers la normalisation et/ou la régulation des outils de la communication en réseau. Ainsi, les nouvelles tendances à l'institutionnalisation de la culture, de l'économie voire de la politique des réseaux reposent sur un modèle véhiculaire prégnant et généralement accepté, bien que souvent critiqué.Je propose de revenir aux sources de ces critiques en les envisageant sous la dimension du vernaculaire, notion empruntée à la socio-linguistique et réinterprétée sous l'angle de la médiation de culture informatique en réseau. Dans ce cadre, cette notion permet de penser l'articulation entre des valeurs (le vulgaire, le populaire, le trivial) et des pratiques médiatiques de groupes qui se manifestent dans un « folklore Internet ». Attachée à une théorie locale des usages techniques (J. Perriault), la perspective vernaculaire ouvre un terrain d'analyse placé sous le sceau du composite (J. Le Marec), c'est-à-dire les relations instables et complexes d'artefacts faits de discours et de matière.Le folklore, par définition formel et traditionnel, se transforme au sein de la culture de réseau pour devenir un processus de médiation fondé sur l'appropriation et le commentaire, deux des grandes caractéristiques d'Internet pensé comme méta-médium (P. Agre). Folklore et vernaculaire fournissent des éléments importants pour envisager une théorie culturelle de l'information et de la communication en termes de « trivialité » (Y. Jeanneret) – une culture définie par ses médiations et ses transformations. Cette thèse se propose, en allant faire l'archéologie des archives de la micro-histoire d'Internet pour y retrouver son folklore, d'analyser de manière dynamique les contextes qui ont permis l'information sociale de la culture de réseau contemporaine.A partir de deux périodes de l'histoire des réseaux marquées par deux réseaux privilégiés d'accès à Internet (Usenet, années 1980-1990 ; le Web, années 1990-2000), j'analyse les contextes de communication dans lesquels un folklore Internet s'invente, s'expérimente, se produit et se reproduit en interaction avec des dispositifs de médiation de contenu en réseau (messagerie, pages personnelles, blogs). Adoptant un point de vue « architextuel » (empruntant à la sémiotique des interfaces et des médiations informatisées), mes études s'intéressent tout aussi bien aux contenus qu'aux formes et métaformes ainsi qu'aux processus de codification informatiques et culturels de ces contextes.Une première série d'études de cas se penche sur les racines du folklore Internet, son émergence au sein de la première communauté virtuelle de grande ampleur, Usenet – en particulier dans la hiérarchie alt. du groupe. De l'art ASCII aux flame wars en passant par le panthéon des célébrités de Usenet, je montre comment l'usage ludique et expérimental des règles de communication et du transfert d'information sur le réseau permettent aux usagers d'affronter les difficultés et les apories de la régulation collective. Le public Usenet, dans la célébration et sa participation au folklore de réseau, teste des instruments qui lui donne un pouvoir d'écriture et d'opinion. Ces situations, je les nomme « métatextes » : des commentaires ludiques et des théories folkloriques sur la question complexe des « métarègles ». En terme de micro-histoire de l'Internet, elles sont fondamentales pour comprendre, à partir de ce qui était à l'origine une sous-culture, le développement culturel du commentaire et de la conversation, de l'évaluation et du filtrage de l'informatique sur le réseau actuel.Une deuxième série approche le folklore de réseau sous une autre forme, et dans une perspective différente. J'emprunte, dans le cadre d'une expérience d'observation-participante, le regard de deux générations d'artistes Internet portées sur la création populaire du Web. Le net.art, pionnier de l'art sur le Web dans les années 1990 (Web 1.0), valorise et médiatise la créativité amateur des pages personnelles. Les surfclubs, héritiers directs dans le cadre du web social des années 2000 (Web 2.0), recontextualisent ces pratiques au sein de réseaux de blogs et s'inspirent des forums d'images, nouveaux lieux d'émergence du folklore Web. L'oeil du Net art permet d'observer une évolution particulière du vernaculaire de réseau : les conflits de légitimation de cette matière culturelle « populaire » semblent se résoudre dans les nouvelles tendances du Web social pour donner lieu à de nouvelles figures du loisir en ligne. Apparaissent alors des professionnels qui s'inspirent de l'esthétique et des pratiques informationnelles des amateurs et les remédiatisent. Cette « résolution » est en fait l'entrée dans de nouveaux enjeux, socio-économiques cette fois, qui pour être compris devront être analysés à partir de cette généalogie historique du vernaculaire Internet.L'approche vernaculaire permet de mettre à jour les conflits techniques, sociaux et culturels ayant joué un rôle crucial dans l'histoire d'Internet : elle éclaire l'articulation dialogique entre la créativité des usagers et les normes institutionnelles qui structurent l'environnement-réseau. Elle fait découvrir des archives peu connus qui révèlent les voix des acteurs micro-historique du réseau des réseaux. Elle signale une série de problèmes épistémologiques sur les matériaux et les méthodes d'analyse de la culture d'Internet en proposant une vision d' »en bas » (« bottom up ») qui accompagne l'émergence des médiations de l'économie culturelle du Web d'aujourd'hui.

From Cybercultural studies to new Web science, Media and Communication theory engage in analyzing scientific models of the Internet that are mostly homogeneous : models built on the faith in the universal language of networked information and tending to creating norms and/or rules for network communication. There are new cultural, economical and even political institutions appearing that rely on a vehicular model that is widely accepted, although criticized.In my thesis I come back to the sources of this criticism by opening a vernacular perspective, which is a concept borrowed from socio-linguistics and reinterpreted under the light of network culture. It allows to think about the relation between values (the vulgar, the popular, the trivial) and media practices of groups manifested as Internet folklore. From the point of view of a local theory (Jacques Perriault), the vernacular perspective opens a field of analysis understood as composite (Joëlle Le Marec), that is a complex of unstable relations between discourse and matter, technologies and their uses, practices, representations and norms. Folklore, by definition formalist and traditional, transforms itself within network culture to become a media process based on appropriation and commentary, two of the most crucial characteristics of the Internet thought of as meta-medium (Philip Agre). Folklore and vernacular provide important elements to sketch a cultural theory of information and communication in terms of « triviality »' (Yves Jeanneret) – a culture defined by is mediations and transformations. This thesis, by investigating archeologically the archives of Internet's micro-history to dig out its folklore, analyzes dynamically contexts that have allowed the social information of contemporary network culture.Studying two periods of network history that are defined partly by the tools of access to the Internet (Usenet in the 80's and early 90's and the Web 1.0 in the 90's and the 2000's), my research takes a close look at how Internet folklore is invented, experiment, produced and reproduced interacting with content-management media (emailing and newsgroups, homepages, blogs). These apparatuses are seen as « architexts » (following French semiology in media interfaces), which content cannot be understood without an analysis of their system and forms (their « metaforms ») and the process of computer and cultural codes that defined their context of production.A first series of case studies dig out the roots of Internet folklore, its emergence within the first large-scale virtual community : Usenet – and in particular the alt. newsgroup hierarchy. From ASCII Art to Flame Wars and through the pantheon of Net.legends, I show how the leisure and experimental use of communication and information processing rules allow the users to confront the difficulties and dead-ends of collective regulation. The Usenet public, celebrating and participating in network folklore, is testing instruments that give power in writing and expressing opinions. These situations are named « metatexts » : they develop commentaries and folkloric theories on the complex problem of « metarules ». From an Internet micro-historical point of view, they are the basis of a sub-culture that reinvented public discourse within a network context : commenting, conversing, evaluating and filtering, all through the computer media.A second series of case studies approaches network folklore from another angle. Through and experience of participant-observation, I borrow the outlook of two generations of Internet artists on Web popular creativity. The first generation, net.art, considered as pioneer in art happening on the Web in the mid-90's, starts a process of valuing and mediating amateur creativity in the homepages. The second generation, the surfclubs, recipient to the net.art heritage in the context of Web 2.0, give a new understanding and context to network cultural practices within collective blog networks inspired from image forums, the new territories of emergence for network folklore. The eye of Net art channels the observation of a specific evolution of network vernacular : conflicts about the value and the legitimation of this cultural « popular » matter seem to resolve in the new mainstream tendencies of the social Web. New leisure figures appear, between amateur and professional network practices, inspired by the aesthetic and the informational value of Internet folklore. This issue opens up new discussion on the socio-economics of network culture.The vernacular perspective updates the conflictual relations between, technology, society and culture that have built the Internet and marked its history. Its shows that they are dialogic articulations between users' creativity and institutional norms that structure the network environment. It uncovers little known archives that reveal the voices of the actors of this cultural micro-history. it signals epistemological problems about material and methods for network culture analysis by suggesting that this should be handled from the bottom up, accompanying the emergence of media practice in the cultural economy of today's Web. ; De la perspective cyberculturelle aux nouvelles sciences du Web, les Sciences de l'Information et de la Communication étudient des modèles scientifiques d'Internet marqués par une forme d'homogénéité : celle portée par la croyance en un langage universel de l'information et tendant vers la normalisation et/ou la régulation des outils de la communication en réseau. Ainsi, les nouvelles tendances à l'institutionnalisation de la culture, de l'économie voire de la politique des réseaux reposent sur un modèle véhiculaire prégnant et généralement accepté, bien que souvent critiqué.Je propose de revenir aux sources de ces critiques en les envisageant sous la dimension du vernaculaire, notion empruntée à la socio-linguistique et réinterprétée sous l'angle de la médiation de culture informatique en réseau. Dans ce cadre, cette notion permet de penser l'articulation entre des valeurs (le vulgaire, le populaire, le trivial) et des pratiques médiatiques de groupes qui se manifestent dans un « folklore Internet ». Attachée à une théorie locale des usages techniques (J. Perriault), la perspective vernaculaire ouvre un terrain d'analyse placé sous le sceau du composite (J. Le Marec), c'est-à-dire les relations instables et complexes d'artefacts faits de discours et de matière.Le folklore, par définition formel et traditionnel, se transforme au sein de la culture de réseau pour devenir un processus de médiation fondé sur l'appropriation et le commentaire, deux des grandes caractéristiques d'Internet pensé comme méta-médium (P. Agre). Folklore et vernaculaire fournissent des éléments importants pour envisager une théorie culturelle de l'information et de la communication en termes de « trivialité » (Y. Jeanneret) – une culture définie par ses médiations et ses transformations. Cette thèse se propose, en allant faire l'archéologie des archives de la micro-histoire d'Internet pour y retrouver son folklore, d'analyser de manière dynamique les contextes qui ont permis l'information sociale de la culture de réseau contemporaine.A partir de deux périodes de l'histoire des réseaux marquées par deux réseaux privilégiés d'accès à Internet (Usenet, années 1980-1990 ; le Web, années 1990-2000), j'analyse les contextes de communication dans lesquels un folklore Internet s'invente, s'expérimente, se produit et se reproduit en interaction avec des dispositifs de médiation de contenu en réseau (messagerie, pages personnelles, blogs). Adoptant un point de vue « architextuel » (empruntant à la sémiotique des interfaces et des médiations informatisées), mes études s'intéressent tout aussi bien aux contenus qu'aux formes et métaformes ainsi qu'aux processus de codification informatiques et culturels de ces contextes.Une première série d'études de cas se penche sur les racines du folklore Internet, son émergence au sein de la première communauté virtuelle de grande ampleur, Usenet – en particulier dans la hiérarchie alt. du groupe. De l'art ASCII aux flame wars en passant par le panthéon des célébrités de Usenet, je montre comment l'usage ludique et expérimental des règles de communication et du transfert d'information sur le réseau permettent aux usagers d'affronter les difficultés et les apories de la régulation collective. Le public Usenet, dans la célébration et sa participation au folklore de réseau, teste des instruments qui lui donne un pouvoir d'écriture et d'opinion. Ces situations, je les nomme « métatextes » : des commentaires ludiques et des théories folkloriques sur la question complexe des « métarègles ». En terme de micro-histoire de l'Internet, elles sont fondamentales pour comprendre, à partir de ce qui était à l'origine une sous-culture, le développement culturel du commentaire et de la conversation, de l'évaluation et du filtrage de l'informatique sur le réseau actuel.Une deuxième série approche le folklore de réseau sous une autre forme, et dans une perspective différente. J'emprunte, dans le cadre d'une expérience d'observation-participante, le regard de deux générations d'artistes Internet portées sur la création populaire du Web. Le net.art, pionnier de l'art sur le Web dans les années 1990 (Web 1.0), valorise et médiatise la créativité amateur des pages personnelles. Les surfclubs, héritiers directs dans le cadre du web social des années 2000 (Web 2.0), recontextualisent ces pratiques au sein de réseaux de blogs et s'inspirent des forums d'images, nouveaux lieux d'émergence du folklore Web. L'oeil du Net art permet d'observer une évolution particulière du vernaculaire de réseau : les conflits de légitimation de cette matière culturelle « populaire » semblent se résoudre dans les nouvelles tendances du Web social pour donner lieu à de nouvelles figures du loisir en ligne. Apparaissent alors des professionnels qui s'inspirent de l'esthétique et des pratiques informationnelles des amateurs et les remédiatisent. Cette « résolution » est en fait l'entrée dans de nouveaux enjeux, socio-économiques cette fois, qui pour être compris devront être analysés à partir de cette généalogie historique du vernaculaire Internet.L'approche vernaculaire permet de mettre à jour les conflits techniques, sociaux et culturels ayant joué un rôle crucial dans l'histoire d'Internet : elle éclaire l'articulation dialogique entre la créativité des usagers et les normes institutionnelles qui structurent l'environnement-réseau. Elle fait découvrir des archives peu connus qui révèlent les voix des acteurs micro-historique du réseau des réseaux. Elle signale une série de problèmes épistémologiques sur les matériaux et les méthodes d'analyse de la culture d'Internet en proposant une vision d' »en bas » (« bottom up ») qui accompagne l'émergence des médiations de l'économie culturelle du Web d'aujourd'hui.

Housing tenure structures differ considerably across OECD countries. Typically, the share of owner-occupied housing is very high in Southern European countries (Spain, Italy, Greece), while relatively low in Austria, Germany, France, the Netherlands and in some Nordic countries such as Sweden, Finland and Denmark (see Catte et al. [2004]). This share has increased in most OECD countries during last two decades. Italy, Spain, Portugal, the Netherlands and Belgium registered the largest increases from the eighties to the mid of the first decade of the century. In the UK, the homeonwership rate increased steadily up to 2005, then dropped sharply in the last few years. High homeownership rates and their increments have been in part determined by pro-ownership policies implemented throughout most OECD countries. Such policies can take the vest of tax reliefs for mortgage interest payments, exemptions for capital gains taxation applied to residential property, or generous subsidies for low-income families to reduce the costs of homeownership. Although the orientation of several governments, particularly in Europe, has been to promote homeownership, economists have raised several concerns about the consequences of large homeownership shares on the functioning of the labour market. The analysis of the relation between the housing tenure and the labour market dates back to mid-nineties, when Andrew Oswald pinned on high homeownership rates the blame for the high unemployment rates in Europe (Oswald [1996], Oswald [1997], Oswald [1999]). Making use of aggregate data, Oswald found a strong positive statistical association between the two rates at the international and regional level. Thus, his receipt to reduce unemployment was strikingly at odds with the prevailing political wisdom: "We can put Europe back to work . . . by reducing homeownership" (Oswald [1999])1. Oswald identified five mechanisms that drive the positive impact on unemployment. These are mostly related to the idea that the mobility constraints imposed by homeownership introduce frictions in the labour market which harm its efficiency. The first and most important, is a direct effect. Owner occupiers incur higher transaction costs for selling home and moving to a new accommodation, which can be even higher whenever capital gains for houses are taxed and there are no exemptions. The other four mechanisms can be thought as externalities of homeownership. Second, where the rental market is thin, everyone, regardless of the housing tenure, can have difficulties in finding the accommodation close to the job they aspire to, so that efficient job matches are hindered. This is the case even for mobile people who would be happy to move for job reasons, such as young still living in the family-home in a kind of free-rent status. Third, owning the accommodation hampers also job-to-job changes and prolong poor job matches hence harming the whole economic system efficiency. Fourth, owner-occupiers are more likely than renters to lobby for deterring entrepreneurs from investing in their residential area. Fifth, since owners commute much more than renters, and over longer distances, higher homeownership rates in the area lead to higher transport costs and possibly to congestion costs, which make getting to work more costly for everyone and act as a sort of unemployment benefits in increasing the relative attractiveness of not working. Although the argument underlying a positive relationship between homeownership and unemployment originates from macroeconomic evidence, its theoretical foundations are mainly microeconomic and a vast part of the empirical research carried out subsequently has been based on micro data. The typical test of the so-called "Oswald thesis" consists in estimating the homeownership effect on the duration of the unemployment spell or, less often, on the probability to be unemployed. The expected sign is positive, along the main idea that higher mobility costs due to property holding reduce the willingness to accept job offers which require a residential move. Fewer studies, and only recently, have focused on the employment duration, testing whether homeownership can reduce job finding rates also for people already employed. Generally, empirical tests on micro data find no support for the Oswald hypothesis, and in most cases even that homeowners have shorter unemployment spells and lower likelihood to be unemployed, which are exactly counter-Oswald results. However, homeownership seems to increase job stability by hampering job-to-job changes for people already employed. As regards unemployment outcomes, the existing literature has put forward two possible reasons for the falsification of the Oswald hypothesis. The first one looks at the different effect of mobility costs on job search behavior in the local and in the non-local labour market. In fact, homeowners may have higher reservation wages for jobs which require a residential move (nonlocal market), but also lower reservation wages for jobs which do not (local market), so that job finding rates for the latter may be as high as to offset the lower rates for jobs in a distant area. Thus, whether the total job finding rate is lower for homeowners or for renters is just an empirical matter which depends on the magnitude of these two opposite effects. The second explanation points out the need for a refinement in the definition of the residential status. On the one hand, one should distinguish between owners who have to comply with mortgage payments and outright owners, as housing financial commitments can bear higher pressure to return to work or to keep on with the current job. For mortgage-holders, these financial constraints can counteract the effect of the reduced mobility due to ownership. On the other hand, unemployment outcomes can be different also for private and social renters. In fact, below-market rent, long waiting lists, security of tenure and the restricted transferability within social housing, can harm the relative performance of social renters. In this work, we aim at investigating the validity of the "Oswald thesis" taking into account the recent refinements by following both a theoretical and an empirical approach. The focus will be on UK micro data. In particular, we will make use of the two leading UK Surveys, the UK Quarterly Labour Force Survey and the British Household Panel Survey. In the first chapter, we investigate the relation between job search effort of unemployed and housing tenure. We test this relation focusing on the impact of the UK Jobseeker's Allowance reform introduced in the UK in October 1996, whose main aspect was a strengthening of search requirements for eligibility to the unemployment benefit. We revisit a simple model of search in which we introduce moving costs and housing costs to capture the two channels through which the degree of attachment to the accommodation influences search behaviour. Our theory suggests that a tightening in job search requirements, as implied by this reform, raises movements off benefit of non-employed with low search intensity and that this effect should adjust in size depending on the different housing tenure. We draw a dataset from the Labour Force Survey for the period 1995-1997, and by means of a Difference-in-Differences approach we analyze the impact of the reform on the claimant outflow. Average Treatment Effect estimates suggest that the impact of the reform is related to housing tenure. Specifically, renters account for a major portion of claimants who were crowded out of the benefit without finding a job, while the effect on outright owners and mortgagers is lower. Empirical evidence from our dataset clearly confirms that mortgagers search for a job more intensively than renters, as our model predicts. This latter finding is consistent with a higher estimated treatment effect for renters, since a high initial search intensity seems the key to insulate oneself from the impact of the tightening of search requirements. In the second chapter we attempt to reconcile the empirical evidence with the argument in favour of a negative effect of homeownership on exit rates from unemployment. Taking into account some likely reasons for the falsification of the Oswald's thesis, we provide evidence which supports it. At first, in a theoretical model of endogenous job search adapted to distinguish between local and non-local labour markets, we show that homeowners higher moving costs imply unambiguously lower search and lower job finding rates, even though an opposite effect works for jobs which do not require a move. Then, in the empirical analysis we make use of data drawn from the British Household Panel Survey to compare job search intensity measures by housing tenure. In defining the residential status, we distinguish between outright owners and mortgage-holders, and between social and private renters. We find that, controlling for housing costs and for the four-fold tenure definition, non-employed outright owners have definitely a lower attachment to the labour market than renters, and that this effect is even more evident when we compare them to private renters. In the third chapter, we analyse the impact of the housing tenure on labour market outcomes using individual data from the UK labour Force Survey. We estimate both a binary model for the probability to be unemployed and a hazard model for exits out of unemployment. In both models we test for endogeneity of housing tenure. In the binary model, exogeneity is rejected so we perform endogenous multinomial treatment effects estimates. In the hazard model, we find no evidence of unobserved heterogeneity thus estimates are performed assuming exogeneity. Results show that mortgagers have the lowest probability to be unemployed and the highest job finding rates, while social renters exhibit the worst performance. Whether private renters perform better than outright owners is a matter of debate: while we have no evidence in favour of this claim, the evidence in favour of the opposite is only modest.

Research problem It has been four decades since conclusion of the Vienna Convention on the law of treaties. The Convention included a provision that a treaty shall be inter-preted in good faith in accordance with the ordinary meaning to be given to the terms of the treaty in their context and in the light of its object and purpose. The customary status of this rule has been accepted by the International Court of Justice. Disregarding that, some question whether the rules, as opposed to principles, of interpretation are possible (i.e. would that not be better not to reduce them to writing). The International Law Commission itself has com-mented on this. On the other hand, the differences concerning interpretation of treaties were apparent already at the time the treaty was drafted. When the Convention was finally adopted, a few scholars representing the so-called New Haven approach opined that they expected the Convention to fail due to its "insistent emphasis upon an impossible, comformity-imposing textuality". In their view, conclusion of an international agreement was a continuous process of cooperation and collaboration of the parties, which required a much more detailed focus on the intentions of the parties than the Vienna Convention rule of interpretation envisaged. They called for interpretation which would search for genuine shared expectations, together with the complementary appeals for 'supplementing' and 'policing' communications in accordance with overriding community goals. Disregarding these hallmarks, they accepted that the text should remain an important index of party expectations, which they identify as one of the goals of interpretation. In their view, attention to the carefully worked out arrangements of the parties encourages the clarity of expectation, especially when sources of equal credibility give contradictory results concern-ing their expectations. Although the New Haven approach to interpretation of treaties was not included in the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, a form of their reflection could be identified in national law, especially that of continental legal systems. It is agreed that the major difference between common law and conti-nental practice lies in the rules of interpretation: common law is based on a presumption of law, into which statutes are interwoven, hence the practice of drafting statutes in the fullest detail, and the broad assumptions that a statute deals only with those cases which fall within its actual wording. Continental theory, on the other hand, treats statutes as a basis of the law, but these tend to be drafted in a very general and abstract way, leaving it up to the courts to fill in the details by reference to a presumed legislative intention. However, this key difference seems to dissipate, as the common law tends to move away from the purely literal towards the purposive construction of statutory provi-sions, i.e. a new, 'revamped' version of literal rule has developed, which required the general context and purpose to be taken into consideration before any decision is reached concerning the ordinary meaning of statutory words. The continental practice remains consistent on its emphasis on the legislative intention. In the law of contracts this rule turns into a global one: both Lando and UNIDROIT principles of international commercial contracts include a rule of interpretation requiring to determine the common intentions of the parties. This approach finds reflection also in the Civil Code of the Republic of Lithuania, which was drafted on the basis of the UNIDROIT Principles. The International Law Commission returned to the topic of interpreta-tion of treaties thirty years later, in 2000, when it decided to consider the issue of fragmentation of international law and the potential problems it might give rise to. With this purpose in mind in its report on the topic of 2006 the study group has identified four general principles of interpretation of international rules: first, international law should be considered as a legal system, not as a random collection of international rules; second, in applying international law, it is necessary to determine the precise relationship between two or more rules and principles that are both valid and applicable in respect of the whole situa-tion (i.e. to identify whether their relationship is a one of interpretation or con-flict); thirdly, the norms should be interpreted in accordance with the Vienna Convention on the law of treaties, and fourthly, when several norms bear on a single issue, they should be interpreted so as to give rise to a set of compatible obligations. Explaining the latter principle, the Commission, similarly to the New Haven group approach, emphasized the need to take into consideration the community values, i.e. ius cogens and erga omnes, even though continues to recommend to follow the Vienna Convention approach on the ordinary meaning of the terms. Forty years later, it is already possible to consider, whether the New Haven group was correct criticising the Vienna Convention rule of interpreta-tion for its excessive emphasis on text, and how significant is the practical difference between the rule requiring to determine the common intentions of the parties as opposed to the rule, which requires to interpret a treaty in accor-dance with the ordinary meaning of its terms. Also, what is the practical im-pact of these differences on protection of the rights of persons. In order to answer this research question, the focus of the dissertation is on the foreign investment law in the energy sector. The topic is suitable and convenient to consider the impact of the rules of interpretation and the problems posed by fragmentation of international law. Its sources include in-ternational, national, and for the EU countries also EU law, even though the nature of the relationship between EU law and international investment law remains a disputable issue. The energy sector has been chosen in order to evaluate more precisely the impact of the rules of interpretation and fragmenta-tion of international law on the content of the rights of persons and their appli-cation. Research sources The Dissertation analyzes multilateral and bilateral investment trea-ties which are significant for the the protection of investment in the energy sector and the decisions of international investment arbitral tribunals. The ma-jor sources of international investment law are international treaties. The most significant documents for the energy sector currently are the Energy Charter treaty, the ICSID Convention, and the bilateral investment treaties, although national law remains also important for enforcement of arbitral awards and interpretation of state contracts. State contracts also remain significant, be-cause as a rule they include arbitration clauses and stabilization clauses. The latter are particularly common in the energy sector due to its specificity – on the one hand, energy is a heavily politicized sector due to its significance for the development of the economy of a state and both its economic and political stability. Therefore it has a status of a strategic sector, even an issue of national security. This could be observed ever since the beginning of the twentieth century. On the other hand, energy is an infrastructure sector, which requires high investments for development. Not all states are capable to develop this sector by their own financial means, and choose to attract foreign investment. As a result, investment contracts (state contracts) are concluded; they have a status of international commercial contracts, and their parties are free to choose both the applicable law and the means of dispute settlement. The en-ergy contracts as a rule include stabilization clauses, which seek to maintain stable business legal and financial environment for the duration of the contract. Finally, European Union law may also be accepted as a source for in-vestment protection, despite its generalized purposes, which are to achieve the strengthening and convergence of their economies and to establish a monetary and economic union, to implement a common foreign and security policy, including the progressive framing of the common defence policy, and to estab-lish the area of freedom, security and justice. EU law and foreign investment law are still largely conceived as independent and hardly interlinked. However, as integration between the EU member states becomes closer, EU legislation makes an increasing impact also on the specific sectors of the economy, in-cluding the energy sector. Research object The research object of this dissertation are the problems of interpreta-tion and application of law which arise in the resolution of disputes concerning protection of investments in the energy sector between the host states and for-eign investors. They may be grouped into three groups on the basis of the ap-plicable law: 1. The problems of interpretation of international agreements. Both BITs and MITs apply only with respect to investment. ICSID arbitral tribunals can hear only disputes arising directly out of an investment. Disregarding the key role the notion has on the exercise of rights, its meaning remains unclear. The most recent arbitral practice is completely inconsistent on this issue. No less problems are posed by the umbrella clauses, which are included in a large number of BITs and the Energy Charter Treaty, and which requires states to observe obligations they have entered into with an investor. These provisions have been included even in the BITs of 1970s, but in practice they have emerged only recently. The arbitral tribunals differ on whether this provision should be read literaly, or whether its meaning should be restricted. 2. The problems of interpretation of arbitration clauses and invest-ment contracts. This group includes the problems concerning arbitrab

Research problem It has been four decades since conclusion of the Vienna Convention on the law of treaties. The Convention included a provision that a treaty shall be inter-preted in good faith in accordance with the ordinary meaning to be given to the terms of the treaty in their context and in the light of its object and purpose. The customary status of this rule has been accepted by the International Court of Justice. Disregarding that, some question whether the rules, as opposed to principles, of interpretation are possible (i.e. would that not be better not to reduce them to writing). The International Law Commission itself has com-mented on this. On the other hand, the differences concerning interpretation of treaties were apparent already at the time the treaty was drafted. When the Convention was finally adopted, a few scholars representing the so-called New Haven approach opined that they expected the Convention to fail due to its "insistent emphasis upon an impossible, comformity-imposing textuality". In their view, conclusion of an international agreement was a continuous process of cooperation and collaboration of the parties, which required a much more detailed focus on the intentions of the parties than the Vienna Convention rule of interpretation envisaged. They called for interpretation which would search for genuine shared expectations, together with the complementary appeals for 'supplementing' and 'policing' communications in accordance with overriding community goals. Disregarding these hallmarks, they accepted that the text should remain an important index of party expectations, which they identify as one of the goals of interpretation. In their view, attention to the carefully worked out arrangements of the parties encourages the clarity of expectation, especially when sources of equal credibility give contradictory results concern-ing their expectations. Although the New Haven approach to interpretation of treaties was not included in the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, a form of their reflection could be identified in national law, especially that of continental legal systems. It is agreed that the major difference between common law and conti-nental practice lies in the rules of interpretation: common law is based on a presumption of law, into which statutes are interwoven, hence the practice of drafting statutes in the fullest detail, and the broad assumptions that a statute deals only with those cases which fall within its actual wording. Continental theory, on the other hand, treats statutes as a basis of the law, but these tend to be drafted in a very general and abstract way, leaving it up to the courts to fill in the details by reference to a presumed legislative intention. However, this key difference seems to dissipate, as the common law tends to move away from the purely literal towards the purposive construction of statutory provi-sions, i.e. a new, 'revamped' version of literal rule has developed, which required the general context and purpose to be taken into consideration before any decision is reached concerning the ordinary meaning of statutory words. The continental practice remains consistent on its emphasis on the legislative intention. In the law of contracts this rule turns into a global one: both Lando and UNIDROIT principles of international commercial contracts include a rule of interpretation requiring to determine the common intentions of the parties. This approach finds reflection also in the Civil Code of the Republic of Lithuania, which was drafted on the basis of the UNIDROIT Principles. The International Law Commission returned to the topic of interpreta-tion of treaties thirty years later, in 2000, when it decided to consider the issue of fragmentation of international law and the potential problems it might give rise to. With this purpose in mind in its report on the topic of 2006 the study group has identified four general principles of interpretation of international rules: first, international law should be considered as a legal system, not as a random collection of international rules; second, in applying international law, it is necessary to determine the precise relationship between two or more rules and principles that are both valid and applicable in respect of the whole situa-tion (i.e. to identify whether their relationship is a one of interpretation or con-flict); thirdly, the norms should be interpreted in accordance with the Vienna Convention on the law of treaties, and fourthly, when several norms bear on a single issue, they should be interpreted so as to give rise to a set of compatible obligations. Explaining the latter principle, the Commission, similarly to the New Haven group approach, emphasized the need to take into consideration the community values, i.e. ius cogens and erga omnes, even though continues to recommend to follow the Vienna Convention approach on the ordinary meaning of the terms. Forty years later, it is already possible to consider, whether the New Haven group was correct criticising the Vienna Convention rule of interpreta-tion for its excessive emphasis on text, and how significant is the practical difference between the rule requiring to determine the common intentions of the parties as opposed to the rule, which requires to interpret a treaty in accor-dance with the ordinary meaning of its terms. Also, what is the practical im-pact of these differences on protection of the rights of persons. In order to answer this research question, the focus of the dissertation is on the foreign investment law in the energy sector. The topic is suitable and convenient to consider the impact of the rules of interpretation and the problems posed by fragmentation of international law. Its sources include in-ternational, national, and for the EU countries also EU law, even though the nature of the relationship between EU law and international investment law remains a disputable issue. The energy sector has been chosen in order to evaluate more precisely the impact of the rules of interpretation and fragmenta-tion of international law on the content of the rights of persons and their appli-cation. Research sources The Dissertation analyzes multilateral and bilateral investment trea-ties which are significant for the the protection of investment in the energy sector and the decisions of international investment arbitral tribunals. The ma-jor sources of international investment law are international treaties. The most significant documents for the energy sector currently are the Energy Charter treaty, the ICSID Convention, and the bilateral investment treaties, although national law remains also important for enforcement of arbitral awards and interpretation of state contracts. State contracts also remain significant, be-cause as a rule they include arbitration clauses and stabilization clauses. The latter are particularly common in the energy sector due to its specificity – on the one hand, energy is a heavily politicized sector due to its significance for the development of the economy of a state and both its economic and political stability. Therefore it has a status of a strategic sector, even an issue of national security. This could be observed ever since the beginning of the twentieth century. On the other hand, energy is an infrastructure sector, which requires high investments for development. Not all states are capable to develop this sector by their own financial means, and choose to attract foreign investment. As a result, investment contracts (state contracts) are concluded; they have a status of international commercial contracts, and their parties are free to choose both the applicable law and the means of dispute settlement. The en-ergy contracts as a rule include stabilization clauses, which seek to maintain stable business legal and financial environment for the duration of the contract. Finally, European Union law may also be accepted as a source for in-vestment protection, despite its generalized purposes, which are to achieve the strengthening and convergence of their economies and to establish a monetary and economic union, to implement a common foreign and security policy, including the progressive framing of the common defence policy, and to estab-lish the area of freedom, security and justice. EU law and foreign investment law are still largely conceived as independent and hardly interlinked. However, as integration between the EU member states becomes closer, EU legislation makes an increasing impact also on the specific sectors of the economy, in-cluding the energy sector. Research object The research object of this dissertation are the problems of interpreta-tion and application of law which arise in the resolution of disputes concerning protection of investments in the energy sector between the host states and for-eign investors. They may be grouped into three groups on the basis of the ap-plicable law: 1. The problems of interpretation of international agreements. Both BITs and MITs apply only with respect to investment. ICSID arbitral tribunals can hear only disputes arising directly out of an investment. Disregarding the key role the notion has on the exercise of rights, its meaning remains unclear. The most recent arbitral practice is completely inconsistent on this issue. No less problems are posed by the umbrella clauses, which are included in a large number of BITs and the Energy Charter Treaty, and which requires states to observe obligations they have entered into with an investor. These provisions have been included even in the BITs of 1970s, but in practice they have emerged only recently. The arbitral tribunals differ on whether this provision should be read literaly, or whether its meaning should be restricted. 2. The problems of interpretation of arbitration clauses and invest-ment contracts. This group includes the problems concerning arbitrab

ÖZETÇevremiz tarafından bağımsız bir birey olarak algılanmaya, ilkin, kendimizi ifade yani sözel iletişim yolunu kullanmakla başlarız. Çünkü kelimelerle düşünür ve yine kelimelerle olayları anlamlandırırız. Aşama aşama kişilik/kimliğin gerçekleştiği bu süreç, bireyin kendisini ifade etmesi durumudur ve varolmasının yegane şartıdır. Her birey kendi kimliğinin oluştuğu bu süreçte, yaşadığı sosyal çevre, öğrenim hayatı, ekonomik ve siyasi olaylar vb. etkilenir ve bir taraftan bu olgular tarafından şekillenirken aynı zamanda onlara anlam verip müdahale etmek suretiyle de yaşadığı toplumun bir parçası olarak üzerine düşen görevi yerine getirmeye çalışır. İşte bu noktada ifadeye getirilen her sınırlama hem bireyin kendi ontolojik gerçekliğini oluşturma sürecine hem de toplumun bir parçası olan bireyin kamuoyunu oluşturması sürecine yapılan bir müdahaledir ve ifade hürriyetinin var olma gerekçelerini açıklayan durumdur.Bu hürriyet, insanlık tarihi boyunca teşkilatlanarak bir araya gelen kimi zaman kabile kültürü şeklinde kimi zaman devlet yapısına haiz toplumlara kadar her sistemin çözüm aradığı bir sorun olmuştur. Çünkü elde ettiği bilgi, kanaat, düşünce ve fikirleri bir araya getirerek onlara anlam veren ve sonuçlar çıkaran yegane varlık olan insan, yaşadığı toplumun değişimine, tekamülüne müdahale etmek istemiştir ve bu durum ifade hürriyetinin gerekçelerinin ve sınırlarının belirlenmesini zorunlu kılmıştır.Biz de tezimiz boyunca ifade hürriyetinin varolma gerekçelerini ve sınırları problemini incelerken genellikle bu konuyu irdeleyen çalışmalardan farklı olarak sadece pozitif hukuka yansıyan yargılama makamlarının kararları ile yetinmeyerek, bunun yanı sıra, bu hürriyetin felsefi gerekçelerini de incelemeyi yeğledik. Çünkü gerçek bir ifade özgürlüğü teorisi ancak bu sayede temel çerçeveleri belirlenebilir bir kavram olacaktır. Güçlü bir ifade özgürlüğü teorisi ise, bu kavramın genel bir tarifini yaparak oluşturulabileceği gerçeğinden hareketle biz de ilkin bu kavramın felsefi, günlük ve yargılama makamlarının kararlarında geçtiği şekliyle bir tanımlama yaparak çalışmamıza başladık. Yapılan bu genel tanımlama çalışmasının hemen devamında ise, bu kavramın kapsamının ne olması gerektiği Mahkeme kararlarına da atıf yaparak ilk bölümde incelenmiştir. İfade olarak sözel iletişim, düşünceler, sanatsal ifadeler ve ticari ifadeler bu hürriyete ilişkin hemen bütün çalışmalarda yer alsa da, yine bir ifade biçimi olarak eylemler ve sembolik ifadeye ilişkin tanımlamalar ve örneklendirmelerle, ifadenin bu şekline ilişkin eksik kalan hususlara yer vermeye çalıştık.İkinci bölümde ise, bu hürriyetin niçin varolması gerektiğine ilişkin teorik ve pratik argümanlar konu edilmiştir. Nasıl ki bir kanunun yapılmasında, mahkemenin bir karara varmasında yahut günlük hayattaki tüm eylemler ve ilişkilerimizde bir gerekçe olmaksızın var olamıyorsak, bu hürriyetin de var olma gereçlerini açıklamaya çalıştık. Bu bağlamda, bu hürriyete ilişkin en değerli savları ortaya koyan ve ifade hürriyetinin konu edildiği her çalışmada kendisinden bir alıntı yapılan John Stuart Mill'e bu çerçevede geniş alıntılar yaparak yer verdik. Yine Amerikan Yüksek Mahkemesi kararları ile ortaya konan Fikirlerin Pazaryeri teorisi ile İnsan hakları Avrupa Mahkemesi kararlarına atıfla birlikte bireysel özgürlük/kendini gerçekleştirme ve kendi kendini yönetme tezlerine ilişkin argümanlar çalışmaya eklenmiştir.İfade hürriyeti ancak ifadeye konu bir bilgi ve kanaatin var olması ile mümkündür. Bunun temel şartı ise, bu sürecin sağlıklı bir şekilde işlemesinin teminat altına alınması ile gerçekleşir. Bu bağlamda, basın özgürlüğü ve bir alt başlık altında incelediğimiz radyo ve televizyon yayıncılığı ise kanaat sahibi olma özgürlüğünün en işlevsel şekli olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. En çok tartışmanın yaşandığı ve sorunların düğümlendiği bu özgürlüklere ise, İnsan Hakları Avrupa Mahkemesi kararlarına sıkça atıf yapılarak açıklamaya çalıştık ve ifade özgürlüğünün unsurlarına yer verdiğimiz üçüncü bölümü ifadenin açıklanmasına ilişkin çerçeveyi açıklayarak tamamladık.Son bölümde ise, teorik tartışmalardan daha çok pozitif hukukta ve tezimizin genel çerçevesine uygun olarak İnsan Hakları Avrupa Mahkemesi kararları ışığında ifade hürriyetinin kapsamına ve Mahkeme'nin bu hürriyete ilişkin yaklaşımına ayırdık. İfade hürriyetine ilişkin gerekçelerimizin güçlü olması, bu hürriyetin var olması için gerekli unsurlardan biridir. Ancak bu hürriyete getirilen müdahalenin hukuka uygun olup olmadığının tespiti ise bu hürriyetin teminat altına alınmasının diğer bir hayati şartıdır. Bu bağlamda Mahkeme, önüne gelen her davada Sözleşmede yer verilen bu hürriyete getirilen sınırlamadan ne amaçlandığı (ulusal güvenlik, toprak bütünlüğü, kamu emniyeti ve suç işlenmesinin önlenmesi, ahlakın ve sağlığın korunması, başkalarının şöhret ve haklarının korunması, yargının etkinlik ve saygınlığının korunması), amaca matuf aracın ne olduğu, bu bağlamda araç-amaç dengesini ve nihayet sınırlamanın demokratik toplum düzeninin gereklerine uygun olup olmadığına ilişkin incelemesini yaparak kararını vermektedir. Biz de son bölümde bir ortak Avrupa Kamu düzenini kurmayı amaçlayan, ulusal üstü bir makam olarak konumlanan Mahkeme'nin kararlarına yer vererek çalışmamızı tamamladık. SUMMARYWe begin to be perceived as an independent individual by our environment, firstly, when we begin to express ourselves, namely to use oral communication way, because we think and give meaning to events by the help of words. This systematic process of personality/identity realization is the self-expressing of the individual and it is the unique condition of his existence.Each individual is affected by the social environment in which he lives, academic life, economical and political events etc, in this identity-forming process. On one hand, while being shaped by these facts, on the other hand, each individual also try to perform the duties assumed by the society he belongs, by giving meaning and intervening these facts.At this point, every restriction applied on the expression is an intervention both to the ontological self-realization process of the individual and the process of his making-up the public opinion, and it explains the reasons of the existence of the freedom of speech as well.This freedom has been a problem needs to solve for every system in which humanity organized from clans to states through the history. Since humans are the unique creatures who can gather the information, opinions, thoughts and ideas together in order to give them a meaning and get results from them, they wanted to interfere to the change and maturing of the society they live in. This condition necessitated to determine the reasons and limits of the freedom of expression.We did not contented only with the decisions of judicial offices, which are reflected to the positive law, while examining the problem of reasons of existence and limits of the freedom of expression, but we also preferred to examine the philosophical reasons of this freedom throughout this thesis, unlike other studies that scrutinized this matter. For, a real theory of freedom of expression will become a concept whose basic frames can be determined, only in this way.We began our work, first by defining the concept of a real theory of freedom of expression, as it is used in philosophy, daily life and decisions of judicial offices, keeping in mind that a real theory of freedom of expression can be achieved by generally defining this concept. Just after this general definition effort, what the scope of this concept should be is examined in the first chapter by referring to the Court decisions. Although the oral communication, ideas, artistic and commercial expressions take part in almost all works concerning this freedom as an expression, we have tried to give place to absent subjects, which is related to this form of expression by definitions and exemplifications concerning actions and symbolic expression as a form of expression.In the second chapter, we treated theoretical and practical arguments concerning why this freedom should exist. Just as enacting a law, coming to a decision by a court or our all acts and relationships in daily life cannot exist without a reason, so does this freedom. In this context, we have given place to John Stuart Mill who set forth the most valuable theses about this freedom and is quoted in every work treats the freedom of expression, by quoting widely. Likewise, it was added to this work the arguments concerning the theses of individual freedom/self-fulfilment and self-governance with the references to the theory of "marketplace of ideas" that was created by decisions of the US Supreme Court and to the decisions of the European Court of Human Rights.Freedom of expression is only possible with the presence of an information and opinion subject to expression. The main condition of this is to secure a healthy running of this process. In this context, freedom of press, and radio and television broadcasting we treated under a sub-title occurs to be the most functional form of the freedom to hold opinion. We tried to explain these freedoms about which people mostly discuss and the problems are mostly congested, by using the decisions of European Court of Human Rights, and we completed the third chapter in which we gave place to the elements of freedom of expression, by defining the frame concerning the explanation of expression.In the last chapter, rather than the theoretical discussions, we give place to the scope of the freedom of expression and to the approach of the Court to this freedom, in the light of the decisions of European Court of Human Rights, in conformity with the general frame of our thesis. Being powerful of our reasons concerning the freedom of expression is one of the essential elements for this freedom to exist. However, determining whether the intervention to this freedom is legal is another vital condition to guarantee this freedom. The court, in this context, decides by examining what the aim is by this restriction to freedom specified in the Convention is applied (national security, territorial integrity, public security and prevention of crimes, protection of moral and health, protection of other people's reputation and rights, protection of activity and esteem of judiciary), what the means directed to the aim is, the means-aim equilibrium, and finally whether the limitation is appropriate for the necessities of a democratic society order. In this last chapter, we finished our work, by giving place to the decisions of a supra-national Court that aims to establish a common European Public Order.