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Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Turk Madhawar-3Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 411 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 392 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils and 19 ha area is covered by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 7 soil series and 9 soil phases (management units) and 6 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 392 ha area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 28 per cent of area is shallow (25-50 cm), 22 per cent of area is moderately shallow (50-75 cm), 28 per cent of area is moderately deep (75-100 cm), 8 per cent of area is deep (100 - 150 cm) and 9 per cent of area is very deep (>150 cm).  About 4 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 72 per cent loamy soils and 19 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  Entire area in the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 28 per cent area is medium (101-150 mm/m) and 4 per cent of area is low (51-100 mm/m) and 46 per cent of area is very low (0.75%), 47 per cent area is medium (0.5-0.75%) and 37 per cent area is low (1 ppm) in an area of 1 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in an area of 53 per cent and deficient (<4.5 ppm) in an area of 42 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 114 (28) 86 (21) Guava - 114 (28) Maize 114 (28) 86 (21) Sapota - 114 (28) Bajra 114 (28) 86 (21) Pomegranate - 114 (28) Groundnut - 114 (28) Musambi - 114 (28) Sunflower - 114 (28) Lime - 114 (28) Redgram - 183 (45) Amla - 114 (28) Bengal gram - 34 (8) Cashew - - Cotton - 131 (32) Jackfruit - 114 (28) Chilli 114 (28) 17 (4) Jamun - - Tomato 114 (28) 17 (4) Custard apple - 131 (32) Brinjal 114 (28) 17 (4) Tamarind - - Onion 114 (28) 17 (4) Mulberry - 114 (28) Bhendi 114 (28) 17 (4) Marigold 114 (28) 17 (4) Drumstick - 114 (28) Chrysanthemum 114 (28) 17 (4) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Turk Madhawar-3 is located at North latitude 160 40' 45.259" and 160 39' 18.32" and East longitude 770 20' 39.786'' and 770 19' 24.974" covering an area of about 420.22 ha coming unde Madhwara, Yalasatti and Thotalura villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Turk Madhawar-3 micro watersheds of Turk Madhawar sub-watershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 farmers were sampled in Turk Madhawar-3 micro-watershed among households surveyed 11 (31.43%) were marginal, 15 (42.86%) were small, 4 (11.43 %) were semi medium and 3 (8.57 %) were medium farmers. 2 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 110 (55.84%) men and 87 (44.16 %) were women. The average population of landless was 3, marginal farmers were 5.4, small farmers were 6.7, semi medium farmers were 4.3 and medium farmers were 5.  Majority of the respondents (49.75%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 62.94 per cent illiterates, 2.03 percent were functional literates, 37.06 per cent pre university education and 1.02 per cent attained graduation.  About, 100.00 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 75.13 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 80.00 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 14.29 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 88.57 per cent possess TV, 25.71 per cent possess mixer grinder, 100.00 per cent possess mobile phones and 11.43 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 28.57 per cent of the households possess plough, and 22.86 per cent possess bullock cart.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 5.71 per cent possess local cow and 2.86 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.03, women available in the micro watershed was 1.80, hired labour (men) available was 6.57 and hired labour (women) available was 6.57.  Further, 5.71 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season. 2  In the study area, about 0.51 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 800.00 kms for about 4.00 months.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 91.34 per cent (52.84 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 8.66 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 4.00 live bore wells and 4.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 11.43 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut, Sugarcane and Jowar and cropping intensity was recorded as 94.68 per cent.  Out of the sample households 100.00 percent possessed bank account and 100.00 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 25.71 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 50.00 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 137.50 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 100.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut, Sugarcane and Jowar was Rs.26712.06, 34854.65, 51940.42, 83049.00 and 36461.10 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.40, 1: 1.20, 1: 2.60, 1: 3.10 and 1:0.80 respectively.  Further, 48.57 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 77585.71 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 60842.86 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 3 horticulture trees and 112 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  About 8.57 per cent of the households shown interest to cultivate horticultural crops.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 10257.14 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 94.29 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 88.57 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 2.86 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 31.43 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity. 3  Majority of the farmers (97.14%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 94.29 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  About, 57.14 per cent of farmers practicing summer ploughing as soil and water conservation practice.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 97.14 per cent of the households and 5.71 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 88.57 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 51.43 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (94.29%), pulses (77.14%) and oilseeds (60.00%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (88.57%) wild animal menace on farm field (77.14%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (88.57%), inadequacy of irrigation water (88.57%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (91.43%), high rate of interest on credit (85.71%), low price for the agricultural commodities (88.57%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (80.00%), inadequate extension services (57.14%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (71.43%), Less rainfall (80.00%) and Source of Agri-technology information (Newspaper/ TV/Mobile) (40.00%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project.

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Mundal-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 633 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 586 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 5 ha by railway line, 5 ha by rock outcrops and 37 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 11 soil series and 12 soil phases (management units) and 6 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 93 per cent area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 10 per cent area are very shallow to shallow (150 cm).  About 4 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy, 25 per cent area in loamy and 64 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  Maximum of 82 per cent area in the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 3 per cent area medium (101-150 mm/m), 15 per cent area low (51- 100 mm/m) and 11 per cent area very low (9.0) soils.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of entire soils of the microwatershed is dominantly 0.75), 82 per cent are medium (0.5-0.75%) and less than 1 per cent low (57 kg/ha) in 27 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available potassium is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in 75 per cent and high (>337 kg/ha) 18 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 42 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in 15 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 37 per cent area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 180(28) 302(48) Guava - 102(16) Maize 102(16) 380(60) Sapota - 102(16) Bajra 102(16) 380(60) Pomegranate - 180(28) Groundnut <1(<1) 114(18) Musambi 78(12) 102(16) Sunflower 78(12) 106(16) Lime 78(12) 102(16) Redgram - 470(74) Amla 102(16) 90(14) Bengal gram 78(12) 110(17) Cashew - 81(13) Cotton 78(12) 102(16) Jackfruit - 102(16) Chilli 102(16) 90(14) Jamun - 78(12) Tomato 102(16) 12(2) Custard apple 160(25) 33(5) Brinjal 102(16) 12(2) Tamarind - 78(12) Onion 102(16) 12(2) Mulberry - 102(16) Bhendi 102(16) 90(14) Marigold 102(16) 90(14) Drumstick - 180(28) Chrysanthemum 102(16) 90(14) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Mundal-2 is located at North latitude 160 47' 38.47" and 160 45' 0.508" and East longitude 770 7' 50.52'' and 770 5' 59.846" covering an area of about 632.43 ha coming under Mudhanala, Bheemanagara and Yadhagiri B Villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Mundal-2 micro watersheds of Yadgir sub-watershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 34 total respondents, 12 (35.29 %) were marginal, 9 (26.47%)were small, 6 (17.65 %) were Semi medium and 1 (2.94 %) were medium farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 107 (55.15%) men and 87 (44.85 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (35.57%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 55.15 per cent illiterates, 11.86 per cent of them had primary school education, 12.89 per cent middle school education, and 10.31 per cent high school education, 3.61 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.52 per cent of them had Diploma, 3.09 per cent attained graduation.  About, 8.82 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 73.53 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 3.61 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 58.82 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 26.47 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 73.53 per cent possess TV, 58.82 per cent possess mixer grinder, 91.18 per cent possess mobile phones and 50.00 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 20.59 per cent of the households possess plough, 5.88 per cent possess tractor, 11.76 per cent possess bullock cart and 5.88 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 5.88 per cent possess local cow and 8.82 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own men and women labour availability in the micro watershed was 6.38 each, while the hired labour (men) availability was1.61.  Further, 29.41 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 61.47 per cent (32.68 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 34.82 per cent area is irrigated land. 2  There were 7.00 live bore wells and 8.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 20.59 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Maize, Redgram, Cotton, Groundut, Green gram and Paddy and cropping intensity was recorded as 99.94 per cent.  Out of the sample households 79.41 percent possessed bank account and 17.65 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 17.65 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 90.91 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 18.18 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 50.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations, while, only 50.00 per cent respondents opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfil their requirement.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Maize, Redgram, Cotton, Groundut, green gram and Paddy was Rs.57461.85, 29614.81, 30531.65, 46693.23, 35397.22 and 30444.71 with benefit cost ratio of 1:0.70, 1: 1.90, 1: 1.60, 1: 1.50, 1:1.6 and 1:1.30 respectively.  Further, 29.41 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.94 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 80176.47 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 45411.76 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 4 horticulture trees and 77 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 5464.71 for land development and Rs. 3735.29 for irrigation facility.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 29.41 per cent depends on own funds and 23.53 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 76.47 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 2.94 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 76.47 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (67.65%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 76.47 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing. 3  About, 100.00 per cent of farmers practicing Field Bunding as soil and water conservation practice.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 67.65 per cent of the households and 32.35 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 58.82 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 44.12 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 97.06 per cent of the households possessed BPL card and 5.88 per cent of the household's possessed APL.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (91.18%), pulses (94.12%) and oilseeds (11.76%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (82.35%) wild animal menace on farm field (67.65%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (82.35%), inadequacy of irrigation water (67.65%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (76.47%), high rate of interest on credit (70.59%), low price for the agricultural commodities (82.35%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (41.18%), inadequate extension services (11.76%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (26.47%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Yadgir Nala-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 461 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 382 ha (83%) in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 68 ha (15%) by rock outcrops and 11 ha (2%) by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 4 soil series and 8 soil phases (management units) and 3 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 57 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are very deep (>150 cm), 13 per cent soils are deep (100 to 150 cm), 10 per cent soils are moderately deep (75-100 cm) and 3 per cent soils are shallow (25-50 cm).  About 52 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 31 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 74 per cent area of the microwatershed has non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 43 per cent is nearly level (0-1%) and 40 per cent area in the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 43 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 40 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded in the microwatershed.  An area of about 39 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8) and 44 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4) in reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire area of the microwatershed is 0.75%) in organic carbon.  About 65 per cent area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 18 per cent area is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  About 4 per cent is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in available sulphur.  Available boron is low (<0.5 ppm) in an area of about 38 per cent and medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) in an area of 45 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available iron is deficient in an area of 52 per cent and sufficient in 31 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available manganese is sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available copper is sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in all the soils of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 322(70) 45(10) Guava - - Maize - 368(80) Sapota - - Bajra - 368(80) Pomegranate - 322(70) Groundnut - 45(10) Musambi 288(62) 35(8) Sunflower 288(62) 35(8) Lime 288(62) 35(8) Redgram - 323(70) Amla - 367(80) Bengal gram 322(70) 45(10) Cashew - - Cotton 288(62) 80(18) Jackfruit - - Chilli - 368(80) Jamun - 322(70) Tomato - 272(59) Custard apple 322(70) 45(10) Brinjal 35(8) 333(72) Tamarind - 322(70) Onion 35(8) 45(10) Mulberry - - Bhendi 262(57) 106(23) Marigold - 368(80) Drumstick - 323(70) Chrysanthemum - 368(80) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Yadgir Nala-1 is located at North latitude 160 52' 25.18" and 160 51' 10.235" and East longitude 770 9' 47.358" and 770 8' 6.025" covering an area of about 461.31 ha coming under Hatthakuni and Horunacha villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Yadgir Nala-1 micro watersheds of Hattikuni subwatershed, Yadagiri taluk, Yadagiri District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 total respondents, 11 were marginal, (31.43 %) were small 10 (28.57%), 6 (17.14 %) were Semi medium and 2 (5.71 %) were medium farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 100 (57.47%) men and 74 (42.53 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (38.51%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 52.30 per cent illiterates, 5.75 per cent pre university education and 4.02 per cent attained graduation.  About, 91.43 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 45.71 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 18.39 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 40.00 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 51.43 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 91.43 per cent possess TV, 45.71 per cent possess mixer grinder, 85.71 per cent possess mobile phones and 62.86 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 2.86 per cent of the households possess plough, 11.43 per cent possess tractor, 2.86 per cent possess bullock cart and 5.71 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 20.00 per cent possess local cow and 2.86 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own men and women labour availability in the micro watershed was 7.74 each, while the hired labour (men) availability was 1.43.  Further, 100.00 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 38.24 per cent (30.00 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 61.76 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 11.00 live bore wells and 11.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households. 2  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Redgram, Groundnut, Cotton, Paddy, Papaya and Green gram and cropping intensity was recorded as 94.87 per cent.  Out of the sample households 77.14 percent possessed bank account and 77.14 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 77.14 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 3.70 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 3.7 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 100.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Redgram, Groundnut, Cotton, Paddy, Green gram and papaya was Rs. 41288.68, 63392.27, 39091.61, 47918.04 and 64184.02 with benefit cost ratio of 1:2.1, 1:1.5, 1:3.9, 1: 2.4, 1:1.6 and 1:5 respectively.  Further, 31.43 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 5.71 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 208760.00 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 153331.43 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 67 horticulture trees and 122 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 13022.86 for land development and Rs. 2857.14 for irrigation facility.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 2.86 per cent depends on own funds and 22.86 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 40.00 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 45.71 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 85.71 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (80.0 %) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 80.00 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 100 per cent of the households.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 82.86 per cent of the households. 3  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 31.43 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (71.43%), pulses (85.71%) and oilseeds (45.71%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (82.86%) wild animal menace on farm field (80.00%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (62.86%), inadequacy of irrigation water (22.86%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (28.57%), high rate of interest on credit (11.43%), low price for the agricultural commodities (14.29%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (2.86%), inadequate extension services (20.00%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (25.71%), Less rainfall (31.43%) and Source of Agri-technology information (Newspaper/ TV/Mobile) (42.86%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Malkapalli Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 836 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 801 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 16 ha by rock outcrops and about 19 ha by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 9 soil series and 11 soil phases (management units) and 3 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 46 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep to deep (75 - 150 cm) and 50 per cent soils are very shallow to shallow (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 15 per cent medium (101-150 mm/m), 3 per cent area low (51-100 mm/m) and 50 per cent area very low (0.75%) in organic carbon content.  About 2 per cent area is low ( 57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  An area 86 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 10 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium in the microwatershed.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in less than 1 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) 93 per cent and deficient (0.6 ppm) in 87 per cent area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 162(19) 224(27) Guava - 146(17) Maize 123(15) 263(31) Sapota - 146(17) Bajra 146(17) 240(29) Pomegranate - 386(46) Groundnut 23(3) 123(15) Musambi 39(5) 347(42) Sunflower 39(5) 347(42) Lime 39(5) 347(42) Redgram - 386(46) Amla 146(17) 39(5) Bengal gram 39(5) 201(24) Cashew - 23(3) Cotton 39(5) 324(39) Jackfruit - 146(17) Chilli 123(15) 263(31) Jamun - 39(5) Tomato 123(15) 23(3) Custard apple 61(7) 324(39) Brinjal 123(15) 23(3) Tamarind - 39(5) Onion 123(15) 23(3) Mulberry - 146(17) Bhendi 123(15) 263(31) Marigold 123(15) 263(31) Drumstick - 185 (22) Chrysanthemum 123(15) 263(31) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and sub marginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Malkapalli is located at North latitude 160 56' 3.172" and 160 54' 55.689" and East longitude 770 20' 50.652'' and 770 19' 45.408" covering an area of about 183.35 ha coming under Mitathapadamapalli and Siddapura. B villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Malkapalli micro watersheds of Mothakapalli subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 farmers were sampled in Malkapalli micro-watershed among households surveyed 15 (42.86%) were marginal, 8 (22.86%) were small, 8 (22.86 %) were semi medium and 2 (5.71 %) were medium farmers. 2 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 75 (52.82%) men and 67 (47.18 %) were women. The average population of landless was 3.5, marginal farmers were 4.1, small farmers were 3.9, semi medium farmers were 4.3 and medium farmers were 4.5.  Majority of the respondents (39.44%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 66.20 per cent of illiterates, 21.83 per cent of them had primary school education, 2.11 per cent middle school education, 4.93 per cent high school education, 0.70 per cent of them had PUC education, 1.41 per cent of them had Diploma, 1.41 per cent attained graduation and 1.41 them had other education.  About, 97.14 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 5.71 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 68.31 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 97.14 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 2.86 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 82.86 per cent possess TV, 62.86 per cent possess mixer grinder, 94.29 per cent possess mobile phones and 8.57 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 17.14 per cent of the households possess Bullock Cart, 31.43 per cent possess plough, 2.86 per cent possess Sprayer, 14.29 per cent possess Weeder and 2.86 per cent possess Sprinkler.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 11.43 per cent possess local cow and 8.57 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.71, women available in the micro 2 watershed was 1.63, hired labour (men) available was 6.6 and hired labour (women) available was 6.60.  Further, 2.86 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 60.08 per cent (42.93 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 34.26 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 12.00 live bore wells and 8.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 34.29 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut, Paddy and Jowar and cropping intensity was recorded as 99.49 per cent.  Out of the sample households 91.43 percent possessed bank account and 20.00 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 71.43 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 100.00 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 100.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut, Paddy and Jowar was Rs.28862.38 , 23932.90, 59387.59, 63260.36, and 11566.09 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.70, 1: 2.40, 1: 1.10, 1: 1.60, and 1:1.10 , respectively.  Further, 42.86 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 20.00 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 81257.14 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 45414.29 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 39 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 1285.71 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 22.22 per cent depends on own funds and 2.78 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 82.86 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 11.43 per cent have sold in regulated markets. 3  Further, 65.71 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (85.71%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 91.43 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 102.86 per cent of the households and 8.57 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 85.71 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 34.29 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (108.57%), pulses (100.00%) and oilseeds (91.43%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (100.00%) wild animal menace on farm field (80.00%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (91.43%), inadequacy of irrigation water (91.43%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (91.43%), high rate of interest on credit (91.43%), low price for the agricultural commodities (94.29%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (88.57%), inadequate extension services (62.86%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (91.43%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Mundragi-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 452 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 409 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 19 ha by rock outcrops and about 24 ha by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 9 soil series and 15 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About88 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep to very deep (75 - >150 cm) and 3 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50-75 cm).  About 45 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 46 per cent clayey soils.  About 90 per cent area is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity and 15 per cent area low (51-100 mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 36 per cent soils are nearly level (0-1%) and 55% area of microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  An area of about 36 per cent is slightly (e1) eroded, 55 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded.  An area of about 44 per cent soils are neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) in soil reaction and 47 per cent soils are slightly to moderately alkaline (pH 7.3-8.4).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire area of the microwatershed is dominantly 0.75) in organic carbon content.  About 80 per cent area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 10 per area is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  About an area of 41 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 50 per cent high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in 77 per cent and deficient (<4.5 ppm) in 14 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in entire area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 341(76) 50(11) Guava - 54(12) Maize - 391(87) Sapota - 54(12) Bajra - 409(91) Pomegranate - 395(88) Groundnut - 57(13) Musambi 240(53) 156(34) Sunflower 243(54) 135(30) Lime 240(53) 156(34) Redgram - 395(88) Amla 108(24) 282(62) Bengal gram 341(76) 37(8) Cashew - 23(5) Cotton 328(73) 49(11) Jackfruit - 36(8) Chilli - 409(91) Jamun - 359(80) Tomato - 289(64) Custard apple 356(79) 35(8) Brinjal 143(32) 267(59) Tamarind - 359(80) Onion 88(20) 100(22) Mulberry - 36(8) Bhendi 262(58) 147(32) Marigold - 409(91) Drumstick - 395(88) Chrysanthemum - 409(91) Mango - 21(5)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and sub marginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Mundragi-1 is located at North latitude 160 48' 22.633" and 160 45' 58.37" and East longitude 770 10' 52.633'' and 770 8' 22.747" covering an area of about 451.37 ha coming under Mundaragi, Dastharabadha and Yadhagiri. B Villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Mundragi-1 micro watersheds of Belagiri sub-watershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 36 farmers were sampled in Mundragi-1 micro-watershed among households surveyed 18 (50.00%) were marginal, 9 (25.00%) were small, 2 (5.56 %) were semi medium and 2 (5.56 %) were medium farmers. 5 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 75 (55.97%) men and 59 (44.03 %) were women. The average population of landless was 3, marginal farmers were 3.8, small farmers were 3.1, semi medium farmers were 6.5 and medium farmers were 4.5.  Majority of the respondents (47.76%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 67.91 per cent illiterates, 28.36 per cent pre university education and 3.73 per cent attained graduation.  About, 69.44 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 16.67 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers. Agriculture was the major occupation for 47.76 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 72.22 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 25.00 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 83.33 per cent possess TV, 8.33 per cent possess mixer grinder, 88.89 per cent possess mobile phones and 5.56 per cent possess motor cycles. Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 22.22 per cent of the households possess plough, 8.33 per cent possess bullock cart and 2.78 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 13.89 per cent possess local cow and 8.33 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.71, women available in the micro watershed was 1.39, hired labour (men) available was 5.48 and hired labour (women) available was 8.74.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 63.47 per cent (26.74 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 36.53 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 9.00 live bore wells and 6.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households. Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 25.00 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Groundut, Green gram, Sorghum and Cotton and cropping intensity was recorded as 99.50 per cent.  Out of the sample households 100.00 percent possessed bank account and 36.11 per cent of them have savings in the account. About 30.56 per cent of the respondents 2 borrowed credit from various sources. Among the credit borrowed by households, 7.69 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 23.08 per cent from cooperative/ Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 66.67 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Groundut, Green gram, Sorghum and Cotton was Rs.43279.56, 119183.08, 44891.32, 30259.60 and 58983.03 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.60, 1: 0.80, 1: 0.80, 1: 1.40 and 1:1.40 respectively.  Further, 16.67 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 8.33 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 106666.67 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 48361.11 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 8 horticulture trees and 57 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards. About 5.56 per cent of the households shown interest to cultivate horticultural crops.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 1250.00 for land development and Rs. 833.33 for irrigation facility. Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 8.33 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 25.00 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 63.89 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 86.11 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (83.33%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 86.11 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 66.67 per cent of the households and 36.11 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 97.22 per cent of the households. Electricity was the major source of light for 97.22 per cent of the households. In the study area, 30.56 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card. Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (97.22%), pulses (94.44%) and oilseeds (66.67%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (88.89%) wild animal menace on farm field (83.33%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (66.67%), inadequacy of irrigation water (38.89%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (88.89%), high rate of interest on credit (80.56%), low price for the agricultural commodities (80.56%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (83.33%), inadequate extension services (13.89%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (86.11%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Muradihalli microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 591 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 580 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils and 11 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 10 soil series and 16 soil phases (management units) and 7 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 3 per cent area are shallow (25 - 50 cm), 40 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately shallow (50-75 cm), 23 per cent area soils area moderately deep (75-100 cm) and 31 per cent area are deep (100 - 150 cm).  About 14 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy, 45 per cent area loamy and 39 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  Maximum of 95 per cent area in the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 7 per cent area medium (101-150 mm/m), 64 per cent area low (51- 100 mm/m) and 3 per cent area very low (0.75%) in 8 per cent area.  About 67 per cent area is medium (23-57 kg/ha), 23 per cent area is low (57 kg/ha) available phosphorus.  About 86 per cent area is medium (145 – 337 kg/ha) and 12 per cent area is high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 32 per cent.  About 81 per cent area is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 44(7) 413(70) Guava - 130(22) Maize 130(22) 335(57) Sapota - 130(22) Bajra 130(22) 328(55) Pomegranate - 219(37) Groundnut 130(22) 135(23) Musambi 44(7) 175(30) Sunflower 44(7) 175(30) Lime 44(7) 175(30) Redgram - 219(37) Amla 130(22) 283(48) Bengal gram 44(7) 45(8) Cashew - 130(22) Cotton 44(7) 148(25) Jackfruit - 130(22) Chilli 130(22) 312(53) Jamun - 44(7) Tomato 130(22) 223(38) Custard apple 174(29) 284(48) Brinjal 130(22) 223(38) Tamarind - 44(7) Onion 130(22) 223(38) Mulberry - 130(22) Bhendi 130(22) 312(53) Marigold 130(22) 312(53) Drumstick - 174(29) Chrysanthemum 130(22) 312(53) Mango - 218(37)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Muradihalli is located at North latitude 160 33' 25.84" and 160 32'10.098" and East longitude 770 23' 17.872'' and 770 21' 4.201" covering an area of about 590.22 ha coming under Chandapura, Duppalli, Baddepalli and Kadechoora Villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Muradihalli micro watersheds of Ajalapur subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 farmers were sampled in Muradihalli micro-watershed among households surveyed 6 (17.14%) were marginal, 10 (28.57%) were small, 15 (42.86 %) were semi medium and 3 (8.57 %) were medium farmers. 1 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 84 (62.69%) men and 50 (37.31 %) were women. The average population of landless was 4, marginal farmers were 3, small farmers were 3.8, semi medium farmers were 4.1 and medium farmers were 4.  Majority of the respondents (37.31%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 64.18 per cent of illiterates, 21.64 per cent of them had primary school education, 2.24 per cent middle school education, and 8.21 per cent high school education, 1.49 per cent of them had PUC education and 1.49 them had other education.  About, 88.57 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 8.57 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 78.36 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 82.86 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 2.86 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 85.71 per cent possess TV, 74.29 per cent possess mixer grinder, 97.14 per cent possess mobile phones and 25.71 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 22.86 per cent of the households possess Bullock Cart, 28.57 per cent possess plough, 8.57 per cent possess Power Tiller, 2.86 per cent possess Thresher, 34.29 per cent possess Weeder, 5.71 per cent possess tractor and 5.71 per cent possess Sprinkler.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 2.86 per cent possess local cow and 2.86 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.89, women available in the micro watershed was 1.49, hired labour (men) available was 6.49 and hired labour (women) available was 6.49. 2  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 97.80 per cent (73.43 ha) of the area is under dry condition.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram and Cotton, cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  Out of the sample households 100.00 percent possessed bank account and 31.43 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 77.14 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 100 per cent have borrowed loan from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 50.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram and Cotton was Rs.27720.80 and 20643.65 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.90 and 1: 2.10 respectively.  Further, 14.29 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 11.43 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 113685.71 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 77914.29 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 11 horticulture trees and 80 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 7685.71 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 65.71 per cent depends on own funds and 5.71 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 71.43 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 28.57 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 94.29 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (85.71%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 91.43 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Firewood was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 97.14 per cent of the households and 11.43 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 82.86 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 97.14 per cent of the households. 3  In the study area, 37.14 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 97.14 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (94.29%), pulses (94.29%) and oilseeds (77.14%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (94.29%) wild animal menace on farm field (82.86%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (91.43%), inadequacy of irrigation water (85.71%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (91.43%), high rate of interest on credit (91.43%), low price for the agricultural commodities (91.43%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (94.29%), inadequate extension services (65.71%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (91.43%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Nazarapur-1Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 539 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 404 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 123 ha by rock outcrops and 12 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 5 soil series and 9 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 6 per cent area is very shallow (150 cm) in the microwatershed.  About 10 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 51 per cent loamy soils and 14 per cent clayey soils at the surface  An area of 30 per cent is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 11 per cent area in the microwatershed has nearly level (0-1% slope) lands, 29 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) and 35 per cent has gently sloping (3-5%) lands.  An area of about 64 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded and 11 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded.  An area of about 3 per cent area is slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5) in soil reaction, 8 per cent area is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) and 63 per cent soils is slightly to moderately alkaline (pH 7.3-8.4)  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of entire soils of the microwatershed is dominantly 0.75%).  42 per cent area is medium (23-57 kg/ha)in available phosphorus and 33 per cent area is high (> 57 kg/ha).  About 63 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in available potassium and 12 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha).  Available sulphur is medium (10-20 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed  Available boron is medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 8 per cent area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 106 (20) - Guava - - Maize - 106 (20) Sapota - - Bajra - 106 (20) Pomegranate - 106 (20) Groundnut - - Musambi 106 (20) - Sunflower 106 (20) - Lime 106 (20) - Redgram - 105 (20) Amla 19 (3) 87 (16) Bengal gram 106 (20) - Cashew - - Cotton 106 (20) - Jackfruit - - Chilli - 105 (20) Jamun - 106 (20) Tomato - 87 (16) Custard apple 106 (20) - Brinjal 87 (16) 19 (3) Tamarind - - Onion 60 (11) - Mulberry - - Bhendi 87 (16) 19 (3) Marigold - 105 (20) Drumstick - 105 (20) Chrysanthemum - 105 (20) Mango - 87 (16)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Nazarapur-1 is located at North latitude 160 50' 1.92" and 160 48'28.869" and East longitude 770 25' 14.222'' and 770 23' 14.268" covering an area of about 538.42 ha coming under under Najarapura, Keshawar and Borabanda Villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Nazarapur-1 micro watersheds of Gurmatkal subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 34 total respondents, 19 (55.88 %) were marginal and 12 (35.29%) were small farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 86 (55.84%) men and 68 (44.16 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (47.40%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 61.04 per cent of illiterates, 14.94 per cent of them had primary school education, 9.09 per cent middle school education, and 8.44 per cent high school education, 3.25 per cent of them had PUC education and 2.60 per cent attained graduation  About, 85.29 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 14.71 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 62.99 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 61.76 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 17.65 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 70.59 per cent possess TV, 14.71 per cent possess mixer grinder, 91.18 per cent possess mobile phones and 17.65 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 32.35 per cent of the households possess plough, 14.71 per cent possess bullock cart and 17.65 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 23.53 per cent possess local cow and 26.47 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own men and women labour availability in the micro watershed was 6.73 each, while the hired labour (men) availability was 1.59.  Further, 2.94 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 84.58 per cent (27.27 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 15.42 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 7.00 live bore wells and 5.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households. 2  Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 20.59 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Groundnut, Cotton, Paddy and Green gram and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  Out of the sample households 100.00 percent possessed bank account and 70.59 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 20.59 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 52.63 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 26.32 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 89.47 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Groundnut, Cotton, Paddy and Green gram was Rs.40948.74, 74253.61, 57058.51, 89347.24 and 39386.59 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.30, 1: 3.40, 1: 2.00, 1: 1.50 and 1:1.30 respectively.  Further, 52.94 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 0.00 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 123908.82 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 49932.35 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 4 horticulture trees and 65 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 10617.65 for land development and Rs. 4411.76 for irrigation facility.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 23.53 per cent depends on own funds and 11.76 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 64.71 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 32.35 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 73.53 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (58.82%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 91.18 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 73.53 per cent of the households and 38.24 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 100.00 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 55.88 per cent of the households possess toilet facility. 3  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (94.12%), pulses (97.06%) and oilseeds (79.41%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (105.88%) wild animal menace on farm field (91.18%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (97.06%), inadequacy of irrigation water (76.47%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (91.18%), high rate of interest on credit (91.18%), low price for the agricultural commodities (91.18%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (55.88%), inadequate extension services (50.00%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (88.24%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Belur-3 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 773 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 74 per cent is covered by soil and 26 per cent is by habitation and settlements. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 11 soil series and 17 soil phases (management units) and 5 Land Management Units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  About 3 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 71 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 53 per cent area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 14 per cent area of the microwatershed has nearly level (0-1% slope) lands and 60 per cent area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  An area of about 59 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded and about 15 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded.  Entire cultivated area of the soils in the microwatershed are slightly alkaline to strongly alkaline (pH 7.3-9.0) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is 0.75%) in 5 per cent area.  An area of about 17 per cent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 57 per cent is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  An area of about 23 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 51 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) and 65 per cent is deficient (1.0 ppm) in available manganese content.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is sufficient (>0.2 ppm) in available copper content.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in available zinc content.  The land suitability for 31 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 169(22) 118(15) Sapota 56(7) 92(12) Maize 56(7) 231(30) Pomegranate 56(7) 307(40) Bajra 72(9) 275(36) Guava - 148(19) Groundnut - 227(29) Jackfruit 56(7) 92(12) Sunflower 102(13) 185(24) Jamun 56(7) 206(27) Cotton 169(22) 118(15) Musambi 102(13) 261(34) Red gram 56(7) 226(29) Lime 102(13) 261(34) Bengalgram 113(15) 174(23) Cashew - 148(19) Chilli 56(7) 16(2) Custard apple 185(24) 257(33) Tomato 56(7) 16(2) Amla 72(9) 370(48) Brinjal 16(2) 350(45) Tamarind 56(7) 130(17) Onion - 151(20) Marigold 56(7) 231(30) Bhendi - 367(47) Chrysanthemum 56(7) 231(30) Drumstick 72(9) 294(38) Jasmine 56(7) 16(2) Mulberry 72(9) 286(37) Crossandra 56(7) 37(5) Mango 56(7) 16(2)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 5 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Belur-3 is located at North latitude 150 14' 19.625" and 150 12' 17.551" and East longitude 760 8' 41.954'' and 760 6' 2.989" covering an area of about 772.99 ha coming under Gudlanura and Akkapura villages of Koppal taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Belur-3 micro watersheds of Katarki subwatershed, Koppal taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 total respondents, 12 (34.29 %) were marginal, 8 (22.86%) were small, 9 (25.71 %) were Semi medium and 1 (2.86 %) were medium farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 93 (59.62%) men and 63 (40.38 %) were women. The average population of landless was 4.4, marginal farmers were 4.8, small farmers were 4.3, semi medium farmers were 4.1 and medium farmers were 5.  Majority of the respondents (48.08%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 27.56 per cent illiterates, 26.28 per cent of them had primary school education, 7.69 per cent middle school education and 14.10 per cent high school education, 14.10 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.64 per cent of them had Diploma, 4.49 per cent attained graduation and 5.13 them had other education.  About, 85.71 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 14.29 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 19.87 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 85.71 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 11.43 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 71.43 per cent possess TV, 5.71 per cent possess mixer grinder, 91.43 per cent possess mobile phones and 42.86 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 8.57 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.86 per cent possess tractor, 20.00 per cent possess bullock cart and 2.86 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 22.86 per cent possess local cow and 11.43 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.92, women available in the micro watershed was 1.20, hired labour (men) available was 13.22 and hired labour (women) available was 13.43.  Further, 102.86 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season. 2  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 76.16 per cent (42.76 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 23.84 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 11.00 live bore wells and 8.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 34.29 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Maize, Onion, Cotton, Groundnut and Sorghum and cropping intensity was recorded as 91.62 per cent.  Out of the sample households 85.71 percent possessed bank account and 85.71 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 85.71 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 10.00 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 100.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  Per hectare cost of cultivation for Maize, Onion, Cotton, Groundnut and Sorghum was Rs.27331.63 , 35492.45, 23968.40, 51700.52, and 114699.18 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.30, 1: 3.20, 1: 2.10, 1: 2.70, and 1:1.00 , respectively.  Further, 31.43 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.86 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 91371.43 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 73657.14 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 133 horticulture trees and 125 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 800.00 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 5.71 per cent depends on own funds and 2.86 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 5.71 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 80.00 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 85.71 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity. 3  Majority of the farmers (85.71%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 85.71 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire wood was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 100.00 per cent of the households.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 97.14 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 100.00 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 97.14 per cent of the households possessed BPL card and 2.86 per cent of the household's possessed APL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (91.43%), pulses (88.57%) and oilseeds (25.71%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (88.57%) wild animal menace on farm field (74.29%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (48.57%), inadequacy of irrigation water (25.71%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (20.00%), high rate of interest on credit (8.57%), low price for the agricultural commodities (40.00%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (11.43%), inadequate extension services (5.71%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (40.00%), Less rainfall (54.29%) and Source of Agri-technology information (Newspaper/ TV/Mobile) (40.00%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Shethalli-3Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 762 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 403 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 5 ha area is covered by railway line, 323 ha area is covered by mining/industrial and 31 ha area is covered by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 7 soil series and 9 soil phases (management units) and 3 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 403 ha area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 10 per cent of area is moderately shallow (50-75 cm), 30 per cent of area is moderately deep (75-100 cm), 10 per cent of area is deep (100 - 150 cm) and 3 per cent of area is very deep (>150 cm).  About 6 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 30 per cent area is medium (101-150 mm/m) and 10 per cent of area is low (51- 100 mm/m).  Entire cultivated area in the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  An area of about 47 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded and 6 per cent of area is severely (e3) eroded.  About 19 per cent area is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4) and 35 per cent area is strongly alkaline to very strongly alkaline (pH 8.4->9) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) is 0.75%), 35 per cent area is medium (0.5-0.75%) and 5 per cent area is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium content.  Available sulphur content is low (1 ppm) in an area of 8 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in an area of 41 per cent and deficient (<4.5 ppm) in an area of 12 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 371 (49) Guava - - Maize - 371 (49) Sapota - - Bajra - 371 (49) Pomegranate - 200 (26) Groundnut - 77 (10) Musambi - 200 (26) Sunflower - 200 (26) Lime - 200 (26) Redgram - 294 (39) Amla - 272 (35) Bengal gram 195 (26) 99 (13) Cashew - - Cotton - 200 (26) Jackfruit - - Chilli - 277 (36) Jamun - - Tomato - 77 (10) Custard apple - 277 (36) Brinjal - 77 (10) Tamarind - - Onion - 77 (10) Mulberry - 195 (26) Bhendi - 277 (36) Marigold - 277 (36) Drumstick - 196 (26) Chrysanthemum - 277 (36) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Shethalli-3 is located at North latitude 160 31' 50.879" and 160 29' 29.691" and East longitude 770 18' 30.581'' and 770 16' 48.138" covering an area of about 772.15 ha coming under Shettilli, Kadechoora and Badiyala villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Shethalli-3 micro watersheds of Kadechur subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 34 farmers were sampled in Shethalli-3 micro-watershed among households surveyed 8 (23.53%) were marginal, 11 (32.35%) were small, 11 (32.35 %) were semi medium and 1 (2.94 %) were medium farmers. 3 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 71 (54.20%) men and 60 (45.80 %) were women. The average population of landless was 4, marginal farmers were 4.1, small farmers were 3.5, semi medium farmers were 4 and medium farmers were 4.  Majority of the respondents (41.98%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 41.98 per cent illiterates, 54.21 per cent pre university education and 1.53 per cent attained graduation.  About, 88.24 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 5.88 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 63.36 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 79.41 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 5.88 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 88.24 per cent possess TV, 32.35 per cent possess mixer grinder, 100.00 per cent possess mobile phones and 2.94 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 32.35 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.94 per cent possess tractor, 26.47 per cent possess bullock cart and 2.94 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 5.88 per cent possess local cow.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.31, women available in the micro watershed was 1.25, hired labour (men) available was 5.78 and hired labour (women) available was 6.09. 2  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 98.24 per cent (50.54 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 1.76 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 2.00 live bore wells and 2.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 5.88 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton and Sorghum and cropping intensity was recorded as 80.63 per cent.  Out of the sample households 94.12 percent possessed bank account and 26.47 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 67.65 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 66.67 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 16.67 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 100.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton and Sorghum was Rs.20437.92 , 25768.30 and 11224.23 with benefit cost ratio of 1:5.40, 1: 1.70 and 1: 2.10 respectively.  Further, 23.53 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.94 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 84117.65 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 57205.88 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 1 horticulture trees and 25 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  About 2.94 per cent of the households shown interest to cultivate horticultural crops.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 3485.29 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 38.24 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 58.82 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 32.35 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 76.47 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity. 3  Majority of the farmers (97.06%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 88.24 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 94.12 per cent of the households and 5.88 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 97.06 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 35.29 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 97.06 per cent of the households possessed BPL card and 2.94 per cent of the household's were not having ration cards.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (100.00%), pulses (94.12%) and oilseeds (88.24%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by (100.00 %) per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (88.24%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (82.35%), inadequacy of irrigation water (85.29%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (88.24%), high rate of interest on credit (85.29%), low price for the agricultural commodities (91.18 %), lack of marketing facilities in the area (61.76%), inadequate extension services (41.18 %) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (50.00%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project.

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Buragapalli-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 391 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 375 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soil and 16 ha by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 4 soil series and 5 soil phases (management units) and 3 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 375 ha area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 41 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are deep to very deep (100 - >150 cm) and 55 per cent soils are shallow (25-50 cm).  About 55 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 41 per cent has clayey soils.  About of 38 per cent area of the microwatershed has non gravelly (200 mm/m) and 55 per cent area low (51-100 mm/m) in available water capacity.  Entire area falls under very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands in the microwatershed.  An area of about 11 per cent is slightly (e1) eroded and 85 per cent is moderately eroded (e2).  About 56 per cent area is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) and 40 per cent area is slightly to moderately alkaline (pH 7.3-8.4) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire area of the microwatershed is 0.75%) in organic carbon content.  About 58 per cent area is medium (23-57 kg/ha), 10 per cent area is low ( 57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  Available potassium is high (>337 kg/ha) in the entire area of the microwatershed. Except one ha where it is medium (145-337 kg/ha).  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in 64 per cent area and deficient (<4.5 ppm) in 32 per cent of area in the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 86(22) 31(8) Guava - - Maize - 117(30) Sapota - - Bajra - 117(30) Pomegranate - 117(30) Groundnut - - Musambi 86(22) 31(8) Sunflower 86(22) 31(8) Lime 86(22) 31(8) Redgram - 117(30) Amla - 86(22) Bengal gram 86(22) 31(8) Cashew - - Cotton 86(22) 31(8) Jackfruit - - Chilli - 117(30) Jamun - 86(22) Tomato - - Custard apple 86(22) 31(8) Brinjal - - Tamarind - 86(22) Onion - - Mulberry - - Bhendi - 117(30) Marigold - 117(30) Drumstick - 86(22) Chrysanthemum - 117(30) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and sub marginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Buragapalli-1 is located at North latitude 160 54' 42.322" and 160 53' 23.247" and East longitude 770 26' 57.655'' and 770 25' 40.042" covering an area of about 388.59 ha coming unde Buragapalli Village of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Buragapalli-1 micro watersheds of Gurmatkal subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 farmers were sampled in Buragapalli-1 micro-watershed among households surveyed 6 (17.14%) were marginal, 14 (40.00%) were small, 8 (22.86 %) were semi medium and 2 (5.71 %) were medium farmers. 5 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 59 (50.00%) men and 59 (50.00 %) were women. The average population of landless was 3, marginal farmers were 3.3, small farmers were 3.5, semi medium farmers were 3.3 and medium farmers were 4.  Majority of the respondents (40.68%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 37.29 per cent illiterates, 61.87 per cent pre university education and 6.78 per cent attained graduation.  About, 91.43 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 8.57 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 28.81 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 68.57 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 2.86 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 97.14 per cent possess TV, 45.71 per cent possess mixer grinder, 65.71 per cent possess mobile phones and 20.00 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 20.00 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.86 per cent possess tractor, 20.00 per cent possess bullock cart and 5.71 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 8.57 per cent possess local cow.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.38, women available in the micro watershed was 1.24, hired labour (men) available was 15.18 and hired labour (women) available was 15.35.  Further, 91.43 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season. 2  In the study area, about 0.85 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 500.00 kms for about 6.00 months.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 97.48 per cent (51.56 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 2.52 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 1.00 live bore wells and 1.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 5.72 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton, Bengal gram, Sorghum and Onion and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  Out of the sample households 85.71 percent possessed bank account and 85.71 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 85.71 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 36.67 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 46.67 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (96.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 96.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton, Bengal gram, Sorghum and Onion was Rs.20883.79, 10823.21, 23248.08, 14623.48 and 362565.84 with benefit cost ratio of 1:2.40, 1: 5.70, 1: 0.92, 1: 2.10 and 1:0.72 respectively.  Further, 80.00 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 5.71 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 83515.71 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 62572.86 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 13 horticulture trees and 42 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  About 28.57 per cent of the households shown interest to cultivate horticultural crops.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 428.57 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 2.86 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities. 3  Regarding marketing channels, 51.43 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 37.14 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 80.00 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (80.00%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 82.86 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 94.29 per cent of the households and 8.57 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 94.29 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 48.57 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 97.14 per cent of the households possessed BPL card, 2.86 per cent of the household's possessed APL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (82.86%), pulses (82.86%) and oilseeds (14.29%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (82.86%) wild animal menace on farm field (60.00%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (42.86%), inadequacy of irrigation water (25.71%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (20.00%), high rate of interest on credit (11.43%), low price for the agricultural commodities (8.57%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (11.43%), inadequate extension services (14.29%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (34.29%), Less rainfall (45.71%) and Source of Agri-technology information (Newspaper/ TV/Mobile) (40.00%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Tatalageri-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 488 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 301 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 91 ha by forest, 87 ha by rock outcrops and about 9 ha by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 6 soil series and 9 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 17 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep to deep (75 - 150 cm) and 45 per cent soils are very shallow to moderately shallow (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 15 per cent area low (51-100 mm/m) and 34 per cent area very low (0.75%) and 40 per cent is medium (0.50-0.75%) in organic carbon content.  About 1 per cent area is low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  About an area of 10 per cent is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in 52 per cent and deficient (0.6 ppm) in 7 per cent area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 64(13) 71(15) Guava - 17(4) Maize - 135(28) Sapota - 17(4) Bajra - 135(28) Pomegranate - 81(17) Groundnut - 17(4) Musambi 53(11) 28(6) Sunflower 64(13) 17(4) Lime 53(11) 28(6) Redgram - 81(17) Amla - 135(28) Bengal gram 64(13) 71(15) Cashew - - Cotton 64(13) 71(15) Jackfruit - 17(4) Chilli - 135(28) Jamun - 64(13) Tomato - 124(26) Custard apple 70(14) 65(13) Brinjal 64(13) 71(15) Tamarind - 64(13) Onion 11(2) 71(15) Mulberry - 17(4) Bhendi 64(13) 71(15) Marigold - 135(28) Drumstick - 81(17) Chrysanthemum - 135(28) Mango - 64(13)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and sub marginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Tatalageri-1 is located at North latitude 160 50' 1.629" and 160 48' 42.931" and East longitude 770 18' 4.419" and 770 16' 11.331" covering an area of about 487.74 ha coming under Tatalagera, Mugadhamapoora, Kandhakura, Chinthanapalli and Yampada Villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis indicated that, out of the total sample of 32 respondents, - 10 (31.25%) were marginal, 9(28.13%) were small and 7 (21.88%) were semi medium and 1 (3.13%) were medium farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 112 (54.90%) men and 92 (45.10 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (48.04%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 67.65 per cent illiterates, 28.42 per cent pre university education and 1.96 per cent attained graduation.  About, 78.13 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 10.78 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural laborers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 66.67 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 59.38 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 21.88 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 71.88 per cent possess TV, 12.50 per cent possess mixer grinder, 93.75 per cent possess mobile phones and 37.50 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 56.25 per cent of the households possess plough, 3.13 per cent possess tractor, 15.63 per cent possess bullock cart and 28.13 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 37.50 per cent possess local cow and 25.00 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own men and women labour availability in the micro watershed was 13.47 each, while the hired labour (men) availability was 2.71.  Further, 3.13 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  In the study area, about 1.96 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 1200.00 kms for about 6.00 months.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 67.83 per cent (36.88 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 32.17 per cent area is irrigated land. 2  There were 11.00 live bore wells and 3.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Redgram, Jowar, Cotton, Paddy and Green gram and cropping intensity was recorded as 98.91 per cent.  Out of the sample households 93.75 percent possessed bank account and 31.25 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 93.75 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 21.88 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks, 3.12 per cent from Cooperative bank and 18.75 per cent from grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (86.67%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 0.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations, while, only 0.00 per cent respondents opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfil their requirement.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Redgram, Jowar, Cotton, Paddy and Green gram was Rs.51814.70 , 30754.26, 79012.15, 62877.45 and 46302.23 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.2 , 1:0.8 , 1:1.2 , 1:0.9 and 1:4 , respectively.  Further, 31.25 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 25.00 per cent of them opined dry fodder was inadequate. With respect to green fodder availability, 3.13 percent of them opined it was adequate and 3.13 percent of them opined it was inadequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 172312.50 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 61335.94 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have horticulture species growm coconut, Mango and sapota trees in the fields.  Sample households have forest species grown 24 neem, 2 tamarind, acacia and banyan trees and 1 pongamia trees in their field.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs 4062.5. for land development. Rs 6562.5 for irrigation facility creation and Rs. 5000 for improved crop production.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 9.09 per cent for land development and 12.1 per cent for irrigation facility depends on Government subsidy activities 3.03 per cent for improved crop production depend on loan from bank activities  Regarding marketing channels, 96.88 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants.  Further, 96.88 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity. 3  Majority of the farmers (59.3%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 84.38 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  About, 12.50 and 6.25 per cent of farmers practicing feld bunding and graded bund as soil and water conservation practice.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 81.25 per cent of the households and 25.00 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 84.38 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 75.00 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 93.75 per cent of the households possessed BPL card, 3.13 per cent of the household's possessed APL card and 6.25 per cent of the household's were not having ration cards.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (68.75%), pulses (71.88%) and oilseeds (40.63%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (59.38%) wild animal menace on farm field ( 59.38%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (84.38%), inadequacy of irrigation water (53.13%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (84.38%), high rate of interest on credit (87.50%), low price for the agricultural commodities (84.38%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (56.25%), inadequate extension services (43.75%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (53.13%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Las células presentan en su superficie oligosacáridos ramificados unidos de modo covalente a lípidos (glicolípidos) o proteínas (glicoproteínas). La porción glucídica de estos glicoconjugados codifica una información biológica específica determinada por su estructura tridimensional que puede ser reconocida por proteínas llamadas lectinas. Las interacciones entre los carbohidratos y las lectinas son de importancia fundamental para la comunicación celular. Están relacionadas con procesos biológicos como la defensa inmunológica, la replicación vírica, la adhesión celular, la inflamación, la transducción de señales bioquímicas y los procesos de adhesión de agentes microbianos a la superficie de las células huésped potenciales. La toma de conciencia de la función que desempeñan los carbohidratos como portadores de información biológica ha desencadenado un importante esfuerzo investigar dirigido a la elucidación de los mecanismos que intervienen en su reconocimiento por lectinas, tanto a nivel macromolecular como atómico. Las interacciones carbohidrato-proteína, en contraste con las interacciones proteína-proteína, presentan constantes de afinidad débiles en el rango milimolar o incluso micromolar y, en general, requieren la existencia de numerosos contactos entre carbohidratos que se encuentran agrupados en la superficie celular ("clusters") y receptores protéticos que contienen múltiples regiones de reconocimiento ("carbohydrate recognition domains; CRDs") para alcanzar afinidades biológicamente útiles. Esta situación da lugar a la aparición de fuerzas asociativas cooperativas que conducen a afinidades superiores a las que serían predecibles de la sima de las interacciones individuales. La importancia de este fenómeno, conocido como "efecto cluster", fue puesta de manifiesto por primera vez por Y.C. Lee en sus trabajos sobre el receptor Gal/GalNAc de la asialoglicoproteína de las células del hígado. Utilizando neoglicoconjugados sintéticos, demostró que un aumento lineal en el número de los motivos de reconocimiento monosacarídicos conducía a un incremento logarítmico en la eficacia de la asociación. Desde entonces el diseño y la síntesis de nuevos neoglicoconjugados multivalentes capaces de interferir con los procesos de reconocimiento carbohidrato-proteína a nivel celular es un campo muy activo en glicobiología con aplicaciones en la preparación de vacunas, inmunomoduladores, antiinflamatorios, agentes para inmunodiagnosis, transportadores de medicamentos dirigidos a células específicas, soportes de afinidad, inhibidores de la adhesión celular y bacteriana y sondas utilizadas en radioimagen. Los carbohidratos difieren de las otras clases de biomoléculas en el amplísimo repertorio estructural que puede generarse a partir de un número reducido de sus elementos constituyentes (monosacáridos), lo que les hace especialmente adecuados para la transferencia de información biológica. Para que la transmisión de esta información sea eficaz, el proceso de reconocimiento por receptores específicos debe tener un alto grado de precisión. El estudio de como los carbohidratos son reconocidos por lectinas y de cuales son los factores que determinan la especificidad y la afinidad de la asociación a nivel atómico, es consecuentemente, un tema de gran interés. Las informaciones más detalladas de que se dispone en este sentido proceden del estudio por difracción de rayos X de cristales de complejos de lectinas y carbohidratos. Estos trabajos ponen de manifiesto la existencia simultánea de interacciones por enlace de hidrógeno y fuerzas de van de Waals, incluyendo interacciones entre caras hidrófobas del azúcar y aminoácidos aromáticos. La espectroscopía de RMN ha permitido ampliar esta información a sistemas en disolución. En cualquier caso, los sistemas naturales resultan demasiado complejos para permitir extraer conclusiones sobre aspectos tales como la importancia relativa de los diferentes tipos de interacciones implicadas en el reconocimiento de carbohidratos o la identificación de motivos individuales de reconocimiento. Estas cuestiones se han abordado mediante el uso de receptores más sencillos que permitan estudiar las interacciones supramoleculares entre carbohidratos y moléculas orgánicas simples. Las ciclodextrinas (CDs), ciclooligosacáridos formados por unidades de glucosa unidas mediante enlaces glicosídicos α(1→4), han desempeñado un papel fundamental en este sentido. Los derivados que incorporan 6, 7 y 8 unidades de glucopiranosilo (α, β y γ-CD, respectivamente), son comercialmente asequibles y presentan una estructura tridimensional troncocónica toroidal, con una cavidad relativamente hidrófoba que permite la formación de complejos de inclusión con moléculas apolares en disolución acuosa. Su estructura ha inspirado el diseño y la síntesis de otros oligosacáridos como receptores artificiales para el estudio de interacciones supramoleculares. Alternativamente se han desarrollado receptores basados en estructuras aromáticas y peptídicas capaces de reconocer azúcares mediante enlaces no covalentes. Además de proporcionar información fundamental sobre los procesos de reconocimiento biológico, estos trabajos han desembocado en el desarrollo de nuevos biosensores, fármacos y sistemas de transporte. Los objetivos planteados en esta Tesis se enmarcan en este contexto general y persiguen, por una parte, profundizar en el conocimiento de las interacciones supramoleculares que implican carbohidratos y, por otra, combinar la posibilidad de interacción de estas biomoléculas con receptores celulares y con otras moléculas orgánicas en el diseño de sistemas de transporte específico de fármacos. En la primera parte de esta memoria se recogen los resultados relativos a la síntesis de neoglicoconjugados multivalentes derivados de la β-ciclodextrina, la determinación preliminar de su poder de solubilización de fármacos usando el anticanceroso Taxotère® como referencia y la evaluación de la capacidad de reconocimiento por una lectina específica (concanavalina A, Con A) para el caso de los conjugados que incorporan ligando derivados de manosa como marcador celular. En la segunda parte se describe la preparación de receptores artificiales de tipo podando que incorporan carbohidratos diseñados para el estudio de interacciones por enlace de hidrógeno, la influencia de los aspectos estructurales y conformacionales en su asociación con ligandos aceptores de tipo carboxilato y monosacarídico y la síntesis de una nueva familia de ciclooligosacáridos (ciclotrehalinas) adecuados para el estudio de interacciones en medio acuoso. CONCLUSIONES 1. La adición nucleófila de derivados de β-CD incorporando uno o siete grupos amino en posición primaria a glicosil isotiocianatos peracetilados proporciona una metodología eficiente de acceso a conjugados mono- y heptaantenados, respectivamente. La reacción de acoplamiento se completa, en general, en pocos minutos en piridina (conjugados monovalentes) o en acetona/agua a pH 8 (conjugados heptavalentes) y la purificación del aducto puede efectuarse mediante cromatografía en columna de gel de sílice incluso para el caso de estructuras 21-sacarídicas. La etapa subsiguiente de desacetilación transcurre con rendimiento cuantitativo. Además, el procedimiento es compatible con isotiocianatos unidos a grupos alquilo o arilo. Todos los neoglicoconjugados preparados mostraron una solubilidad en agua entre 25 y 40 veces superior a la de la β-ciclodextrina canónica, incrementan la solubilidad en agua del Taxotère, un potente antimitótico derivado del taxol y mostraron una significativa disminución (en torno al 75%) en su carácter hemolítico en comparación con la β-ciclodextrina comercial lo que los hace buenos candidatos como sistemas de transporte específico de medicamentos. 2. La anomerización parcial observada para las α- y β-D- manopiranosiltioureas bajo las condiciones básicas de desacetilación de Zemplén puede evitarse efectuando la desprotección a 0º C, lo que permite obtener compuestos desprotegidos configuracionalmente estables en ausencia de base. La aplicación de esta metodología a derivados aminados de β-ciclodextrina permite obtener los correspondientes conjugados manosa-(tiourea)-β-Cd, adecuados para estudios de asociación con la lectina Concanavalina A. 3. Los estudios de afinidad de los conjugados manosa-(tiourea)-β-CD mono y heptavalentes hacia la Concanavalina A, siguiendo el protocolo ELLA, indican que la lectina no muestra selectividad anomérica entre ligando de α- o β-D- manopiranosiltioureas lo que excluye una disminución en la afinidad debida a posibles procesos de anomerización. En cambio, los derivados con ligandos de manosa unidos a través de la posición primaria (C-6) presentan una afinidad mucho menor y no son adecuados para la vectorización de fármacos. Aunque la presencia del puente intersacarídicos de tiourea origina una ligera pérdida de afinidad por la lectina en comparación con los enlaces O-glicosídicos, este efecto queda compensando en los conjugados monovalentes por la existencia de interacciones estabilizantes debidas a la presencia del anillo de ciclodextrina. En el caso de los aductos persustituidos, a pesar del aumento de la densidad de ligando manosilado, se observa una pérdida de afinidad por la lectina debido, probablemente a un acceso más impedido al sitio activo. 4. Para la preparación de conjugados ciclodextrina-glicodendrímeros se han examinado las metodologías sintéticas convergente y divergente teniendo como etapa clave en ambos casos la formación de un grupo tiourea. Se han empleado como elementos de base la monoamina de β-CD, el cloruro de 6-azidohexanoilo como espaciador y el 2-amino-1,3-di-terc-butoxicarbonilaminopropano como elemento de ramificación. Como motivos de reconocimiento se han utilizado el 2,3,4,6-tetra-O-acetil-β-D-manopiranosil isotiocianato y un marcador manosilado trivalente. Con estas unidades de base hemos preparado una serie de neoglicoconjugados manosilados di, tri, tetra, y hexavalentes y hemos evaluado su afinidad por la Con A utilizando el protocolo ELLA. La afinidad por la lectina aumenta, en general, con la valencia. La presencia del anillo de ciclodextrina origina interacciones adicionales con la proteína que aumentan la afinidad. Es notable que la afinidad de la asociación ligando manosilado-Con A aumenta fuertemente con la presencia de grupos de tres subunidades de manosa. 5. SE ha optimizado la autocondensación de isotiocianato para obtener tioureas simétricas y se ha empleado esta metodología para la preparación de receptores bidentados por enlace de hidrógeno derivados de azúcar. El análisis de la capacidad de complejación de estos receptores frente a carboxilatos indica que esta es relativamente independiente de las propiedades conformacionales del receptor, es decir, de la proporción de confórmero activo, y parece depende más de la naturaleza de los sustituyentes en el sitio de unión y de las interacciones intramoleculares que puedan competir con la formación de enlaces de hidrógeno intermoleculares. 6. Se han estudiado las propiedades de complejación de receptores politioureidos derivados de carbohidrato frente a huéspedes aniónicos y neutros, tomando como modelos el anión glutarato y el octil β-D-glucopiranósido. Hemos escogido sistemas con simetría C2V para promover interacciones de tipo cooperativo y facilitar el análisis estructural. En el diseño se han empleado segmentos complementarios de ambos huéspedes (p-xililen bis(tiourea)) y se han incorporado otros segmentos (m-xililen bis(tioirea)) que favorezcan la creación de una cavidad más profunda. En el caso de ligando aniónico, donde las interacciones por enlace de hidrógeno son fuertes, la estequiometría las Kas de los complejos resultaron fuertemente dependientes de la disposición de los motivos de reconocimiento en el receptor. Sin embargo, en el caso de ligando glicosídicos, donde las interacciones son débiles, la contribución a la energía de complejación debida a una superficie de contacto máxima es muy superior a la asociada al cambio de conformación entre los estados libre y enlazado del receptor. 7. La autocondensación de diisotiocianatos, en combinación con el acoplamiento de diisotiocianatos y diaminas derivadas de la trehalosa, constituye una estrategia muy conveniente de síntesis de macrociclos híbridos de trehalosa y tiourea (ciclotrehalinas) de diferentes tamaños. Esta familia de pseudooligosacáridos conservan las características esenciales de las CDs (alta simetría, solubilidad en agua y una cavidad relativamente hidrófoba). Se ha comprobado que la capacidad de inclusión de moléculas apolares dentro de la cavidad se conserva, midiendo Kas del orden de las descritas para las CDs. Sin embargo, al contrario que en estas, es la cara β del azúcar la dispuesta hacia el interior de la cavidad por lo que constituyen herramientas complementarias para el estudio de eventos de reconocimiento molecular que impliquen carbohidratos.

In this research, logistic villages, especially the logistic village, where will be established in Bayburt, have investigated in order to understand to the economic contributions to the city, region and country, and the development and potential development which will be achieved afterwards. With the model proposal of Bayburt logistic village, we have tried to give an idea about the structure and function of the logistic village which will be established to the local and national interlocutors It is also aimed that our work will be inspired to mainly future research about logistics and logistic villages and Bayburt logistics village works and directory direction. Our research İs basically work İnto the world logistics, logistic of Turkey, logistic in the region and logistics in the Bayburt.Bayburt has a duality in the Eastern Black Sea region in terms of its geographical location, but hard continental climate is dominant. When we take Bayburt province center, Erzurum in the east, Gümüşhane and Erzincan in the west; In the north, it is observed that Trabzon and Rize are in a very strategic position. Therefore Bayburt is a very important center in terms of logistics with the use of the transportation conditions in these areas and the finishing of the tunnels which are constantly under construction from the great targets of our country in 2023. In Bayburt province, dry food storage areas can be established as Logistics. In contrast to the black sea climate in the vicinity, the nemo ran is low and it can create an efficient and sheltered storage area. It can also create an incentive for employment in the region. Also in our study Methodology; After the descriptive analysis, the Fit index intervals were examined within the scope of factor analysis, ANOVA analysis and Structural equation model. The H1, H2, H3 hypotheses investigated in our study were evaluated within this scope. STRUCTURED ABSTRACT 1-Introduction In consequence of globalization and rapid developments in technology, companies have to be able to optimize speed, flexibility, cost and consumer demands in order to survive in a challenging national and international competitive environment. Therefore, it is essential that companies deliver their products and services to target markets much faster and at an optimum cost than their competitors. There is no doubt that this competition of companies is a big deal in logistics activities. As a matter of fact, logistics activities will result in lower costs, higher quality, increased production and customer satisfaction. At the end of all this, a significant advantage will be gained nationally and internationally. The desire of companies to appreciate these advantages has led to an increase in the importance of logistics. 2-Conceptual Framework Logistics management is the full range of administrative activities that meet the two-way flow of goods or supplies between shipment points and delivery points in line with customer needs (Tanyaş, 2005: 6). Logistics management is basically the process of planning the flow of goods and services through the various channels of production to the producer. It is mainly aimed at solving the problems that may be experienced in this flow process. The nececities for businesses to have a logistics management lies in the need to achieve the following objectives (Erdal ve Çancı, 2009: 47): • Reducing the cost of goods and services • Creating a competitive advantage • Providing added value to the business • Establishing high quality standards • Harmonizing the business with environmental conditions. Logistics management consists of three basic stages. In the first phase, there is a physical distribution. The physical distribution phase essentially begins with the acceptance the order. Following the order acceptance step, order processing, inventory control, warehouse and stock movements are in the line. The second step in logistics management is to identify the raw materials and materials that will be needed in the manufacturing process. They are transportation, main production program and support for the distribution of goods within the manufacturing process from one warehouse to another. Providing necessary coordination between manufacturing and physical distribution is one of the main objectives of logistics management. Procurement is the process of obtaining raw materials and goods by utilising external sources. Important elements in the procurement process include determining the characteristics and boundaries of supply sources, searching for new sources of supply and establishing continuous and systematic relationships with existing sources of supply. The development of logistics activities can be taken up to the 19th century. The birth of Logistics as an industry and trade area is linked to the Industrial Revolution and modernism process. In this part of the study, the development of logistics activities in our country and abroad will be examined. The history of the first work in the field of logistics dates back to the 1850s. The logistics economy was written by Lardner in London. Later, economists such as Taussig, Fetter and Handley worked. Between 1956 and 1965, the concept of integrated logistics came to light, and Drucker, one of the well-known names in this field, began to gain clarity (Drucker, 1962: 72). The 1980s are a turning point in terms of the logistics sector. There was a rapid development and growth in the process. In the 1980s, the notion of integrated logistics began to gain importance due to the evergrowing rapid growth in the logistics sector (Bowersox et al., 2002: 328). With the 1990s, organizations began to reduce logistics costs. Combination of logistics services and outsourcing strategies have begun to be preferred (Ross, 1998: 96). The development of the concept of logistics in our country is quite new. Mainly import and export activities, in general large-scale retailing and e-commerce development are the main factors that enable the development of logistics in our country. The development as a sector of logistics in our country is linked to the historical development process that took place in the 1980s and 1990s. In this period, where land, sea and air transportation increased in our country, it was a milestone in terms of logistics activities. (Babacan, 2002: 10) There were diversified needs in Turkey for the transition to the free market economy in the 1980s and for the institutions that will carry out logistics activities on the axis of export-based growth (Tuna and Ozer, 2002: 173). The 1990s created an rise in terms of the logistics sector. Turkey has begun to develop and diversify its logistics services in a similar way to applications in the world in this period. The 2000s have become a sector in which both the local and international companies actively participate in the development of the logistics sector (Babacan, 2002: 10). The idea of logistic village for Bayburt lies in the fact that Bayburt and Gümüşhane Airport will be opened in the near future. This airport will be used logistically as well as human transportation will play an important role for the logistic village to be established. The most plausible logistic village near Bayburt Airport will bring together big businesses operating in the area of international cargo and air transport. In this case, a part of freights and cargos, which are sent and delivered to Erzurum and Trabzon at airports, will shift to this region. In case of operation of Bayburt Lojistik Village, all cargo companies will be collected from Bayburt-Gümüşhane Airport. Later on, the companies that come to this area will get to their departments and use the way they want to reach them. It is also a suitable region for storage according to the Bayburt climate conditions. It is also important to emphasize that the established logistic village in Bayburt that are managed by cooperation with industry, government and universities. These groups need to focus on a common goal. It is expected that the distribution products from the production in this respect will increase the competitiveness of the products in national and international markets. 3-Method While developing the scale in this study, Karabük University Institute of Social Sciences, Business Administration Department, adapted the questions given in the thesis titled "The Impact of Logistics Villages on Marketing Process: Sectoral Perceptions for Karabük" and applied them to the students who are studying at Bayburt University and by factor analysis (Socio-Cultural, Socioeconomic and Social Welfare), a new scale consisting of 25 questions was created.Ölçeğin güvenirliğinin belirlenmesinde de Cronbach's Alpha yöntemi yapılmıştır. (Cronbach,1951: 297-334) Structural equilibrium modeling is an effective model testing and development method that can explain the causal relationship of variables in integrated hypotheses related to models based on statistical dependence and allows the theoretical models to be tested as a whole. The FE model allows the researcher to determine the direct and indirect effects between variables. (Ullman, 2003). In addition, after the T-test and one-way ANOVA tests were first performed by SPSS program in this study, only factor analysis and Fit indices were tried to be examined with YEM. 4-Findings The research was carried out by way of "Bayburt Illi Logistics Strategic Plan and Logistic Center Feasibility BAP Project" in order to provide a better understanding of the logistic villagers who are active in Turkey in 2017 and who are the lifeblood for sustainability of logistics. Our research was conducted on 250 students at Bayburt University. The main mass size of this questionnaire is approximately 1000. The 95% confidence level is 1.96 for the 5% significance level. The sample universe is made up of 248 people. As a result of these surveys, it can be said that the number of participants represents the universe. 5- Results With this research, the economic contribution of the logistic village, where will be established in Bayburt, to the city, region and country was pointed out, and the development and progress that will be achieved later was investigated. We examined how the logistic village, which will be established by the model proposal that have been presented for Bayburt logistics village, should be. In addition, the structure of this village has been tried to give an idea to the interlocutors on the local and national basis about its function and its possible benefits. It is also aimed that our work will be inspired by reseacrhers who focus on the logistics and logistics villages in general and Bayburt logistics village in particular, and expecting that it should be a source for them. In this research, the benefits that the Bayburt logistics village which is proposed in the model can provide for regional and national significance can be listed as follows: • Bayburt logistics village will play a leading role in the development of Bayburt and its region. The logistic village will be a project that will serve not only Bayburt but all the region, especially Gümüşhane and Erzincan. • As a result of the activation of Bayburt-Gumushane airport that will be opened, local and international air transportation and cargo transportation sector will develop and will contribute to regional exports. • By establishing a logistics village, businesses in Bayburt will be able to deliver products they produce more efficiently, productive and quickly. All these processes related to logistics to customs can be done within the logistic village. • With modern facilities and advanced technology, the logistics village will have a direct impact on employment and will seriously reduce the unemployment problem for Bayburt. • Bayburt will become a center of attraction through the logistic village. For this reason, infrastructure and environmental regulations must be made. As a result, the city could become a more modern place. • The logistics village will lead to some structural changes in the logistics sector and create new business areas in Bayburt. In the transportation between the logistics villages, the efficiency will increase because more cargo will be carried at less cost (unit transport costs will decrease). This will be ensured by the orientation of the truck and trailer to air transport. All of these facts, almost all key factors are evaluated and it is seen that Bayburt Lojistik Village has all the features and it is considered to be an important project for the region in many respects. This study was piloted on Bayburt University faculty of economics and administrative sciences students to learn ideas about the logistic village. We evaluated the answers we received for specific survey questions. Then we looked at the homogeneity and significance of these data. We finally made a fit analysis on the structural equation package program Lisrel about the model to be built