Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Totlur-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 579 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 559 ha (96%) in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 3 ha (1%) by rock outcrops and 16 ha (3%) by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 11 soil series and 20 soil phases (management units) and 8 Land management units. The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture. About 41 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are deep to very deep (100 to >150 cm), 11 per cent moderately deep (75-100 cm) and 46 per cent soils are very shallow to moderately shallow (200 mm/m) in available water capacity. Entire area in the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands. An area of about 70 per cent are moderately (e2) eroded and 27 per cent area is severely (e3) eroded. An area of about 2 per cent is moderately acid (pH 5.5-6.0), 5 per cent is slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5), 24 per cent is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 17 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8), 22 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8- 8.4) and 26 per cent is very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0). The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire area of the microwatershed is dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon. About 43 per cent area is low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus. About 33 per cent is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium. Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 11 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in 9 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available iron is deficient (4.5 ppm) in 88 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available manganese is sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed. Available copper is deficient (0.2 ppm) in 92 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 3 per cent area of the microwatershed. The land suitability for 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 285(50) Sapota - - Maize - 50 (9) Pomegranate - 235(41) Bajra - 347(61) Musambi - 235(41) Groundnut - 64(11) Lime - 235(41) Sunflower - 235(41) Amla - 347(61) Redgram - 207(36) Cashew - - Bengal gram 28(5) 257(45) Jackfruit - - Cotton 28(5) 257(45) Jamun - 235(41) Chilli - 285(50) Custard apple - 347(61) Tomato - 50(9) Tamarind - 235(41) Drumstick - 297(52) Mulberry - 62(11) Mango - - Marigold - 285(50) Guava - - Chrysanthemum - 285(50) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMU's by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Totlur-2 micro-watershed (Yadgir taluk and district) is located in between 16041' – 16043' North latitudes and 77017' – 77020' East longitudes, covering an area of about 579.18 ha, bounded by Yaleri and Thotalura villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Totlur-2 micro-watershed in Yadgir taluk and district are presented here. Social Indicators; Male and female ratio is 39.3 to 60.7 per cent to the total sample population. Younger age group 18 to 50 of population is around 52.6 per cent to the total population. Literacy population is around 52.6 per cent. Social groups belong to other backward caste (OBC) are around 72.7 per cent. Fire wood is the source of energy for a cooking among all sample households. About 9.09 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card. About 9.09 per cent farm households having MGNREGA card for rural employment. Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system among all sample farm households. Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 36.4 per cent of sample households. Women participation in decisions making for agriculture production among all sample households. Economic Indicators; The average land holding is 2.30 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to semi medium and medium farmers. The account for dry land of 69.0 ha among the total cultivated land among the sample households. Agriculture is the main occupation is only 7.0 per cent and agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 59.6 per cent of sample households. 2 The average value of domestic assets is around Rs.12097 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication. The average value of farm assets is around Rs.99748 per household, about 23.3 per cent of sample farmers are owing plough. The average value of livestock is around Rs.36792 per household; about 82.6 per cent of household are having livestock. The average per capita food consumption is around 904.7 grams (1955.7 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition recommendation at 827 gram. Around 63.6 per cent of sample households are consuming more than the NIN recommendation. The annual average income is around Rs. 55143 per household. About 72.7 per cent of farm households are below poverty line. The per capita monthly average expenditure is around Rs.2660. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services; The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use. The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. Rs.29866/ ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in paddy (Rs.57159) followed by cotton (Rs.47943), red gram (Rs. 12009) and groundnut (Rs. 2353). The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs.2367/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum paddy (Rs. 3705) and groundnut (Rs.1029). The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The value of per hectare water used and value of water was maximum in cotton (Rs.55729) followed by red gram (Rs.53451), paddy (Rs.49588) and groundnut (Rs. 20615). Economic Land Evaluation; The major cropping pattern is redgram (72.7 %) followed by groundnut (17.7 %), cotton (8.0 %) and paddy (1.6 %). The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for redgram ranges between Rs.41218/ha in marginal farmers (with BCR of 1.26) and Rs.8431/ha in medium farmers (with BCR of 3.96). In paddy the cost of cultivation is Rs.76221/ha in semi medium farmers (with BCR of 1.75). In groundnut the cost of cultivation is Rs.23582/ha in Medium farmers (with BCR of 1.10). The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher 3 wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM. It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soils to maximize returns. Suggestions; Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation. The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices. Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments. By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households. By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in redgram (5 to 39.3 %), paddy (49.4 %), cotton (19.0 %) and groundnut (56.6 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Totlur-3 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 501 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 488 ha (97%) in the microwatershed is covered by soils and 14 ha (3%) by rock outcrops. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 11 soil series and 15 soil phases (management units) and 7 Land Management Units. The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture. About 25 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are deep to very deep (100 to >150 cm), 48 per cent soils are very shallow to moderately shallow (200 mm/m) in available water capacity. Entire area in the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands. An area of about 43 per cent are moderately (e2) eroded and 55 per cent area is severely (e3) eroded. An area of about 2 per cent is moderately acid (pH 5.5-6.0), 13 per cent is slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5), 26 per cent is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 7 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8), 31 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8- 8.4), 16 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) and 2 per cent is very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0). The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire area of the microwatershed is dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon. About 42 per cent area is low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus. About 70 per cent is low (20 ppm) in 6 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in 13 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available iron is deficient (4.5 ppm) in 66 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available manganese is sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed. Available copper is deficient (0.2 ppm) in 86 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 1 per cent area of the microwatershed. The land suitability for 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 27(5) 396(79) Sapota - 27(5) Maize 27(5) 228(46) Pomegranate - 195(39) Bajra 27(5) 450(90) Musambi - 195(39) Groundnut - 213(43) Lime - 195(39) Sunflower - 195(39) Amla 27(5) 450(90) Redgram - 195(39) Cashew - - Bengal gram 27(5) 396(80) Jackfruit - 27(5) Cotton - 423(84) Jamun - 126(25) Chilli - 423(84) Custard apple 27(5) 450(90) Tomato 27(5) 228(46) Tamarind - 126(25) Drumstick - 249(49) Mulberry - 81(16) Mango - - Marigold - 423(84) Guava - 27(5) Chrysanthemum - 423(84) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Totlur-3 micro-watershed (Yadgir taluk and district) is located in between 16041'–16043' North latitudes and 77017'-77019' East longitudes, covering an area of about 501.47 ha, bounded by Yaleri village with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Totlur-3 micro-watershed in Yadgir taluk and district are presented here. Social Indicators; Male and female ratio is 62.5 to 37.5 per cent of among sample households population. Majority of male ratio comes under marginal farmers having about 80 per cent. And majority of female ratio comes under small farmer size group having 41.4 per cent. Younger age group 18 to 50 of population is around 67.5 per cent to the total population. Literacy population is around 25 per cent. Social groups belong to other backward caste (OBC) are around 66.7 per cent, followed by 16.7 per cent belong to scheduled caste (SC) and 16.7 per cent belonging to general caste among the sample population. Fire wood is the source of energy for a cooking among all sample households. About 16.7 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card. Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 83.3 per cent. Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 16.7 per cent of sample households. Women participation in decisions making are around 95 per cent of households were found. Economic Indicators; The average land holding is 1.50 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers. The account for dry land of 45.0 ha among the total cultivated land among the sample households2. 2 Agriculture is the main occupation is only 15.0 per cent and agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 2.5 per cent of sample households. The average value of domestic assets is around Rs.17542 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication. The average value of farm assets is around Rs.4677per household, about 6.7 per cent of sample farmers are owing plough. The average value of livestock is around Rs.800 per household; about 100 per cent of household are having livestock. The average per capita food consumption is around 1039.1 grams (2325.4 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition recommendation at 827 gram. Around 33 per cent of sample households are consuming more than the NIN recommendation. The annual average income is around Rs. 34915 per household. About 100 per cent of farm households are below poverty line. The per capita monthly average expenditure is around Rs.3787. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services; The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use. The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. Rs.5558/ ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in redgram (Rs.10829) followed by green gram (Rs.8909), cotton (Rs.3240), sunflower (Rs.2558) and groundnut (Rs.2253). The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The value of per hectare water used and value of water was maximum in red gram (Rs.53319) followed by paddy (Rs.50006), cotton (Rs.48035), groundnut (Rs. 20615) and sunflower (Rs. 14268). Economic Land Evaluation; The major cropping pattern is red gram (51.43 %) followed by cotton (19.43 %), green gram (9.71 %), groundnut (9.71 %) and sunflower (9.71 %). The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for Groundnut is Rs.71847/ha in marginal farmers (with BCR of 1.03). In sunflower the cost of cultivation is Rs.45854/ha in small farmers (with BCR of 1.06). In cotton the cost of cultivation is Rs. 38256/ha in small farmers (with BCR of 1.08), In red gram the cost of cultivation is Rs. 17816/ha in small farmers (with BCR of 1.52) and Rs. 11534/ha in semi medium farmers (with BCR of 2.23). 3 In green gram the cost of cultivation is Rs.15791/ha in small farmers (with BCR of 1.56). The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM. It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soils to maximize returns. Suggestions; Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation. The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices. Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments. By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households. By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in cotton (29 %), green gram (42.2 %) sunflower (19 %) and red gram (46.4 to 53.2 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
La Aloreña de Málaga es una variedad de aceituna de mesa autóctona del Valle del Guadalhorce y la Sierra de las Nieves, con una demarcación muy concreta (19 municipios) siendo muy apreciada dentro y fuera de la provincia de Málaga. Fue la primera aceituna de mesa en España en obtener el sello de calidad de DOP (BOJA nº215, 2009). El volumen de producción de este tipo de especialidad de aceitunas de mesa es de aproximadamente 3.500- 4.000 ton/año según datos estimados por el Ministerio de Agricultura (http://www.aica.gob.es/) y contrastados con las declaraciones de los industriales, realizadas por el Consejo Regulador. Por lo tanto, la producción no es muy elevada comparada con otros tipos de elaboraciones como son las aceitunas verdes estilo español o sevillano. Sin embargo, su elaboración aún hoy en día se sigue realizando de manera muy artesanal (un aspecto este altamente valorado por los consumidores), y es llevado a cabo en industrias de pequeño tamaño (650). De este modo, se han estudiado los niveles poblacionales de aerobios mesófilos, levaduras, bacterias lácticas, enterobacterias, esporulados, presencia de Listeria, Salmonella, Clostridium y Staphylococcus coagulasa positivos. En base a los resultados obtenidos, se generó un modelo matemático que estimó el grado de cumplimiento higiénico-sanitario del proceso de elaboración de este tipo de aceituna de mesa mediante un sistema de ponderación (basado en la legislación presente y opiniones de expertos) y modelo probabilístico de gestión del riesgo. La contribución relativa de cada fase a la calidad y seguridad del producto final fue evaluada y ponderada por un panel de expertos (n=25) del ámbito científico y del sector de la Aloreña de Málaga. No se ha detectado en ninguna empresa la presencia de especies patógenas que puedan suponer un riesgo para los consumidores. La etapa de aliño ha resultado ser la más crítica dentro del proceso, ya que las hierbas aromáticas y diversos ingredientes que se utilizan en el mismo presentan una elevada carga microbiana que se añade directamente a los envasados sin ningún tipo de tratamiento previo. También es recomendable reducir el número de microorganismos en el ambiente y un mayor control de las aguas destinadas al consumo humano. Se observó asimismo que el grado de cumplimiento higiénico-sanitario determinado por el sistema de evaluación desarrollado aumenta conforme se acercan las etapas finales del proceso, las cuales resultan ser las más seguras. Con toda la información obtenida, se ha desarrollado un protocolo y procedimiento científico que puede ser utilizado por las empresas del sector para estandarizar sus procesos, valorar cuantitativamente el grado de cumplimiento higiénicosanitario de las diferentes etapas de producción y predecir los efectos de la introducción de medidas correctoras sobre la calidad y seguridad de los productos finales. ; The Aloreña de Málaga table olive is an autochthonous variety from Guadalhorce Valley and Sierra de las Nieves region, with a confined demarcation (19 municipalities) being well appreciated inside and outside Malaga province. It has been the first table olive with Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) in Spain (BOJA No. 215, 2009). The production volume of this table olive speciality is below 3,500-4,000 ton according to estimated records of the Ministry of Agriculture ((http://www.aica.gob.es/) and further verified with the interviews performed by the Regulatory Council to industrials. Thus, production is limited in comparison to other elaborations such as the Spanish table olive style. However, its elaboration is still very artisanal (which is highly appreciated by consumers), being carried out by SMEs with less than 20 operators. These industries have a great interest in optimizing and improving the transformation processes in order to obtain a valorised product with high quality and safety standards, which is currently requested by the large distribution chain. This Doctoral Thesis is focused on providing additional knowledge about the transformation processes of Aloreña de Málaga table olives as well as to evaluate the effect of new changes on quality and safety of final products. In this sense, the Doctoral Thesis is divided into two sections. In the first section, novel methodologies such as metagenomics and statistical modelling are applied with the aim to gain knowledge about how different modifications (reduction of sodium chloride, inclusion of resting periods to table olives, and application of heat treatments) can affect to the elaboration process. In the second section, the hazard analysis and critical control points from various industries were evaluated in different campaigns in order to determine the fulfilment of hygienic-sanitary conditions through the performance of physicochemical and microbiological analyses along the production chain. Information generated will allow the further development of a scientific procedure based on advanced mathematical models and different weighing values to improve food quality and safety management in industries. To study the effect of sodium chloride reduction and the addition of a resting period of fruits during fermentation and posterior table olive preservation, 1,500 kg of olive fruits were collected and placed in containers with different preservation brines and varying concentrations of acetic acid, citric acid and salt, either directly or with a resting period of table olives at room temperature (72 h, 25ºC). Afterwards, the main physicochemical and microbiological parameters were monitored during 1 year. The presence of a high amount of acetic acid together with the absence of sodium chloride did not negatively affect the evolution of the main physicochemical parameters, though differences existed according to the assayed treatments. The elaboration process was marked by a rapid inhibition of Enterobacteriaceae population, as well as by a growth of lactic acid bacteria (just at the end of the process) and specially, by the yeasts growth, which were continuously present reaching concentration levels up to 6 log10 CFU/mL. One of the first applications in food microbiology of a functional data analysis model programmed in R was presented. The model allowed a smart comparison of the different assayed treatments, providing additional information on the rate and acceleration of changes in the elaboration process through the calculation of means, maximal and minimal values. Model fitting showed that yeasts population was very similar among the evaluated treatments, though significant differences existed for some fermentation treatment times. Nevertheless, larger differences were found for pH evolution, specially during the first 3- month process, being then stabilized after all treatments until a pH of 4.0 units approximately. Next Generation Sequencing techniques were subsequently applied to study fermentation and preservation processes of Aloreña de Málaga table olives. To do this, four fermentation containers were monitored (approximately 500 kg of table olives) at the food industry during a 4-month period by performing physicochemical and microbiological (Enterobacteriaceae, lactic acid bacteria and yeasts) analyses. From a microbiological point of view, fermentation took place normally, being yeasts the only population group showing growth while lactic acid bacteria and Enterobacteriaceae were not present during fermentation. During the 4-month fermentation period metagenomic analysis of brines and fruit samples were carried out with the aim of studying the ecology of bacterial (16S) and fungal populations (ITS). This methodology allowed detecting with relative frequency bacteria genera not being previously described in this product such as Celerinatantimonas, Pseudomonas and Propionibacterium among the bacterial groups, and Penicillium, Pichia and Zygotorulaspora among yeasts and moulds. There was not any pathogenic microorganism in the fermented table olives studied by what microbial food safety was ensured. Therefore, the application of this culture independent technique has extended the microbial spectrum of bacterial species not being previously detected by conventional culture dependent techniques. The potential role of these microbial groups on the final product quality is still to be determined. One-hundred kg. of cracked olives (destined to the elaboration of traditional table olives) and whole olives (destined to the elaboration of cured table olives) were collected to study the effect of a previous heat treatments on the fermentation process of olive fruits together with their organoleptical characteristics. These fruits were submitted to a heat treatment which consisted on a water immersion at 60ºC for 5 min before placing them in brine. Afterwards, fermentations were monitored during a study period longer than 5 months. Performance of this heat treatment in table olives previously to their transferring to brines enhanced lactic acid fermentation, with a higher sugars consumption, free acidity production and pH drop, which guaranteed the stability of olive fruits. In the heat-treated fermented table olives, population levels of lactic acid bacteria reached 5 log10 CFU/mL, while in those brines without a heat treatment, this microbial group was not detected. Improvement of fruit coloration (luminosity, green colour etc.) was observed in those fruits undergoing a heat treatment during fermentation and packaging steps. The great advantage of the applied heat treatment was subsequently confirmed by the improvement in the stability and acceptability of table olives once packaged. Indeed, 41 days after packaging, the products having the highest proportion of olive tasters who would consume them and would purchase the packaging, corresponded to the traditional heat-treated table olives. The acceptability percentages sparsely varied between 4 and 41 after packaging, which did not occur with the rest of assayed treatments. Finally, the metagenomic analysis performed at the end of the fermentation period to all elaboration types, and between treated and non-treated olive fruits revealed that the bacteria genera Lactobacillus, Pediococcus and Celerinatantimonas were present in all elaborations in both fruits and brines, and that prevalence of Lactobacillus was significantly higher in heat-treated olive fruits, which confirmed the improvement of lactic acid fermentation by the heat treatment applied. Finally, in the present Doctoral Thesis three representative companies of the Aloreña de Málaga table olive sector were visited during three consecutive campaigns (13/14, 14/15, y 15/16). Physicochemical and microbiological analyses (>650) were performed corresponding to environmental control samples, equipment surfaces, food handlers, olive fruits, olive dressings, brines, and potable water. In this way, population levels of mesophilic bacteria, yeasts, lactic acid bacteria, sporulated bacteria, together with presence of Listeria, Salmonella, Clostridium and coagulase positive Staphylococci, were analysed. Based on the obtained results, a mathematical model was developed to estimate a Performance Hygiene and Safety Score (PHSS) of the elaboration process of this table olive type by means of a weighing system (based on current legislation applied and experts opinions) together with a probabilistic decision-making model. The relative contributions of each processing step to final product quality and safety were evaluated and weighted by a scientific expert panel (n=25) together with industrials from the Aloreña de Málaga table olive sector. There was not any food company having presence foodborne pathogens during the whole study period. Addition of olive dressings has resulted to be most critical processing step, since aromatic herbs and diverse ingredients used presented a high microbial load which is directly added to the packaged products without a posterior heat treatment. It is also recommended to reduce the environmental contamination as well as a more intensive control of the potable water destined to human consumption. Likewise, it was observed that the PHSS values determined by the developed mathematical model increased according to the final processing steps, being the safest ones. With the information obtained, a protocol and scientific procedure was performed, which can be used by industrials in order to standardize their elaboration processes, to quantitatively assess the degree of fulfilment of hygienic-sanitary conditions of the different production steps and to predict the effect of corrective measures on final products quality and safety.
Il trattore agricolo è una macchina complessa, progettata per fornire potenza ad un numero consistente di attrezzi diversi sotto forma meccanica, idraulica e modernamente anche pneumatica ed elettrica. Il tutto viene fornito all'operatore per il tramite di un motore endotermico (tipicamente a ciclo Diesel), che sfrutta l'energia chimica contenuta nel combustibile, trasformandola in lavoro meccanico. Il continuo aumento del costo del gasolio, unitamente ad una maggiore attenzione ai problemi ambientali, hanno aumentato notevolmente l'attenzione degli agricoltori ai consumi. Proprio per questo, negli ultimi anni molte organizzazioni nazionali ed internazionali hanno cercato di definire dei metodi per calcolare un indice di efficienza energetica (EEI) anche per i trattori, similmente a quanto già fatto, ad esempio, per le automobili o per diverse tipologie di elettrodomestici. In particolare, l'efficienza energetica di un qualsiasi sistema rappresenta la capacità di sfruttare l'energia ad esso fornito per soddisfarne i fabbisogni. Minori sono i consumi relativi al soddisfacimento di questo fabbisogno, e migliore risulta l'efficienza energetica del sistema. Nel settore della meccanizzazione agricola, diverse nazioni (Spagna, Corea, Turchia) hanno introdotto dei programmi per la definizione di questo indice, basandosi su dati già disponibili, come quelli delle prove del Codice 2 OCSE o delle prove di omologazione del motore endotermico. La DLG (una associazione di agricoltori tedeschi), invece, ha messo in opera un sistema diverso, basato su prove in pista che cercano di simulare dei cicli di lavoro reali, tipici dell'agricoltura centro-europea. Tuttavia, storicamente sia i codici OCSE che questi nuovi protocolli di prova hanno riguardato nella gran parte dei casi i trattori standard; viceversa, i trattori specializzati, impiegati nei vigneti, frutteti, nell'orto-floro-vivaistica e nella manutenzione del verde non hanno potuto finora godere delle medesime attenzioni. Scopo di questo lavoro è quindi quello di costruire una metodologia per poter calcolare un Indice di Efficienza Energetica anche per i trattori da vigneto. Una prima fase del lavoro ha visto l'analisi dell'operatività dei trattori da vigneto, per poter definire quali cicli lavorativi rilevare in quanto maggiormente impattanti. Si è quindi proceduto all'analisi, per diversi motivi solo parziale, di questi cicli reali di campo, analizzando le potenze trasmesse dal trattore alla macchina operatrice e (ove possibile) anche i consumi. Successivamente questi dati sono stati elaborati per costruire dei cicli teorici facilmente riproducibili in laboratorio, per il tramite di banchi prova appositi (freno motore in particolare). La ridotta collaborazione dei costruttori non ha però permesso di replicare in laboratorio questi cicli creati. Si è quindi deciso di tentare un'altra strada, ovvero utilizzare dei dati di prove motore già liberamente disponibili, ovvero quelli relativi alle prove Codice 2 OCSE. Nel periodo 2011-2015, su un totale di 278 test report emessi, solo 11 purtroppo erano relativi a trattori da vigneto e frutteto. Analizzando i report si è valutata la corrispondenza tra potenza rilevata nelle prove in campo e potenza rilevata nel test Codice 2, verificando inoltre la compatibilità della modalità di prova (con riguardo alla posizione dell'acceleratore). I diversi cicli sono stati quindi parificati a 4 diverse condizioni di prova del Codice 2 OCSE. I dati relativi ai consumi specifici (espressi in g/kWh) sono stati quindi analizzati introducendo un impegno temporale previsto per la singola operazione, espresso come percentuale del tempo totale di lavoro, questo in quanto l'agricoltore non utilizza il trattore per un'unica operazione, ma per più operazioni. L'agricoltore può inoltre variare le percentuali di utilizzo del trattore per la singola operazione, ricalcolando quindi sulla effettiva operatività aziendale l'Indice di Efficienza Energetica complessivo. Come spesso succede, però, un singolo numero, soprattutto se non immediatamente confrontato con altri, non dice molto all'utilizzatore finale. Si rende quindi indispensabile, come effettuato in molti altri casi, una definizione delle diverse classi energetiche, per poter facilmente confrontare i risultati ottenuti dal foglio di calcolo sopra indicato. Si è deciso di optare per l'introduzione di 7 classi, dalla A alla G, differenziate tra di loro per un intervalli di 30 g/kWh. Si tratta di una decisione puramente arbitraria, e ovviamente soggetta a futuri adeguamenti, anche in base al ridotto campione di trattori che è stato in questo momento analizzato. In conclusione, il progetto sviluppato durante questa tesi ha lo scopo principale di offrire all'utilizzatore di trattori specializzati diversi indici riguardanti l'efficienza energetica (e quindi, indirettamente, i possibili costi di gestione) dei trattori stessi in diverse condizioni operative, tipiche del settore viticolo e frutticolo. Futuri approfondimenti del lavoro dovranno sicuramente riguardare tutte le parti di questo lavoro. Si dovrà infatti implementare l'analisi reale delle diverse lavorazioni, con una misurazione puntuale delle potenze assorbite da diverse attrezzature (anche della stessa tipologia ma con capacità operative differenti), ricreando dei cicli teorici più affidabili possibili. Inoltre, la fase critica sarà quella per l'ottenimento dei dati reali da prove di laboratorio riferite ai cicli, e non più ai soli dati del codice 2. Si ritiene poi importante anche ottimizzare il database, creando un software apposito con un database periodicamente aggiornato, e in grado di guidare l'agricoltore nella compilazione del suo "uso tipico". Inoltre, è ovvio che il consumo di combustibile, per quanto sia uno dei fattori principali che guidano l'agricoltore nella scelta del trattore, non è sicuramente l'unico. Dal punto di vista ambientale potrebbe essere utile analizzare anche le emissioni di gas in atmosfera, misurandole con l'apposita sensoristica (opacimetri, sonde lambda, etc.) durante le prove di laboratorio. Questi dati, confrontati tra loro su di un utilizzo medio ragionato, potrebbero essere utilizzati anche come base per l'erogazione di sussidi in agricoltura: come già avviene in molti altri settori o in altri paesi, dove le macchine maggiormente efficienti (sia come consumi che come emissioni) sono finanziate dai Piani di Sviluppo Rurale, soggette a defiscalizzazioni o comunque oggetto di contribuzione pubblica. ; The agricultural tractor is a complex machine, designed to provide power to a broad number of different types of equipment, be it mechanical power, hydraulic power, and in recent times even pneumatic and electric power. All this power is harnessed through an endothermic engine (typically diesel cycle), that harnesses the chemical energy of the fuel transforming it into mechanical energy. The constant increase in fuel prices, together with a higher awareness of environmental issues, have significantly increased farmers' concern over their consumptions. In the last few years, this has led many national and international organisations to come up with methods to calculate an energy efficiency index for tractors, in line with what has already been done for cars or different types of household appliances. In particular, the energy efficiency of a system can be defined as its ability to harness the supplied energy to meet its needs. The less the system consumes in order to meet its needs, the higher will be its energy efficiency. Within the farm mechanisation industry, several countries (Spain, Korea, Turkey) have introduced programmes in an attempt to define this index, based on currently available data such as the OECD Code 2 tests or performance testing on endothermic engines. The DLG (German Agricultural Society) has implemented a different system, based instead on field tests that replicate real work cycles typical of central- European farming. However both the OECD codes and these new testing protocols were mainly designed and tested on standard tractors, whereas specialised tractors, the ones used in vineyards, fruit orchards, greenhouses and vegetation maintenance, have been neglected up until now. The purpose of this project is to devise a methodology in order to be able to calculate an Energy Efficiency Index also for vineyard tractors. The first part of the project consisted in analysing the work of tractors in viticulture, in order to pick out the most impactful, and therefore most relevant work cycles. This was followed by an only partial (for several reasons) analysis of these real-life field cycles, by studying the power transmitted from the tractor to the implements/equipment and (where possible) assessing consumption as well. This data was then used to devise theoretical cycles, easily reproducible in the lab thanks to dedicated testing areas (especially for the engine brake). But due to a lack of cooperation from the manufacturers, it was not possible to test these cycles in the lab. A different strategy was then decided on: using engine testing data from sources that were already freely available, such as data from the OECD Code 2 tests. Between 2011 and 2015, only 11 out of 278 test reports issued involved vineyard and orchard tractors. When analysing these reports, the power detected in field tests was compared to the power detected in Code 2 tests, and the compatibility of the test setting was also assessed (especially the position of the throttle). The various cycles were then compared against 4 different test conditions of the OECD Code 2. The specific consumption data (expressed in g/kWh) was then assessed against a given time allocated to the task, expressed as a percentage of the overall work time, as the farmer doesn't use the tractor for a single task but for multiple tasks. The farmer can also change the percentages of tractor usage for each task; thereby recalculating the overall energy efficiency index according to the farm's actual operational performance. However, as often happens, one single figure, especially if not immediately checked against other numbers, does not mean much to the end user. Therefore it is essential, as it has proved to be in many other cases, to provide a definition of the different energy brackets in order to facilitate the comparison of results by using the spreadsheet shown above. It has been decided to introduce 7 energy brackets running from A to G, each one separated by an interval of 30g/kWh. This is a purely arbitrary distinction, which is obviously subject to future amendments also due to the small numbers of tractors analysed so far. In conclusion, the main goal of the project outlined in this paper is to provide the user of specialised tractors with different energy efficiency indexes (and therefore also, indirectly, with an idea of the possible operating costs) of tractors under diverse operating conditions within the vine and fruit culture industry. Any future research on this project should take into account all the aspects that have been touched on. It will be necessary in fact to implement a real-life analysis of the different activities, with accurate measurements of the power used by each piece of equipment (even if they are of the same type but with different operating systems), devising in this way theoretical cycles that are as reliable as possible. In addition, a key part of the project should revolve around obtaining real data from laboratory tests based on these cycles, and not just data from Code 2 tests. We also consider it important to optimise the database, by creating a dedicated software with a regularly updated database, which can guide the farmer in tracking his "typical use". Moreover it is clear that the consumption of fuel, despite being one of the main factors that guide the farmer's choice of tractor, is definitely not the only one. From an environmental point of view, it could be useful to also analyse gas emissions into the atmosphere, by measuring them with the appropriate instruments (opacimeters, lambda waves, etc.) during laboratory tests. All this data, if it was compared and evaluated against a reasoned average utilisation, could then be used as a basis for the distribution of agricultural subsidies, as is already the case in many other industries or in other countries, where the most efficient machines (both in terms of consumption and emissions) are funded by Rural Development Plans, or benefit from tax deductions or some form of government contribution.
Tese de doutoramento em Sociologia, apresentada à Faculdade de Economia da Universidade de Coimbra ; La presente investigación se propone analizar cómo se configura la acción política por medio del activismo que se centra en el arte como práctica política. Discute en que medida se reinventa la acción política feminista con y a través del arte, las varias formas de entender y poner en práctica la relación entre el arte y la política, el lugar de las artes feministas comprendidas como prácticas políticas con sus propios repertorios y el lugar de los feminismos en el trabajo artístico. Las categorías de análisis que entrecruzan esta investigación son: arte y política, acción política, activismo feminista desde el arte, acción política artística, políticas feministas, renovación de la política, renovación del arte, y potencia política del arte. Como las preguntas que motivan esta investigación no se resuelven solo en el ámbito teórico sino que son los modos de hacer, las prácticas, las diferentes vivencias, las que pueden dar posibles respuestas, ampliar las miradas y hacer otras preguntas, fue importante hacer partícipes de esta investigación a quienes rompen justamente con formas tradicionales de las políticas feministas en Colombia. Dos colectivas feministas: La Tremenda Revoltosa Batucada Feminista y Féminas Festivas, dos grupos artísticos feministas: el grupo de teatro La Máscara y la banda de punk Polikarpa y sus Viciosas y dos artistas feministas: Ana María Villate y Diana Molina son las sujetas de esta investigación; coproductoras del conocimiento que de aquí se deriva desde sus activismos que potencian lo político en el arte constituyendo las expresiones artísticas en prácticas políticas feministas. Esta propuesta es un ejercicio de Investigación Activista Feminista, un trabajo de construcción colectiva de conocimiento situado desde y para la acción política con la metodología de las Producciones Narrativas. La construcción de las narrativas se realizó a partir de sesiones de trabajo colectivas e individuales, entrevistas y observación participante en las actividades que fue posible acompañar durante el trabajo de campo; las narrativas construidas se disponen y manejan en la tesis de tal manera que constituyen el eje articulador de los análisis aquí desarrollados. En cuanto a la estructura de la investigación se presentan los principales debates del movimiento feminista en Colombia, en relación con dicho movimiento en Latinoamérica y el Caribe para comprender las políticas feministas que lo caracterizan. Se parte de los estudios sociales del arte y sus diferentes miradas sobre la relación arte y política considerando la política en el arte, la estetización de la política, el arte político y el arte activista. Para abrir los límites de la política se aproxima a las propuestas que se encuentran sobre la política y su redefinición en los feminismos, a las prácticas políticas de las sujetas de la investigación y el reconocimiento de otras prácticas para pensar cómo se renuevan y se hacen otras políticas; asimismo se aproxima a los movimientos sociales y su apuesta por redimensionar la política, pensando la cultura como un hecho político, y la articulación de los feminismos con los movimientos sociales en la participación concreta de las sujetas de esta investigación en la vida política del país. Para ampliar la mirada sobre el arte, se retoman los aportes de la sociología en los territorios del arte y la cultura y se incluye el análisis decolonial, las lecturas de la crítica institucional y las experiencias de las artistas y activistas sujetas de la investigación en el mundo del arte. Asimismo, se aborda la potencia política del arte relacionado con la importancia política de lo simbólico. Se presenta la noción de acción política artística y feminista en relación con las artes feministas en los activismos analizados, además de los modos de hacer de cada colectiva, grupo artístico y artista que llevan a comprender como hacer del arte una práctica política feminista. Finalmente se presentan unas reflexiones metodológicas en cuando a las potencialidades y dificultades de las Producciones Narrativas y se problematiza la relación activismo-academia, presentando así los límites, aprendizajes, retos y propuestas suscitadas en esta experiencia de investigación. ; A presente investigação propõe-se analisar como se configura a acção política através do activismo que se centra na arte como prática política. Discute em que medida se reinventa a acção política feminista com e através da arte; as várias formas de entender e pôr em prática a relação entre arte e política; o lugar das artes feministas entendidas como práticas políticas com os seus próprios repertórios; e o lugar dos feminismos no trabalho artístico. As categorias de análise que atravessam esta investigação são: arte e política, acção política, activismo feminista a partir/através da arte, acção política artística, políticas feministas, renovação da política, renovação da arte e potencial político da arte. As perguntas que motivam esta investigação não se resolvem apenas em âmbito teórico, mas são os próprios modos de fazer, as práticas e as diferentes vivências que podem dar respostas, ampliar os ângulos de visão e formular outras perguntas. Por isso foi importante integrar nesta investigação quem rompe precisamente com as formas tradicionais das políticas feministas na Colômbia. Duas colectivas feministas: La Tremenda Revoltosa Batucada Feminista e Féminas Festivas; dois grupos artísticos feministas: o grupo de teatro La Máscara e a banda punk Polikarpa y sus Viciosas; e duas artistas feministas: Ana María Villate e Diana Molina são as sujeitas desta investigação; coprodutoras do conhecimento de aqui se deriva a partir dos seus activismos potenciadores do que há de político na arte e transformadores das expressões artísticas em práticas políticas feministas. Esta proposta é um exercício de Investigação Activista Feminista, um trabalho de construção colectiva de conhecimento situado desde e para a acção política, com recurso à metodologia das Produções Narrativas. A construção das narrativas realizou-se a partir de sessões de trabalho colectivas e individuais, entrevistas e observação participante nas actividades que me foi possível acompanhar durante o trabalho de campo. As narrativas construídas dispõem-se e são usadas na tese de forma a construírem o eixo articulador das análises aqui desenvolvidas. Quanto à estrutura da investigação, apresentam-se os principais debates do movimento feminista na Colômbia, em relação ao mesmo movimento na América do Sul e Caraíbas para compreender as políticas feministas que o caracterizam. Parte-se dos estudos sociais da arte e seus diferentes olhares sobre a relação arte-política, considerando a política na arte, a esteticização da política, a arte política e a arte activista. Para abrir as fronteiras da política aproxima-se às propostas encontradas sobre a política e a sua redefinição nos feminismos, as práticas políticas das sujeitas da investigação e o reconhecimento de outras práticas para pensar como se renovam e se fazem outras políticas; da mesma forma faz-se uma aproximação aos movimentos sociais e à sua aposta para redimensionar a política, pensando a cultura como um facto político, e a articulação dos feminismos com os movimentos sociais na participação concreta das sujeitas desta investigação na vida política do país. Para ampliar o nosso olhar sobre a arte, retomamos as contribuições da sociologia nos territórios da arte e a cultura e incluímos a análise descolonial, as leituras da crítica institucional e as experiências das artistas e activistas sujeitas da investigação no mundo da arte. Da mesma forma abordamos o potencial político da arte relacionado-o com a importância política do simbólico. Apresenta-se a noção de acção política artística e feminista em relação com as artes feministas nos activismos analisados, além dos modos de fazer de cada colectiva, grupo artístico e artista que leva a compreender como fazer da arte uma prática política feminista. Finalmente, apresentam-se reflexões metodológicas relacionadas com as potencialidades e dificuldades das Produções Narrativas e problematiza-se a relação activismo-academia, apresentando assim os límites, aprendizagens, desafios e propostas suscitadas nesta experiência de investigação. ; The present research analyses how political action is shaped in activist practices engaging in art as a political practice. It discusses to which extent feminist political action reinvents itself through art, and exposes different understandings and practices regarding the link between art and politics, feminist arts as political practices with their own specific languages, and the position of feminisms in artistic work. The categories of analysis in this study include: art and politics, political action, feminist activism through art, artistic political action, feminist politics, renovation of politics, renovation of art, political renovation of art. The questions triggering this research may not be solved only on a theoretical level. Rather, a range of modus operandi, practices, and experiences need to be taken into account so as to produce possible interpretations, amplify perspectives and generate further questions. Therefore, it was considered essential to involve in this investigation precisely those subjects who do not conform to the traditional forms of Colombia's feminist politics. The subjects of this investigation include feminist collectives: La Tremenda Revoltosa Batucada Feminista and Féminas Festivas; feminist artistic groups: theatre group La Máscara and punk band Polikarpa y sus Viciosas; and feminist artists: Ana María Villate and Diana Molina. These subjects are co-producers of the knowledge systematized in this study, which derives directly from their activisms, and the ways in which they strengthen political intervention with art by contributing to feminist politics through their artistic expressions. The proposed analysis is an exercise of Feminist Activist Research, based on a collective construction of knowledge situated in - and for- political action, using the methodology of Narrative Productions. The construction of narratives was based on individual and collective work sessions, interviews, and participant observation in the activities which were accessible during the field work; the constructed narratives are weaved in the thesis in such a way that they constitute the main pillars of the analysis developed here. Regarding the structure of the investigation, the principal debates of the feminist movement in Colombia are described and linked to similar movements in Latin America and the Caribbean, in order to appreciate their particular configurations within feminist politics. The research is based on social studies on art, in particular the range of perspectives on the relationship between political art and activist art. In order to transcend the borders of politics, this study builds on the theories regarding politics and its redefinition within feminist moments, and in the political practices of the research subjects, in order to reflect how other politics are renewed and created. This study approaches social movements and their struggles to redefine politics by understanding culture as a political issue, and by capturing the articulation between feminisms and social movements observing the active participation of the research subjects in the country's political life. A range of sources, including sociological inputs in the fields of arts and culture, as well as a decolonial analysis, the contributions of critical institutional studies and the experience of artists and activists involved in the research, have been used in order to widen the perspective on art. Additionally, the study explores the political power of art in connection with the political importance of symbols. The proposed analysis articulates the notion of political, artistic, and feminist action with feminist arts in the analysed activisms. Additionally, it observes the practices of each collective, artistic or activist group, which help us to understand how art may be transformed into a feminist political practice. Finally, the study presents some methodological reflexions regarding the potentialities and difficulties of Narrative Productions, problematizing the relationship between activism and academia, and presenting the limits, lessons, challenges and propositions which arose during the investigation experience.
Given the need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to decrease the risk of dangerous climate change, economists have often argued in favour of carbon pricing. Carbon pricing can essentially take two forms: an emissions trading system or a carbon tax. The European Union chose the former option and implemented the EU ETS in 2005, the first large scale carbon market. As a first mover in experimenting with such regulatory instruments, the EU ETS case offers qualitative and quantitative insights of foremost importance for emerging carbon markets worldwide. This thesis is divided into two parts. Part I provides ex-post learnings on the EU ETS price formation and policy design. Part II offers an ex-ante perspective by exploring the expansion of the European carbon market. Both parts pay particular attention to a central feature of the EU ETS: its political nature as a government created market. This institutional perspective on the EU ETS, which seeks to take into consideration the impact of politics and institutions on market functioning, is at the heart of this thesis. It brings a new lens to examine emissions trading as well as draws on the experience of other policy fields, notably monetary policy. Following the drop of permit prices in the EU ETS, intense discussions emerged on the need to and modality for reforming the market, which is the focus of Part I of this thesis. Yet, evaluating the need to reform first implies understanding the goals of the EU ETS and whether market outcomes are likely to deliver on their promises. Chapter 2 lays the groundwork for the remaining discussions of the thesis by clarifying the different implicit and explicit objectives expected from the EU ETS. Although cost-effectiveness is often proclaimed to be the main goal of the EU ETS, stakeholder opinions diverge regarding the appropriate time frame for this objective, some focusing on short-term while other having a long-term perspective. In addition, certain stakeholders have multiple objectives, for instance, addressing the social cost of carbon. Based on economic theory, Chapter 2 then provides a comprehensive review of the drivers of the price collapse in the EU ETS, classifying them into three categories: (i) exogenous demand shock, (ii) lack of policy credibility and (iii) market imperfections. From this classification, a new framework to map the reform option space is developed. It carefully examines which policy options represent potential solutions depending both on what drives the price as well as on the objective intended for the EU ETS. Drawing on the analogy to monetary policy, this mapping of the reform option space introduces the concept of delegation in the context of emissions trading. Delegation reflects the extent to which the governance of the market is relinquished to a rule-based adjustment mechanism or an independent body with varying levels of discretionary power. Complementing the qualitative analysis of Chapter 2, Chapter 3 offers an empirical analysis of price formation. It shows that, contrary to conventional wisdom, demand-related fundamentals such as fuel prices or the economic downturn only explain a fraction of the carbon price drop. Importantly, chapter 3 provides preliminary evidence that regulatory uncertainty and the lack of policy credibility played a much larger role than previously assumed in driving down the price. Chapter 4 is a direct follow-up, closing the gap on the influence of regulatory events in price formation. Using an empirical event study methodology, the chapter carefully investigates how the political process of the cap adjustment has shaped market outcomes in the European carbon market. The findings show that the tedious process of achieving reform unveiled the lack of political consensus on the EU ETS goals; thereby increasing political uncertainty and contributing to the price decline. These empirical findings have critical implications for the reform of the EU ETS – instruments that do not attempt to anchor long-term regulatory credibility are unlikely to be successful in bringing the price closer to its long-term, socially-optimal path. In this context, though delegation is unlikely to be a silver bullet, it could strengthen the credibility of political commitment by locating the governance of the market outside the political sphere. It could likewise reinforce the flexibility of responding to "unknown unknowns". Supplementing the previous chapters, Chapter 5 provides a comprehensive policy analysis of the specific reform option for the EU ETS proposed by the European Commission in 2014 following the price collapse: the Market Stability Reserve (MSR). It is argued that the MSR is unlikely to enhance long-term commitment credibility, raising doubt on its ability to trigger low carbon investments. This policy evaluation is embodied in a broader reform context taking both an ex-post and ex-ante perspectives. It thereby bridges Part I and II. The second half of this thesis, Part II, offers a forward-looking perspective on the expansion of carbon markets. Chapter 6 investigates the sectoral expansion of the EU ETS towards agriculture, which has often been perceived as challenging. Implementation barriers are regularly cited as impeding carbon pricing in the sector, in particular transaction costs stemming from sector specificities, risks of leakage and distributional impacts on farmers, often perceived as major veto-players. However, the importance of the barriers hinges critically on the precise policy design. Chapter 6 therefore offers the first synthesis of literature on the pricing of agricultural emissions with the rich body of literature on the design of carbon markets. The chapter provides a new perspective on carbon pricing in European agriculture by disentangling the key dimensions of policy design in the light of implementation barriers. In particular, it investigates the role of policy coverage, instrument choice and transfers to farmers in overcoming policy obstacles. First, it is shown that a policy coverage targeting large farms and few emission sources could include a significant share of agricultural emissions, while reducing transaction costs. Second, it is argued that the distributional impacts and leakage risks are contingent upon the policy being voluntary or mandatory. From this perspective, a voluntary instrument can be attractive, but comes at the cost of possible subsidy lock-ins and carbon price distortion. Third, the role of the Common Agricultural Policy and its potential interaction with carbon pricing is highlighted as being pivotal in determining political feasibility. Chapter 7 focuses on the other critical side of carbon pricing, going beyond jurisdictional borders. In principle, linking could lead to efficiency gains and reduce the cost of compliance for entities covered under a trading system. Taking the example of REDD+ offsets (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation), Chapter 7 investigates the trade-offs between the opportunities of allowing an import of cheaper offsets in carbon markets and the risks it entails in terms of investments. It is shown that a well-designed policy could provide a risk-hedging opportunity for compliance entities while having limited impact on low carbon investment. In sum, this thesis concentrates on investigating the conditions under which the EU ETS requires policy intervention. It offers an institutional view on the EU ETS reform. Drawing on empirical results, it demonstrates the role of political commitment in price formation. It then analyses the pros and cons of delegation in carbon markets to overcome time-inconsistency and lack of policy credibility (Part I). Part II delivers insights to broaden carbon pricing in the European Union and beyond in the future. Focusing on pricing agricultural emissions, it provides a framework to disentangle the different dimensions of policy design and conceptualize policies that reduce implementation barriers. Finally, Part II examines the trade-offs associated with various policy options to link carbon markets to a forestry offset scheme. ; In Anbetracht der Dringlichkeit, Treibhausgasemissionen zu reduzieren, um das Risiko eines gefährlichen Klimawandels zu senken, sprechen sich Ökonomen oft für eine Bepreisung von Kohlenstoff aus. Die Bepreisung von Kohlenstoff kann grundsätzlich zwei Formen annehmen: ein Emissionshandelssystem oder eine CO2-Steuer. Die Europäische Union hat die erste Option gewählt und 2005 das EU ETS (EU Emissions Trading System, Europäisches Emissionshandelssystem) eingeführt, den ersten großangelegten Kohlenstoffmarkt. Als Vorreiter in diesem regulatorischen Instrument bietet das EU ETS qualitative und quantitative Erkenntnisse von höchster Bedeutung für entstehende Kohlenstoffmärkte weltweit. Diese Doktorarbeit unterteilt sich in zwei Teile. Teil 1 stellt ex-post Lernerfahrungen hinsichtlich der Preisbildung und Politikgestaltung des EU ETS dar. Teil 2 bietet eine ex-ante Perspektive, indem es die Ausweitung des Europäischen Kohlenstoffmarktes erforscht. Beide Teile legen ein besonderes Augenmerk auf ein zentrales Merkmal des EU ETS: seine politische Natur als ein von Regierungen geschaffener Markt. Diese institutionelle Perspektive auf das EU ETS, die den Einfluss von Politik und Institutionen auf das Funktionieren des Marktes berücksichtigt, steht im Zentrum dieser Doktorarbeit. Sie bietet eine neue Perspektive, was die Untersuchung von Emissionshandel betrifft, und zieht Erfahrungen anderer Politikfelder, insbesondere der Geldpolitik, heran. Der Preisrückgang für Zertifikate im EU ETS führte zu intensiven Diskussionen über Bedarf und Modalitäten einer Reform des Marktes, was der Fokus von Teil 1 dieser Doktorarbeit ist. Doch eine Bewertung des Reformbedarfs verlangt zuerst ein Verständnis der Ziele des EU ETS und der Wahrscheinlichkeit, mit der der Markt seine Versprechen hält. Kapitel 2 leistet Vorarbeit für die weitere Diskussion der Doktorarbeit, indem es die verschiedenen expliziten und impliziten Ziele des EU ETS beleuchtet. Während Kosteneffizienz oft als Hauptziel des EU ETS angeführt wird, gehen die Meinungen der Stakeholder auseinander, was den angemessenen Zeitrahmen für dieses Ziel betrifft: Manche nehmen eine Kurzzeit-, andere eine Langzeitperspektive ein. Zusätzlich verfolgen einige Stakeholder mehrere Ziele, wie zum Beispiel die sozialen Kosten von Kohlenstoffemissionen zu minimieren. Basierend auf ökonomischer Theorie gibt Kapitel 2 eine umfassende Übersicht über die treibenden Kräfte des Preisverfalls im EU ETS, welche in drei Kategorien eingeteilt werden: (i) exogener Nachfrageschock, (ii) mangelnde Glaubwürdigkeit der Politiken und (iii) Marktverzerrungen. Auf Basis dieser Klassifikation wird ein neuer Rahmen entwickelt, um den Spielraum für Reformen aufzuzeigen. Es wird untersucht, welche Politikoptionen als Lösungen in Frage kommen, in Abhängigkeit verschiedener Preistreiber und Ziele des EU ETS. Analog zur Geldpolitik führt diese Darstellung des Spielraumes für Reformen das Konzept der Delegation im Kontext vom Emissionshandel ein. Delegation beschreibt das Maß, in demdie Governance des Marktes einem regelbasierten Anpassungsmechanismus oder einer unabhängigen Institution mit unterschiedlichen Graden an Weisungsbefugnis überlassen wird. Komplementär zur qualitativen Analyse in Kapitel 2 bietet Kapitel 3 eine empirische Analyse der Preisbildung. Sie zeigt, dass nachfragebezogene Faktoren wie die Rezession, im Gegensatz zur gängigen Meinung, nur einen (kleinen) Teil des CO2-Preisverfalls erklären. Kapitel 3 erbringt den vorläufigen Nachweis dafür, dass regulatorische Unsicherheit und mangelnde Glaubwürdigkeit der Politiken eine viel größere Rolle für den Preisverfall spielten als vorher angenommen. Kapitel 4 schließt direkt daran an, indem es die Wissenslücke bezüglich des Einflusses von regulatorischen Ereignissen auf die Preisbildung schließt. Unter Verwendung einer empirischen Event-Studie analysiert das Kapitel wie der politische Prozess der Cap-Anpassung den Europäischen Kohlenstoffmarkt beeinflusst hat. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass der langwierige Prozess der Reformierung den Mangel an politischem Konsens bezüglich der Ziele des EU ETS offenbart und somit die politische Unsicherheit erhöht hat, was zum Preisverfall beitrug. Diese empirischen Ergebnisse bringen entscheidende Implikationen für die Reform des EU ETS mit sich: Instrumente, die keine langfristige regulatorische Glaubwürdigkeit erzeugen, warden voraussichtlich keinen Erfolg darin haben, den Preis näher an sein langfristiges soziales Optimum zu bringen. Wenngleich Delegierung keine Wunderwaffe ist, könnte sie in diesem Kontext doch die Glaubwürdigkeit des politischen Engagements stärken, indem sie die Governance des Marktes außerhalb der Politik ansiedeln würde. Auch könnte sie die Flexibilität stärken, auf "unbekannte Unbekanntheiten" zu reagieren. In Ergänzung zu den vorhergehenden Kapiteln bietet Kapitel 5 eine umfassende politische Analyse jener spezifischen Reformoption für das EU ETS, die 2014 nach dem Preissturz von der Europäischen Kommission vorgeschlagen wurden: die Marktstabilitätsreserve (MSR). Es wird argumentiert, dass es unwahrscheinlich ist, dass die MSR die langfristige Glaubwürdigkeit des verbindlichen politischen Engagements erhöhen wird, was Zweifel an ihrer Fähigkeit aufkommen lässt, die entsprechenden Investitionen in Gang zu setzen. Diese Politikbewertung bettet sich in den weiteren Reformkontext ein und nutzt sowohl eine ex-post als auch eine ex-ante Perspektive. Sie bildet damit die Brücke zwischen Teil 1 und 2. Die zweite Hälfte der Doktorarbeit, Teil 2, bietet eine vorausschauende Perspektive auf die Erweiterung von Kohlenstoffmärkten. Kapitel 6 untersucht die Ausweitung des EU ETS auf den Landwirtschaftssektor, die oft als Herausforderung wahrgenommen wird. Oft wird angeführt, dass zu viele Hürden einer Umsetzung der Kohlenstoffbepreisung in diesem Sektor im Wege stünden, insbesondere sektorspezifische Transaktionskosten, Leakage Risiken und Verteilungseffekte für Landwirte, deren Verbände oft als wichtige Veto-Mächte betrachtet werden. Die tatsächliche Bedeutung dieser Hindernisse hängt jedoch stark von der konkreten Ausgestaltung der Politiken ab. Kapitel 6 bietet daher die erste Synthese der Literatur zur Bepreisung von Landwirtschaftsemissionen und der Literatur zur Ausgestaltung von Kohlenstoffmärkten. Das Kapitel bietet eine neue Perspektive auf Kohlenstoffbepreisung in der europäischen Landwirtschaft in dem es die Schlüsseldimensionen der Politikgestaltung im Hinblick auf Umsetzungsbarrieren analysiert. Insbesondere untersucht es die Rolle des Anwendungsbereiches der Politiken, derWahl der Politikinstrumente und von Transfer an Landwirte für das Überwinden von politischen Hindernissen. Zuerst wird gezeigt, dass eine Anwendung auf große Betriebe und wenige Emissionsquellen einen beträchtlichen Anteil an landwirtschaftlichen Emissionen abdecken und gleichzeitig Transaktionskosten reduzieren könnte. Zweitens wird argumentiert, dass die Verteilungseffekte und Leakage Risiken davon abhängen, ob das Politikinstrument verpflichtend oder freiwillig ist. Aus dieser Perspektive kann ein freiwilliges Instrument attraktiv sein, jedoch auf Kosten eines möglichen Fortbestandes von Subventionen und Kohlenstoffpreisverzerrungen. Drittens wird die Rolle der Gemeinsamen Agrarpolitik der EU und ihrer möglich Wechselbeziehung mit Kohlenstoffbepreisung als entscheidend für die politische Machbarkeit hervorgehoben. Kapitel 7 betrachtet einen anderen entscheidenden Aspekt der Kohlenstoffbepreisung: die Ausweitung über Grenzen hinweg. Im Prinzip kann eine Verbindung von Kohlenstoffmärkten Effizienzgewinne mit sich bringen und die durch die Beachtung der Rechtsvorschriften entstehenden Kosten für die vom Handelssystem abgedeckten Einheiten reduzieren. Anhand des Beispiels der REDD+ Kompensation wägt Kapitel 7 die Chancen, die sich daraus ergeben, dass ein Import von preisgünstigeren Kompensationszertifikaten in Kohlenstoffmärkten erlaubt wird, mit den damit verbundenen Risiken für Investitionen ab. Es wird gezeigt, dass die richtige Politik eine Möglichkeit zur Risikoabsicherung für einbezogene Betreiber darstellen und gleichzeitig einen begrenzten Einfluss auf weniger emissionsintensive Investitionen haben könnte. Insgesamt konzentriert sich diese Doktorarbeit darauf, die Bedingungen, unter denen das EU ETS ein Eingreifen der Politik benötigt, zu untersuchen. Sie bietet eine institutionelle Perspektive auf die EU ETS Reform. Indem sie empirische Ergebnisse heranzieht, demonstriert sie die Rolle eines verbindlichen politischen Engagements für die Preisbildung. Sie analysiert dann die Vor- und Nachteile von Delegierung in Kohlenstoffmärkten, um zeitliche Inkonsistenzen und einen Mangel an politischer Glaubwürdigkeit zu überwinden (Teil 1). Teil 2 stellt Erkenntnisse zur zukünftigen Ausweitung der Kohlenstoffbepreisung in der Europäischen Union und darüber hinaus dar. Mit einem Fokus auf die Bepreisung von Agraremissionen bietet dieser Teil einen Analyserahmen um die verschiedenen Dimensionen der Politikgestaltung zu entflechten und Politiken zu konzeptualisieren, die Umsetzungshürden reduzieren können. Schließlich untersucht Teil 2 die Zielkonflikte verschiedener Politikoptionen, die eine Verbindung von Kohlenstoffmärkten mit waldbezogenen Kompensationssystemen anstreben.
In this research, logistic villages, especially the logistic village, where will be established in Bayburt, have investigated in order to understand to the economic contributions to the city, region and country, and the development and potential development which will be achieved afterwards. With the model proposal of Bayburt logistic village, we have tried to give an idea about the structure and function of the logistic village which will be established to the local and national interlocutors It is also aimed that our work will be inspired to mainly future research about logistics and logistic villages and Bayburt logistics village works and directory direction. Our research İs basically work İnto the world logistics, logistic of Turkey, logistic in the region and logistics in the Bayburt.Bayburt has a duality in the Eastern Black Sea region in terms of its geographical location, but hard continental climate is dominant. When we take Bayburt province center, Erzurum in the east, Gümüşhane and Erzincan in the west; In the north, it is observed that Trabzon and Rize are in a very strategic position. Therefore Bayburt is a very important center in terms of logistics with the use of the transportation conditions in these areas and the finishing of the tunnels which are constantly under construction from the great targets of our country in 2023. In Bayburt province, dry food storage areas can be established as Logistics. In contrast to the black sea climate in the vicinity, the nemo ran is low and it can create an efficient and sheltered storage area. It can also create an incentive for employment in the region. Also in our study Methodology; After the descriptive analysis, the Fit index intervals were examined within the scope of factor analysis, ANOVA analysis and Structural equation model. The H1, H2, H3 hypotheses investigated in our study were evaluated within this scope. STRUCTURED ABSTRACT 1-Introduction In consequence of globalization and rapid developments in technology, companies have to be able to optimize speed, flexibility, cost and consumer demands in order to survive in a challenging national and international competitive environment. Therefore, it is essential that companies deliver their products and services to target markets much faster and at an optimum cost than their competitors. There is no doubt that this competition of companies is a big deal in logistics activities. As a matter of fact, logistics activities will result in lower costs, higher quality, increased production and customer satisfaction. At the end of all this, a significant advantage will be gained nationally and internationally. The desire of companies to appreciate these advantages has led to an increase in the importance of logistics. 2-Conceptual Framework Logistics management is the full range of administrative activities that meet the two-way flow of goods or supplies between shipment points and delivery points in line with customer needs (Tanyaş, 2005: 6). Logistics management is basically the process of planning the flow of goods and services through the various channels of production to the producer. It is mainly aimed at solving the problems that may be experienced in this flow process. The nececities for businesses to have a logistics management lies in the need to achieve the following objectives (Erdal ve Çancı, 2009: 47): • Reducing the cost of goods and services • Creating a competitive advantage • Providing added value to the business • Establishing high quality standards • Harmonizing the business with environmental conditions. Logistics management consists of three basic stages. In the first phase, there is a physical distribution. The physical distribution phase essentially begins with the acceptance the order. Following the order acceptance step, order processing, inventory control, warehouse and stock movements are in the line. The second step in logistics management is to identify the raw materials and materials that will be needed in the manufacturing process. They are transportation, main production program and support for the distribution of goods within the manufacturing process from one warehouse to another. Providing necessary coordination between manufacturing and physical distribution is one of the main objectives of logistics management. Procurement is the process of obtaining raw materials and goods by utilising external sources. Important elements in the procurement process include determining the characteristics and boundaries of supply sources, searching for new sources of supply and establishing continuous and systematic relationships with existing sources of supply. The development of logistics activities can be taken up to the 19th century. The birth of Logistics as an industry and trade area is linked to the Industrial Revolution and modernism process. In this part of the study, the development of logistics activities in our country and abroad will be examined. The history of the first work in the field of logistics dates back to the 1850s. The logistics economy was written by Lardner in London. Later, economists such as Taussig, Fetter and Handley worked. Between 1956 and 1965, the concept of integrated logistics came to light, and Drucker, one of the well-known names in this field, began to gain clarity (Drucker, 1962: 72). The 1980s are a turning point in terms of the logistics sector. There was a rapid development and growth in the process. In the 1980s, the notion of integrated logistics began to gain importance due to the evergrowing rapid growth in the logistics sector (Bowersox et al., 2002: 328). With the 1990s, organizations began to reduce logistics costs. Combination of logistics services and outsourcing strategies have begun to be preferred (Ross, 1998: 96). The development of the concept of logistics in our country is quite new. Mainly import and export activities, in general large-scale retailing and e-commerce development are the main factors that enable the development of logistics in our country. The development as a sector of logistics in our country is linked to the historical development process that took place in the 1980s and 1990s. In this period, where land, sea and air transportation increased in our country, it was a milestone in terms of logistics activities. (Babacan, 2002: 10) There were diversified needs in Turkey for the transition to the free market economy in the 1980s and for the institutions that will carry out logistics activities on the axis of export-based growth (Tuna and Ozer, 2002: 173). The 1990s created an rise in terms of the logistics sector. Turkey has begun to develop and diversify its logistics services in a similar way to applications in the world in this period. The 2000s have become a sector in which both the local and international companies actively participate in the development of the logistics sector (Babacan, 2002: 10). The idea of logistic village for Bayburt lies in the fact that Bayburt and Gümüşhane Airport will be opened in the near future. This airport will be used logistically as well as human transportation will play an important role for the logistic village to be established. The most plausible logistic village near Bayburt Airport will bring together big businesses operating in the area of international cargo and air transport. In this case, a part of freights and cargos, which are sent and delivered to Erzurum and Trabzon at airports, will shift to this region. In case of operation of Bayburt Lojistik Village, all cargo companies will be collected from Bayburt-Gümüşhane Airport. Later on, the companies that come to this area will get to their departments and use the way they want to reach them. It is also a suitable region for storage according to the Bayburt climate conditions. It is also important to emphasize that the established logistic village in Bayburt that are managed by cooperation with industry, government and universities. These groups need to focus on a common goal. It is expected that the distribution products from the production in this respect will increase the competitiveness of the products in national and international markets. 3-Method While developing the scale in this study, Karabük University Institute of Social Sciences, Business Administration Department, adapted the questions given in the thesis titled "The Impact of Logistics Villages on Marketing Process: Sectoral Perceptions for Karabük" and applied them to the students who are studying at Bayburt University and by factor analysis (Socio-Cultural, Socioeconomic and Social Welfare), a new scale consisting of 25 questions was created.Ölçeğin güvenirliğinin belirlenmesinde de Cronbach's Alpha yöntemi yapılmıştır. (Cronbach,1951: 297-334) Structural equilibrium modeling is an effective model testing and development method that can explain the causal relationship of variables in integrated hypotheses related to models based on statistical dependence and allows the theoretical models to be tested as a whole. The FE model allows the researcher to determine the direct and indirect effects between variables. (Ullman, 2003). In addition, after the T-test and one-way ANOVA tests were first performed by SPSS program in this study, only factor analysis and Fit indices were tried to be examined with YEM. 4-Findings The research was carried out by way of "Bayburt Illi Logistics Strategic Plan and Logistic Center Feasibility BAP Project" in order to provide a better understanding of the logistic villagers who are active in Turkey in 2017 and who are the lifeblood for sustainability of logistics. Our research was conducted on 250 students at Bayburt University. The main mass size of this questionnaire is approximately 1000. The 95% confidence level is 1.96 for the 5% significance level. The sample universe is made up of 248 people. As a result of these surveys, it can be said that the number of participants represents the universe. 5- Results With this research, the economic contribution of the logistic village, where will be established in Bayburt, to the city, region and country was pointed out, and the development and progress that will be achieved later was investigated. We examined how the logistic village, which will be established by the model proposal that have been presented for Bayburt logistics village, should be. In addition, the structure of this village has been tried to give an idea to the interlocutors on the local and national basis about its function and its possible benefits. It is also aimed that our work will be inspired by reseacrhers who focus on the logistics and logistics villages in general and Bayburt logistics village in particular, and expecting that it should be a source for them. In this research, the benefits that the Bayburt logistics village which is proposed in the model can provide for regional and national significance can be listed as follows: • Bayburt logistics village will play a leading role in the development of Bayburt and its region. The logistic village will be a project that will serve not only Bayburt but all the region, especially Gümüşhane and Erzincan. • As a result of the activation of Bayburt-Gumushane airport that will be opened, local and international air transportation and cargo transportation sector will develop and will contribute to regional exports. • By establishing a logistics village, businesses in Bayburt will be able to deliver products they produce more efficiently, productive and quickly. All these processes related to logistics to customs can be done within the logistic village. • With modern facilities and advanced technology, the logistics village will have a direct impact on employment and will seriously reduce the unemployment problem for Bayburt. • Bayburt will become a center of attraction through the logistic village. For this reason, infrastructure and environmental regulations must be made. As a result, the city could become a more modern place. • The logistics village will lead to some structural changes in the logistics sector and create new business areas in Bayburt. In the transportation between the logistics villages, the efficiency will increase because more cargo will be carried at less cost (unit transport costs will decrease). This will be ensured by the orientation of the truck and trailer to air transport. All of these facts, almost all key factors are evaluated and it is seen that Bayburt Lojistik Village has all the features and it is considered to be an important project for the region in many respects. This study was piloted on Bayburt University faculty of economics and administrative sciences students to learn ideas about the logistic village. We evaluated the answers we received for specific survey questions. Then we looked at the homogeneity and significance of these data. We finally made a fit analysis on the structural equation package program Lisrel about the model to be built
Esta tesis estudia la evolución de los sistemas lagunares en Tierra de Campos a lo largo de cien años a través de la caracterización de una serie de variables ambientales adoptándolas a un sistema de análisis acorde con el método científico, desarrollando una metodología aplicada. Para llevar a cabo dicho estudio primero se ha realizado un reconocimiento de la zona a través del trabajo de campo, ejecutado desde noviembre de 2007 hasta octubre de 2011, con el fin de monitorizar los parámetros fisicoquímicos más importantes del agua e identificar la variación anual de la superficie lagunar. A continuación se han generado capas cartográficas que han permitido observar la evolución de los sistemas lagunares en el siglo XX. Para ello primero se han identificado las lagunas reveladas por el levantamiento del Mapa Topográfico Nacional de 1900 a 1933 realizado por el Ejército Español. Posteriormente se han digitalizado y georreferenciado 387 fotografías aéreas analógicas del Vuelo Americano de 1956-1959 y del vuelo del Instituto Geográfico Nacional de 1983-1984 donde se han identificado las lagunas y zonas húmedas existentes en la zona de estudio. Para completar el estudio del siglo se han reconocido las lagunas existentes en 2007 y 2008 con las ortofotografías del Plan Nacional de Ortofotografía Aérea. En tercer lugar se ha realizado una descripción medioambiental de la zona: A nivel geológico el territorio se compone en su totalidad por rocas sedimentarias del terciario y del cuaternario, principalmente terrígenos y algunos carbonatos. Se sitúa en una cuenca endorreica ubicada entre las cuencas del río Esla y la del río Carrión, destacando la unidad estratigráfica de "Tierra de Campos". La geomorfología se caracteriza por presentar formas suaves que otorgan una homogeneidad del relieve, carente de desniveles abruptos, dando lugar a un paisaje abierto de llanura alomada. La edafología de la zona muestra una fuerte antropización, por su predisposición al cultivo de cereales. Así dentro de la clasificación de los suelos de la FAO en esta área hay que destacar la unidad litológica de "Tierra de Campos" compuesta por asociaciones de suelos de Cambisol calcáreo y Regosol calcáreo. Destacar los suelos pertenecientes a la unidad de las lagunas históricas (Villafáfila) conformados por asociaciones de Cambisol gleíco y Gleysol eútrico. La red hídrica se caracteriza por la presencia de ríos de poca envergadura con una gran variabilidad del caudal y por una densa red de arroyos. Esta red muestra una morfología completamente artificial a consecuencia de las actuaciones realizadas sobre ella. Los sistemas lagunares se abastecen de los aportes de la lluvia y de los afloramientos del nivel freático. Su nivel del agua varía a lo largo del año llegando a secarse algunos meses. Entre las lagunas existen canales de conexión que las otorgan de un comportamiento de llenado en cascada por rebose de la fuente o manantial. El clima de la zona se caracteriza por la crudeza y duración de los inviernos y un verano corto y caluroso; con un episodio de aridez importante abarcando desde junio a septiembre. La pluviometría anual es de 408 a 475 mm/año, las temperaturas medias de mínima y máxima oscilan de 6⁰C a 19⁰C, la evapotranspiración potencial corregida es de 676,26 mm/año y la evapotranspiración real de 374,23 mm, la lluvia útil alcanza valores de 49,02 mm y los vientos dominantes son de componente oeste suroeste. A nivel de vegetación la zona de estudio se ubica dentro de la región Mediterránea en la provincia biogeográfica Castellano-Maestrazgo-Manchega en el sector Castellano duriense y a nivel bioclimático en el piso Supramediterráneo inferior. La vegetación arbórea se ha visto muy afectada por la adaptación del entorno a la agricultura. La flora presente está asociada a dos tipos diferentes de ecosistemas lagunares: las aguas asociadas a hábitats de saladares y yesos (permiten el desarrollo de especies vegetales adaptadas a condiciones halófitas) y los ecosistemas de agua dulce (favorecen el desarrollo de vegetación béntica, algas y comunidades vegetales de plantas flotantes). En los entornos de estas formaciones existen prados húmedos mediterráneos de hierbas altas. La importancia faunística de este lugar radica en una elevada diversidad, principalmente de aves, las cuales utilizan estas áreas como zonas de nidificación o invernada y por la existencia de especies sedentarias emblemáticas de estos parajes, en estado de protección, como la Avutarda (Otis Tarda) entre otras. El medio social ha sido uno de los factores que más ha influenciado en la modificación de este entorno por la actividad productora y la aplicación de las políticas desarrollistas territoriales. A pesar de ello actualmente, la presencia humana permite el mantenimiento de unas condiciones favorables para la conservación de cultivos de leguminosas y cereales que son el sustento alimenticio de gran parte de la fauna. Para ayudar a la conservación y en la futura gestión de estos hábitats, este estudio describe los cambios que se han producido en estos entornos, utilizando datos de los años 1900-1933, 1956, 1984 y 2007-2008. Varios modelos de regresión logística permitieron la proyección precisa de la ubicación de los humedales que necesitan ser restaurados o regenerados. Estos modelos fueron desarrollados usando una combinación de 21 variables explicativas, incluyendo: datos relacionados con sistemas lagunares históricos, variaciones en las superficies de humedales, físico-química del suelo y los datos meteorológicos y datos de planificación socioeconómicos y espaciales, como se representa mediante cartografía temática. Las imágenes obtenidas que se utilizaron para proyectar los humedales en el área de estudio se clasificaron en diez categorías en función de la probabilidad de la presencia de lagunas. Estos mapas generados muestran que la extensión espacial de los humedales de la comarca de Tierra de Campos fue 1,44% en 1900 hasta 1933 y se redujo a 0,57% en el período 2007-2008. La disminución dramática en la extensión espacial cubierta por estos ecosistemas se observa durante el siglo XX de acuerdo con estos mapas; en consecuencia, estos resultados ponen de manifiesto los efectos de las políticas negativas (de desecación) o positivas (de protección) implementadas en la zona. Finalmente se exponen la discusión de los datos, las conclusiones y los futuros desarrollos. ; This thesis studies the evolution of the wetland systems in Tierra de Campos over one hundred years, through the characterisation of a series of environmental variables adapted to an analysis system in accordance with the scientific method, and with the development of an applied methodology. To carry out this study, first a survey of the area was made by means of fieldwork from November 2007 to October 2011 in order to monitor the most important physicochemical parameters of the water and identify the annual variation of the lakelet surface area. Then, map layers were generated which allow the evolution of the wetland systems in the twentieth century to be seen. For this, first the lakelets were identified that were revealed by the making of the National Topographic Map from 1900 to 1933 by the Spanish Army. Subsequently, 387 analogue aerial photographs were digitalised and georeferenced. These were taken by the American military from 1956 to 1959, and by the National Geographic Institute from 1983- 1984, and the lakelets and wetland areas existing in the area of study have been identified. To complete the study of the century, the lakelets existing in 2007 and 2008 have been examined using the orthophotos from the National Plan for Aerial Orthography. Thirdly, an environmental description of the area is given: Geologically, the territory is entirely made up of sedimentary rocks from the Tertiary and Quaternary, mainly terrigenous and some carbonates. It is located in an endorheic basin between the basins of the river Esla and river Carrión, which defines the stratigraphic unit of "Tierra de Campos". The geomorphology is characterised by smooth forms that confer a homogeneity of relief with no abrupt changes in level, which gives rise to an open landscape of undulating plains. The edaphology of the area shows strong anthropization, due to its predisposition to cereal cultivation. Thus, within the FAO soil classification in this area, the lithological unit of "Tierra de Campos" should be highlighted which is made up of soil associations of calcareous Cambisol and calcareous Regosol. The soils belonging to the unit of historic wetlands (Villafáfila) stand out, these are formed by associations of gleyic Cambisol and eutric Cambisol. The water network is characterised by the presence of small rivers with a large variability in flow and a dense network of streams. This network displays a completely artificial morphology as a consequence of the work carried on it. The wetland systems are supplied with rainfall and upwelling groundwater. Their water level varies over the year, and they dry out for some months. There are connection channels between the lakelets which provide them with cascade filling behaviour due to the overflow of the source or spring. The climate of the area is characterised by the harshness and duration of the winters and a short and hot summer, with a significant arid episode from June to September. The annual rainfall is from 408 to 475 mm/year, the minimum and maximum temperatures oscillate between 6° C and 19° C, the potential evapotranspiration is 676.26 mm/year and the real evapotranspiration is 374.23 mm, the useful rain reaches values of 49.02 mm and the dominate winds are west southwest. As regards vegetation, the study area is located in the Mediterranean region in the biogeographical province of Castellano-Maestrazgo-Manchega in the Castellano duriense sector, and at bioclimatic level, in the lower Supra-Mediterranean belt. The arboreal vegetation has been seriously affected by the adaptation of the environment to agriculture. The flora present is associated with two different types of wetland ecosystems: the waters associated with salt marsh and gypsum habitats (these allow the development of plant species adapted to halophyte conditions) and the fresh water ecosystems (favouring the development of benthic vegetation, algae and floating plant communities). Surrounding these formations are Mediterranean wet meadows of tall grass. The importance of the fauna in this location lies in its great diversity, mainly birds, which use these areas for nesting or wintering, and in the existence of sedentary species emblematic of these protected landscapes, such as the bustard (Otis Tarda), among others. The social context has been one of the most influential factors in the changes in this environment due to productive activity and the application of territorial development policies. Currently, in spite of this, the human presence allows favourable conditions to be maintained for the conservation of leguminous and cereal crops that are the food source for a large part of the fauna. To support the conservation and future management of these habitats, this study describes the changes that have occurred in these environments, using data from 1900-1933, 1956, 1984 and 2007 - 2008. Several logistic regression models allow the accurate forecast of the location of the wetlands that need to be restored and regenerated. These models were developed using a combination of 21 explanatory variables, including: data relating to historic lakelet systems, variations in the surface areas of the wetlands, soil physicochemical data, meteorological data, socioeconomic planning and spatial data, as represented by thematic mapping. The images obtained that were used to forecast the wetlands in the study area were classified in ten categories depending on the probability of the presence of lakelets. These generated maps show that the spatial extent of the wetlands in the Tierra de Campos region was 1.44% in 1900 up to 1933 and this reduced to 0.57% in the period 2007-2008. The dramatic reduction in the spatial extent covered by these ecosystems is observed during the 20th century according to these maps; consequently, these results highlight the effects of negative (drying out) and positive (protection) policies implemented in the area. Finally, there is a discussion on the data, the conclusions and on future developments.
Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina. Escuela de Posgrado. Maestría en Ecología Aplicada ; Uno de los problemas que enfrenta Espinar es la presencia de conflictos relacionados con la actividad expansiva de la gran minería. El objetivo de este estudio fue conocer y determinar las causas-implicancias y las relaciones de los conflictos socio-ambientales de la gran minería en Espinar (1980- 2013). Para ello, primero se recopiló información sobre la historia de la minería, se identificó y se caracterizó los ciclos mediante la metodología de análisis de ecología política y los ciclos adaptativos. Luego se elaboró modelos cualitativos de evolución histórica que permitió identificar a los principales actores y factores en los diferentes momentos. Finalmente, se realizó una encuesta que permitió conocer la percepción ambiental de la sociedad civil. Se caracterizó los momentos Ω (omega) o colapso de cada ciclo mediante el análisis de los seis capitales, (stocks que un sistema tiene, tales como el natural, económico, humano, social, político y físico). Se determinó- desde la llegada de Minero Perú que dio inicio a las sucesivas exploraciones y explotación por socavón hasta los años 80s con mediana minería; y la explotación a tajo abierto por la gran minería hasta la actualidad. Se considera una etapa, donde presenta un ciclo parcial y dos miniciclos. El ciclo parcial se encuentra en estado de madurez, que comprende miniciclos: 1-Explotación por EMETINSA S.A, hasta su privatización. 1994. 2- Explotación por Magma Copper Company hasta la actualidad. 2003. El análisis indica que a finales de la etapa 0 el capital natural (Kn) y el económico (Ke) están cayendo, tenemos, por un lado el precio del cobre estaba en decadencia a nivel internacional, pero al mismo tiempo muchos mineros locales se dedicaban a la minería artesanal, preferentemente de oro, en tanto para explotar el cobre era difícil por la compleja organización geológica de la mina. El capital social (Ks), político (Kp) y humano (Kh) se mantienen constantes y el capital físico (Kf) tiende a bajar ligeramente previo a la apertura de los tajos. Para el inicio de la gran minería a tajo abierto, diferentes variables entran en fase colapso de manera conjunta o simultanea que indica que el sistema completo entra en la fase omega () de la etapa I. El Kn (↓) se encontraba en descenso a causa del precio internacional del cobre. La infraestructura era deficiente inicialmente ya que no se contaba con energía eléctrica y carreteras para el traslado del mineral a mayor escala, los cuales no han sido fáciles de encaminar por el comportamiento nada favorable del precio de metales, haciendo que el Ke (↓) disminuya. El Kp (↓) decrece, porque muchas decisiones políticas para la explotación no se hizo participativamente y con el desbroce del suelo han perdido la infraestructura, lo que significó el deterioro de los modos de vida ancestrales, costumbres, sus relaciones personales, así como la introducción al sistema de moldes mentales exógenos, haciendo que también el Kf (↓) disminuya. El Ks (↓) tenemos por un lado las expropiaciones forzadas de tierras ganaderas y agrícolas para el desbroce y apertura del tajo, el desplazamiento de las poblaciones que ha generado otros problemas socioculturales como la migración campo-ciudad, ruptura de las familias, entre otros. En tanto el Kh se mantiene constante, aunque mostró una leve caída al inicio de esta Etapa. En miniciclo 1. El Ks (↓) decrece, debido a la reducción drástica de trabajadores y el desvanecimiento de la organización minera. El Kn y Ke (↑) fueron favorables dado que el precio internacional del cobre desde 1993 se eleva notoriamente y la mina inicia explotación polimetálica y diversifica su producción. En tanto el Kp (→) se mantiene igual, debido a la "política cerrada" del gobierno central. El Kh (→) se mantiene igual, aunque se hace visible los primeros efectos negativos en la naturaleza, los primeros indicios de contaminación se evidencian a partir de varios estudios ambientales. En miniciclo 2. El Ks () mostró una leve mejora por los acuerdos alcanzados entre la sociedad civil y la minera. El Kp (↑) ha incrementado debido a la conectividad, participación y propuesta que ha desarrollado el gobierno local y la sociedad civil con otras entidades internacionales. Con el pasar del tiempo el Kn () se ha ido reduciendo en términos de acceso a recursos naturales y calidad, focalizadas en las poblaciones adyacentes y el precio del cobre se fue incrementando, además del ingreso per cápita y IDH por lo que el Ke (↑). Los actores más influentes en el ciclo parcial y miniciclos: inicialmente los mineros locales y Minero Perú, gobierno central, poblaciones expropiadas, EMETINSA S. A. y en la actualidad las poblaciones adyacentes a la mina, gobierno central y local, CooperAcción, sociedad civil, minera y Fundación Tintaya. Entre los factores el precio del cobre y la Ley N° 18880 (nacionalización). R.D. N°41/81/EM/DGM (expropiación), D.L. N° 674 y 708 (privatización) y demanda por metales. Las escalas de influencia de los actores van desde lo global hacia lo local. La minera incide en algunas variables del sistema como la migración, gobernanza, la intensificación y los impactos ambientales. La causa del conflicto es por afectación del recurso agua y suelo que ha llevado al deterioro y degradación socio-ambiental de poblaciones adyacentes. En cuanto a la percepción existe contaminación y afectación del agua y suelo, la calidad de la salud es mala. La mina no es percibida como sector que genere empleo, a pesar que afirman que si aporta al desarrollo y por el cuidado del ambiente consideran a las ONG. Se sugiere hacer análisis con los ciclos adaptativos que permiten organizar información y describir la dinámica del sistema, se recomienda la institucionalización de una instancia permanente de diálogo y desarrollo orientados a lograr efectivas transformaciones a los conflictos y promover el Consentimiento, para la toma de decisiones que involucran el uso de los recursos naturales. ; One of the issues that Espinar faces is the presence of conflicts due to the expanding activity of the 'Great Mining'. The objective of this study was to understand and determine the cause-effects and the relationships of the socioenvironmental struggles of the 'Great Mining' in Espinar (1980-2013). In order to accomplish this, compiling information on the history of mining was done first, which identified and characterized cycles by the methodology of analysis of political ecology and adaptive cycles. Afterwards, qualitative models of historical evolution were produced, which allowed identification of the main actors and factors at different moments. Lastly, a survey was carried out, which aided to understand the environmental perception of the civil society. Ω (omega) moments or collapse of each cycle were characterized through analyzing the six capitals (natural, economic, human, social, political and physical). The arrival of Minero Perú gave rise to subsequent explorations and exploitations by tunnel until the 1980s with a medium amount of mining, as well as open-pit mines to present day. A single stage is divided into a partial cycle and two mini-cycles. The partial cycle is in a state of maturity, and it comprises mini-cycles: exploitation by EMETINSA S.A, until their privatization in 1994, and exploitation by Magma Copper Company until 2003. The analysis indicates that at the end of stage 0, the natural capital (Kn) and the economic one (Ke) are falling. On one hand, we have the price of the copper in decadence on an international level, and on the other hand, many local miners were devoted to handmade mining, preferably of gold. As for copper, it was difficult to be exploited due to the complex geologic organization of the mine. The social capital (Ks), the political capital (Kp) and the human capital (Kh) remain steady, whereas the physical capital (Kf) tends to fall a little, prior to the opening of the pits. To begin 'open cut' mining, a number of variables enter, jointly or simultaneously, a phase of collapse, thereby indicating that the whole system is entering the omega phase (Ω) of stage I. Kn (↓) declines because of the international price of copper. Originally, the infrastructure was faulty since it lacked electric power and highways to transfer minerals on a larger scale, which were difficult to guide due to the unfavorable behavior of the price of metals, making Ke (↓) diminish. Kp (↓) fell because many political decisions regarding exploitation had not been made, and with the clearing of the floor they lost their infrastructure, which caused the deterioration of ancestral ways of life, customs, personal relationships, as well as the introduction of mental exogenous molds to the system, causing a decline in Kf (↓). Ks (↓) had the forced expropriations of cattle and agricultural lands to clear and open the pit, plus the displacement of the populations, which generated further socio-cultural issues, such as country-city migration, breakdown of families, among others. Although Kh remained steady, it showed a slight fall at the beginning of this stage. In mini-cycle 1, Ks (↓) fell due to the drastic reduction of workforce and the dissipation of the mining organization. Kn and Ke (↑) were favorable due to the evident rise of the international price of copper since 1993, as well as the polymetallic mining exploitation, and a diversification of its production. Kp (→) remains the same, due to the central government's 'closed policy'. Kh (→) remains the same too, although its first negative effects on the environment become clear; the first indications of contamination are evidenced primarily from several environmental studies. In minicycle 2, Ks (↑) showed a slight improvement because of the agreements reached between the civil society and the mining one. Kp (↑) increased due to the connectivity, participation and proposal developed by the local government and the civil society with other international entities. Over time, Kn (↓) has been declining in terms of access to natural resources and quality, focused on the adjacent populations and the rising price of copper; the per capita income and HDI for Ke (↑) has been increasing too. Initially, the most influential actors in the partial cycle and mini-cycles were the local miners and Minero Perú, the central government, a number of expropriated populations, and EMETINSA S.A.; however, the adjacent populations to the mine, as well as the central and local government, CooperAcción, the civil society, the mine and Fundación Tintaya are currently the most influential ones. The price of copper, Law N° 18880 (nationalization), Royal Legislative Decree N° 41/81/ME/Municipal Decree (expropriation), Legislative Decree N° 674 and 708 (privatization), and the demand for metals have been major influencers, too. The influence scales of the actors reach from a global standpoint to a local one. The mining has an impact on some variables in the system, such as migration, governance, escalation, and environmental impacts. The conflict was due to the degradation of the water and soil resources, which led to socio-environmental degradation of adjacent populations. Such resources have been contaminated and degraded, and so has the quality of people's health. The mining sector is not perceived as an employment generator, despite it is claimed to contribute to the development and the sustainability of the environment (NGOs). It is suggested to conduct an analysis with adaptive cycles in order to organize the data and describe the dynamics of the system. It is also recommended to institutionalize a permanent dialogue and have a goal-oriented development in order to effectively transform the conflicts and promote individual consent for better decisions that affect our natural resources. ; Tesis
Résumé : La présente thèse porte sur le développement d'un modèle d'intervention au profit des agents de développement économique méso dans un contexte de co-innovation et au niveau de l'entrepreneuriat technologique. Grâce à une expérience de plus de quinze ans comme agent de développement économique, une problématique managériale a émergé tranquillement. Les agents de développement économique n'avaient pas à leur disposition les outils d'intervention qui leur permettent de faire face aux nouvelles réalités du développement économique par l'innovation. Une première question peut se poser: qu'est-ce qui a changé dans l'innovation ? Tout d'abord, les savoirs sont de plus en plus complexes et diffus. En effet, les sciences et les technologies, surtout si elles ont atteint un certain degré de maturité, se développent de plus en plus en fonction d'usages qu'elles pourraient remplir (ces derniers étant fonction des besoins exprimés par les usagers). Par ailleurs, tout en se complexifiant à cause de leurs ramifications, les technologies sont de plus en plus accessibles aux usagers, ce qui leur permet de ne plus être seulement consommateurs de technologie, mais également producteurs et codéveloppeurs de produits et services. C'est en ce sens que l'on voit exploser le développement des applications mobiles. En définitive, on passe d'une innovation qui est linéaire, développée en vase clos ou en collaboration entre entreprises et centres de recherche triés sur le volet, qui est par la suite valorisée puis éventuellement commercialisée, à une innovation de nature systémique à la fois portée par des entreprises, des gouvernements et des usagers, ce qui est convenu d'appeler désormais la co-innovation. Par contre, les moyens dont disposent les agents de développement économique ne sont plus adaptés à cette nouvelle réalité. En effet, les outils dont bénéficient ces derniers sont basés sur les principes suivants : 1) la spécialisation sectorielle selon le modèle de Porter (1993), avec la stratégie des grappes où les agents de développement économique faisaient de la concertation et de l'animation du milieu ou 2) la diversité sectorielle et individuelle (Florida, 2005; Jacobs, 1969), où l'on s'est concentré sur la formation entrepreneuriale et sur les visites aux entreprises pour les aider dans leur croissance. Ces stratégies ont été payantes en termes de concertation et de développement hyperlocal, mais sont à la recherche d'un nouveau souffle, notamment en matière d'intergrappes et de cohérence supralocale. Au tournant des années 1990, on voit apparaître la notion de systèmes régionaux d'innovation, qui sont une première tentative de penser le développement économique sous forme systémique. En revanche, les aspects normatifs ont vite disparu des recherches universitaires, ce qui n'a pas permis aux agents de développement économique de s'approprier ces notions, la plupart les trouvant trop compliquées pour y voir de réelles applications en matière d'intervention en développement économique. Enfin, depuis les années 2000, la notion d'innovation ouverte apparaît et suscite beaucoup d'intérêt chez les agents de développement économique, mais ceux-ci manquent encore de modèle afin de pouvoir l'utiliser de façon plus structurée, au-delà de la simple stratégie de gestion de la propriété intellectuelle, comme véritable outil de co-innovation. Ainsi, la question de recherche suivante a été dégagée des éléments issus de la profession et d'une revue de littérature exhaustive: quel nouveau modèle de développement économique (DÉ) basé sur la co-innovation et au niveau de l'entrepreneuriat technologique peut-on développer et quelles seront alors les nouvelles méthodes d'intervention pour les agents de DÉ ? Pour répondre à cette question, la théorie enracinée est apparue comme une méthode de recherche appropriée, car elle permettait la théorisation, essentielle dans le développement d'un modèle. Vingt et une entrevues ont été menées entre août et décembre 2012 entre le Québec, les États-Unis et la France. Les résultats de cette recherche sont les suivants : 1) le niveau d'intervention adéquat en matière de développement économique par l'innovation est le niveau régional, soit les agents de développement économique de type méso (entre le macro et le micro), 2) le processus de développement économique par la co-innovation est un processus intermédié en deux temps. En effet, les agents de DÉ méso travaillent à identifier des problématiques et des besoins communs à différents écosystèmes, et ce, en comptant sur leur réseau. Grâce à ce mécanisme, les agents de DÉ créent des communautés (surtout technologiques) autour desquelles des opportunités intrapreneuriales apparaissent. Celles-ci pourront se transformer en projets structurants qui, à leur tour, pourront déboucher sur des opportunités entrepreneuriales. 3) L'agent de développement économique est à la fois un intrapreneur (qui défend ses projets dans sa propre structure organisationnelle) et un exopreneur (qui défend ses projets dans différentes communautés). Les résultats de cette recherche ont d'ores et déjà servi à la mise sur pied de nouvelles formes d'intervention au niveau méso avec le développement du programme de financement de la Ville de Montréal PR@M-Est, qui est basé directement sur les principes de co-innovation. Par ailleurs, les recherches suscitent de l'intérêt dans plusieurs agglomérations en France et auprès des professionnels en développement économique au Québec et en France. Enfin, des recherches subséquentes ont été identifiées afin de venir compléter le corpus de savoir en matière de développement économique par la co-innovation, notamment en ce qui concerne le partage de rente économique (monétisable ou non) entre les initiateurs de démarches co-innovantes et leurs contributeurs. ; Abstract : For a few years, economic developers have integrated innovation to their practice as the engine for economic development. It is now well understood that innovation and economic development are intertwined with the seminal work of Schumpeter more than a century ago. Many researches have been done since, but the very dynamic nature of innovation, and thus the economic developers' actions, needs constant reassessment. Innovation is changing from a linear perspective where firms, research centers and universities try to develop and commercialize new products and services, based on scientific researches, the so-called Public-Private Partnership, to a systemic form where firms, research centers and universities are still involved in the innovation process, but where more and more Public-Private-People Partnerships can occur. Why is innovation becoming a systemic process? One of the explanations lays in the greater complexity of knowledge and a greater distribution of it. In the meantime, more people can access technologies, as it is seen with the blooming of mobile applications. Since then, the way of innovation process occurs is dramatically changing, and more contributors can join the process, including as usual private companies or government, but also users. What is new with the users is that they are not only involved for commercialization purpose, but now also as co-developers and co-creators. By acknowledging those shifts, economic developers should also change the way they are acting to foster economic development and innovation. So, it is time to develop new forms of intervention in a context of co-innovation. They have to step back to see that their actions are done at the macro level (even if it has been practiced at the regional level) and generally based on industrial concentration with MAR and his industrial districts, on one side and specialization, on the other side with Porter and his clusters' strategy. The idea is to nourish innovation by geographical, cultural, institutional and social proximity. In doing so, it helps tacit knowledge to flow from one company to another and to bring to the market new products and services more rapidly. Economic developers works with geographic proximity and implements clusters strategies all over the world with different results. So the mechanistic aspect of the strategy is not that simple. Actually, clusters are now shifting to a systemic perspective and try to open-up collaboration between clusters and enhance cross sectorial projects. It also has been demonstrated that innovation is more about people than organizations. Since Jacobs, and later with Florida, the spotlight has been put on the individual as the engine of creativity and innovation. Jacobs thought that knowledge is embedded in the individual expertise, and Florida worked on the creative class which represent about 30% of the population, and who is made of people who promote creativity and changes in some place, generally cities. With Jacobs and Florida, the quality of place is critical because it can help to attract talents. At that micro level also, works on the entrepreneur-opportunity dyad is important. With the neo-classic theory, entrepreneurs can use information asymmetry to exploit opportunities and bring their creativity to the market. Entrepreneurs are very special in essence, even though it has not been establish that they have some special traits, it seems that they have in common a way to act creatively and transform this creativity into opportunities and economic development. For economic developers, it means to develop supportive actions towards entrepreneurs: training, entrepreneurs club, special funding for example. But, the difficulties lay in: how can economic developers develop a more structured model for their interventions to entrepreneurs? Moreover, some do believe that these micro levels approaches can be self-organized and that there is no need for public policy towards entrepreneurs. At the meso level, economic developers can improve, particularly regarding the Regional Innovation System (RIS), the way they can foster business serendipity across networks. Since Chesbrough has defined the concept of open innovation, a more systemic approach to innovation seems to be accepted by economic developers. But, once again, there is lot of work to do to better understand how economic developers can put into practice those new approaches. Thus, neither the macro level approach, which is too mechanistic, nor the meso approaches level, which is to complex, nor the micro level, which doesn't allow public policy, seem to offer a proper answer to economic developers with the systemic approach of innovation. This dissertation tries to answer the following question: What model can be developed for economic developers in context of co- innovation and technological entrepreneurship? Grounded theory as presented by Corbin and Strauss (2008) was the methodology in this survey. As it is permitted in grounded theory, the literacy has been completed by works on complexity theory, network theory and structural holes and co-innovation. Twenty-one interviews have been conducted in Montréal, the Province of Québec province, France and The United States between August and December 2012 with economic developers, scientific and technological parks managers, co-creation spaces organizers and entrepreneurs. The main conclusions of this research in an academic perspective are: 1. The correct level to support co-innovation is the meso level: this level allows macro and micro level actions to be coherent in a more interdependent perspective. The meso level is a medium term perspective at the regional level. The economic developers mostly use projects and communities of practice to do their actions regarding co-innovation; 2. The process for the economic development through co-innovation is intermediated and two-fold: a) Economic developers identify common needs in their ecosystems through their networks. In doing so, they create communities in which intrapreneurial opportunities occur. Some of these intrapreneurial opportunities lead to structuring projects. b) These projects open-up entrapreneurial opportunities that help regional economic development; 3. Finally, Economic developers are both intrapreneurs (leading project in their own organisations and exopreneurs (leading projects in communities). But as we want to develop something operational for economic developers, we also created an algorithm, which will help them to structure co-innovation actions (how to identify needs, communities, partners, etc.), but also a guide to use the right co-innovative tool at the right moment in their process of co-innovation. Some results of this research has been put into practice with the new program as PR@M-Est at the City of Montréal, this program is based on business serendipity and on co-innovation principles. This research shows some interest in France also. Of course this research has some limits, particularly with the size and the diversity of the sample, but we are confident it could open the way to further research in the field.
La cooperativa agraria de comercialización se presenta como una de las alternativas organizativas a disposición de los agricultores para operar en los mercados agrarios. Se trata de una organización particular, con un grado de integración intermedio entre la empresa productora-comercializadora (mayor grado de integración) y la venta directa en el mercado a través, por ejemplo, de alhóndigas (ningún tipo de integración). En esta fórmula, los socios son propietarios y controlan, una característica de la jerarquía, pero también son proveedores de producto, lo que otorga a la relación una característica de mercado. Así, la cooperativa agraria se aprovisiona casi en su totalidad de las producciones de sus socios, los cuales además son sus propietarios, usuarios de sus servicios y supervisores de una organización que distribuye al beneficio de forma igualitaria sobre la base del uso o volumen comercializado por el socio. Estas características confieren al análisis de la relación socio-cooperativa un papel muy relevante en el estudio de las cooperativas. Las cooperativas agrarias tienen que competir con otras formas de organización en unos mercados cada vez más competitivos, globales y desregulados, con frecuentes cambios legislativos, avances tecnológicos, y una demanda muy concentrada y con un gran poder de negociación. A esto se le unen los cambios en la demandas de los consumidores, con mayores exigencias en cuanto a calidad, seguridad, variedad y conveniencia. En este entorno, la capacidad para adaptarse a los nuevos cambios se presenta como un elemento capital para la supervivencia de cualquier operador, también los que se sitúan en el origen de la cadena, como es el caso de las cooperativas agrarias. Sin embargo, la cooperativa es en ocasiones criticada desde el plano teórico por su ineficiencia a la hora de conseguir recursos para financiar inversiones, recursos que tienen que provenir fundamentalmente de los socios. Se argumenta desde esta corriente teórica que las cooperativas son ineficientes dado que los propietarios (los socios) tienen los derechos sobre la propiedad vagamente definidos. Por ello, esta forma de gobierno presenta mayores dificultades a la hora de afrontar estrategias de cambio y adaptación para competir en el mercado. Por otro lado, en las cooperativas la heterogeneidad de los intereses de los miembros parece haber aumentado. En tanto que las cooperativas se orientan más hacia los consumidores, pasando de ser productores independientes de commodities hacia productores de productos específicos, necesitan de importantes inversiones, las cuales no favorecen por igual a todos sus miembros. La heterogeneidad de objetivos puede llevar a conflictos en los procesos de decisión, mermar la capacidad de coordinación y reducir el compromiso de los miembros y, con ello, su disposición a invertir en la cooperativa. Esta heterogeneidad se va también amplificada como consecuencia de los procesos de concentración empresarial que han tenido lugar en los últimos años. En nuestro país las instituciones también han hecho hincapié en la necesidad que tienen las cooperativas de alcanzar el tamaño necesario para contrarrestar la concentración de la demanda y adquirir una dimensión competitiva. Como respuesta a estas iniciativas, el sector cooperativo ha experimentado un proceso de concentración empresarial a través de fusiones, adquisiciones, formación de grupos, integración en cooperativas de segundo grado, etc. que ha tenido como resultado la existencia de un menor número de cooperativas, pero de mayor dimensión. Un problema asociado a estos procesos es que llevan aparejado un aumento de la heterogeneidad de la base social de las cooperativas, lo que hace aumentar los conflictos ya comentados asociados a las mismas. A pesar de que las cooperativas agrarias se enfrentan a los nuevos retos del mercado, a su supuesta ineficiencia para conseguir financiación y la heterogeneidad de sus bases sociales, éstas siguen operando en un número considerable y son muchos los ejemplos de éxito empresarial. Nos planteamos así como tesis del trabajo la existencia de factores en el ámbito de las relaciones de la cooperativa con su base social que contrarrestan estos problemas, factores pueden explicar la disposición de los socios a invertir y, en última instancia, el desempeño de la organización cooperativa. Objetivos Con todo ello, el objetivo principal de este trabajo es el de analizar los factores de la relación socio-cooperativa que influyen en la disposición a invertir de sus socios y el desempeño final de la cooperativa. En particular, nos planteamos como objetivos específicos los siguientes: • Analizar cómo influyen los problemas de los derechos de propiedad en la disposición a invertir de los miembros de la cooperativa. • Comprobar cómo la orientación al mercado de la base social explica su disposición a invertir y cómo su efecto puede estar moderado por la existencia de los problemas asociados a los derechos de propiedad. • Descubrir qué papel juega la heterogeneidad de los socios en su disposición a invertir en la cooperativa. • Estudiar cómo explica el oportunismo de los socios la disposición a invertir de los mismos y el desempeño de la cooperativa. • Determinar cómo influyen los mecanismos de gobierno de la relación socio-cooperativa sobre el oportunismo de los socios y el desempeño de la cooperativa. • Estudiar la influencia de la disposición a invertir de los socios en el desempeño de la cooperativa. Metodología Sobre una muestra de 249 cooperativas obtenida mediante encuestas online son testadas las hipótesis de investigación planteadas mediante regresiones lineales jerárquicas y análisis de modelos de ecuaciones estructurales. Resultados Los resultados permiten por un lado subrayar el efecto positivo que la orientación al mercado ejerce sobre la disposición a invertir de sus miembros y la moderación que ejercen los problemas de propiedad de las cooperativas limitando este efecto. Igualmente destacar el efecto de la heterogeneidad en la base social ejerce sobre esta disposición a invertir de los socios en su cooperativa, y el papel mediador y directo que desempeña también el oportunismo sobre ella. Y por otro lado, los resultados reconocen la bondad de varios mecanismos de gobierno para controlar el oportunismo y explicar el desempeño de la cooperativa. ABSTRACT Marketing cooperative's typology represents a moderate level of integration because farmers are in fact the owners of these organisations created to bargain for better prices and to handle, process, and sell their members' produce. Marketing cooperatives constitute a special type of vertical integration for farmers because the integration of their businesses, which still maintain their independence, is only partial, with a market element (the transaction relationship) and a hierarchical element (the control relationship). Additionally, unlike in other governance modes, farmers are not only owners but also users and controllers of a business that distributes benefits equitably based on use or patronage. Therefore, the economic literature has approached agricultural cooperatives as a form of vertical integration ('extension of the farm'), as an independent firm ('cooperative as a firm'), as a coalition of firms that act in a collective or collaborative manner ('the coalition approach'), or as a nexus of contracts. All of these perspectives, albeit treating the phenomenon under different lenses, share a common position on the analysis of the relationship established between the farmer or member firm and the marketing cooperative firm as a key matter of interest. These firms operate at different stages of the production and distribution chain, where market exchange is substituted by internal exchanges within the boundaries of the cooperative firm. Agricultural marketing cooperatives operate in the origin of the fresh fruit and vegetables supply chain. They have to compete against other alternative organizational forms in markets characterized by great demand's pressure caused by the high levels of the distributors' bargaining power and the increasing number of competition because of deregulation and the globalisation of the sources of supply for many of these products. These factors, along with the greater consumer's demands of variety, convenience and quality, as well as the changes on institutional and economic environment, face agricultural cooperatives to new challenges that force them to address adjustments and changing processes, whether they might be functional or organizational with the aim of increasing vertical coordination among all participants. Thus, the cooperative's innovation capabilities constitute a fundamental mean to achieve it. Nonetheless, some researchers question the efficiency of cooperatives and argue that cooperatives suffer from a host of problems unique to this specific form of governance. They are referred mainly to the relational dimension between the farmer-user-owner and the cooperative itself. This thesis is focused on this relational dimension. About this relationship, based primarily on the Property Rights Theory postulates, some authors have stressed the cooperatives' difficulties for raising equity, concluding that cooperatives are inefficient by nature. A further issue of interest is related to the issue of heterogeneity of the agricultural marketing cooperatives membership and their implications on the cooperatives' performance. Such an argument is used as another claim against the cooperatives ability to compete in nowadays markets. In particular, heterogeneity of cooperative's memberships has increased lately. In Spain, there has been a process of business concentration (less cooperatives, but bigger ones) in order to face the concentration of distributors and obtaining a competitive dimension. This has taken place through mergers, internal growth, acquisitions, groups' formation and adhesion to second-order cooperatives. These processes have resulted in a blending of different memberships (fusions, mergers and acquisitions) or the incorporation of new members (internal growth). In any case, the increase in members' heterogeneity might be causing conflicts, especially those related to gathering funds from members for equity raisings. Nevertheless, even though agricultural marketing cooperatives are faced to these new market challenges, its theoretical inefficiency and heterogeneity problems, they still coexists with investor owned firms, they hold a relevant share in agricultural markets, they have played an active role for a very long time, and they still appear as an alternative with a future. Objectives Consequently, we consider as thesis of this dissertation the existence of factors within the cooperatives relational environment established between the cooperative and its farmer-members that can offset these problems and explain the members' willingness to invest in the cooperative and, finally, the cooperatives' performance. In particular our specific objectives are: • To analyse how property rights problems affects to members' willingness to invest in the cooperative. • To check how the members' market orientation explains their willingness to invest and the impact of property rights problems on this relationship. • To find out how heterogeneity is affecting members' willingness to invest in the cooperative. • To study how perceptions about the membership general levels of opportunism explains the each member willingness to invest in the cooperative and the cooperative's performance. • To determine how governance mechanisms that rules the relationships between members and cooperative influence members' willingness to invest and cooperative's performance. • To study the effect of members' willingness to invest on cooperative's performance. Methodology We obtained data from 249 Spanish marketing agricultural cooperatives through an online survey. Several hierarchical regressions models and structural equation models were conducted in order to test the research hypotheses. Results The results have proven how certain factors inherent to the relationship between cooperatives and their members explain the members' willingness to invest and cooperative's performance. On one hand, we proved the positive effects of the membership market orientation on their willingness to invest. We have also observed the negative influence of the problems of property rights on the membership willingness to invest in the cooperative. Likewise, results showed that members' perception of opportunistic behaviours and some kinds of heterogeneity affect their willingness to invest. On the other hand, the results also showed that selection and socialisation governance mechanisms have power to control opportunism, which itself affects negatively to cooperative's performance. Likewise, selection mechanism and hostages in the form of specific investments have shown a direct effect on cooperative's performance.
10/28/2020 Professor Asao Inoue selected for top teaching award – Fresno State News www.fresnostatenews.com/2012/05/01/professor-asao-inoue-selected-for-top-teaching-award/ 1/6 PROFESSOR ASAO INOUE SELECTED FOR TOP TEACHINGAWARD Home | PRESS RELEASES | Professor Asao Inoue selected for top teaching award Previous Next Professor Asao Inoue, an associate professor of English, has beenawarded the top teaching honor at Fresno State. William A. Covino, provost and vice president for Academic Aairs, namedInoue as recipient of the 2012 Excellence in Teaching Award. The Provost's Awards announced Tuesday, May 1, also honored: Amanda Adams, assistant professor of Psychology, recipient of theFaculty Service Award Saúl Jiménez-Sandoval, professor of Modern and ClassicalLanguages, Gradvuate Teaching and Mentoring Award William Bommer, professor of Management, Research, Scholarshipand Creative Accomplishment Award Bryan Berrett, associate professor of Communicative Disorders andDeaf Studies, Technology in Education Award. Search . SECTIONS ACADEMICS CAMPUS &COMMUNITY RESEARCH ALUMNI PRESS RELEASES FEATURED VIDEOS NEWS SOURCES Fresno StateMagazine CommunityNewsletter Fresno State The Collegian Bulldog Blog ACADEMICS CAMPUS & COMMUNITY RESEARCH ALUMNI ATHLETICS FEATURED VIDEOS ABOUT PRESS RELEASES MEDIA GUIDE ARCHIVES10/28/2020 Professor Asao Inoue selected for top teaching award – Fresno State News www.fresnostatenews.com/2012/05/01/professor-asao-inoue-selected-for-top-teaching-award/ 2/6 Four faculty members received the Promising New Faculty award,recognizing exemplary achievements in teaching, research/creativeactivities and/or service among nontenured, tenure-track faculty. Thehonorees are: Juan-Carlos Gonzalez, assistant professor of Educational Researchand Administration. Elizabeth Payne, assistant professor of Theatre Arts. Jason Bush, assistant professor of Biology. Kim Youngwook, assistant professor of Electrical and ComputerEngineering. Asao Inoue , associate professor of English, receives the Excellence inTeaching Award. He has been at Fresno State since 2007. He approachesthe challenge of teaching high-level writing skills with an innovativepedagogy that emphasizes students' roles in their own education. Hefrequently asks students to evaluate and challenge traditionalinstructional environments and to examine alterna tive teaching methodsthat foster greater individual success. One important aspect of histeaching philosophy is getting students to talk about their writing inrhetorical and reexive ways. Inoue's on-campus service includes work asorganizer and facilitator for the Symposium on Remediation in Englishand as a committee member for the Improving Student Writing Initiative,Criterion As sessment Committee. His community service includes work ascurriculum designer, teacher, and program assessment coordinator forUniversity 20 (Academic Reading course), Summer Bridge Program, andthe Educational Opportunity Program. He has active memberships in theCon ference on College Composition and Communication, NationalCouncil of Teachers of English, Asian American Studies Association,Rhetoric Society of America, and Council of Writing ProgramAdministrators. In 2000, he received the Faculty Development SeminarAward. His national hon ors and awards include the Ford FoundationPredoctoral Fellowship for Minorities in 2003. Amanda Adams , assistant professor of Psychology, receives the FacultyService Award. She has been at Fresno State since 2006. Her passion forhelping families who have children with autism drives her to createopportunities for students' development, both as practitioners of appliedbehavior analysis and as researchers that disseminate new knowledge.She has worked tirelessly to develop and secure support for the CentralCalifornia Autism Center (CCAC) on campus. The center pro videsopportunities for students to learn to apply Applied Behavior Analysisprinciples, conduct research, and learn important professional skills.Adams provides important service to the local community by educatingpractitioners who treat autism, families who are aected by autism, andpolicy makers who develop programs and provide nancial support fortreating autism. For four years, she has worked with students to plan and Go Bulldogs Videos Social MediaDirectory 10/28/2020 Professor Asao Inoue selected for top teaching award – Fresno State News www.fresnostatenews.com/2012/05/01/professor-asao-inoue-selected-for-top-teaching-award/ 3/6 implement Autism Awareness Field Day. She is involved in otherawareness/fundraising events, including the CCAC Gala Fundraiser andannual golf tournament. She is a member of the California Chapter of theAssociation for Applied Behav ior Analysis and received the Provost'sAward for Promising New Faculty in 2009. Saúl Jiménez-Sandoval , professor of Modern and Classical Languagesand Literatures, receives the Graduate Teaching and Mentoring Award. Hehas been at Fresno State since 2000 and has a well-established record ofexceptional graduate teaching. Jiménez-Sandoval has been a driving forcein the development of the Spanish M.A. curriculum, personally developingand teaching ve new seminars for the program. In his teaching, hestresses the basic human emotions of love, despair, and hope. He isdescribed as a prolic thesis director and has served on the Spanish M.A.exam com mittee each semester since his arrival. Jiménez-Sandovalbelieves in students' ability to push them selves and excel. His studentshave been accepted to Ph.D. programs at UCLA, Irvine, Berkeley, Stanford,Arizona, British Columbia, and Alberta. He was the recipient of the 2003-04 Research, Scholarship, and Creative Activity Award. Through hisexemplary scholarship, he serves as a model of the teacher-scholar tostudents and faculty. His public lectures include the 2005 InternationalCoee Hour presentation on the sacred role of poetry in Aztec culture,and his articles include his recent publication on the canonical Mexicancoming-of-age novel, Las batallas en el desierto William Bommer , professor of Management, receives the Research,Scholarship and Creative Ac complishments Award. He has been at FresnoState since 2008. Bommer uses his research on a regular basis in theclassroom. His research spans a number of topics in the eld of manage -ment and applied psychology. Two primary areas of research for which heis known internationally are the areas of transformational leadership andorganizational citizenship. Widely published, his research is impressive.His work is commonly cited in college texts and is regularly assigned indoctoral-level seminars. In the past two years, he has been the principalinvestigator on three di erent external grants. These grants have totaledmore than $600,000. His work has been used for doctoral training in theelds of management, psychology, marketing, education, andmanagement information systems. He also served as the outside experton two dierent dissertation committees in Australia. Bryan Berrett , associate professor of Communicative Disorders and DeafStudies, receives the Technology in Education Award. He has been atFresno State since 1998. In 2010, he was one of four CSU faculty to beawarded Sony's multimedia award. Berrett has demonstratedtremendous leadership in the use of technology at Fresno State,particularly in the development of online classes. He has established a10/28/2020 Professor Asao Inoue selected for top teaching award – Fresno State News www.fresnostatenews.com/2012/05/01/professor-asao-inoue-selected-for-top-teaching-award/ 4/6 remarkable track record of innovative and practical uses of technol ogy.For example, over the last several years, he has been the recipient ofmultiple Digital Campus grants to convert traditional classes into onlinecourse oerings. He coordinates the sign language interpreting program,which now has approximately 30 percent of its coursework oered online.He also has integrated the use of audio and visual multimedia into theAmerican Sign Language computer lab. Most recently, Berrett has beenthe department's leader in converting the education graduate programinto an 80 percent online 20 percent face-to-face format. Promising New Faculty Awards 2011-2012 Juan-Carlos Gonzalez , assistant professor of Educational Research andAdministration, has been at Fresno State since 2009. A skilled professorand scholar, he has fully engaged in service to the university and thecommunity. He serves on multiple editorial boards for peer-reviewedjournals and as a proposal reviewer on a national level. He has beenactive in accreditation activities, chaired the International Committee, andorganized a faculty study trip to Costa Rica. Gonzalez has mentored aMcNair Scholar and worked with the Central California Children's Instituteon research projects. He is an enthusiastic participant in the life of theKremen School and the university as a whole. In addition to his regularcourses, he has taught classes in qualitative research methods and criticalrace theory in education. He has already published four articles andpresented at 23 conferences in the United States. He has also presentedin China and in Mexico. Gonzalez has received numerous awards andhonors, including the Dandoyd Research Award for spring 2012. Elizabeth Payne , assistant professor of Theatre Arts, has been at FresnoState since 2008. A highly tal ented designer, she continues to workprofessionally in theatre in New York and in television, where she hasconsulted on the Conan O'Brien Show. She brings to Fresno State herconsiderable skills in design, teaching, mentorship, and communityoutreach. She is a demanding teacher who has transformed the existingcostume design and technology courses and created new ones, such asCostume History and Design Focus on Film. Seamlessly integrating socialand political issues into her discussion of fashion, she demonstrates tostudents why broad cultural knowledge is crucial to successful designwork. Her classes bring together academics and practical, skill-basedtraining. Payne has also been proactive in generating grants, including aFresno State Enhancing Student Information Literacy Grant, which sheintegrated into her Costume History class. In the area of mentorship, shehas had considerable impact — her door is open to all. She is the recipientof the 2012 Fresno County Board of Education Artist in Residence Grant.10/28/2020 Professor Asao Inoue selected for top teaching award – Fresno State News www.fresnostatenews.com/2012/05/01/professor-asao-inoue-selected-for-top-teaching-award/ 5/6 By llarson | May 1st, 2012 | Categories: PRESS RELEASES | 3 Comments SHARE THIS STORY, CHOOSE YOUR PLATFORM! RELATED POSTS Jason Bush , assistant professor of Biology, has been at Fresno State since2006. Bush has enriched the university environment through his serviceand demonstrated excellence and leadership within the Biol ogyDepartment, the College of Science and Mathematics, and the university,with service on the Cur riculum Committee and the Graduate ScholarshipCommittee. Bush is one of the leading researchers in cancer andproteomic research. He has made 31 presentations since his arrival.Through Dr. Bush's 20 national collaborations, he has been able to extendFresno State resources to develop a broader and resource-richenvironment for his students. He has received $1.5 million in nationalgrants from ve externally funded proposals, including NIH, AmericanCancer Society, Keep-A-Breast Foundation, Susan G. Komen for the Cure,and CSUPERB. Bush was also a co-principal investigator in the $4.5 millionRIMI grant for the development of a research facility in the Central Valley.In addition to ex ternal funding, he has augmented his research with$120,000 in internal grants. He is a consultant and grant reviewer for theSusan G. Komen for the Cure, as well as an active member of theUniversity of California, San Francisco-Fresno Research Group. Youngwook Kim , assistant professor of Electrical and ComputerEngineering, has been at Fresno State since 2008, demonstrating hisdedication to high quality teaching, research and creative activities, andstudent involvement in his research. He has taught a wide repertoire ofundergraduate and graduate courses focusing primarily on highfrequency electronics. Through online methodology, he provides studentswith the opportunity to learn at their own pace. Kim's research focuses onelectromagnetics and the application of Doppler and ultra-wide bandradar systems to human detection applications, such as security,surveillance operations, and search-and-rescue missions. While at FresnoState, he has published several journal papers and six conference papers.His research totals $167,659 in external funding. Currently, Kim ispreparing a proposal on data fusion and target sensing models in wirelesssensor network environments. He is also serving as a grant developmentchair for the Untenured Faculty Organization and is a member of theProfessional Development Committee, the Honors Committee, and theResearch and Grant Review Committee within the Lyles College ofEngineering.10/28/2020 Professor Asao Inoue selected for top teaching award – Fresno State News www.fresnostatenews.com/2012/05/01/professor-asao-inoue-selected-for-top-teaching-award/ 6/6 SAÚL JIMÉNEZ-SANDOVALAPPOINTEDINTERIM PRESIDENTOF FRESNO STATE October 28th, 2020 | 0Comments TRANSPORTATIONINSTITUTE RELEASESPROMISINGFINDINGS OFCOVID-19 PUBLICTRANSIT STUDY October 28th, 2020 | 0Comments NURSING MUNIT CONTFREE HEALSERVICES OWEST FRES October 27th, Comments Fresno State News Hub isthe primary source ofinformation about currentevents aecting CaliforniaState University, Fresno, itsstudents, faculty and sta;providing an archive ofnews articles, videos andphotos, as well as links tomajor resources on campusas a service to theuniversity community. 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The purpose of this doctoral dissertation is to contribute to the investigation of the regional organization of the system of settlements in the regions of the Eastern Ro-man Empire (ERE) during the Early Byzantine period (EBP). By EBP we mean the historical period comprising from the 4th to the end of the 6th century AD. By regional organization we mean the administrative system of rule of the ERE with its five hierarchical levels of organization: a) the Empire; b) its division into admin-istrative regions (dioceses); c) the division of these into smaller regional unities (provinces); d) cities (polis), and e) market towns villages (komes choria) within each province. This system includes 3,048 units of analysis, settlements belonging to all hierarchical levels, and it yields their distinguishing features, through geographic - spatial and historical -cultural criteria. The dissertations object of study is the regional organization of settlements of the EBP, with emphasis on the 6th century. Its goal was the cartographic representation of the regions of the ERE and creation of maps that are defined by the data of politi-cal geography and described by the data of physical and cultural geography. Through the creation of historical sections in the 4th, 5th, and 6th centuries, diachronic regional transformations in the EBP were examined. A further goal was to create a database of cultural and geographic information concerning the entirety of settle-ments, in which are recorded the period of founding, the diachronic presence of each, with historical alterations of its name, including also its modern name and the state to which it belongs today. The dissertation conveys the totality of regional sites in the ERE, contributes to making the regional organization of settlements in the EBP better known, and enriches the diachronic study of both the settlements and culture of the Eastern Mediterranean. The dissertation is composed of three parts: Part I. Introduction; Part II: The regional structure of the Empire; Part III: Conclusions. Part I: Chapter 1 offers a scholarly overview and defines the goals, objects of study, and purpose (A.1), contents (A.2), primary sources (A.3) and methodology (.4), with a description of the techniques of cartography, map-making (atlas-making) and table-making. Part I also includes the historical framework of the EBP (Chapter 2), with its main socio-economic and political parameters. Chapter 3 concerns the geo-morphology and organization of the Empire (administrative boundaries, production activities and spatial administrative hierarchy, both political and ecclesiastical). Part II: Chapter 4 deals with the regional structure of the Empire and is allocated to a study of the organization of the 64 provinces in each of the six dioceses. The level of internal description of each diocese and province refers to variables that concern administrative division, geomorphology, and settlements (three levels: capitals, cit-ies, and market towns villages). Two categories of variables were created: histori-cal-cultural data, and geographic-spatial data. The total of 3,048 settlements and the recording of variables along diachronic and synchronic axes, aided by the computer software SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences), allowed observations of a statistical nature as well as structural correlations between and among variables used for analysis. The data are complemented cartographically by 90 maps, done on the basis of the road network (3 variables: inter-regional, main, secondary) and their individual geomorphology. Part III: Chapter 5 describes the results of the analysis of the regional organization of the six dioceses, while Chapter 6 presents the results for the overall picture of the Empire (6.1), followed by the results for the articulation of the road network (6.2). These sub-sections are followed by the network of settlements (6.3), with conclud-ing observations of a statistical nature concerning the regional organization of set-tlements and the static/dynamic nature of the settlement system. The structure of the network of settlements is expressed through an attempt at modeling. In addition, basic statistical correlations and cross-tabulations concerning the hierarchy of set-tlements and their various parameters (period of founding, morphology of terrain, road network, transportation / communication features) are listed. The conclusions of this doctoral dissertation can be summarised as follows: During the Early Byzantine Period the Eastern Roman Empire, with its six large administra-tive dioceses and 64 provinces, occupied the regions around the Eastern Mediterra-nean, joining districts from three continents. The geomorphology and the landscapes of the region are varied and complex. Much of the land is mountainous though there are a few very important plains. There are eight types of vegetation varying from desert to beech forest. Olive cultivation accounted for an important percentage of the cultivatable land at that time.The primary sector was developed and there was self-sufficiency, which depended on cooperation between individual farmers as to what was grown. The secondary sector was also developed: there were government owned factories in many provin-cial capitals, as well as private artisan. There was also government owned mines and quarries for the excavation and the supply of raw materials.The network of settlements: their historical and cultural characteristics: 12,5% of the 3,048 settlements were founded in the Archaic period, 7.3% in the Classical, 17,8% in the Hellenistic, 42% in the Roman and 20,4% in the Early Byzantine pe-riod. Cross correlation between the number of settlements and their dates of founda-tion demonstrates that a much larger number of settlements arose after the Hellenis-tic period than were constructed before this period. It also shows that the Early Byz-antine provincial capitals were largely founded during the Hellenistic period. In ad-dition it shows that more than the 50% of the cities were founded in the Hellenistic and Roman period, while only about 12% were founded during the EBP. With re-gard to smaller settlements, we can observe that roughly 50% were founded in the Roman period, while only 25% were set up during the EBP. The fact that more than 80% of the total settlements in the Roman and EBP were minor settlements suggests a tendency towards agrarization of the society.The geographical - spatial characteristics and the morphology of the land: We ob-serve that 41% of the settlements were located between 0 300m, 12,5% were lo-cated between 300 600m and 43% were found higher in the mountains. From the cross-correlation of the timescale of the settlement with the geomorphology we see that 56% of the capitals and 50% of the cities are located in flat regions, while 47% of minor settlements are located in mountainous regions. 72% of settlements are close to water. 34% of the settlements are located on transregional road axes, 9% of these on main and the 14% on secondary roads, while 43% are not connected in this way. 14% of the settlements represent nodal points on the road system, 11% are ports, while nodes and ports constitute the 2%. The structure of the network of set-tlements ,using the capital city Constantinople as a point of reference, corresponds on the first level to a radial spatial model, the diffusion of which, extends as a spatial web into the three continents. On the second level there are individual linear spatial models that follow the seashores of the Mediterranean and the Euxeinos Pontos and follow passages to the hinterland, frequently through river valleys. The network of settlements and the road network are of course, closely linked.A substantial density of settlements, founded in the EBP, is found in Pontike Dioe-ceses, in the regions near Constantinople, as well as in the Anatolike Dioeceses, in the regions, that are related with the new religion, as the Palestine. There is a me-dium sized concentration of settlements in the Thrakike, Asiane and Aigyptiake Dioeceses, while there is a small concentration in the Dioeceses of Illyrikon. In gen-eral there is a large concentration of settlements in Greece; in the plateau of Asia Minor; in the southern parts of Syria and Palestine, (mainly in the coastal plateaus between Tyre and Gaza and following the banks of the Nile).In the Eastern Mediterranean the foundation of settlements began in the Archaic period and continued in the Classical period with the city state as its main model. Slowly, during Hellenistic period minor size settlements began to dominate. In the Roman and Early Byzantine period, 80% of the new foundations were minor size settlements. Of the five historical periods, the foundation of settlements was at its most intense during the Roman period. The EBP continued this trend, though the development of new settlements was only half that which had been carried out under the Roman rule. The amount of flat land was very limited, yet the spread of settle-ments in flat and mountainous lands was almost the same. In the Roman and EBP, the higher percentage of settlements was founded in mountainous regions and these settlements were, in the beginning, small.The administrative structure had a pyramid-like form with the emperor at the top and a tree-like structure down the whole length of the hierarchy. The administrative power predominated over the military and there was a strengthened bureaucracy and a state centralism. The network was able to function because it was supported by two connected infrastructures: The first was concerned with the organized use of human resources: the bureaucracy: the administrators of the regional political power, whose main job was the collection of taxes and resources, and the control and the management of the means of production. The second was the physical infrastructure which enabled the trade, manufacture and transport generated by the administrators to be carried out, as well as facilitating the exchange of ideas, to and from the capital city. The network of roads ensured good communications and thus enabled this effi-cient system of central control to be implemented throughout the empire. The hier-archical structure at all organizational levels constitutes one from the distinctive features of the early Byzantine mode of production. This structure runs through the spatial dimension of the regional organization, that was cartographically surveyed on three levels: 1. On the land-planning level, which deals with the whole Eastern Roman Empire. 2. On the regional level, which was concerned with the Dioeceses. 3. On the provincial level, which deals with the Prov-inces. 3,048 settlements were recorded, located, categorized and organised in a data-base, a number that represents the total number of settlements known from archaeo-logical studies to have been active during the period being studied.From the above statements it can be seen that in the Early Byzantine period the Eastern Roman Empire was wealthy in the sense that it was productive, that there was a growing network of roads and dense pattern of settlements. The fact that many small settlements were founded at this time shows that not only was there a trend towards agrarization, but also suggests that the role of the cities was changing in those places where the number of small settlements increased within the same re-gion. The investigation of the regional organisation in the EBP shows that both the settle-ments at all levels, and the infrastructures of the Eastern Roman Empire were in good shape. It presents a picture of an empire, where the number the of rural and urban settlements is increasing while being organized in a hierarchical structure throughout the region. The thesis has made an effort to create a holistic picture of the geographical and administrative form of the Eastern Roman Empire, which can easily be analyzed in smaller spatial parts and recomposed in bigger, showing on each level the cultural characteristics of the settlements network, through the loca-tion, mapping and categorisation of the network. The present research was designed to contribute to the overall study of the regional landscapes of the Eastern Roman Empire and it contributes by analyzing regional organization of settlements in the Early Byzantine period. In this way it enriches the diachronic study of settlements of the Eastern Mediterranean and her culture with quantitative and qualitative elements.
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Ann Tickner on Feminist Philosophy of Science, Engaging the Mainstream, and (still) Remaining Critical in/of IR
Feminist IR is still often side-lined as a particularistic agenda or limited issue area, appearing as one of the last chapters of introductory volumes to the field, despite the limitless efforts of people such as Cynthia Enloe (Theory Talk #48) and J. Ann Tickner. She has laboured to point out and provincialize the parochialism that haunts mainstream IR, without, however, herself retreating and disengaging from some of its core concerns. In this Talk, Tickner elaborates—amongst others—on the specifics of a feminist approach to the philosophical underpinnings of IR; discusses how feminism relates to the distinction between mainstream and critical theory; and addresses the challenges of navigating such divides.
Print version of this Talk (pdf)
What is, according to you, the central challenge or principal debate in International Relations? And what is your position regarding this challenge/in this debate?
I think the biggest challenge for IR is that it is relevant and helps us understand important issues in our globalized world. I realize this is not a conventional answer, but too often we academics get caught up in substantive and methodological debates where we end up talking only to each other or to a very small audience. We tend to get too concerned with the issue of scientific respectability rather than thinking about how to try to understand and remedy the massive problems that exist in the world today. Steve Smith's presidential address to the ISA in 2002 (read it here), shortly after 9/11, reminded us of this. Smith chastised the profession for having nothing to say about such a catastrophic event.
How did you arrive at where you currently are in your thinking about IR?
I've gone through quite a few transformations in my academic career. My original identity was as an International Political Economy (IPE) scholar; my first academic position was at a small liberal arts college (College of the Holy Cross) where I taught a variety of IPE courses. In graduate school I was interested in what, in the 1970s, we called 'North-South' issues, specifically issues of global justice, which were not the most popular subjects in the field. So I always felt a little out of place in my choice of subject matter. In the 1980s when I started teaching, IR was mostly populated by men. As a woman, one felt somewhat uncomfortable at professional meetings; and there were very few texts by women that I could assign to my students. I also found that many of the female students in my introductory IR classes were somewhat uncomfortable and unmotivated by the emphasis placed on strategic issues and nuclear weapons.
It was at about the time when I first started thinking about these issues, I happened to read Evelyn Fox Keller's book Gender and Science, a book that offers a gendered critique of the natural sciences (read an 'update' of the argument by Keller here, pdf). It struck me that her feminist critique of science could equally be applied to IR theory. My first feminist publication, a feminist critique of Hans Morgenthau's principles of political realism, expanded on this theme (read full text here, pdf).
Teaching at a small liberal arts college where one was judged by the quality of one's work rather than the type of research one was doing was very helpful—because I could follow my own, rather non-conventional, inclinations. So I think my turn to feminism, after ten years in the field, was a combination of my own consciousness-raising and feeling that there was something about IR that didn't speak to me. Later, I was fortunate to be hired by the University of Southern California, a large research institution, with an interdisciplinary School of International Relations, separate from the political science department. When I arrived in 1995, the School had a reputation for teaching a broad array of IR theoretical approaches. The support of these institutional settings and of a network of feminist scholars and students, some of whom I discovered were thinking along similar lines in the late 1980s, were important for getting me to where I am today.
What would a student need (dispositions, skills) to become a specialist in IR or understand the world in a global way?
It depends on the level of the student: at the undergraduate level, a broad array of courses in global politics including some economics and history. Language training is very important too, and ideally, an overseas experience. We need to encourage our students to be curious and have an open mind about our world.
At the graduate level, this is a more complicated question. The way you phrased the question 'to understand the world in a global way,' can be very different from training to become an IR scholar, especially in the United States. I would emphasize the importance of a broad theoretical and methodological training, including some exposure to the philosophy of science, and to non-Western IR if possible, or at least at a minimum, to try to get beyond the dominance of American IR, which still exists even in places outside the US.
Why should IR scholars incorporate gender in the study of world politics? What are the epistemological and ontological implications of adopting a feminist perspective in IR?
Feminists would argue that incorporating feminist perspectives into IR would fundamentally transform the discipline. Feminists claim that IR is already gendered, and gendered masculine, in the types of questions it asks and the ways it goes about answering them. The questions we ask in our research are never neutral - they are a choice, depending on the researcher's identity and location. Over history, the knowledge that we have accumulated has generally been knowledge about men's lives. It's usually been men who do the asking and consequently, it is often the case that women's lives and women's knowledge are absent from what is deemed 'reliable' knowledge. This historical legacy has had, and continues to have, an effect on the way we build knowledge. Sandra Harding, a feminist philosopher of science, has suggested that if were to build knowledge from women's lives as well, we would broaden the base from which we construct knowledge, and would therefore get a richer and more complex picture of reality.
One IR example of how we limit our research questions and concerns is how we calculate national income, or wealth—the kind of data states choose to collect and on which they base their public policy. We have no way of measuring the vast of amount of non-remunerated reproductive and caring labour, much of which is done by women. Without this labour we would not have a functioning global capitalist economy. To me this is one example as to why putting on our gender lenses helps us gain a more complete picture of global politics and the workings of the global economy.
Feminists have also argued that the epistemological foundations of Western knowledge are gendered. When we use terms such as rationality, objectivity and public, they are paired with terms such as emotional, subjective and private, terms that are seen as carrying less weight. By privileging the first of these terms when we construct knowledge we are valuing knowledge that we typically associate with masculinity and the public sphere, historically associated with men. Rationality and objectivity are not terms that are overtly gendered, but, when asked, women and men alike associate them with masculinity. They are terms we value when we do our research.
In one of the foundational texts of Feminist IR, 'You Just Don't Understand: Troubled Engagements between Feminists and IR Theorists' (1997, full text here, pdf), you highlighted three particular (gendered) misunderstandings that continue to divide Feminists and mainstream IR theorists. To what extent do these misunderstandings continue to inform mainstream perceptions of Feminist approaches to the study of international politics?
I think probably they still do, although it's always hard to tell, because the mainstream has not engaged much with feminist approaches. I've been one who's always calling for conversations with the mainstream but, apart from the forum responding to the article you mention, there have been very few. In a 2010 article, published in the Australian Feminist Law Journal, I looked back to see if I could find responses to my 1997 article to which you refer. I found that most of the responses had come from other feminists. The lack of engagement, which other feminists have experienced also, makes it hard to know about the misunderstandings that still exist but my guess would be that they remain. However I do think there has been progress in accepting feminism's legitimacy in the field. It is now included in many introductory texts.
The first misunderstanding that I identified is the meaning of gender. I would hope that the introduction of constructivist approaches would help with understanding that gender is social construction - a very important point for feminists. But I think that gender is still largely equated with women. Feminists have tried to stress that gender is also about men and about masculinity, something that seems to be rather hard to accept for those unfamiliar with feminist work. I think it's also hard for the discipline to accept that both international politics as practice and IR as a discipline are not gender neutral. Feminists claim that IR as a discipline is gendered in its concepts, its subject matter, the questions it asks and the way it goes about answering them. This is a radical assertion for those unfamiliar with feminist approaches and it is not very well understood.
Now to answer the second misunderstanding as to whether feminists are doing IR. I think there has been some progress here, because IR has broadened its subject matter. And there has been quite a bit of attention lately to gender issues in the 'real world' - issues such as sexual violence, trafficking, and human rights. Of course these issues relate not only to women but they are issues with which feminists have been concerned. Something I continue to find curious is that the policy and activist communities are generally ahead of the academy in taking up gender issues. Most international organizations, and some national governments are under mandates for gender mainstreaming. Yet, the academy has been slow to catch up and give students the necessary training and skills to go out in the world and deal with such issues.
The third misunderstanding to which I referred in the 1997 article is the question of epistemology. While, as I indicated, there has been some acceptance of the subject matter, with which feminists are concerned, it is a more fundamental and contentious question as to whether feminists are recognized as 'doing IR' in the methodological sense. As the field broadens its concerns, IR may see issues that feminists raise as legitimate, but how we study them still evokes the same responses that I brought up fifteen years ago. Many of the questions that feminists ask are not amenable to being answered using the social scientific methodologies popular in the field, particularly in the US. (I should add that there is a branch of IR feminism that does use quantitative methods and it has gained much wider acceptance by the mainstream.) The feminist assumption that Western knowledge is gendered and based on men's lives is a challenging claim. And feminists often prefer to start knowledge from the lives of people who are on the margins – those who are subordinated or oppressed, and of course, this is very different from IR which tends toward a top-down look at the international system. One of the big problems that have become more evident to me over time is that feminism is fundamentally sociological – it's about people and social relations, whereas much of IR is about structures and states operating in an anarchic, rather than a social, environment. I find that historians and sociologists are more comfortable with gender analysis, perhaps for this reason. I'm not sure that these misunderstanding are ever going to be solved or that they need to be solved.
Although Feminist methodology is often conflated with ethnographic approaches, in 'What Is Your Research Program? Some Feminist Answers to International Relations Methodological Questions' (2005, pdf here), you argued that there is no unique Feminist research methodology. Nonetheless, Feminist IR is well known for using an autoethnographic approach. What does this approach add to the study of gender in IR? What might account for the relative dearth of autoethnography in other IR paradigms?
I think it is important to remember that feminists use many different approaches coming out of very different theoretical traditions, such as Marxism, socialism, constructivism, postpositivism, postcolonialism and empiricism. So there are many different kinds of feminisms. If you look specifically at what has been called 'second-generation feminist IR,' the empirical work that followed the so-called 'first generation' that challenged and critiqued the concepts and theoretical foundations of the field, much of it, but not all, (discourse analysis is quite prevalent too), uses ethnographic methods which seem well suited to researching some of the issues I described earlier. Questions about violence against women, domestic servants, women in the military, violent women, women in peace movements– these are the sorts of research questions that demand fieldwork and an ethnographic approach. Because as I stated earlier, IR asks rather different kinds of questions, it does not generally adopt ethnographic methods. Feminists who do this type of ethnographic research tell me that their work is often more readily received and understood by those who do comparative politics, because they are more comfortable with field research. And since women are not usually found in the halls of power – as decision-makers. IR feminists are particularly concerned with issues having to do with marginalized and disempowered peoples' lives. Ethnography is useful for this type of research.
I see autoethnography as a different issue. While the reflexive tradition is not unique to feminists, feminism tends to be reflectivist. As I said earlier, feminists are sensitive to issues about who the creators of knowledge have been and whose knowledge is claimed to be universal. Most feminists believe that there is no such thing as universal knowledge. Consequently, feminists believe that being explicit about one's positionality as a researcher is very important because none of us can achieve objectivity, often called 'the view from nowhere'. So while striving to get as accurate and as useful knowledge as we can, we should be willing to state our own positionality. One's privilege as a researcher must be acknowledged too; one must always be sensitive to the unequal power relations between a researcher and their research subject – something that anthropology recognized some time ago. Feminists who do fieldwork often try to make their research useful to their subjects or do participatory research so that they can give something back to the community. All these concerns lead to autoethnographic disclosures. They demand a reflexive attitude and a willingness to describe and reassess your research journey as you go along. This autoethnographic style is hard for researchers in the positivist tradition to understand. While we all strive to produce accurate and useful knowledge, positivists' striving for objectivity requires keeping subjectivity out of their research.
Robert W. Cox (Theory Talk #37) famously distinguished two approaches to the study of international politics: problem-solving theory and critical theory. How does the emancipatory project of the latter inform your perspective of IR and its normative goals? And is this distinction as valid today as it was when Cox first formulated it, over 3 decades ago?
Yes I think it's still an important distinction. It's still cited very often which suggests it's still valid, although postmodern scholars (and certain feminists) have problems with Western liberal notions of emancipation. I see my own work as being largely compatible with Cox's definition of critical theory. Like many feminists, I view my work as explicitly normative; I say explicitly because I believe all knowledge is normative although not all scholars would admit it. What Cox calls problem-solving theory is also normative in the conservative sense of not aiming to changing the world. A normative goal to which feminists are generally committed is understanding the reasons for women's subordination and seeking ways to end it. It's also important to note that the IR discipline was borne with the intention of serving the interests of the state whereas academic feminism was borne out of social movements for women's emancipation. The normative goals of my work are to demonstrate how the theory and practice of IR is gendered and what might be the implications of this, both for how we construct knowledge and how we go about solving global problems.
Much of your work addresses the parochial scope and neopositivist inclination of International Relations (IR) scholarship, especially in the United States. What distinguishes other 'Western' institutional and political contexts (in the UK, Europe, Canada and Oceania) from the American study of IR? How and why is critical/reflectivist IR marginalized in the American context? What is the status of these 'debates' in non-Western institutional contexts?
With respect to the parochial scope of US IR, I refer you to a recent book, edited by Arlene Tickner and Ole Wæver, International Relations Scholarship Around the World. It contains chapters by authors from around the world, some of whom suggest IR in their country imitates the US and some who see very different IRs. The chapter by Thomas J. Biersteker, ('The Parochialism of Hegemony: Challenges for 'American' International Relations', read it here in pdf) reports on his examination of the required reading lists for IR Ph.D. candidates in the top ten US academic institutions. His findings suggest that constructivism accounts for only about 10% of readings and anything more radical even less. Over 90% of assigned works are written by US scholars. The dominance of quantitative and rational choice approaches in the US may have something to do with IR generally being a subfield of political science. Critical approaches often have different epistemological roots. And I stress 'science' because while IR is also subsumed in certain politics departments in other countries, the commitment to science, in the neopositivist sense, is something that seems to be peculiarly American. Stanley Hoffman's famous observation, made over thirty years ago, that Americans see problems as solvable by the scientific method is still largely correct I believe (read article here, pdf). I find it striking that so many formerly US based and/or educated critical scholars have left the US and are now based elsewhere – in Canada, Australasia, or Europe.
Biersteker sees the hegemony of American IR extending well beyond the US. But there is generally less commitment to quantification elsewhere. This may be due to IR's historical legacy emerging out of different knowledge traditions or being housed in separate departments. In France, IR emerged from sociological and legal traditions and, in the UK, history and political theory, including the Marxist tradition, have been influential in IR. And European IR scholars do not move as freely between the academy and the policy world as in the US. All these factors might encourage more openness to critical approaches. I am afraid I don't know enough about non-Western traditions to make an informed comment. But we must recognize the enormous power differentials that exist with respect to engaging IR's debates. Language barriers are one problem; having access to research funds is an enormous privilege. Scholars in many parts of the world do not have the resources or the time to engage in esoteric academic debates, nor do they have the resources to attend professional meetings or access certain materials. The production of knowledge is a very unequal process, dominated by those with power and resources; hence the hegemonic position of the US that Biersteker and others still see.
As methodological pluralism now retains the status of a norm in the field, John M. Hobson (Theory Talk #71) recently argued that the question facing IR scholars no longer revolves around the debate between positivist and postpositivist approaches. Rather, the primary meta-theoretical question relates to Eurocentrism, that is, 'To be or not to be a Eurocentric, that is the question.' To what extent do you agree with this statement? Why or why not?
Given my answer to the last question, I am not sure that methodological pluralism has reached an accepted status in the US yet. However, John M. Hobson has produced a very thoughtful and engaging book that asks very provocative questions. Unfortunately, I doubt many IR scholars in the US have read it and would be rather puzzled by Hobson's claim. But certainly the Eurocentrism of the discipline is something to which we should be paying attention. I find it curious how little IR has recognized its imperial roots or engaged in any discussion of imperialism. As Brian Schmidt and other historical revisionists have told us, when IR was borne at the beginning of the twentieth century, imperialism was a central preoccupation in the discipline. Race also has been ignored almost entirely by IR scholars.
To Hobson's specific claim that the important question for IR now is about being or not being Eurocentric rather than about being positivist or postpositivist, I do have some problems with this. I am concerned with Hobson's painting positivism and postpostivism with the same Eurocentric brush. Yes, they are both Eurocentric; but postpositivists or critical theorists – to use Cox's term – are at least open to being reflective about how they produce knowledge and where it comes from. If one can be reflective about one's knowledge it does allow space to be aware of one's own biases. Those of us on the critical side of Cox's divide can at least be reflective about the problems of Eurocentrism, whereas positivists don't consider reflexivity to be part of producing good research. Nevertheless, Hobson has made an important statement. He has written a masterful and insightful book and I recommend it all IR scholars.
Last question. Your recent work is part of an emergent collective dialogue that aims to 'provincialize' the Western European heritage of IR. In a recent article entitled 'Dealing with Difference: Problems and Possibilities for Dialogue in International Relations' you highlight the need for non-Eurocentric approach to the study of IR. In IR, what are the prospects for genuine dialogue across methodological and geographical borders? Where do you see this dialogue taking place?
This is a very tough issue. There are scholars like Hobson who talk about a non-Eurocentric approach, but given what I said about resources, about language barriers, and about inequalities in the ability to produce knowledge, this is difficult. As I've said at many times and in many places, the power difference is an inhibitor to any genuine dialogue. So, where is dialogue taking place? Among those, such as Hobson, who advocate a hybrid approach that takes other knowledge traditions seriously and sees them as equally valid as one's own. And mostly on the margins of what we call 'IR', where some very exciting work is being produced. Feminism is one such site. Feminist approaches are dedicated to dialogic knowledge production, or what they call knowledge that emerges through conversation. Feminists believe that theory can emerge from practice, listening to ordinary people and how they make sense of their lives. I also think that projects like the one undertaken by Wæver and Tickner (which is still ongoing) that is publishing contributions from scholars from very different parts of the world is crucial.
J. Ann Tickner is Distinguished Scholar in Residence at the American University. She is also a Professor Emerita at the University of Southern California where she taught for fifteen years before coming to American University. Her principle areas of teaching and research include international theory, peace and security, and feminist approaches to international relations. She served as President of the International Studies Association from 2006-2007. Her books include Gendering World Politics: Issues and Approaches in the Post-Cold War Era (Columbia University Press, 2001), Gender in International Relations: Feminist Perspectives on Achieving International Security (Columbia University Press, 1992), and Self-Reliance Versus Power Politics: American and Indian Experiences in Building Nation-States (Columbia University Press, 1987).
Related links
Faculty Profile at American University Read Tickner's Hans Morgenthau's Principles of Political Realism: A Feminist Reformulation (Millennium, 1988) here (pdf) Read Tickner's You Just Don't Understand: Troubled Engagements between Feminists and IR Theorists (1997 International Studies Quarterly) here (pdf) Read Tickner's What Is Your Research Program? Some Feminist Answers to International Relations Methodological Questions (2005, International Studies Quarterly) here (pdf)
Testing for embryotoxicity in vitro is an attractive alternative to animal experimentation. The embryonic stem cell test (EST) is such a method, and it has been formally validated by the European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods. A number of recent studies have underscored the potential of this method. However, the EST performed well below the 78% accuracy expected from the validation study using a new set of chemicals and pharmaceutical compounds, and also of toxicity criteria, tested to enlarge the database of the validated EST as part of the Work Package III of the ReProTect Project funded within the 6th Framework Programme of the European Union. To assess the performance and applicability domain of the EST we present a detailed review of the substances and their effects in the EST being nitrofen, ochratoxin A, D-penicillamine, methylazoxymethanol, lovastatin, papaverine, warfarin, +¦-aminopropionitrile, dinoseb, furosemide, doxylamine, pravastatin, and metoclopramide. By delineation of the molecular mechanisms of the substances we identify six categories of reasons for misclassifications. Some of these limitations might also affect other in vitro methods assessing embryotoxicity. Substances that fall into these categories need to be included in future validation sets and in validation guidelines for embryotoxicity testing. Most importantly, we suggest conceivable improvements and additions to the EST which will resolve most of the limitations.
