Suchergebnisse

Without a doubt agriculture sector is vital part of modern Ukrainian economy. Agriculture is ranked 3rd largest contributor to the national GDP with approx. 17% in 2018 (compared to 14.4% in 2016) of total GDP, followed with industrial sector (26.3%) and services sector (59.3%). It should be noted that it is very promising field in terms of potential economic growth and both regional and international investment opportunities. Food products being a necessity in everyday life of every person. Food and processing industries are the large industries that are interconnected to agricultural cultivation. These industries have great potential to increase the value of agricultural products due to the added value, as not raw materials are sold but finished products that can be consumed in the domestic market and exported. Meanwhile the global process of urbanization and changes in national politics, have had their impact on Ukrainian economy. The number of urban populations is continuing to increase, while great number of work force is migrating to neighboring countries. Several studies state that number of Ukrainian workers living aboard is around 2.5 million people. In this context we plan to investigate and build general forecast model on how urbanization is impacting agricultural land use and certain factors of its impact on economic development of region. On the other hand, we have examples of modern issues, such as climate change caused by rapid urbanization and the irrational use of natural resources. The study showed that urban development requires substantial land rescue for its expansion. By examining closely spatial data of urban and suburban areas, for example that of Kyiv city, agricultural land in suburban areas is used for new construction sites and infrastructural development. Another indirect effect of urban development is ecological changes to the surrounding areas. The affected areas become much less suitable for agricultural uses, require large financial investment and high technologies to renew the soil fertility.Research work that have been conducted in this area focused mostly on financial resources, international politics, and large agricultural holdings of agricultural land use. A lot of work has been done to highlight importance of advocating open land market in Ukraine. While other researchers in their research analyzed specific crop or certain agricultural industry markets. In general, the focus of previous publications was either on the current agricultural export or land use data in Ukraine. The goal of this research paper is to find, establish connections between urbanization and agricultural land use, while focusing attention on possibilities for economic growth and development of effective land use policies. This paper will consider open land market as future possibility; however, it is relations and impact with urbanization falls outside of current research work scope.With this research we plan to describe the connection between rapid urbanization process and changes in agricultural land use from economical perspective. The author focuses his research work and economical modeling on case Ukraine. We plan to showcase changes of agricultural enterprise income, in case of population migration to large urban centers. Additionally, we will study the cases of effective land resource management, where we will study whether it is more profitable for companies to establish the new enterprise closer or inside urban areas as opposed to farmland regions. In this research we plan to highlight the major economical differences of company's startup and operations costs based on available transportation network, land resources and local agricultural specialization. The research work should introduce possible outcomes for small, medium companies, also separating those that are part of international corporate structure and local business. The research will cover whether local company can benefit from urbanization and what are its effects on individual famers earnings. One of the expected research outcomes is to describe how to increase added value of agricultural products with focus on city markets.For this study we used data mining and analytics approaches. During research work we placed great emphasis on determining, locating, and analyzing statistical data from multiple sources. Important art of the research work is identifying right data in context of our research, the one that has clear connection to urbanization process. Spatial data visualization was used to determine key urban centers in Ukraine, as well as locations of agricultural, food and processing companies. Other types of material used are official notional statistics data, European Union public reports, U.S. Department of Commerce datasheets, Kyiv city council, Municipal Enterprise "Kyivgenplan", private companies report, economists' publications, and Public cadastral map of Ukraine. Mathematical framework was used to build robust forecast model. The methodology of the study employed various mathematical tools, such as statistical analytics, polynomial and linear approximations, mathematical correlation, ratio analysis. Besides profit and utility curves were used for growth modeling and global forecast. Spatial data have been outlined as highly effective for predictions modeling and establishing connections with the existing urbanization growth models. Urbanization processes serve as catalyst for land use change and shift in economic activities . As more population migrate to urban centers, remote villages and towns shrink in size, lose work force and often local enterprise become bankrupt or shut down. There is a consequent indirect effect of urbanization on agriculture land use that is when local community become poor or bankrupt, the farmlands are rented by large agricultural holdings. Many researchers noted that agricultural holdings have no interest in development of local communities or investment in local business. Even though they employ local people, the average income of holdings farm employees is much lesser, then those farmers whose lands are in private use or those working in agricultural sector in neighboring European Union countries. The average salary is important factor when looking at land use by large companies since agricultural holdings business goals centered about exporting raw resources and they are registered as business entities in offshore countries.The scope of current research works is limited to the analyses of medium to large size food and processing companies, that operate in local Ukrainian market, with brief overview of food products export business. To build economical model the existing transport infrastructure in Ukraine and its neighboring European countries was studied and used in system analyses. Author analyzed available human resources, amount of investments, industry type and available transportation connections. As a part of research work, physical geographical placement (distance by road) of food and processing production companies relative to closest and regional urban center positions have been outlined. A large array of economical and spatial data has been processed. It was determined that parts of this data have low correlation levels, which makes it difficult to include for modeling purposes. Author made decision to make the necessary edits, generalization to simplify the initial economical model.To build a research model we will make the following assumptions and data sets. Let us use the city of Kyiv as the main market for food products, i.e. it is the largest city in Ukraine, with a huge number of food products consumers and significant financial resources. We shall label it as an urban center for this research work. It is important to note that new companies and international corporations choose to establish their business in the Kyiv or in the 50-kilometer zone from it. For modeling we will choose 12 enterprises, which are located both in the capital and in different regions of Ukraine - west, south, east and center. We rank the selected enterprises by the number of employees.In the context of our economic modeling, consider the land market, namely: the average cost of rent of 1 hectare per year, the location of the enterprise in an industrial region or in a separate settlement. Note that the production capacity of the investigated enterprises is concentrated in one production site (complex). However, the exception is the corporation "Milk Alliance" which has 5 separate production facilities, we will focus on the largest of them, located in the city of Yagotyn (others are located in Peratyn, Zolotonosha, Bashtanka).It is reported that the total area of land plots in Ukraine is 60.4 million hectares, of which 42.4 million hectares are agricultural land (32 million hectares are cultivated per year), the area of built-up land plots is 2550.4 thousand hectares. Land for industrial purposes, which includes the food industry is 224.1 thousand hectares. The cost of annual lease of land in Ukraine for 2019 population 3518 UAH/hectare per year.At the same time, the statistics by region are as follows: Kyiv - 2694 UAH per year; Kyiv region - 3474 UAH per year; Zhytomyr and region – 4000 UAH per year; Mykolaiv Oblast – 4103 UAH per year; Kharkiv and oblast – 3152 UAH per year; Odessa region – 4065 UAH per year; Lviv region - 4172 UAH per year; Donetsk oblast - 1832 UAH per year. It is planned that in 2020 the total revenues to local budgets from land rent will amount to 185,714,285 UAH per year.To understand the general picture of the relationship and economic performance of enterprises located in Kyiv and different regions of Ukraine, we shall consider Kyiv as a self-sufficient object, both in terms of products sales and production. The largest food retailers have opened more than 575 stores in Kyiv as of 2018, and more than 60 new stores are opened each year. The production of food, beverages and tobacco by Kyiv enterprises is 46.6% of the total industrial production, which employs 1,730,000 people (7.4% of total in Kyiv), and the average wage in industry is from 16,511 UAH/month in 2019. In total, there are 9069 industrial enterprises in the capital, which employ 278,863 people, the volume of products sold by industrial enterprises of Kyiv in 2019 amounted to 892,1765,46.2 thousand UAH. At the same time, there are 7351 natural persons-entrepreneurs operating in the capital (11,877 people are employed, the volume of sold products is 5,622,011.9 thousand UAH) in industry, including the volume of products sold by food industry enterprises – 125,140,998.9 thousand UAH according to 2019 data.It should be noted that in Kyiv the main industrial capacities of food and processing enterprises are concentrated in the following areas: Industrial zone " Degtyarivska Street" covers an area of 17.7 hectares; Podilsko-Kurenivskyi industrial district - 539.5 hectares, Pirogovo industrial zone - 121.9 hectares; Voskresensky industrial district - 107.2 hectares.For economic analysis we focused on comparison of three large enterprises of Ukraine, typical for the agricultural sector and food industry, one of which is in Kyiv – "Astrata", "Sandora" and "Kyivhlib". For calculations of transportation costs let's use the following data, 20 to 22 tons van will charge 27 UAH per km outside of Kyiv, while 10 tons van charges 20 UAH per km outside of Kyiv and 250 UAH per km within Kyiv.The "Astrata" corpopration, a large agricultural enterprise, has 5,470 employees, 230,000 hectares of land (aprox. 1514090000 UAH per yar for land rent), with Net profit of 12,631,155,000, Gross profit of 2,432,488,000 UAH, and a total salary expenditure of UAH 427,597,000 (average per employee 6514 UAH per month). For our research we are using one of the sugar processing factories that is part of Astrata holding, it is in Hlobyne, Poltavska oblast. The distance from Hlobyne to Kyiv center is 287 km, so it will cost 7749 UAH per large van to transport products to Kyiv.One of the largest food manufacturers in Ukraine is "Sandora". It consists of 3230 employees, total salary expenses - 630 128 thousand UAH (average per employee 16,257 UAH per month), have a land area of 1.3646 hectares (aprox. 5600 UAH per yar for land rent) and a unit cost of production - 22.66 UAH per liter of apple. Single 10-ton van will charge 10020 UAH to transport products to Kyiv (501km distance to the city center).For Kyiv study we picked "Kyivhlib", which has 1911 employees, total salary expenses – 168,227 thousand UAH (average per employee 14,019 UAH per month), have a land area of 8 hectares (aprox. 21552 UAH per yar for land rent) and the unit cost of production - 14.9 UAH per kg of rye-wheat bread. It will cost 7500 UAH to transport products within 30 km of Kyiv center by 10-ton van. Distance from the production location to the market is not always proportional to net profit. The research results have proved that it is worth examining the data from the same sub-industries companies in several regions, with focus on large cities as main market for those companies' products. ; The paper is devoted to studying the economic and social connections between the urbanization process and agricultural land use in Ukraine. It is worth noting that both urbanization and agriculture require new lands for their future development. The important part of this connection is ecology and effective use of the available resources, as well as land use in the context of urbanization. After all, the process of urbanization can have a significant negative impact on the state of land resources. The research work determines which economic factors of urbanization are the most relevant to the land use in city suburbs and agricultural regions. The article introduces the notion of economic feasibility of land use by purpose and studies cases of food and processing companies. Food and processing industries were chosen as the main research subjects since they are the most promising fields for the future economic development of each individual region and country as a whole. These industries are centered around both import and export, besides producing added value products. Cities without a doubt are the main consumers of food products and at the same time, they drain labor resources from the countryside. In this research work, we studied the global situation in Ukraine, how 21-century urbanization has affected the agricultural sector in the country. This sector has experienced rapid growth in past decades, as opposed to industrial and manufacturing sectors, and increased the national wide level of land use. While the national wide level of urbanization might not be the highest in modern history (20th to 21st century), it continues to have a wide impact on the national economy. The scope of this impact falls outside of this research work as it consists of multidimensional data and a wide range of interdependencies, including policies and regulations. Research models require a large amount of data and cases, that's why we focused on the food and processing sector in this paper. They proved to be a good test ground to study the urbanization impact patterns as well as make economical modeling more convenient. In this context, the peculiarities of land use models were studied, as food and processing industries use land resources, can be located both inside the city, suburban area, or in remote farmland region. It is evident that cities and businesses form large supply and demand of natural resources, labor, and financial investments.

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Khanapur Hosalli-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 448 ha in Khanapur Hosalli-2 MWS in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 430 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 16 ha is covered by rock outcrops and 2 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 9 soil series and 14 soil phases (management units) and 6 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 430 ha area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 46 per cent of area is shallow (25-50 cm), 150 cm).  About 18 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 40 per cent loamy soils and 39 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 83 per cent area in the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 10 per cent is medium (101-150mm/m) 18 per cent is low (51-100 mm/m) and 46 per cent area is very low (0.75%) in organic carbon content of the soil.  About 32 per cent of area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus content of the soil, 3 per cent of area is low (57 kg/ha) in the microwatershed.  Available potassium content is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 25 per cent and medium (10 -20 ppm) in 52 per cent of area in the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in an area of 37 per cent of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 53 (12) 133 (30) Guava - 90 (20) Maize 90 (20) 96 (21) Sapota - 90 (20) Bajra 90 (20) 96 (21) Pomegranate - 90 (20) Groundnut 37 (8) - Musambi - 90 (20) Sunflower - 90 (20) Lime - 90 (20) Redgram - 185 (41) Amla 90 (20) 0.5 (<1) Bengal gram - - Cashew - 45 (10) Cotton 53 (12) - Jackfruit - 90 (20) Chilli 90 (20) 0.5 (<1) Jamun - - Tomato 90 (20) 0.5 (<1) Custard apple 82 (18) 9 (2) Brinjal 90 (20) 0.5 (<1) Tamarind - - Onion 90 (20) 0.5 (<1) Mulberry - 90 (20) Bhendi 90 (20) 0.5 (<1) Marigold 90 (20) 0.5 (<1) Drumstick - 90 (20) Chrysanthemum 90 (20) 0.5 (<1) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 75 (61.98%) men and 46 (38.02%) were women among the sampled households.  The average family size of marginal farmers was 4.19, a small farmer was 5, a semi medium farmer was 4.33, a medium farmer was 4 and for large farmers it was 4.22.  There were 22 (11.28%) people in 0-15 years of age, 71 (36.41%) were in 16-35 years of age, 84 (43.08 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 18 (9.23%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that the Khanapura Hosalli-2 had 61.54 per cent illiterates, 2.05 per cent were functional literates, 13.85 per cent of them had primary school education, 4.10 per cent of them had middle school education, 6.67 per cent of them had high school education, 3.59 per cent of them had PUC education, and 5.64 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 85.29 per cent of the households were practicing agriculture, 11.76 per cent of the household heads were general labourers and 2.94 percent of the households were housewife.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 48.72 per cent of the household members, 6.67 per cent were general labourers, 0.51 per cent were private service, 10.26 per cent of them were in student, 26.15 per cent of them were housewife and 3.59 per cent of them were children.  The results show that 99.49 per cent of the population did not participate in any local organization and only 1 person was a member of cooperative bank.  The results indicate that 85.29 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 14.71 per cent of them possess pucca house.  The results shows that 100 per cent of the households possess TV, 11.76 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 23.53 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, and 100 per cent of the households mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs.8647, mixer grinder was Rs.1925, motor cycle was Rs.62875 and mobile phone was Rs.2280.  About 20.59 per cent of the households possess plough, 23.53 per cent of them possess bullock cart, 2.94 per cent of them possess sprayer, and 20.59 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of plough was Rs.3414, the average value of sprayer was Rs.7500, the average value of bullock cart was Rs.18875, and the average value of weeder was Rs.91.  The results indicate that, 35.29 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 11.76 per cent of the households possess local cow, and 2.94 per cent of the households possess buffalo and goat. 2  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.65, average own labour (women) available was 1.90, average hired labour (men) available was 10.29 and average hired labour (women) available was 9.42.  The results indicate that, 88.24 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate. 100 per cent of marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmers who responded to the question answered that hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Khanapura Hosalli-2 micro watershed possess 24.39 ha (75.17%) of dry land and 8.06 ha (24.83%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 8.90 ha (100%) of dry land. Small possess 6.88 (83.95%) of dry land and 1.74 ha (16.81%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 8.61 ha (83.19%) of dry land and 1.74 ha (16.81%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 5 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The average value of dry land was Rs. 512363.09 and average value of irrigated was Rs. 322551.48. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 820336.67 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 450411.77 for dry land and Rs. 608000 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 243750 for dry land and Rs. 344651.15 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 239805.82 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, small farmers had irrigated area of 1.32 hectares, semi medium farmers had 1.63 hectares and medium farmers had 5 hectares of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown cotton (9.97 ha), Greengram (1.21 ha), groundnut (14.36 ha), paddy (0.51 ha), and redgram (7.51 ha).  Marginal farmers had grown cotton, groundnut and redgram. Small farmers had grown cotton, greengram, paddy and redgram. Semi medium farmers had grown cotton and groundnut and medium farmers had grown groundnut only.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Khanapura Hosalli-2 micro watershed was found to be 100 per cent.  The results indicate that, 88.24 per cent of the households in the micro watershed possess bank account and savings. This included 100 per cent of marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmers. Landless farmers did not possess any bank account.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmers have borrowed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 58847.46. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 76895.28. The net income from Groundnut cultivation was Rs. 18047.82, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.31. 3  The total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 90161.66. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 151731.12. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 61569.46. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.68.  The total cost of cultivation for red gram was Rs. 61002.42. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 75056.91. The net income from red gram cultivation was Rs. 14054.50. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.23.  The total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 141572.06. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 173888. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 32315.94. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.23.  The total cost of cultivation for greengram was Rs. 27216.95. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 74100. The net income from greengram cultivation was Rs. 46883, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.72.  The results indicate that, 35.29 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate. The data also revealed that 32.35 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder is adequate.  The average annual gross income in case of landless farmers was Rs.85000, in case of marginal farmers it was Rs. 113281, in case of small farmers it was Rs. 135071, in case of semi medium farmers it was Rs. 300000 and in case of medium farmers it was Rs. 287000.  The results indicated that, in case of landless farmers the average annual expenditure was Rs. 7500, in case of marginal farmers it was Rs. 5798.83, in case of small farmers it was Rs. 7127.98, in case of semi medium farmers it was Rs. 28800, and for medium farmers it was Rs.48000.  The results indicated that, greengram, groundnut, paddy and redgram were sold to the extent of 100 per cent. Cotton was sold to the extent of 80.65 per cent.  About 88.24 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants which include 100 per cent of the marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmers.  The results indicated that 11.76 per cent of the households have used cart as mode of transport and 76.47 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transport.  The results indicated that, 88.24 per cent of the households have shown interest in soil testing i.e. 100 per cent of marginal farmers, 100 per cent of small farmers, 100 per cent of semi medium and 100 per cent of medium farmers have shown interest in soil testing.  The results indicated that, dung cake was the source of fuel for 2.94 per cent of the households, fire wood was the source of fuel for 91.18 per cent of the households and LPG was the source of fuel for 5.88 per cent of the households.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 100 per cent of the households in the micro watershed. 4  The results indicated that, electricity was the major source of light for all the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 47.06 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 25 per cent of landless, 37.50 per cent of marginal, 28.57 per cent of small, 100 per cent of semi medium, and 100 per cent of medium farmers had sanitary toilet facility.  100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 91.18 per cent of the households in the micro watershed participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 76.47 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 35.29 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 26.47 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 26.47 per cent, fruits were adequate for 20.59 per cent, milk was adequate for 76.47 per cent, egg were adequate for 79.41 per cent and meat was adequate for 76.47 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, Lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 88.24 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (88.24%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (23.53%), inadequacy of irrigation water (23.53%), high cost of Fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (85.29%), high rate of interest on credit (79.41%), low price for the agricultural commodities (85.29 %), lack of marketing facilities in the area (73.53%), inadequate extension services (8.82%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (82.35%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Naregallu-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 623 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 91 per cent is covered by soils and 9 per cent is by habitation and settlements. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 15 soil series and 26 soil phases (management units) and 8 Land Management Units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  About 2 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 89 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 81 per cent area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 5 per cent area of the microwatershed has nearly level (0-1% slope) lands and 86 per cent area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  An area of about 46 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded and about 45 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded.  An area of about 51 per cent soils are strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) and 40 per cent soil are very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is dominantly 337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 21 per cent area of the microwatershed.  An area of about 2 per cent is low (1.0 ppm) in available boron content.  An area of about 21 per cent is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) and 69 per cent is deficient (1.0 ppm) in available manganese content.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is sufficient (>0.2 ppm) in available copper content.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in available zinc content.  The land suitability for 31 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 138(22) 336(54) Sapota 26(4) 56(9) Maize 6(1) 470(75) Pomegranate 26(4) 434(70) Bajra 26(4) 489(79) Guava 26(4) 40(6) Groundnut 26(4) 40(6) Jackfruit 26(4) 40(6) Sunflower 133(21) 289(46) Jamun 26(4) 337(54) Cotton 133(21) 343(55) Musambi 133(21) 329(53) Red gram 26(4) 330(53) Lime 133(21) 329(53) Bengalgram 118(19) 358(57) Cashew 26(4) 40(6) Chilli 26(4) - Custard apple 138(22) 376(61) Tomato 26(4) 16(3) Amla 26(4) 489(79) Brinjal 6(1) 486(78) Tamarind 26(4) 298(48) Onion 6(1) 38(6) Marigold 26(4) 449(72) Bhendi 6(1) 486(78) Chrysanthemum 26(4) 449(72) Drumstick 26(4) 394(63) Jasmine 26(4) 54(9) Mulberry 26(4) 361(58) Crossandra 26(4) 132(21) Mango 26(4) 99(16)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 8 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserves soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 115 (58.67%) men and 81 (41.33%) were women among the sampled households. The average family size of marginal farmers was 5.8, small farmer was 5.1, semi medium farmer was 5.8, medium farmers were 5.6 and for large farmers it was 10.  Around 38 (19.39%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 80 (40.82%) were in 16-35 years of age, 56 (28.57 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 22 (11.22%) were above 61 years of age.  The micro watershed had 27.55 per cent illiterates, 38.78 per cent of the people had primary school education, 3.57 per cent of them had middle school education, 17.86 per cent of them had high school education, 7.14 per cent of them had PUC education, 2.55 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 88.24 per cent of households practicing agriculture and 5.88 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers. The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 35.71 per cent of the household members, 38.78 per cent were agricultural labourers, 17.86 per cent were students, 2.04 per cent were children, 1.02 per cent were general labourers, 0.51 per cent were in government service and private service.  The results show that only 1 (0.51%) household has participated in NGOs and remaining 99.49 per cent of the sampled households have not participated in any local institution.  The results indicate that 79.41 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 11.76 per cent of them possess pucca house and 8.82 per cent of them possess semi pucca house.  The results shows that 82.35 per cent of the households possess TV, 70.59 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 17.65 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 55.88 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 79.41 per cent of the households possess mobile phones, 8.82 per cent of the households possess landline phones and 2.94 per cent of the households possess car/four wheeler. The average value of television was Rs.4750, mixer grinder was Rs.1881, bicycle was Rs.2714, motor cycle was Rs. 44,368, car/four wheeler was Rs.6,00,000, landline phone was Rs.1100 and mobile phone was Rs.2367.  About 8.82 per cent of the households possess plough, 29.41 per cent of them possess bullock cart and 20.59 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 11.76 per cent of the households possess irrigation pump, 5.88 per cent pf the households possess tractor, 17.65 per cent of them possess harvester and 44.12 per cent of the households possess weeder. The average value of plough was Rs.2000, bullock cart was Rs.24300, sprayer was Rs.2457, seed/fertilizer drill was Rs.1500, irrigation pump was Rs.30000, power tiller was Rs.200000 and tractor was Rs.500000. 2  The results indicate that, 26.47 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 8.82 per cent of the households possess local cow, 8.82 per cent of the households possess crossbred cows.  Average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.12, average own labour (women) available was 1.74, average hired labour (men) available was 18 and average hired labour (women) available was 18.29.  About 29.41 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate and 70.59 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate.  Households of the Naregallu-2 micro watershed possess 20.42 ha (39.70%) of dry land and 31.02 ha (60.30%) of irrigated land. The average value of dry land was Rs. 274118.11 and average value of irrigated land was Rs.473760.  There were 18 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed. Bore well was the major irrigation source for 52.94 per cent of the farmers and canal was the source of irrigation for 5.88 per cent of the farmers. The depth of bore well was found to be 57.55 meters and the depth of canal was 0.22 meters.  Farmers have grown Maize (36.13 ha), Bajra (0.81 ha), Cotton (2.83 ha), Greengram (2.02 ha), Groundnut (4.86 ha), Cowpea (1.65 ha), Groundnut (4.86 ha) and Jowar (2.52 ha).  The cropping intensity in Naregallu-2 micro watershed was found to be 90.97 per cent. In case of Marginal farmers it was 100 per cent, for small farmers it was 103.34 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 100 per cent, for medium farmers it was 99.37 per cent and for large farmers it was only 50 per cent.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 51536.65. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 43179.88. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. -8356.77, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.84.  The total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 35575.11. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 22847.50. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs.- 12727.61. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.64.  The total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 27281.70. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 101270. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 73988.30, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.71.  The total cost of cultivation for greengram was Rs. 21836.11. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 25688. The net income from greengram cultivation was Rs. 3851.89. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.18.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs.11794.76. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 36020.83. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 24226.07. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.05. 3  The total cost of cultivation for cowpea was Rs. 5506.13. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 21794.12. The net income from cowpea cultivation was Rs. 16287.99. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.96.  The total cost of cultivation for jowar was Rs. 31467.29. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 18543.42. The net income from jowar cultivation was Rs. - 12923.86. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.59.  The results indicate that, 8.82 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate which includes 10 per cent of marginal farmers, 14.29 per cent of small, 9.09 per cent of semi medium farmers.  Around 26.47 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate. The data revealed that 32.35 per cent of the farmers opined that dry fodder is inadequate and 14.71 per cent opined that green fodder is inadequate.  The results indicate that the average annual gross income is Rs.77102.94. For marginal farmers it was Rs 37050, for small farmers it was Rs.54714.29, for semi medium farmers it was Rs.85363.64, for medium farmers it was Rs.105800 and for large farmers it was Rs.400000.  The average annual expenditure of households in micro watershed is Rs.12977.73. For marginal farmers it was Rs 2310, for small farmers it was Rs.3877, for semi medium farmers it was Rs.4090.91, for medium farmers it was Rs.9200 and for large farmers it was Rs.300000.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 10 coconut trees, 10 guava trees and 5 mango trees in their field. The households have also planted 41 neem trees, 4 tamarind trees, 4 acacia trees, 2 teak trees, 1 banyan tree and 1 cashew tree in the field.  The results indicated that, 2.94 per cent of the households have sold their produce to agents/traders, 38.24 per cent of the households have sold their produce to local/village merchants, 55.88 per cent of the households have sold their produce in regulated markets and 14.71 per cent of the households have sold their produce in cooperative marketing society.  The results indicated that 91.18 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transport, 14.71 per cent have used cart and another 5.88 per cent have used truck as a mode of transport for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 2.94 per cent of the households used kerosene as a source of fuel, 70.59 per cent used fire wood and another 32.35 per cent of the households used LPG.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 23.53 per cent of the households and bore well was the major source for 76.47 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed. 4  Around 47.06 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 50 per cent of the marginal, 57.14 per cent of the small, 36.36 per cent of the semi medium, 40 per cent of the medium and 100 per cent of large farmers had sanitary toilet facility.  Around 79.41 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card, 11.76 per cent possessed APL card and 8.82 per cent of the households not possessed PDS card.  About 52.94 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme which included 40 percent of the marginal, 57.14 per cent of the small, 36.36 per cent of the semi medium, 100 percent of the medium and 100 per cent large farmers.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 14.71 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (32.35%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (44.12%), inadequacy of irrigation water (8.82%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (38.24%), high rate of interest on credit (14.71%), low price for the agricultural commodities (14.71%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (17.65%), inadequate extension services (20.59%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (29.41%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

The objectives of this study are to: 1. Give an overview of the current discussion concerning competition distortion in relation to climate policy, 2. Describe results from some studies estimating the actual competition situation for selected activities, 3. Describe what sector agreement models are suggested/ discussed by EU, 4. Describe what sectors are most interesting to target with a sector agreement from a Swedish point of view, 5. Analyse what parameters are important for reducing competition distortion for Swedish Industry. Two studies, for the United Kingdom (Hourcade et al 2008) and Germany (Graichen et al 2008), have recently assessed the potential cost impact for different industrial sectors of CO2-prices due to the EU ETS. Maximum value at stake was used as metrics. The sectors with high potential impact, with a maximum value at stake larger than 10%, are in the United Kingdom Lime and cement, Basic iron and steel, Starches, Refined petroleum, Fertilizers and Nitrogen compounds and Aluminium. In Germany, the sectors with a maximum value at stake larger than 10% are: Cement and lime, Fertilizers and nitrogen compounds, Basic iron and steel, Aluminium, Paper and board, Other basic inorganic compounds and Coke, refined petroleum and nuclear fuels. Ex-ante studies of the impacts of competitiveness and carbon leakage due to the EU ETS fail to find actual impacts. However, that does not mean that there will be no impact in the future, which hold changes both in the EU ETS (method for allowance allocation, allowance prices etc) and possibly also other important circumstances (global demand for certain products and global product prices). In this study, based on official Swedish statistics, the maximum value a stake has been calculated for 52 Swedish sectors. Seven sectors have a maximum value a stake of more than 4%: Coke and refined petroleum (21%), Pulp and paper (11%), Basic metals (10%), Non-metallic mineral (9%), Metal ore mines (6%), Air transport (5%) and Electricity, gas and heat (4%). If Air transport and Electricity, gas and heat are omitted, the five remaining sectors account for 22% of Sweden's carbon emissions. In the Swedish Non-metallic mineral sector (including Cement and lime) the maximum value at stake is considerably lower than for Cement and lime in the UK and Germany. This is most likely due differences in system boundaries. In the Swedish statistics, the Cement and lime industry is a minor part (in terms of value added) of the Non-metallic mineral sector, a sector that also includes Stone, sand and soil industry. The calculated maximum value at stake for Non-metallic mineral is therefore a poor proxy for the Cement and lime sector since other sub sectors may 'dilute' the maximum value at stake. Differences in system boundaries may also explain the significant difference in maximum value at stake between the Swedish steel industry and UK and German steel industries. Other possible explanations may be a higher value added per unit, differences in how value added is calculated, different years applied for the analysis and lower CO2-intensity for Swedish products. In late 2008, the EU proposed three types of sector approaches to be discussed under the Ad-hoc Working Group on future commitments for Annex I Parties under the Kyoto Protocol (AWG-KP): i) Sector CDM - a CDM crediting mechanism with a previously established baseline ii) Sectoral no-lose mechanism - Sectoral crediting against a previously established no-lose target iii) Sectoral emission trading based on a sector emissions cap Based on these three sectoral models, we have analysed what parameters are important for reducing competition distortion for Swedish industry. We have assumed that these sector agreements are implemented in a developing country (DC). We conclude that if sector agreements are to reduce distortions on competition, it is important that the sector agreements create a real carbon price in the DC, i.e. that emissions of carbon dioxide are associated with a cost for the emitter. All three sector agreement-models suggested by the EU can potentially create a carbon price. The driver for emission reductions are in all three cases the international demand for offsets. As a potentially large buyer of off-sets, the EU demand for off-sets is likely to increase the carbon price in the DC sector. The choice of EU policy with respect to imports of off-set will therefore have great importance. Other buyers, such as other countries, emission trading systems or the voluntary credit market will of course also be important. Moreover, imports of off-sets may reduce the price on EU ETS allowances, thus further narrowing the carbon price gap between the two markets. If an important objective of a sectoral agreement is to reduce competition distortion it should be implemented in sectors where the corresponding Swedish industry has significant carbon related costs and where there is significant trade intensity between Sweden and regions outside the EU. Our preliminary analysis indicates that Swedish sectors with potentially high maximum value at stake (direct carbon and indirect electricity cost) are Refineries; Pulp and Paper; Iron and Steel;Cement and Lime; and Metal ore mining. The sectors Aluminium and Fertilizers may be important, but have not been assessed explicitly in this study. In addition, electricity production can be important to include in a sectoral agreement since the electricity price may be a significant cost for certain sectors exposed to international competition. Pass-through of costs - consumer incentives. If a sectoral agreement is to reduce competition distortion it is important that the sector participating in the sectoral agreement can pass through the additional carbon costs on the commodity so the carbon intensive products become more expensive for the consumer. A full pass through of the carbon cost could be compromised in countries with centrally regulated prices on carbon intensive commodities or other measures that shield the true price of carbon from the consumer. Target setting - producer incentives. The rules for setting the targets in the DC sector are crucial from a producer incentive point of view. There are two main options here: 1) absolute targets and 2) intensity targets. Absolute targets create high incentives for carbon reductions as long as the targets are not re-negotiated. The disadvantage is that they might be difficult to negotiate due to difficulties in finding an appropriate emission level, risk for hot air and the inflexibility to future adjustments. Intensity targets are based on output times an intensity factor (called benchmarking). But benchmarking leads to reduced incentives: i) as a production subsidy it encourages overproduction and ii) dis-incentivises the substitution to carbon efficient products. A third, theoretical, option would be absolute targets that are updated according to historic emissions. This model would, however, seriously undermine the incentives for emission reductions. In this study, we have argued that from a competition point of view, it's important to create a carbon price in the developing country. A different issue relates to how different sector agreement models influence the compliance costs of participating firms. We describe a situation where a DC industry sector is linked to the EU ETS, and where the EU industry pays for allowances (no free allocation). For a Sector emission trading system where the DC industry has to pay for allowances, the compliance costs could be compatible in the two regions. For Sector CDM and Sector no-lose mechanism, if the government implements a domestic carbon tax, the compliance costs may also be compatible in the two regions. However, if allowances are allocated freely to the DC industry and no tax is implemented, the DC industry would have no costs associated with the carbon emissions below the compliance level. There could here be a significant difference in compliance costs between the industries in the two regions. We have, however, not analysed if significant asymmetries in compliance costs can lead to competitive distortions between regions. ; The objectives of this study are to: 1. Give an overview of the current discussion concerning competition distortion in relation to climate policy, 2. Describe results from some studies estimating the actual competition situation for selected activities, 3. Describe what sector agreement models are suggested/ discussed by EU, 4. Describe what sectors are most interesting to target with a sector agreement from a Swedish point of view, 5. Analyse what parameters are important for reducing competition distortion for Swedish Industry. Two studies, for the United Kingdom (Hourcade et al 2008) and Germany (Graichen et al 2008), have recently assessed the potential cost impact for different industrial sectors of CO2-prices due to the EU ETS. Maximum value at stake was used as metrics. The sectors with high potential impact, with a maximum value at stake larger than 10%, are in the United Kingdom Lime and cement, Basic iron and steel, Starches, Refined petroleum, Fertilizers and Nitrogen compounds and Aluminium. In Germany, the sectors with a maximum value at stake larger than 10% are: Cement and lime, Fertilizers and nitrogen compounds, Basic iron and steel, Aluminium, Paper and board, Other basic inorganic compounds and Coke, refined petroleum and nuclear fuels. Ex-ante studies of the impacts of competitiveness and carbon leakage due to the EU ETS fail to find actual impacts. However, that does not mean that there will be no impact in the future, which hold changes both in the EU ETS (method for allowance allocation, allowance prices etc) and possibly also other important circumstances (global demand for certain products and global product prices). In this study, based on official Swedish statistics, the maximum value a stake has been calculated for 52 Swedish sectors. Seven sectors have a maximum value a stake of more than 4%: Coke and refined petroleum (21%), Pulp and paper (11%), Basic metals (10%), Non-metallic mineral (9%), Metal ore mines (6%), Air transport (5%) and Electricity, gas and heat (4%). If Air transport and Electricity, gas and heat are omitted, the five remaining sectors account for 22% of Sweden's carbon emissions. In the Swedish Non-metallic mineral sector (including Cement and lime) the maximum value at stake is considerably lower than for Cement and lime in the UK and Germany. This is most likely due differences in system boundaries. In the Swedish statistics, the Cement and lime industry is a minor part (in terms of value added) of the Non-metallic mineral sector, a sector that also includes Stone, sand and soil industry. The calculated maximum value at stake for Non-metallic mineral is therefore a poor proxy for the Cement and lime sector since other sub sectors may 'dilute' the maximum value at stake. Differences in system boundaries may also explain the significant difference in maximum value at stake between the Swedish steel industry and UK and German steel industries. Other possible explanations may be a higher value added per unit, differences in how value added is calculated, different years applied for the analysis and lower CO2-intensity for Swedish products. In late 2008, the EU proposed three types of sector approaches to be discussed under the Ad-hoc Working Group on future commitments for Annex I Parties under the Kyoto Protocol (AWG-KP): i) Sector CDM - a CDM crediting mechanism with a previously established baseline ii) Sectoral no-lose mechanism - Sectoral crediting against a previously established no-lose target iii) Sectoral emission trading based on a sector emissions cap Based on these three sectoral models, we have analysed what parameters are important for reducing competition distortion for Swedish industry. We have assumed that these sector agreements are implemented in a developing country (DC). We conclude that if sector agreements are to reduce distortions on competition, it is important that the sector agreements create a real carbon price in the DC, i.e. that emissions of carbon dioxide are associated with a cost for the emitter. All three sector agreement-models suggested by the EU can potentially create a carbon price. The driver for emission reductions are in all three cases the international demand for offsets. As a potentially large buyer of off-sets, the EU demand for off-sets is likely to increase the carbon price in the DC sector. The choice of EU policy with respect to imports of off-set will therefore have great importance. Other buyers, such as other countries, emission trading systems or the voluntary credit market will of course also be important. Moreover, imports of off-sets may reduce the price on EU ETS allowances, thus further narrowing the carbon price gap between the two markets. If an important objective of a sectoral agreement is to reduce competition distortion it should be implemented in sectors where the corresponding Swedish industry has significant carbon related costs and where there is significant trade intensity between Sweden and regions outside the EU. Our preliminary analysis indicates that Swedish sectors with potentially high maximum value at stake (direct carbon and indirect electricity cost) are Refineries; Pulp and Paper; Iron and Steel;Cement and Lime; and Metal ore mining. The sectors Aluminium and Fertilizers may be important, but have not been assessed explicitly in this study. In addition, electricity production can be important to include in a sectoral agreement since the electricity price may be a significant cost for certain sectors exposed to international competition. Pass-through of costs - consumer incentives. If a sectoral agreement is to reduce competition distortion it is important that the sector participating in the sectoral agreement can pass through the additional carbon costs on the commodity so the carbon intensive products become more expensive for the consumer. A full pass through of the carbon cost could be compromised in countries with centrally regulated prices on carbon intensive commodities or other measures that shield the true price of carbon from the consumer. Target setting - producer incentives. The rules for setting the targets in the DC sector are crucial from a producer incentive point of view. There are two main options here: 1) absolute targets and 2) intensity targets. Absolute targets create high incentives for carbon reductions as long as the targets are not re-negotiated. The disadvantage is that they might be difficult to negotiate due to difficulties in finding an appropriate emission level, risk for hot air and the inflexibility to future adjustments. Intensity targets are based on output times an intensity factor (called benchmarking). But benchmarking leads to reduced incentives: i) as a production subsidy it encourages overproduction and ii) dis-incentivises the substitution to carbon efficient products. A third, theoretical, option would be absolute targets that are updated according to historic emissions. This model would, however, seriously undermine the incentives for emission reductions. In this study, we have argued that from a competition point of view, it's important to create a carbon price in the developing country. A different issue relates to how different sector agreement models influence the compliance costs of participating firms. We describe a situation where a DC industry sector is linked to the EU ETS, and where the EU industry pays for allowances (no free allocation). For a Sector emission trading system where the DC industry has to pay for allowances, the compliance costs could be compatible in the two regions. For Sector CDM and Sector no-lose mechanism, if the government implements a domestic carbon tax, the compliance costs may also be compatible in the two regions. However, if allowances are allocated freely to the DC industry and no tax is implemented, the DC industry would have no costs associated with the carbon emissions below the compliance level. There could here be a significant difference in compliance costs between the industries in the two regions. We have, however, not analysed if significant asymmetries in compliance costs can lead to competitive distortions between regions.

Problem setting. The changes taking place in Ukraine are closely linked to the need to reform the system of local government and build civil society. The experience of the development of foreign countries, which have passed the path of decentralization in the initial conditions, as close as possible to the Ukrainian ones, the experience of the reform of the administrative-territorial system should be used in Ukraine. This process will be the basis for ensuring a high standard of living, access to quality services at the level of local communities.Recent research and publications analysis. Many domestic scholars have worked and are working on the problems of decentralization reform, changes in the administrative-territorial system, which directly affect the redistribution and formation of budgets of territorial units of the basic level, in particular: O.Vasylyk, I. Volokhova, V. Demyanyshyn, O. Kyrylenko, V. Averyanov, B. Adamov, G. Atamanchuk, V. Bakumenko, S. Bila, Z. Varnaliy, B. Danylyshyn, V. Knyazev , V. Kozbanenko, S. Kolomiytsev, V. Kravchenko, V. Kuybida, which is an important factor for the implementation of administrative reform in Ukraine and the avoidance of undesirable risks that may adversely affect the decentralization process in general. At the same time, the experience of foreign scholars is important: M. Horvat, D. Young, D. Kregar, who paid considerable attention to the reform of local self-government and the results of decentralization changes for community building.Highlighting previously unsettled parts of the general problem. Most scholars focus on foreign experience as a derivative for use in Ukrainian practice in order to develop methods that can be implemented only under certain conditions of economic development. The purpose of the article is to form our own theoretical generalizations about the possibility of using the experience of decentralization reforms in Latvia, Lithuania and Croatia in Ukrainian practice.Paper main body. The experiences of foreign countries in reforming the administrative-territorial system, the formation of administrative units of the basic level, the redistribution of powers among branches of government have been considered. Carrying out the decentralization reform is one of the most urgent tasks of Ukraine. The path taken by foreign countries in the framework of local government reform is different and unique. Each state carried out decentralization reform in accordance with the specifics of national, ethnic, economic, geographical and other factors that in one way or another influenced the final result of the reform. The experience of countries that in the historical context had a certain identity in economic, territorial-administrative and historical-cultural terms is important for Ukraine. Therefore, the Baltic States, countries with a post-Soviet past, which implemented the decentralization process in different ways, have been chosen for our study.In Lithuania, a country that embarked on local government reform under the strict control of the central government, the approach to territorial change was voluntary, but within clear rules governing administrative units practically the same in size and population, which eventually became economically effective communities. During the decentralization process, the state defined the powers, which were entrusted to the implementation by local authorities primarily within the social components – education, health and social care, other sectors of the economy such as economic, housing and communal, public order are performed by local governments exclusively within the needs and processes of communities.The decentralization process in Latvia took place according to a slightly different scenario. First of all, it should be noted that the territories were voluntary united without government intervention, but with certain preferences in the form of remuneration for communities united according to the plan submitted from "the above". The state delegated powers, and in the case of Latvia, first of all, of a social nature. Expenditures on education in self-government units have the largest share among others, but it should be noted that the economy and housing, communal services are given slightly broader powers, which are characterized by the provision of broad powers in the permitting systems of Latvian communities. However, the exercise of powers in health care is limited to the primary level. In addition, social housing as well as urban planning is given a special niche in the municipal authorities, which is a balance between expenditure and revenue in this area.Croatia is a state that also had a socialist past, but began the decentralization process under the occupation of a part of the territory. A country that has approached the change of administrative-territorial system with economic pragmatism, and basic self-government units are created by the method of economic factors without government intervention. Regarding the self-government expenditures of Croatia, the financing of the housing and communal services sector and the holding of recreational activities have a key role to play. Delegation of powers in the field of transport and communications is also quite important. The economic activity of local self-government is carried out on the principle of priority provision of personal needs; therefore expenditures of local budgets among the countries considered by us are approximately at the same level.The revenue part of the budgets of self-government bodies in the countries considered by us is based on the same principles – taxes on land, real estate and the main source of income – personal income tax, however, in the structure of revenues to Croatian communities, the biggest part is allocated to the housing and communal services sector, which is the generator of economic development related to the construction business in the counties (Županija) of Croatia.The path of each country in the process of administrative reform in the framework of legislative initiatives that should become significant for Ukraine has been analysed. After all, each of the states began the reform of local self-government by changing the legislation, primarily electoral to minimize local government risks at the local level, as well as local government laws as the foundation of the entire country.Based on foreign experience, the positive and negative aspects of decentralization reform have been summarized; the ways of implementing the reform in Ukraine to avoid undesirable results of decentralization completion, as well as changes in legislation, the formation of units of the basic level of self-government have been outlined. The experience of Croatia, which had to carry out a major reform during the aggression period of another state, can be especially valuable.The ultimate goal of decentralization reform is to create communities, basic units of local self-government that have to be economically viable and promising. After all, the quality of services provided to the population depends on this: educational and medical, social and administrative, landscaping, as well as quality of life of urban and rural residents.Conclusions of the research and prospects for further studies. The amount of resources at the disposal of local self-government depends on the powers vested in the central government. Accordingly, various models of administrative reform of countries that have long been focused on the command-administrative economic model were considered. The conclusion is that post-Soviet countries are oriented towards the social package, where education accounts for about a third of local government expenditures. On the other hand, in Croatia, which has taken a different path, expenditures that are comparable to the performance of national functions are quite significant, such as the provision of housing and communal services, entertainment and sports activities, transport infrastructure, and economic activity.The prospect of further research is the experience of Croatia as a country that has carried out decentralization reform under the occupation of part of the territory. ; Розглянуто зарубіжний досвід проведення реформи адміністративно-територіального устрою та децентралізації державного управління, перерозподілу повноважень, зміни у бюджетних відносинах країн Балтії та Хорватії. Зазначено, що питання децентралізації є першочерговими в умовах розвитку місцевого самоврядування та забезпечення його спроможності самостійно, завдяки власним ресурсам, вирішувати проблеми місцевого значення.

Problem setting. The changes taking place in Ukraine are closely linked to the need to reform the system of local government and build civil society. The experience of the development of foreign countries, which have passed the path of decentralization in the initial conditions, as close as possible to the Ukrainian ones, the experience of the reform of the administrative-territorial system should be used in Ukraine. This process will be the basis for ensuring a high standard of living, access to quality services at the level of local communities.Recent research and publications analysis. Many domestic scholars have worked and are working on the problems of decentralization reform, changes in the administrative-territorial system, which directly affect the redistribution and formation of budgets of territorial units of the basic level, in particular: O.Vasylyk, I. Volokhova, V. Demyanyshyn, O. Kyrylenko, V. Averyanov, B. Adamov, G. Atamanchuk, V. Bakumenko, S. Bila, Z. Varnaliy, B. Danylyshyn, V. Knyazev , V. Kozbanenko, S. Kolomiytsev, V. Kravchenko, V. Kuybida, which is an important factor for the implementation of administrative reform in Ukraine and the avoidance of undesirable risks that may adversely affect the decentralization process in general. At the same time, the experience of foreign scholars is important: M. Horvat, D. Young, D. Kregar, who paid considerable attention to the reform of local self-government and the results of decentralization changes for community building.Highlighting previously unsettled parts of the general problem. Most scholars focus on foreign experience as a derivative for use in Ukrainian practice in order to develop methods that can be implemented only under certain conditions of economic development. The purpose of the article is to form our own theoretical generalizations about the possibility of using the experience of decentralization reforms in Latvia, Lithuania and Croatia in Ukrainian practice.Paper main body. The experiences of foreign countries in reforming the administrative-territorial system, the formation of administrative units of the basic level, the redistribution of powers among branches of government have been considered. Carrying out the decentralization reform is one of the most urgent tasks of Ukraine. The path taken by foreign countries in the framework of local government reform is different and unique. Each state carried out decentralization reform in accordance with the specifics of national, ethnic, economic, geographical and other factors that in one way or another influenced the final result of the reform. The experience of countries that in the historical context had a certain identity in economic, territorial-administrative and historical-cultural terms is important for Ukraine. Therefore, the Baltic States, countries with a post-Soviet past, which implemented the decentralization process in different ways, have been chosen for our study.In Lithuania, a country that embarked on local government reform under the strict control of the central government, the approach to territorial change was voluntary, but within clear rules governing administrative units practically the same in size and population, which eventually became economically effective communities. During the decentralization process, the state defined the powers, which were entrusted to the implementation by local authorities primarily within the social components – education, health and social care, other sectors of the economy such as economic, housing and communal, public order are performed by local governments exclusively within the needs and processes of communities.The decentralization process in Latvia took place according to a slightly different scenario. First of all, it should be noted that the territories were voluntary united without government intervention, but with certain preferences in the form of remuneration for communities united according to the plan submitted from "the above". The state delegated powers, and in the case of Latvia, first of all, of a social nature. Expenditures on education in self-government units have the largest share among others, but it should be noted that the economy and housing, communal services are given slightly broader powers, which are characterized by the provision of broad powers in the permitting systems of Latvian communities. However, the exercise of powers in health care is limited to the primary level. In addition, social housing as well as urban planning is given a special niche in the municipal authorities, which is a balance between expenditure and revenue in this area.Croatia is a state that also had a socialist past, but began the decentralization process under the occupation of a part of the territory. A country that has approached the change of administrative-territorial system with economic pragmatism, and basic self-government units are created by the method of economic factors without government intervention. Regarding the self-government expenditures of Croatia, the financing of the housing and communal services sector and the holding of recreational activities have a key role to play. Delegation of powers in the field of transport and communications is also quite important. The economic activity of local self-government is carried out on the principle of priority provision of personal needs; therefore expenditures of local budgets among the countries considered by us are approximately at the same level.The revenue part of the budgets of self-government bodies in the countries considered by us is based on the same principles – taxes on land, real estate and the main source of income – personal income tax, however, in the structure of revenues to Croatian communities, the biggest part is allocated to the housing and communal services sector, which is the generator of economic development related to the construction business in the counties (Županija) of Croatia.The path of each country in the process of administrative reform in the framework of legislative initiatives that should become significant for Ukraine has been analysed. After all, each of the states began the reform of local self-government by changing the legislation, primarily electoral to minimize local government risks at the local level, as well as local government laws as the foundation of the entire country.Based on foreign experience, the positive and negative aspects of decentralization reform have been summarized; the ways of implementing the reform in Ukraine to avoid undesirable results of decentralization completion, as well as changes in legislation, the formation of units of the basic level of self-government have been outlined. The experience of Croatia, which had to carry out a major reform during the aggression period of another state, can be especially valuable.The ultimate goal of decentralization reform is to create communities, basic units of local self-government that have to be economically viable and promising. After all, the quality of services provided to the population depends on this: educational and medical, social and administrative, landscaping, as well as quality of life of urban and rural residents.Conclusions of the research and prospects for further studies. The amount of resources at the disposal of local self-government depends on the powers vested in the central government. Accordingly, various models of administrative reform of countries that have long been focused on the command-administrative economic model were considered. The conclusion is that post-Soviet countries are oriented towards the social package, where education accounts for about a third of local government expenditures. On the other hand, in Croatia, which has taken a different path, expenditures that are comparable to the performance of national functions are quite significant, such as the provision of housing and communal services, entertainment and sports activities, transport infrastructure, and economic activity.The prospect of further research is the experience of Croatia as a country that has carried out decentralization reform under the occupation of part of the territory. ; Розглянуто зарубіжний досвід проведення реформи адміністративно-територіального устрою та децентралізації державного управління, перерозподілу повноважень, зміни у бюджетних відносинах країн Балтії та Хорватії. Зазначено, що питання децентралізації є першочерговими в умовах розвитку місцевого самоврядування та забезпечення його спроможності самостійно, завдяки власним ресурсам, вирішувати проблеми місцевого значення.

ABSTRACT. This article presents results of a research that aims to understand the schooling process, specifically for Special Education students in state rural schools for elementary and secondary schools located in the city of Boa Vista. Developed in the context of a master's degree in education, the research takes historical-dialectical materialism as a theoretical-methodological approach in the light of historical-critical pedagogy. The methodological procedure included re-reading the data generated based on observation, documentary research and interviews. Interviews were conducted with 15 teachers who worked with Special Education students in two rural schools in the municipality of Boa Vista. The results point out the lack of architectural, urbanistic, communication and transportation accessibility, that the Specialized Educational Service provided was not offered in accordance with legislation; that the Multifunctional Resource Rooms were not suitable for Specialized Educational Assistance and that most teachers had no training in the area of Special Education, contrary to what is prescribed in the current legislation. The survey also revealed that the majority of teachers longed for training in the area of Special Education and for decent working conditions, so that they could provide students with the appropriate knowledge. ; ABSTRACT. This article presents results of a research that aims to understand the schooling process, specifically for Special Education students in state rural schools for elementary and secondary schools located in the city of Boa Vista. Developed in the context of a master's degree in education, the research takes historical-dialectical materialism as a theoretical-methodological approach in the light of historical-critical pedagogy. The methodological procedure included re-reading the data generated based on observation, documentary research and interviews. Interviews were conducted with 15 teachers who worked with Special Education students in two rural schools in the municipality of Boa Vista. The results point out the lack of architectural, urbanistic, communication and transportation accessibility, that the Specialized Educational Service provided was not offered in accordance with legislation; that the Multifunctional Resource Rooms were not suitable for Specialized Educational Assistance and that most teachers had no training in the area of Special Education, contrary to what is prescribed in the current legislation. The survey also revealed that the majority of teachers longed for training in the area of Special Education and for decent working conditions, so that they could provide students with the appropriate knowledge. ; ABSTRACT. This article presents results of a research that aims to understand the schooling process, specifically for Special Education students in state rural schools for elementary and secondary schools located in the city of Boa Vista. Developed in the context of a master's degree in education, the research takes historical-dialectical materialism as a theoretical-methodological approach in the light of historical-critical pedagogy. The methodological procedure included re-reading the data generated based on observation, documentary research and interviews. Interviews were conducted with 15 teachers who worked with Special Education students in two rural schools in the municipality of Boa Vista. The results point out the lack of architectural, urbanistic, communication and transportation accessibility, that the Specialized Educational Service provided was not offered in accordance with legislation; that the Multifunctional Resource Rooms were not suitable for Specialized Educational Assistance and that most teachers had no training in the area of Special Education, contrary to what is prescribed in the current legislation. The survey also revealed that the majority of teachers longed for training in the area of Special Education and for decent working conditions, so that they could provide students with the appropriate knowledge. ; O presente artigo apresenta resultados de uma pesquisa que objetiva compreender o processo de escolarização do público-alvo da Educação Especial nas escolas estaduais de ensino fundamental e médio da Educação do Campo no município de Boa Vista. Desenvolvida no contexto de um mestrado em educação, a pesquisa toma como aporte teórico-metodológico o materialismo histórico-dialético à luz da pedagogia histórico-crítica. O procedimento metodológico contemplou a releitura dos dados gerados com base em observação, pesquisa documental e entrevistas. Realizaram-se entrevistas com 15 professores que atuavam com o público-alvo da Educação Especial em duas escolas de Educação do Campo no município de Boa Vista. Os resultados apontam: para a inexistência de acessibilidade arquitetônica, urbanística, de comunicação e de transporte; que o Atendimento Educacional Especializado realizado não era ofertado em conformidade com a legislação; que as Salas de Recursos Multifuncionais não se mostravam adequadas para o Atendimento Educacional Especializado e que a maioria dos professores não tinha formação na área de Educação Especial, contrariando o preconizado na legislação vigente. A pesquisa também revelou que a maioria dos professores almejava por formação na área de Educação Especial, por condições dignas de trabalho, para assim propiciarem aos estudantes a apropriação do conhecimento. Palavras-chave: Educação Especial, Atendimento Educacional Especializado, Formação de Professores, Educação do Campo, Pedagogia Histórico-Crítica. The schooling of students targeted to Special Education in Rural Education in the city of Boa Vista/RR ABSTRACT. This article presents results of a research that aims to understand the schooling process, specifically for Special Education students in state rural schools for elementary and secondary schools located in the city of Boa Vista. Developed in the context of a master's degree in education, the research takes historical-dialectical materialism as a theoretical-methodological approach in the light of historical-critical pedagogy. The methodological procedure included re-reading the data generated based on observation, documentary research and interviews. Interviews were conducted with 15 teachers who worked with Special Education students in two rural schools in the municipality of Boa Vista. The results point out the lack of architectural, urbanistic, communication and transportation accessibility, that the Specialized Educational Service provided was not offered in accordance with legislation; that the Multifunctional Resource Rooms were not suitable for Specialized Educational Assistance and that most teachers had no training in the area of Special Education, contrary to what is prescribed in the current legislation. The survey also revealed that the majority of teachers longed for training in the area of Special Education and for decent working conditions, so that they could provide students with the appropriate knowledge. Keywords: Special Education, Specialized Educational Service, Teacher training, Rural Education, Historical-Critical Pedagogy. La escolarización de estudiantes públicos específico de la Educación Especial en la Educación del Campo en el municipio de Boa Vista/RR RESUMEN. Este artículo presenta los resultados de una investigación que tiene como objetivo comprender el proceso de escolarización de los estudiantes de Educación Especial en las escuelas públicas de educación primaria y secundaria de la ciudad de Boa Vista. Desarrollada en el contexto de una maestría en educación, la investigación toma el materialismo histórico-dialéctico como un enfoque teórico-metodológico a la luz de la pedagogía histórico-crítica. El procedimiento metodológico incluyó releer los datos generados en base a observaciones, investigaciones documentales y entrevistas. Se realizaron entrevistas con 15 maestros que trabajaron con estudiantes de Educación Especial en dos escuelas de Educación del Campo en el municipio de Boa Vista. Los resultados apuntan a la falta de accesibilidad arquitectónica, urbanística, de comunicación y de transporte, que el Servicio Educativo Especializado proporcionado no se ofrecía de acuerdo con la legislación; que las Salas de Recursos Multifuncionales no eran adecuadas para el Atendimiento Educativo Especializado y que la mayoría de los maestros no tenían capacitación en el área de Educación Especial, en contra de lo prescrito en la legislación vigente. La encuesta también reveló que la mayoría de los docentes querían capacitación en el área de Educación Especial, debido a condiciones de trabajo decentes, para proporcionar a los estudiantes la apropiación del conocimiento. Palabras clave: Educación Especial, Accesibilidad, Servicio Educativo Especializado, Formación de profesores, Educación rural, Pedagogía histórico-crítica.

For the English abstract and full text of the article please see the attached PDF-File (English version follows Russian version).The study was carried out with the financial support of the Russian Research Foundation, project No. 14-02-00095. ABSTRACT The authors examine the mutual influence and interdependence of the human factor, the structure and competitiveness of the organization, the differences in the effectiveness of its individual elements, the features of such characteristics as the competencies of individual agents that make up the organization. The problems of occurrence of problem zones in the organization structure and ways of their elimination are analyzed. On the basis of the revealed regularities, the possibilities of managing the efficiency of organizations, including the example of the transport sector, are considered. 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Influence of informalized intraorganizational interactions on organizational effectiveness [Vlijanie neformalizovannyh vnutriorganizacionnyh vzaimodejstvij na organizacionnuju effektivnost'].Sovremennaja nauka: aktual'nye problemy teorii i praktiki, 2015, Iss.9-10, pp.24-27. ; Текст аннотации на англ. языке и полный текст статьи на англ. языке находится в прилагаемом файле ПДФ (англ. версия следует после русской версии).Авторы исследуют взаимовлияние и взаимозависимости человеческого фактора, структуры и конкурентоспособности организации, различия в эффективности отдельных её элементов, особенности таких характеристик, как компетентностные предложения индивидуальных агентов, составляющих организацию. Анализируются вопросы возникновения проблемных зон в структуре организации и способы их устранения. На основе выявленных закономерностей рассмотрены возможности управления эффективностью организаций, в том числе на примере транспортной сферы. Исследование выполнено при финансовой поддержке РГНФ, проект № 14-02-00095.

El propósito de este proyecto es conectar zonas antes inaccesibles, afectadas por el conflicto que tienen un enorme potencial turístico de aventura y ecológico, con turistas del mundo interesados en encontrar alternativas diferentes de viaje; mediante el desarrollo de una aplicación para dispositivos móviles que provea opciones seguras y confiables de alojamiento, alimentación, transporte e información de interés general para turistas que deseen visitar la región de los Llanos Orientales. Este informe presenta los resultados del proyecto evaluado en fase de prefactibilidad: perfil, alineación estratégica, formulación y evaluación financiera. En la formulación se realizan los estudios legales, técnicos, de mercados, ambiental, administrativo, de costos y financieros; finalmente se realiza la evaluación financiera y se presenta el libro de gerencia. El proyecto se alinea estratégicamente con la Organización de las Naciones Unidas y la Organización Mundial del Turismo; adicionalmente y dado que para la fecha de elaboración de este informe el país se encuentra en período electoral, el proyecto se alinea con los diferentes programas de gobierno de los principales candidatos presidenciales. Una vez realizada la alineación estratégica se realiza el estudio legal en el cual se presentan las principales regulaciones aplicables al proyecto desde la perspectiva tecnológica, protección de datos, protección al consumidor, comercio electrónico, turismo, normatividad ambiental, protección de menores y teletrabajo. Con los aspectos legales analizados se realiza el estudio técnico, el cual detalla todos los aspectos que deben ser tenidos en cuenta: ecosistema digital, alternativas de plataforma y desarrollo técnico. Una vez definidos los aspectos técnicos se presentan los procesos, flujos de usuarios y servicios a ofrecer para finalmente presentar la capacidad técnica requerida para operar. Una vez definida la viabilidad técnica de la iniciativa se continúa con los demás estudios requeridos para determinar la viabilidad del negocio El estudio administrativo presenta la formación de la organización, estructura y organigrama, planeación, procesos de reclutamiento y selección. El modelo administrativo presenta una alternativa flexible de teletrabajo con el cual podemos operar sin dificultad. El estudio ambiental identifica los factores bióticos, abióticos y socioeconómicos, sobre los cuales se puede generar afectación al desarrollar la aplicación. Dado que los impactos son mínimos de acuerdo con el estudio presentado, el plan de manejo ambiental se basa en estrategias pedagógicas relacionadas con cuidado y manejo del medio ambiente para los turistas. En el estudio de mercado se toma como base el análisis de entorno, se realiza el análisis de competitividad, el cálculo de la demanda y el planteamiento de la estrategia de comercialización. Adicionalmente se identifica la forma en que se van a generar los ingresos del proyecto los cuales están basados en un cobro de porcentaje por cada reserva de alojamiento realizada. Para calcular la demanda y teniendo en cuenta que el cliente es el turista que desea hacer turismo ecológico o de aventura, se tomará la información de visitantes a los principales Parques Nacionales Naturales de Colombia (PNN) como base. En este punto es importante mencionar que en el modelo de desarrollo de plataformas digitales los aspectos técnicos no son un limitante para el tamaño del mercado: con la estructura técnica recomendada se pueden cubrir muchas más zonas de las aquí planteadas. Con el desarrollo de la nube y el acceso a las tiendas de aplicaciones de los diferentes sistemas operativos se puede llegar a millones de usuarios a un mínimo costo. Por lo anterior para calcular la demanda requerida se propone una meta comercial que debe ser capturada. El estudio de mercado finaliza con las diferentes estrategias de comercialización sugeridas. Como resultado de los estudios detallados se elabora el estudio de costos. Este estudio recoge todos los costos de inversión y operación necesarios. Con el estudio de costos y los beneficios del estudio de mercado se realizan los estudios financieros. Finalmente se realiza la evaluación financiera donde se presentan los supuestos, análisis financieros, de sensibilidad y el resultado de la evaluación. ; The purpose of this project is to connect previously inaccessible areas, affected by the conflict that have an enormous potential of adventure and ecological tourism, with tourists from the world interested in finding different travel alternatives; through the development of an application for mobile devices that provides safe and reliable options for accommodation, food, transport and information of general interest for tourists who wish to visit the Llanos Orientales region. This report presents the results of the project evaluated in pre-feasibility phase: profile, strategic alignment, formulation and financial evaluation. In the formulation, legal, technical, market, environmental, administrative, cost and financial studies are carried out; finally the financial evaluation is carried out and the management book is presented. The project is strategically aligned with the United Nations Organization and the World Tourism Organization; Additionally, given that the country is in the electoral period at the time of preparing this report, the project is aligned with the different government programs of the main presidential candidates. Once the strategic alignment is made, the legal study is carried out in which the main regulations applicable to the project are presented from a technological perspective, data protection, consumer protection, electronic commerce, tourism, environmental regulations, child protection and teleworking. With the legal aspects analyzed, the technical study is carried out, which details all the aspects that must be taken into account: digital ecosystem, platform alternatives and technical development. Once the technical aspects have been defined, the processes, user flows and services to be offered are presented to finally present the technical capacity required to operate. Once the technical feasibility of the initiative is defined, the other studies required to determine the viability of the business are continued The administrative study presents the formation of the organization, structure and organization chart, planning, recruitment and selection processes. The administrative model presents a flexible alternative of telework with which we can operate without difficulty. The environmental study identifies biotic, abiotic and socioeconomic factors, which can be affected when developing the application. Given that the impacts are minimal according to the study presented, the environmental management plan is based on pedagogical strategies related to care and management of the environment for tourists. In the market study, the analysis of the environment is taken as a basis, the competitiveness analysis is carried out, the calculation of the demand and the marketing strategy approach. Additionally, the way in which the project income will be generated, which is based on a percentage charge for each accommodation reservation made, is identified. To calculate the demand and taking into account that the client is the tourist that wishes to make ecological or adventure tourism, the information of visitors to the main National Natural Parks of Colombia (PNN) will be taken as a base. At this point it is important to mention that in the development model of digital platforms, the technical aspects are not a limitation for the size of the market: with the recommended technical structure, many more areas can be covered. With the development of the cloud and access to the application stores of the different operating systems, millions of users can be reached at a minimum cost. Therefore, to calculate the required demand, a commercial goal is proposed that must be captured. The market study ends with the different marketing strategies suggested. As a result of the detailed studies, the cost study is elaborated. This study includes all the necessary investment and operation costs. With the study of costs and the benefits of the market study, financial studies are carried out. Finally the financial evaluation is carried out where the assumptions, financial analysis, sensitivity and the result of the evaluation are presented. ; Especialización ; Especialista en Desarrollo y Gerencia Integral de Proyectos

[spa] El dinamismo militar del Imperio Británico generó una profunda cultura ecuestre y unos caballos fuertes, acostumbrados a los ritmos de las guerras. Los periodos de paz propiciaron que militares y mercenarios desarrollaran un nuevo tipo de equitación espectacular que les permitiría una nueva fuente de ingresos. En 1768, el inglés Thomas Price actuó en Madrid, siendo aquellas las primeras representaciones documentadas en España de un nuevo género, el de la equitación espectacular; que atraería más de setenta centenar de troupes ecuestres especializadas en tales ejercicios a lo largo de un siglo y medio. La total inexistencia de un estudio histórico al respeto hace que hoy nos preguntemos: ¿Cuál fue la actividad de aquellas compañías ecuestres en España y qué papel desempeñaron en la construcción del espectáculo circense en su forma actual? La evolución de las exhibiciones a campo abierto de aquellos jinetes de la segunda mitad del siglo XVIII conllevó la invención de la pista, el círculo que permite inferir al caballo un ritmo de trote regular controlado por el látigo del director ecuestre situado en el centro de la circunferencia. En su continuo desarrollo, las compañías ecuestres, las que dieron razón de ser a la pista, estrenaron procesos de maridaje primero y captación después con varios espectáculos basados, por lo general, en la pericia del hombre: los personajes de la comedia dell'arte y el clown isabelino mutarán a payasos, los volatines a funámbulos, los gimnastas atléticos se convertirán en acróbatas y saltadores, los exhibicionistas de animales en amaestradores, etc. La hipótesis de que fue a partir de las compañías ecuestres cómo se vertebró el circo moderno nace de la exigencia de aquellas en ostentar un espacio propio: el del círculo de la pista que, progresivamente, integraría los elementos citados anteriormente. Vinculada a la función ecuestre, la palabra "circo" no lo definirá más que de forma tardía -en España no se usa hasta 1830- y en un primer momento ni tan sólo será aplicada al espectáculo sino simplemente al nuevo espacio de representación: al edificio cuya techumbre cobija la pista. En una metonimia clarísima, a partir de mediados de siglo XIX, "circo" empieza a designar aquel género que inicia muy lentamente su desapego al elemento ecuestre. De esta forma, esta tesis aporta una propuesta teórica y metodológica que permite abordar un tema ignorado llenando un vacio en la historiografía española del espectáculo. La presente investigación nace con el objetivo de identificar, localizar, aglutinar, sistematizar, ordenar e interpretar el conjunto de fuentes útiles para la elaboración de una historia de la actividad de las compañías ecuestres, origen de las artes circenses en España. Para sistematizar y ordenar según varios parámetros útiles la información localizada a través de nuestras consultas se procede a confeccionar un archivo único que, en forma de ficha, recopila los datos de la estancia de la compañía ecuestre en la ciudad: nombre de la troupe, director/a, fechas y lugar de actuación, elenco artístico, programa, cantidad de caballos, precios de entrada, etc. Informaciones extraídas de soportes múltiples: prensa, documentación administrativa, libros, publicidad y fotografía. La recogida de aquellos datos primero y el minucioso estudio posterior de cada una de las compañías ecuestres que actuaron en España desemboca en el conocimiento de las pautas que gobernaban su permanente trashumancia: las leyes internas que regían las familias de artistas, base de la compañía; los medios de transporte empleados; las rutas y sus principales paradas; la temporada de actuación con las peculiaridades de su calendario; su repertorio de ejercicios; sus métodos de aprendizaje, publicidad y administración; las competencias y frecuentes dificultades y, por supuesto, la composición de sus públicos. ; [eng] The military dynamism of the British Empire generated a deep-tooted equestrian culture and bred strong horses accustomed to the rhythms of warfare. The periods of peace led military men and mercenaries to develop a new type of spectacular riding that would provide them with a new source of income. In 1768 in Madrid, the Englishman Thomas Price gave the first documented performances in Spain of a new genre, that of "show riding," that would attract more than seventy of equestrian troupes specialising in these exercises for a century and a half. The total absence of a historical study on this topic leads to ask ourselves today: what was the activity of those equestrian companies in Spain, and what role did they play in the construction of the circus in its present form? The evolution of open-field exhibitions of those riders in the second half of the 18th century brought about the invention of the ring, the circle that makes it possible to impose on the horse a regular trotting rhythm controlled by the ringmaster's whip from the centre. In their continuous development, the equestrian companies, which gave the ring its reason for being, premiered processes first of pairing and then of capture, with various spectacles based in general on the skill of men: the characters of the comedia dell'arte and the Isabelline jester mutated into clowns, the acrobats into tightrope walkers, the athletic gymnasts into acrobats and divers, animal exhibitors into tamers, and so on. The hypothesis that it was the equestrian companies who gave form to the modern circus arises out of their demand to have their own space: that of the ring, which would progressively incorporate the figures mentioned above. Linked to the equestrian function, the word "circus" would not define it until later on – in Spain it was not used until 1830 – and initially it was not even applied to the show itself but simply to the new performance space: the building whose roof covered the ring. In a very clear metonym, from the mid 19th century onwards, "circus" began to refer to that genre that was very slowly beginning to move away from its equestrian basis. This thesis therefore contributes a theoretical and methodological proposal that makes it possible to explore a theme ignored so far, filling a void in the Spanish historiography of popular entertainment. The present investigation comes to life with the aim of identifying, localising, grouping, systematising, ordering and interpreting the mass of useful sources for drawing up a history of the activity of the equestrian companies, the origin of the circus arts in Spain. In order to systematise and order, based on various useful parameters, the information located through our consultations, we are proceeding to create a single archive which, in the form of data sheets, compiles the data of the equestrian company's stay in the town or city: name of the troupe, director, dates and place of performance, cast of performers, programme, number of horses, admission prices, and so on, using information drawn from multiple supports: press, administrative documentation, books, publicity material and photographs. The gathering of this data, firstly, followed by a meticulous study of each one of the equestrian companies that performed in Spain, will enable us to discover the patterns that governed their permanent itinerancy: the internal laws that ruled the artists' families, the base of the company; the means of transport used; the routes and their main stops; their performance season, with the peculiarities of its calendar; their repertoire of exercises; their methods of training, publicity and administration; their skills and frequent difficulties; and, naturally, the composition of their audiences.

The population of the European eel Anguilla anguilla (L.) is in severe decline. In 2007, the European Union decided on a Regulation establishing measures for the recovery of the stock, which obliged Member States to implement a national Eel Management Plan by 2009. Sweden submitted its plan in 2008. According to the Regulation, Member States will report to the Commission every third year, on the implementation of their Eel Management Plans and the progress achieved in protection and restoration. The current report provides an assessment of the eel stock in Sweden as of spring 2015, intending to feed into the national reporting to the EU; this updates and extends the report by Dekker (2012). In this report, the impacts on the stock are assessed - of fishing, restocking and of the mortality related to hydropower generation. Other anthropogenic impacts (climate change, pollution, spread of parasites, disruption of migration by transport, and so forth) probably have an impact on the stock too, but these factors are hardly quantifiable and no management targets have been set. For that reason, and because these factors were not included in the EU Eel Regulation, these other factors are not included in this technical evaluation. Our focus is on the quantification of biomass of silver eel escaping (actual, potential and pristine) and mortality endured by those eels during their lifetime. The assessment is broken down on a regional basis, with different impacts dominating in different areas. In recent years, a break in the downward trend of the number of glass eel has been observed throughout Europe. Whether that relates to recent protective actions, or is due to other factors, is yet unclear. This report contributes to the required international assessment, but does not discuss that recent recruitment trend and the overall status of the stock. On the west coast, a fykenet fishery on yellow eel was overexploiting the stock, until this fishery was completely closed in spring 2012. Though research surveys using fykenets continued, insufficient information is currently available to assess the recovery of the stock. Obviously, current fishing mortality is zero, but no other stock indicators can be presented. It is recommended to develop a comprehensive plan for monitoring the recovery of the stock. In order to support the recovery of the stock, or to compensate for mortality elsewhere, young eel has been restocked on the west coast. No follow-up monitoring has been established. Noting the small expected effect – in comparison to the potential natural stock on the west coast, when recovered – it is recommended to reconsider this programme, or to set up adequate follow-up monitoring. For inland waters, this report presents a major update of the 2012 assessment. In the 2012 assessment, eel production estimates were based on information from past restocking, but natural recruitment and assisted migration were ignored; these have now been included. Additionally, the impact of hydropower is now assessed in a spatially explicit reconstruction. Based on 75 years of data on natural recruitment into 24 rivers, a statistical model is developed relating the number of immigrating young eel caught in traps to the location and size of each river, the distance from the trap to the river mouth, the mean age/size of the immigrating eel, and the year in which those eels recruited to continental waters as a glass eel (year class). Further into the Baltic, recruits are larger (exception: the 100 gr recruits in Mörrumsån, 56.4°N, where only 30 gr would be expected) and less numerous; distance upstream comes with less numerous recruits, but size is not related. Remarkably, the time trend differs for the various ages/sizes. Oldest recruits (age up to 7) declined already in the 1950s and 1960s, but remained stable since; youngest recruits (age 0) showed a steep decline in the 1980s and a little decrease before and after. In-between ages show in-between trends. Though this peculiar age-related pattern has been observed at other places in Europe too, the cause of this is still unclear. Using the results from the recruitment model, in combination with historical data on assisted migration (young eels transported upstream, across barriers) and restocking (imported young eels), the production of fully grown, silver eel is estimated for every lake and year separately. Subtracting the catch made by the fishery and down-sizing for the mortality incurred when passing hydropower stations, an estimate of the biomass of silver eel escaping from each river towards the sea is derived. Since 1960, the production of silver eel in inland waters has declined from 500 to 300t/a, and natural recruitment (assisted or not) has gradually been replaced by restocking for 90%. Fisheries have taken just over 30% of the silver eel, while the impact of hydropower has ranged from 20% to 60%. Escapement is estimated to have varied from 10% (35t) in the late 1990s, to 30% (100t) in the 2010s. The biomass of current escapement (including eels of restocked origin) is approx. 1015% of the pristine level, that is 28% of the current potential. This biomass is below the 40% limit of the Eel Regulation, and anthropogenic mortality exceeds both the short-term limit establishing recovery (15%) and the ultimate limit (60% mortality, the complement of 40% survival). The temporal variation (in production, impacts and escapement) is largely the consequence of a differential spatial distribution of the restocked eel over the years. Natural (not assisted) recruits were far less impacted by hydropower, since they could not climb the hydropower dams when immigrating. Later, restocking has been practised in unobstructed lakes (primarily Lake Mälaren, 1990s), and is now concentrated in obstructed lakes (primarily Lake Vänern, to a lesser extent Lake Ringsjön, and many smaller ones). Trap & Transport of silver eel - from above barriers towards the sea - has added 1-6% of silver eel to the escapement. Without restocking, the biomass affected by fishery and/or hydropower would be only 10% of the currently impacted biomass, but the stock abundance would reduce from 10% to less than 2only 3% of the pristine biomass. It is recommended to reconsider the current action plans on inland waters, to take into account the results of the current, more comprehensive assessment. It is further recommended to ground-truth the current assessment on independent stock surveys. For the Baltic coast, the 2012 assessment has been updated, using information from re-continued mark-recapture experiments. Results indicate that the impact of the fishery is rapidly declining over the decades – even declining more rapidly towards the 2010s than before. The current impact of the Swedish silver eel fishery is estimated at 2%. However, this fishery is just one of the anthropogenic impacts (in other areas/countries) affecting the Baltic eel stock. Integration with the assessments in other countries has not been achieved. Current estimates of the abundance of silver eel (biomass) are in the order of a few thousand tonnes, but these estimates are highly uncertain due to the low values for catch and mortality (near-zero estimation problems). An integrated assessment for the whole Baltic will be required to ground-truth these estimates. It is recommended to develop an integrated assessment for the Baltic eel stock, and to coordinate protective measures with other range states. Considering the international context, the stock indicators – in as far as they could be assessed – fit the international assessment framework, but inconsistencies and interpretation differences at the international level complicate their usage. International coordination and standardisation of the tri-annual reporting is therefore recommended. Additionally, it is recommended to initiate international standardisation/inter-calibration of monitoring and assessment methodologies among countries, achieving a consistent and more cost-effective assessment across Europe.

Eines der wichtigsten Ziele gentechnologischer Arbeiten ist die Erzeugung transgener Kulturpflanzen ohne die Verwendung von Selektionsmarkergenen. Die Selektion transgener Zellen erfolgt beim Apfel (Malus x domestica BORKH.) in der Regel im Anschluss an einen Agrobacterium tumefaciens-vermittelten Gentransfer mit dem nptII/Kanamycin-System. Im Oktober 2002 wurde eine neue EU-Freisetzungsrichtlinie (2001/18/EG) rechtskräftig. Im Rahmen dieser Richtlinie ist vorgesehen, dass die Verwendung von Markergenen, insbesondere von Antibiotikaresistenzgenen, eingeschränkt werden soll. Das bedeutet, dass die Freisetzung gentechnisch modifizierter Organismen, welche beispielsweise das nptII-Gen als Selektionsmarker enthalten, unzulässig ist. Aus diesem Grund ist die Etablierung alternativer Selektionsstrategien zwingend notwendig. Aktuell ist jedoch noch kein vergleichbares Selektionsystem zur Ablösung des nptII/Kanamycin-Systems beim Apfel verfügbar. Deshalb wurde im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit die Funktionsfähigkeit und Anwendbarkeit des Flp/FRT-Rekombinationssystems zur nachträglichen Entfernung des nptII-Gens an Apfel untersucht. Ziel dabei war die Erzeugung gentechnisch modifizierter Apfelsprosse, die keinen Selektionsmarker mehr enthalten. Für die Untersuchungen wurde ein Monitoringvektor erstellt und in den Agrobakteriumstamm GV3101-pMP90RK übertragen. Mit diesem Stamm wurden in 17 Transformationsexperimenten insgesamt 4.080 in-vitro-Apfelblätter inokuliert und neun transgene Linien aufgebaut. Der transformierte Vektor enthält auf der funktionellen T-DNA einen CaMV 35S-Promotor und ein gusA-Reportergen. Dazwischen liegt ein sogenanntes FRT-flankiertes Fragment, welches das gusA-Gen räumlich vom CaMV 35S-Promotor trennt. Dieses FRT-flankierte Fragment besteht aus dem nptII-Markergen und dem flp-Rekombinase-Gen, welches von dem Hitzestress-induzierbaren Promotor Gmhsp17.5E aus der Sojabohne Glycine max reguliert wurde. Eine Expression von gusA wurde somit erst nach der Entfernung des FRT-flankierten Fragments erwartet. Dies ermöglichte eine schnelle Detektion von Rekombinationsereignissen mittels histologischen GUS-Tests. Die Linie T670 war die erste transgene Apfellinie, die selektiert und vermehrt werden konnte. Mit den Sprossspitzenkulturen dieser Linie wurden verschiedene Zeit- und Temperaturregime zur Induktion des Gmhsp17.5E-Promtors durchgeführt. Dabei wurde festgestellt, dass eine Behandlung transgener Apfelsprosse bei 42°C Flp-vermittelte Rekombinationen bewirkte. Die Hitzestress-induzierte Rekombination erfolgte jedoch nicht in allen Zellen gleichzeitig, denn es wurden überwiegend Sprosse mit Mischgeweben detektiert. Um vollständig nptII-freie, transgene Apfelsprosse zu erzeugen, wurden die Blätter der Linien T670, T781, T782 und T793 nach einer Hitzestress-Behandlung geerntet und die Blattstreifen für 16 Wochen auf Regenerationsmedium ohne selektierendes Kanamycin aufgelegt. Für die Detektion putativ nptII-freier Sprosse wurden im Anschluss an die Regeneration stichprobenartig jeweils bis zu 40 Sprossregenerate ausgewählt und mittels GUS-Test analysiert. Auf diese Weise konnten bis zu 38 Prozent GUS-positive, putativ nptII-freie Sprossregenerate identifiziert werden. Die molekularen Untersuchungen an genomischer DNA und mRNA verschiedener Sprossregenerate der Linien T781 und T782 haben gezeigt, dass die Regeneration Hitzestress-behandelter Blätter vollständig nptII-freie Apfelsprosse erzeugte. Um das Flp/FRT-Rekombinationssystem praxisorientiert zu verbessern, wurde ein weiterer Monitoringvektor konstruiert, welcher ein zusätzliches Selektionssystem enthält. Mit diesem zweiten Selektionssystem könnten nptII-freie Sprossregenerate gezielt selektiert und der Vektor später zur Übertragung gewünschter Zielgene eingesetzt werden. Auf diese Weise ist es zukünftig möglich, gentechnologisch modifizierte Apfelpflanzen zu erzeugen, die langfristig keine Antibiotikaresistenzgene mehr tragen. Ein weiteres grundlegendes Ziel gentechnologischer Arbeiten in der Apfelzüchtung besteht in der Erhöhung der Resistenz gegenüber biotischen Schaderregern. Im Mittelpunkt des Interesses steht besonders die Verbesserung der Resistenz gegenüber phytopathogenen Pilzen, wie dem Apfelmehltau Podosphaera leucotricha und dem Apfelschorf Venturia inaequalis. Für verschiedene apfeleigene Resistenzquellen existieren zwar molekulare Marker, die Sequenzen beteiligter Resistenzgene sind bisher jedoch kaum identifiziert. Aus diesem Grund ist die Verwendung arteigener Resistenzgene für gentechnologische Ansätze bislang kaum möglich. Eine Erfolg versprechende Methode stellte deshalb die RNAi-basierte Stilllegung von Genen des Krankheitserregers dar. Im zweiten Teil der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden deshalb Experimente mit Apfel durchgeführt, die eine wirtinduzierte Abwehrstrategie gegenüber den pilzlichen Schaderregern untersuchten. Als erstes wurde der Transport synthetischer, Fluoreszein-markierter siRNA-Moleküle aus pflanzlichen Blättern in die Hyphen von P. leucotricha gezeigt. Die Behandlung des Pilzes mit einem Atmungsblocker hat zusätzlich verdeutlicht, dass die Aufnahme pflanzlicher siRNAs in pilzliche Infektionsstrukturen wahrscheinlich ein ATP-abhängiger Prozess ist. Der effiziente Einsatz eines RNAi-induzierten Resistenzmechanismus an Apfelpflanzen setzt die Stilllegung eines essentiellen Pilzgens voraus. Hierfür wurde das Chitinsynthase Klasse V-Gen als potentielles Target ausgewählt und mit der Isolierung des Gens aus P. leucotricha und V. inaequalis begonnen. Die Expression dieses Gens ist für die Zellwandstabilität und die pilzliche Entwicklung essentiell (WERNER et al. 2007), weshalb die Stilllegung eines solchen Genes die Krankheitsentwicklung des Apfelmehltaus bzw. Apfelschorfs an transgenen Apfelblättern verlangsamen oder sogar hemmen könnte. ; One of the most important goals in genetic engineering is the generation of marker-free transgenic crops. Subsequent to an Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated gene transfer, the nptII/kanamycin system is usually applied for the selection of transgenic apple cells (Malus x domestica BORKH.). In October 2002 the European government enacted a Council Directive (2001/18/EG) which prohibits the release of genetically modified (gm) organisms carrying selective markers such as the nptII gene. The establishment of alternative selection strategies is therefor compulsory. Still, until now no comparable system is available to replace the nptII/kanamycin selection system for apple transformation experiments. In the present study, the operability and applicability of the Flp/FRT recombination system in order to remove the nptII gene after the selection of transgenic apple cells was analyzed. The overall aim was the generation of gm apple plants which do not carry the selective marker. A monitoring vector was constructed and transfered into the Agrobacterium strain GV3101pMP90RK. The transgenic strain was then used to inoculate 4,080 in-vitro apple leaves in 17 different apple transformation experiments and nine gm apple lines were finally selected. The functional T-DNA of the vector contains the CaMV 35S promoter and a gusA reporter gene which were spatial separated by a FRT-flanked box. This FRT-flanked box contained the nptII gene and the flp recombinase gene which was regulated by the heat-shock-inducible promoter Gmhsp17.5E from the soybean Glycine max. Consequently, expression of gusA was only expected after elimination of the FRT-flanked box. Each recombination event could be detected by using histochemical GUS Assays. The first obtained transgenic apple line, T670, was used to investigate different time and temperature regimes for the Gmhsp17.5E promoter induction. An effective promoter induction and Flp-mediated recombination was observed after treatment of apple shoots at 42°C. However, the heat-shock-induced recombination did not occur concurrently in all cells, because shoots with chimeric tissues were often detected. To generate fully nptII-free gm apple plants, the leaves of the lines T670, T781, T782 and T793 were sampled after heat-shock-treatment and the explants placed on regeneration medium without the selective agent kanamycin for 16 weeks. Up to forty shoot regenerates were randomly chosen and analyzed using the GUS Assay after regeneration process in order to detect putative nptII-free apple shoots up. Using this method, up to 38 percent of the studied regenerates were identified as GUS positive and putatively nptII-free. In addition, the molecular analysis on genomic DNA and mRNA of selected shoot regenerates of the lines T781 and T782 showed that the regeneration of heat-shock-treated leaves generate fully nptII-free gm apple shoots. To increase the efficiency of Flp/FRT recombination system another monitoring vector was created which contained a second selection system. Using this second selection system, nptII-free apple plants could potentially be identified without the use of gusA. For the long therm the transfer of target genes and the generation of gm apple plants which do not carry antibiotic resistance genes will be possible. Another important aim in genetic engineering of apple breeding programs is the increase of resistance against biotic pathogens. Especially an improved resistance against pathogenic fungi like the apple powdery mildew Podosphaera leucotricha and apple scab Venturia inaequalis is highly requested. Althougt molecular markers exist for different apple resistant loci, nucleotide sequences of involved genes are yet unknown. Hence the use of apple resistance genes is not possible in genetic modification experiments of apple plants. A promising method is the RNAi-mediated gene silencing in pathogenic fungi. In the second part of the present study, experiments were thus conducted, performed in which a hostinduced defense mechanism against fungal pathogens was analyzed. First, we showed the transport of synthetic, Fluorescein-labeled siRNA molecules from plant leaves into the hyphae of P. leucotricha. The treatment of the fungus with a respiration blocker additionally illustrated that absorption of herbal siRNAs into fungal infection structures is probably an ATP-depended process. For an efficient application of RNAi-induced resistance mechanisms in gm apple plants, the silencing of an essential fungal gene is required. We chose the chitinsynthase class V gene as a potential target and started with the gene isolation from P. leucotricha and V. inaequalis. The expression of ChsV genes is essential for cell wall stability and fungal development (AMNUAYKANJANASIN et al. 2003; MADRID et al. 2003, WERNER et al. 2007). Due to these facts the silencing of ChsV may trigger a reduced or inhibited disease development of the apple powdery mildew disease or apple scab.

This report presents findings on the effects of STCP farmer field school training conducted in 2003 with the cocoa farmers of Atwima District of the Ashanti region, Ghana. The focus of the study is on the measurement of changes in behavior with respect to crop husbandry and input usage and the impact on production. The study also measures changes in the participation of children in hazardous tasks which may have occurred as a result of FFS sensitization exercises. The intended utility of this study is to contribute to the further refinement and adaptation of the farmer field school extension approach as applied to the cocoa farming systems of West Africa. The International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) and CABI organized and conducted the first FFS training and curriculum development workshop for master trainers in March 2003. At this workshop, in addition to the training of master trainers and the development of country action plans, the core elements of the farmer field school curriculum were developed. Researchers from the Cocoa Research Institute of Ghana (CRIG) and other national institutes provided the scientific backstopping underlying the curriculum targeting the integrated management of the cocoa cropping system to ensure sustainable and socially responsible production. There is a strong curriculum focus on the control of black pod disease but attention is also given to the problem of capsids, post harvest techniques, and the social issues surrounding child labor (which are addressed with the collaboration and participation of theWest African Cocoa and Commercial Agriculture Project (WACAP ) of the ILO). One of the problems in developing a regional FFS curriculum for adult education lies in the location-specific and region-specific nature of cocoa agronomic constraints. A much lowerincidence of black pod disease faces Ivorian and Ghanaian cocoa farmers as compared to Cameroon and Nigeria, where the more virulent form of the disease exists and the majority of farmers treat with agro-chemicals. As such, the initial Ghanaian training of trainers also included soil fertility management, mistletoe management, cocoa tree thinning, and postharvest issues deemed to be important for Ghanaian cocoa farmers. Following 3 1/2 weeks of training on the curriculum, the facilitators were ready to begin the farmer field school. The program was initiated with 30 schools and 30 facilitators in the Atwima district of Ashanti region in the first year. In 2003 the average number of participants per school was 28. Farmer training occurred on a biweekly basis with the total number of sessions per school ranging from 11 to 15. On average, the session would last four hours. Working in groups, farmers would observe and discuss dynamics of the cocoa's ecosystem and the crop development. Simple experimentation protocols such as the black pod disease zoo helped farmers improve their understanding of ecological functional relationships such as the impact of humidity on disease development. To achieve the study objectives, a survey was conducted in February 2005 with a random sample of 225 of the 829 farmers trained in 2003 and a control group sample of 165 cocoa farmers who had not participated. All 30 farmer field schools were represented in the sample with the number of participants interviewed per school ranging from five to 21. The fieldresearch was conducted in February 2005 and focused mainly on farmer practice during the 2004 growing season. A proportionate number of control farmers were sampled in each of the 30 communities. The differences noted in management practices and production (after controlling for differential resource endowments) between the two groups are attributed to the new knowledge gained through the discovery learning exercises of the farmer field school. 4 Major findings include: Children, education and cocoa farming · Significant reductions were noted in the hazardous employment of children as a result of FFS sensitization methods. Specifically among the 2,800 Atwima cocoa producers sensitized since 2003 it is estimated that there are now 540 fewer childrenemployed in heavy field transport, 440 fewer children employed in clearing fields with machetes, and 170 fewer children employed in pesticide application. Based on the above results, scaling up FFS to 50,000 producers in the Ashanti region would result in the voluntary removal of 10,500 children from all hazardous labor tasks with a predicted 3,000 fewer children employed in pesticide application, 9,700 fewer children in heavy load transport and 7,900 fewer children in clearing fields with machetes. School enrollment rates were in excess of 90 percent for 6 to 14 year old children.· Among FFS-trained farmers the level of education was positively associated withproduction output.Willingness to pay and knowledge diffusion· A large majority of control group farmers were willing to pay to attend FFS training.· The amount of tuition fee that farmers were willing to pay for attending a 15-sessionFFS training was negatively affected by producer age and positively affected byyears of schooling.· Nearly 9 in 10 trained farmers indicated that they shared information with on average2 other persons.· Knowledge on cocoa pruning, shade management and phyto-sanitary harvesting wasthe most commonly shared.Tree stock endowments· The average productivity of FFS farmers' tree stock was more than double that of thecontrol group.· Notable increases as a result of FFS interventions were registered in the number ofproducers planting hand pollinated hybrid cocoa seedlings and the area planted tohybrids.· Farmers acquiring their cocoa farms through share-crop labor exchanges (30% ofsample) had substantially lower production.· Two-thirds of all cocoa farms were established within the last 10 years.· Low average yields of 112 kg ha-1 reflect in part the youthful nature of farmers' treestocks.Crop management and production differences· Increased application of various crop husbandry practices among FFS-trained farmersrelative to control group farmers was noted.· The application of pesticides showed a response 8 times greater than that of thecontrol group.In sum, FFS training and subsequent changes in management practices are estimated to haveresulted in a net production increase of 14% among the 2003 participants. To achieve thisincrease, producers mainly increased their own labor input and indicated hiring more casuallaborers. While the survey was unable to accurately determine the actual change in labor5inputs, the additional labor costs required to achieve this increase are real and should benetted out of the 14% increase in estimated gross revenues.From several different perspectives it is clear that the FFS training received by participantshas had measurable impacts on their productive capacity and on their views towards childlabor. In support of the significant accomplishments already achieved, severalrecommendations can be made to potentially improve the performance and impact of FFStraining.· More attention should be given to address the specific needs of women cocoaproducers and those acquiring their cocoa farms through a share-cropping exchange.A needs assessment with these two groups is recommended as a first step in adaptingthe curriculum.· Given the scarce resources available for training farmers, criteria are needed to selectparticipants so as to maximize expected returns. Age and educational level of theproducer are recommended as discriminating factors.· The positive results seen vis-à-vis child labor participation in hazardous tasks ishighly encouraging and warrants increased efforts at sensitization through the farmerfield school.· Given that the majority of producers were applying insecticides to control capsidsindependent of the government spraying program but with lower use efficiency vis-àvisthe government program, protocols on the safe and rational use of pesticidesrequire more emphasis in the program than they are currently receiving. Additionally,the Ghana program should seek to develop a protocol for the identification and spotspraying of capsid hot spots.· The facilitation provided by the program in the distribution of improved cocoaplanting material substantially increased the area planted to hybrids among participantfarmers. This practice is to be commended and should be augmented with additionalFFS sessions to deal with nursery techniques and planting/replanting options. These sessions should be added on to the school year for those schools where the majority ofproducers are interested. ; Peer Review

OÖ. LANDWIRTSCHAFTLICHER KALENDER 1913 Oö. landwirtschaftlicher Kalender (-) Oö. landwirtschaftlicher Kalender 1913 (1913) ( - ) Einband ( - ) [Abb.]: ( - ) Werbung ( - ) Titelseite ([3]) [Kalender]: 1913. (4) Das Jahr 1913. Bewegliche Feste. Die vier Quatember. Mondesviertel. Die 12 Zeichen des Tierkreises. Von den Finsternissen. Vom Jahresregenten. (16) Genealogie des Allerhöchsten Kaiserhauses. (17) Politische Behörden. (18) K.k. Statthalterei. (18) Baudepartement. (18) Rechnungsdepartement. Departementseinteilung der k.k. Statthalterei. (19) K.k. Bezirkshauptmannschaften. (19) 1. Braunau. 2. Eferding. (19) 3. Freistadt. 4. Gmunden. 5. Grieskirchen. 6. Kirchdorf. 7. Linz. 8. Perg. 9. Ried. 10. Rohrbach. 11. Schärding. (20) 12. Steyr. (20) 13. Urfahr. 14. Vöcklabruck. 15. Wels. (21) K.k. Strombauleitungen. K.k. Lokalkommissär für agrarische Operationen. Delegierte für Landespferdezucht-Angelegenheiten OÖ. (21) Reichsvertretung. (21) Abgeordnete des Reichsrates aus den Wahlkreisen. (21) Landesvertretung und Landesverwaltung. (22) Landesausschuß. (23) Wählerliste des o.ö. Großgrundbesitzes. (24) Oberösterreichische Landes-Hypothekenanstalt. (25) Die o.ö. wechselseitige Landes-Brandschaden-Versicherungsanstalt. Landesanstalt für Rindviehversicherung und Pferdeversicherung. Die Genossenschafts-Zentralkasse. (26) Landes-Ackerbau- und Obstbauschule Ritzlhof. (26) Landeskulturrat im Erzherzogtume Österreich ob der Enns. (27) Oö. Landes-Fischereirat. (28) K.k. Landwirtschafts-Gesellschaft in Österreich o.d. Enns. (28) Präsident. Vizepräsident. Mitglieder des Zentralausschusses. (28) Ersatzmitglieder. Referatseinteilung. - Vertretungen. Gesellschaftskanzlei. Koch- und Haushaltungs-Wanderlehrerinnen. Obstbausektion der k.k. oö. Landwirtschafts-Gesellschaft in Linz. (29) Landw. Bezirksvereine. (29) Ziele und Bedeutung der Landwirtschafts-Gesellschaft. (32) Landw. Frauenschule u. bäuerliche Haushaltungsschule in Otterbach b. Schärding der k.k. Landwirtschafts-Gesellschaft. (33) Lehrkörper. (34) Verliehene Ehrenmedaillen der k.k. Landwirtschafts-Gesellschaft. (34) Fachvereine, Genossenschaften usw. (36) Ständiges Geflügelzuchtkomitee. Verein zur Hebung der Landespferdezucht in Oberösterreich. 1. oö. Geflügelzuchtverein. Oö. Landesbienenzüchterverein. Oö. Landesfischereiverein. Vöcklabrucker Bezirksfischereiverein. 1. oö. Kaninchenzüchterverein in Linz. Simmentaler Rindviehzüchtergenossenschaft d. Bez. Schärding. Pinzgauer Rindviehzüchtergenossenschaft d. Bez. Schärding. Pinzgauer Rinderzüchterverband Haag a. H. u. Umg. Verband der Simmentaler Rindviehzüchter in Ried i.I. Montafoner Zuchtverband in Ried. Rinderzuchtgenossenschaft d. Mariahofer, Vorderstoder u. Umg. (36) Verein zur Förderung der Obstkultur in Kimpling u. Umgebung. Obstbauverein für Ried und Umgebung. Landw. Kasino in Freiling. Forstverein für Oberösterreich u. Salzburg. Oö. Schutzverein für Jagd u. Fischerei Linz. Oö. Landes-Tierschutzverein in Linz. Trabrennverein in Linz. Hopfenbauverein Lembach. Verein d. Gärtner u. Gartenfreunde, Linz. Verein der Gärtner u. Gartenfreunde "Flora", Wels. 1. Zentral-Teebutterverkaufsgenossenschaft, Schärding. Genossenschaft d. Kardenbauer, Katsdorf. Lagerhausgenossenschaft in Wels. Lagerhausgenossenschaft St. Florian-Enns. Verein zur Unterstützung oö. Landwirte bei Errichtung von Blitzableitern, Linz. Viehverwertungsgenossenschaft für Baumgartenberg und Umgebung. (37) Verzeichnis der wichtigsten Viehmärkte. (37) Oberösterreich. (37) Angrenzendes Niederösterreich. (38) Salzburg. (39) Obersteiermark. (39) Südliches Böhmen. (40) Angrenzendes Bayern. (40) Post- und Telegraphenwesen. (41) Briefsendungen. (41) Paketsendungen. Postsparkasse. (43) Staatstelegraph. (43) Stempel und Gebühren. (44) [3 Tabellen]: (1)I. Gebührensatz samt Zuschlag über 3000 bis 6000 K. (2)II. Gebührensatz samt Zuschlag über 4800 bis 6400 K. (3)III. Gebührensatz samt Zuschlag über 2400 bis 3200 K. (44) IV. Für Schriften und Urkunden, welche einer festen, skalamäßigen oder Perzentual-Gebühr unterliegen. (45) Kleiner Wegweiser in Linz und Urfahr. (46) [Abb.]: Neue Mitgliedsdiplome der k.k. oö. Landwirtschafts-Gesellschaft, deren Anschaffung sich jedes Mitglied zur Pflicht machen sollte, und welche eine schöne Zimmerzierde und Erinnerung darstellen (Größe 65:49 cm). (50) Landwirtschaftliches. ([51]) [Gedicht]: "Was du ererbt von deinen Vätern hast, Erwirb es, um es zu besitzen." ([51]) Aus den Uranfängen der Landwirtschaft. (52) [Gedicht]: An die Bauerntöchter! (53) Wann's schlecht geht. (53) Hebung der Erträge der Weiden. (54) [Abb.]: Erfolg der Kultivierung der Seiseralpe in Tirol, der größten Österreichs. (55) Kann ein überlegender Landwirt die schmalen Bifänge günstig beurteilen? (56) [Gedicht]: (58) Die Nährstoffausfuhr aus der Wirtschaft mit besonderer Berücksichtigung oberösterreichischer Verhältnisse. (58) [Abb.]: Welche Mengen von mineralischen Nährstoffen nimmt ein verkauftes Stück Großvieh aus der Wirtschaft mit fort? Kali soviel wie in 1 Schiebkarre voll Heu. Phosphorsäure soviel wie in 2 Fuhren Heu. Kalk soviel wie in 1 Fuhre Heu. (59) [Abb.]: Welche Mengen von mineralischen Nährstoffen gehen nun der Wirtschaft verloren durch den Verkauf von 1000 kg Roggen? 1000 kg Hafer? (60) [Abb.]: Welche Mengen von mineralischen Nährstoffen werden dem Boden zurückgegeben durch 1 Fuhre Stallmist von 1000 kg? (61) [Gedicht]: Merk' für Wiesenpflege dir - Diese knappen Regeln hier. (62) "Eine Schweinerei." (62) Formobstbau im Hausgarten. (65) [Abb.]: Junges Wandspalier in voller Blüte. (65) [Abb.]: Freistehende Zwergobstbäume: Becher-(Vasen-)form. (66) [6 Abb.]: (1)Palmette. (2)Berrierpalmette. (3)Pyramide. (4)Waagrechter Kordon, zweiarmig. (5)Senkrechter Kordon. (6)U-Form. (67) [Gedicht]: (68) Meine Schuld, meine große Schuld! (Mea culpa, mea maxima culpa.) (68) [Sprichwort]: Der Unschuld Schutz - der Freiheit Wehr', Der Falschheit Trutz - der Wahrheit Ehr'! (69) Zur Erleichterung der Aufforstung. (70) [Abb.]: Pflanzhacke. (70) [Gedicht]: Der deutsche Wald. (70) Alpen-Seilbahnen. (70) [Abb.]: Alpenseilbahn. Verankerung d. Drahtseile b.d. oberen Station. (71) [Abb.]: Milchwagen auf der Fahrt. (72) [Abb.]: Obere Station mit Spannvorrichtung. (73) [Abb.]: Ausladestelle. (74) [Gedicht]: (75) Die Kalidüngung in Oberösterreich. (76) Auf 100 Hektar landwirtschaftliche Anbaufläche verbrauchte im Jahre 1911 an reinem Kali in Form von Kainit oder 40 % Kalidüngesalz: (76) Gruppenfütterung der Kühe. (76) Sense, Pflug und Düngersack. (77) [Abb.]: Getreideernte. (77) [Tabelle]: Zur Ausnutzung der Gründüngung kam im Jahre 1906 Hafer in das Feld und ersehen wir aus der beifolgenden Tabelle den günstigen Erfolg, welchen die Gründüngung in Verbindung mit der Kaliphosphatdüngung gebracht hat. (80) [Abb.]: Stoppelumbruch. (80) [Gedicht]: (80) Schutz unserer Obsternten vor diebischen Vögeln. (81) [Abb.]: Vogelscheuche aus Spiegelglasscherben. (81) [Gedicht]: Wie man Feld und Acker düngt - Hier im knappen Reim erklingt! (82) Über schlechte Behandlung der Pferde. (82) [Abb.]: Schlechte Behandlung der Pferde. (84) [Gedicht]: (84) Neuanlage eines Obstgartens. (85) [Gedicht]: Bauernvolk. (86) Aus Chinas Landwirtschaft. (86) [Abb.]: Altchinesische Reismühle. (87) Zukunftsfrüchte. (87) Goldene Worte. (88) Der landwirtschaftliche Beruf in den verschiedenen Ländern. (88) [Abb.]: Verteilung des landw. Berufes in den verschiedenen Staaten. (89) [Tabelle]: Bild der sich fortsetzenden Industrialisierung. Es gehörten den verschiedenen Berufszweigen an: (90) Die Bedeutung des Kalkes. (90) [Gedicht]: (91) Tierquälerischer Transport des Rindes. (92) [2 Abb.]: (1)Roher Transport eines Stieres. (2)Empfehlenswerte Transportvorrichtung. (93) Blumenschmuck im trauten Heim. (94) [Abb.]: Landhaus aus Zementholz. (94) [Abb.]: Fensterkästen aus Holzklötzchen. (95) [Abb.]: Wandkästchen aus Holzklötzchen. (96) [Abb.]: Blumenampel. (97) [Abb.]: Verstellbares Blumengitter. (98) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ausziehbare Blumenkrippe. (2)Drehbare Blumenbretter. (99) [3 Abb.]: (1)Drehbares Blumenbrett mit Pflanzen besetzt. (2)Zusammenlegbare Blumentreppe. (3)Eckblumentreppe. (100) [Abb.]: Hängenelken. (101) [Abb.]: Bauernhaus mit Gebirgshängenelken. (102) Knochenschrot für das Geflügel. (102) [2 Abb.]: (1)Knochenmühle "Heureka". (2)Einzelne Teile der Knochenmühle. (103) [Gedicht]: (104) Über die Herstellung elektrischer Klingelanlagen. (104) [Abb.]: Elektrische Klingelanlage. Skizze einer Klingelanlage. (105) Die Winterfütterung unserer nützlichen Vögel. (106) [Abb.]: Vogelfutterring. (106) "Durch den Strudengau." (107) Errungenschaften im Brückenbau. (107) [Abb.]: Drehbrücke in Kairo. (107) [2 Abb.]: (1)Towernbrücke in London. (2)Hebebrücke in Kopenhagen. (108) Einschienenbahn. (108) [Abb.]: Einschienenbahn. (109) Ein Mädchen für alles. (110) [Abb.]: Universalsackkarre. (110) [Gedicht]: (110) Zur rationellen Aufbewahrung der Kleider. (110) [3 Abb.]: (1)Hosenhänger. (2)Kleiderbewahrer "Teriom". (3)"Fasson"-Kleiderhalter. (111) [Gedicht]: Die Bauernfahne. (112) Für den Feierabend. Lustige Ecke. ([113]) Die Viehkönigin von Oklahoma. ([113]) Die zerrissene Schleppe. (115) Redeblüten aus unserem Abgeordnetenhause. (117) Aufgesessen. Schonung der Augen. (121) Der richtige Zeitpunkt. Zur Frauen"bewegung". Wie du mir, so ich dir. Rebus. Amerikanischer Humor. (122) Das wirksame Heilmittel. Zu viel verlangt. (123) Wann 's hilft, is 's a recht. (123) Ein traurige Anzeige. Wie kann ein Kranker gesund werden. (123) Eine neue Pferderasse. Auch eine Entschädigung. Je nachdem. Harmonisch. (124) Nochad wird's g'fährli! (124) Kindliche Frage. Moderne Annouce. Einfacher. (124) Schlagfertig. Gut gegeben. Eine Geschichte, die wie ein Aprilscherz klingt. Von einem bayrischen Kasernenhofe. (125) [Gedicht]: Das hohe Lied vom Käse. (125) Humor in Grabschriften. Advokaten und Ärzte. Bei den heutien Fleischpreisen. (126) Die Karikatur. Idyllen. Die armen Fleischhauer. (127) Briefwechsel zwischen Onkel und Neffe. Drastische Warnungen. Der verbotene Blick. Advokatenhumor. Bei einem Wohltätigkeitsbasar. Vom Regen in die Traufe. (128) Wirtschaftstabellen und Wirtschaftsnotizen. (129) 1. Des Landmanns monatliche Verrichtungen. (129) Januar. - Mai. (129) Juni. (129) Juli. - Dezember. (130) [2 Tabellen]: (1)2. Aussaat und Ernteverhältnisse unserer Kulturpflanzen. (2)3. Paarungs-, Trächtigkeits- und Brüteverhältnisse unserer Haustiere. (131) [2 Tabellen]: (1)4. Trächtigkeitsanfang und - ende. (2)5. Brünstigkeit. (132) [3 Tabellen]: (1)6. Altersbeurteilung des Pferdes. (2)7. Zähneausbruch und -wechsel bei Pferd, Rind, Schaf. (3)8. Pulsschläge, Atemzüge, Körperwärme gesunder Tiere. (133) 9. Verhältniszahlen für die Bienenwirtschaft. (134) Stärke und Gewicht der Schwärme. Eierlegen der Königin. (134) [4 Tabellen]: (1)Entwicklungszeit, Lebensdauer, Größe und Gewicht der Biene. (2)Jahrestracht und Honigbedarf zur Winterfütterung. (3)Stärke der Stöcke zur Schwarmzeit, Blüten- und Honigbedarf zum Wachsbau. (4)Zellenmenge. Temperatureinfluß auf Wachs und Bienen. (134) [4 Tabellen]: (1)10. Gewährsmängel und Gewährszeiten der Haustiere. (2)11. Milchwirtschaftliche Verhältniszahlen. (3)12. Geschwindigkeiten, m pro Sekunde. (4)13. Für bauende Landwirte. (135) [Tabelle]: Verzehrungssteuertarif in Linz. (136) 15. Welche Düngemittel dürfen nicht gleichzeitig ausgestreut werden? (136) [Abb.]: (136) 16. Düngerproduktion. - Streu. (137) 17. Hilfeleistung bei Unglücks- und Erkrankungsfällen bis zur Ankunft des Arztes. (137) [3 Tabellen]: (1)18. Schonzeiten des Wildes. (2)Schonzeiten der Fische. (3)20. Schwendung landw. Produkte b. 3/4 - 1jähr. Aufbewahrung. (139) 21. Taschenuhr als Kompaß. (139) [Tabelle]: 22. Kubiktafel für runde Hölzer. (140) 23. Neue und alte Maße und Gewichte. (141) I. Längenmaße. II. Flächenmaße. III. Körpermaße, Hohlmaße. IV. Gewichte. (141) 24. Ausländisches Geld in österr. Kronenwährung. (141) 25. Lohnberechnung. (142) [Tabelle]: 26. Lohnberechnungstabelle bei einer Lohnhöhe von 50 - 200 K (§ 18 des Dienstbotengesetzes). (143) [Tabelle]: Bare Einnahmen und Ausgaben. (I) [Tabelle]: Zusammenstellung der Bar-Einnahmen und -Ausgaben des Jahres. (XIII) Beleg- und Geburtsliste. (XV) [Tabelle]: Probemelk-Tabelle. (XVI - XVII) [Tabelle]: Anbau- und Ernteregister. (XVIII - XIX) [Tabelle]: Ausdruschregister. (XX) Aus dem Geschäftsleben. (XXI) Inhalt. (XXII) Werbung ( - ) Einband ( - )