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LANGUAGE SHIFT AND MAINTENANCE AMONG CHINESE COMMUNITY IN SURABAYA: A CASE OF NON-MIGRANT COMMUNITY Rizky Silvia Putri Sastra Inggris, Language and Arts Faculty, State University of Surabaya Rizky2790@gmail.com Drs. Slamet Setiawan, MA, Ph.D English Literature, Faculty of Languages and Arts, State University of Surabaya slametsetia@yahoo.com Abstrak Bahasa Inggris merupakan bahasa Internasional dimana semua orang di dunia mengenal bahasa Inggris. Surabaya, sebagai kota besar di Indonesia menjadikan bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa yang penting untuk dipelajari dan hal ini juga mempengaruhi area kerja dimana Bahasa Inggris adalah salah satu syarat untuk dikuasai oleh tenaga kerja. Fenomena ini membuat orang-orang mempelajari bahkan bahasa Inggris dipilih sebagai bahasa yang harus mereka kuasai. Penelitian ini berfokus pada komintas Cina di Surabaya yang memilih bahasa Inggris and menunjukan tanda untuk bergeser ke bahasa Inggris dan pemertahanan bahasa Indonesia. Keluarga yang dipilih yang mempunyai potensial untuk berbicara bahasa Inggris dan kemungkinan bergeser ke bahasa Inggris. Penelitian ini mempunyai tiga tujuan: 1.) untuk mendeskripsikan bahasa yang digunakan oleh keluarga-keluarga Cina, 2.) untuk mengetahui factor-faktor yang menyebabkan keluraga-keluarga Cina memilih bahasa Inggris, dan 3.) untuk mengidentifikasi bagaimana keluarga-keluarga Cina mempertahankan bahasa Indonesia. Penelitian lapangan dipilih dalam penelitian ini. Penemuan dalam penelitian ini menunjukan bahwa factor dalam memilih bahasa Inggris dari pada bahasa Mandarin dan Indonesia menunjukkan tanda pergeseran ke bahasa Inggris. Ini karena bahasa Inggris mempunyai peranan yang penting dalam factor pergeseran bahasa: sifat dan nilai, social, demografi, dan ekonomi dan politik. Pemilihan bahasa Inggris karena beberapa factor juga sebuah tanda dari tiga keluraga Cina untuk bergeser ke bahasa Inggris: era modern, komunikasi, pendidikan, kehidupan mendatang, dan bahasa kebiasaan. Walaupun begitu, bahasa Indonesia sebagai bahasa ibu dan bahasa mayoritas yang digunakan oleh orang Surabaya dipertahankan. Sikap yang positif yang ditunjukkan oleh para orang tua dan anak-anak menunjukkan cara dalam mempertahankan bahasa Indonesia. Kata Kunci: pemilihan bahasa, pergeseran bahasa, pemilihan bahasa Abstract English is an international language where people around the world know English. Surabaya as urban and multilingual city in Indonesia put English as an important language to be learnt and it gives affect in working area where English one of language requirements where employees must able to speak it. This phenomena make people learn even choose English as one of language that they must mastered. This study focuses on Chinese community in Surabaya who chooses English and shows the precursor to shifts into English and the maintenance of Indonesian. The families have been chosen as they are potential agent to speak English and show the possibility to shift into English. The study has three goals: 1.) To describe the language is used by Chinese Family in Surabaya, 2.) To find out the factors that contributes Chinese family in choosing English, and 3.)To identify how do the Chinese Family maintain the Indonesian. Qualitative research approach has been chosen in this study. The instruments used were questionnaires and interviews. The findings of the study show that the factors of choosing English rather than Mandarin and Indonesian by three Chinese families as multilingual families show the precursor of shifting into English. This is because English has an important role to the factors of language shift: attitude and values, social, demographic, and economic and politic. The choice of English because of some factors also the precursor of these three Chinese families to shift into English: modern era, communication, education, future life, and language habit. However, Indonesian as mother tongue and majority language that is used by Surabaya people is maintained. The positive attitudes that are shown by parents and children show the way in maintaining Indonesian language. Keywords: Language choice, language shift, language maintenance INTRODUCTION English as an international language is nothing new in this modern world. Sharifi (2009: 2) said in general that English as an international language refers to a paradigm for thinking, research and practice. It marks a paradigm shift in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL), SLA and the applied linguistics of English, partly in response to the complexities that are associated with the tremendously rapid spread of English around the globe in recent decades English has been categorized as an important language for non-native English speakers and the application of learning English for education even starts from in the very young age, for example in Surabaya. English has been taught in every school and needed almost in every working area. Surabaya is known as urban city which the center of business, industry, trade, and center of education. This is one of the most favorable places where businessman or business woman begin their career, place of education, and for job seeker. Surabaya is the second larger city after Jakarta and the capital of the province of East Java, and with total of population reaching over 3 million which make Surabaya is called as an urban city (http://www.surabaya.go.id/profilkota/index.php?id=22). While Lowenstein (1977:23) said that In general, populations in places of 2,500 or over were urban; those in places of less than 2,500 were rural This makes English become an important language choice by people in Surabaya and perhaps people will try to learn English to get a better future in life because the competition is real in urban areas. Chinese is one of ethnics which exist in Surabaya for a very long time ago. The first language brought in Surabaya was Mandarin because the Chinese at the first time was the result of migration. Meanwhile, the elder did not teach Mandarin as well as language inherited. This is happen because they do not living in China where Mandarin position as first and dominant language spoken. So, the situation is Mandarin does not function as the first language for young generation in Surabaya. In addition, it is considered too difficult with all its grammars, pronunciations, and intonations. It is said by Constance's letter in Liu (2005:140) wrote that English was easier than Chinese because English only had twenty-six letters while Chinese had many characters and did not have a spelling system. So, the language most spoken by Chinese in Surabaya today is Indonesian and it is considered as mother tongue that inherits to the next generation. In this case, Chinese people, who see a future must be a better future and life will think that English is needed to be learnt because there would be a competitor in urban city and must follow the modern era which make English is used almost in every places whether written or oral. Besides getting an English subject at school, parents might also put their children to the course, learning English and use it at home in daily communication. This use of language is chosen and spoken because of some favors. This is leading Chinese community tend to shift Indonesian into English. It is when people use a particular language in a particular area because of some favors. Chaer and Agustina (1995: 190) said that language shift is usually happened in a country or in an area which gives a big hope for the better social economic life. There are three research questions; (1) what language is used by Chinese family in Surabaya, (2) what factors that contribute Chinese family choose English?, (3) how does the Chinese family maintain the Indonesian language?. The purposes of this study are to identify the language used by Chinese family in Surabaya and the factors that contribute the families choose English. This study is expected to be able to enrich linguistics study dealing with phenomena of language shift among Chinese people in Surabaya. This study uses three members of Chinese family in Surabaya and focuses only with non-migrant communities which mean that they have been living for the next of three generation after the first Chinese ethnic who had been migrated in Surabaya. The topic language shift and it is not something new. It was already done by other ethnics who moved in Surabaya as migrants. The situation of choosing a new language in a new domain where they live in right now, make the use that language in order to be able in communicate with people in new domain. This situation makes them shift their ethnic language to other language because of some favors and the ethnic language on the other hand does not use in the new are where the majority of language used is in the place they live in now. This study was conducted by Wijayanti and Windarti about language shift that happen to migrant majorities. The first study was conducted by Wijayanti's (2008) of "language shift and maintenance found in bataknese families in surabaya" indicated that the Bataknese who lives in Surabaya shift to a new and maintain the old one. She also wants to describe the social contexts which are responsible for language shift and language maintenance by Bataknese in Surabaya. Wijayanti divided the informants into two groups: young and old generations of Bataknese in Surabaya which were chosen in random whom might represent their community in Surabaya. The young generation represented language shift while the old generation represented language maintenance. While the second previous study was conducted by Windarti's (2007) of "A Study of Language Shift among Flores People in Surabaya" is concerned about the shift of Flores language because of the speakers' movement to another place (in this case, Flores people move to Java). Although the Flores people have very good ability to master Flores language, they have very positive attitude towards Flores language, and they also have such organization Flores family in Surabaya, most of the Flores people (parents) have never taught Flores language to their children. It is because Flores people think that it is unnecessary to teach Flores language in Surabaya. In addition, Windarti's study took ten Flores families as the informants, who were divided into two categories, original Flores families (OFs), and mixed marriage Flores Families (MMs). Both of previous study above concerned about the language shift which occurs to the speaker who migrate to the another city and shift the language to majority language that is Surabaya language. Migration is the position which showing that most people who migrate to another city will use the language use in the place they migrate to. While in this study is concerned about the choice and the intensity of using English language that make three Chinese families tend to shift into English. The status of English in the world is one of factors that lead them to choose English. The subjects were 3 families consist of parents and children. The children here is represented their community who potential to choose English as language communication. The parents represented the figure that supported the children to use English and maintain Indonesian as mother tongue and majority language spoken by Surabaya people. There are some theories that are used in this study, but there are five main theories that support to answer the three research questions in this study. The first theory is about multilingualism that is said by Quay in Auer and Lie (2007: 45) that with the greater mobility of people and consequent cross-linguistic and cross cultural relationship, an increasing number of children are growing up with early exposure to two languages in the family. Indeed, more than two languages may be in the linguistic repertoire of the family, rendering a case of family multilingualism, the second is about the ability of multilingual that is said by Sridhar in Wardhaugh (2006: 96) who says that Multilinguals develop competence in each of the codes to the extent that they need it and for the contexts in which each of the languages is used. The third is theory about factors of language choice by Setiawan (2013) suggests the certain reasons for language choice in bilingual or multilingual society from the city parent's view: Emblematic value, strategic reason (politeness), pragmatic reason. The fourth is about factors contribute language shift by Holmes (2001) who says that there are several factors that contribute to language shift: Values and attitude, social, demographic, and economic and political. The last is about language maintenance by Chaer and Agustina (1995: 193) who explain that language maintenance is the matter with the attitude to be consistent in using a language among other languages. RESEARCH METODE Qualitative or field research design is used in this study which mean to showing of human phenomena in the social interaction. The qualitative study is based on the quality which means to examine social meanings and grasp multiple perspectives in natural setting. According to Neuman (2007: 278), field research is based on naturalism, which is also used to study other phenomena (e.g. oceans, animals, plants, etc.). It involves observing ordinary events in natural settings, not in contrived, invented, or researcher-created-settings. The subjects in this study were 3 Chinese families in Surabaya who were born in Surabaya and living for the next of three generation for the first migration in Surabaya. The three Chinese families were multilingualism who able to speak three languages: Indonesian, Mandarin, and English. In this case, Indonesia was their mother tongue, not Mandarin. The sources of the data in this study were 3 Chinese families in Surabaya. They were parents and children. The data were information and opinion from each member and its parents. The data of research question number one, two and three are opinion and information about language used, factors contribute language shift, and the way of maintaining the Indonesian. The data are gotten from observation, Interview and questionnaires that are given to the subjects of the study; parents and children. Since the subjects of this study were humans, the writer collected the data in the form of written and oral words from the subjects being observed. Besides that, the instruments and tools were used to support to the data collection technique. There are two kinds of techniques applied in this study; questionnaires, interview. The three instruments were used to answer the three research question; (1) language used by Chinese family in Surabaya, (2) factors contributes language choice, and (3) the maintaining of Indonesian language. After that the data that had been obtained will be transcribed, and then classified the data. The last process is analyzing the data with the theory used in this study. RESULT AND DISCUSSION In this section, it collects all the data findings in result section and to be related with the theories provided. The data has founded is Multilingualism, Factors contribute language choice and the effort in Maintaining the Indonesian Language. Result In this section, it presents all data analyses gotten by related to research question number one, two, and three. In this part, there is no theory to be discussed which relate to the result. It will answer three research questions; language used, factors contribute language choice, and maintain Indonesian language. Then, the result is explained in the following parts: Language Used by Chinese Families in Surabaya The three Chinese families were known as multilingual families because they were able to speak in three languages; Mandarin, Indonesian and English. These languages have its position and function towards these families. The position and function of these languages will be explained below: Mandarin Language Mandarin was one of languages that were used by three Chinese families in Surabaya. Mandarin still considered as minority language and not all people in Surabaya understood and wanted to spoke this language. As the result, Mandarin was only spoken by people who able to speak this language, such us Chinese who worked at international Chinese company and Mandarin teacher who used Mandarin in teaching and learning method in school and Mandarin course places. It had been spoken also by the elder who had been living in Surabaya in past time but it did not now. The children also argued that Chinese was important but they did not speak it because they were not living in country where Mandarin is positioning as Majority. This opinion was gotten from the subject of the study that both children and parents were giving the same opinion about their ethnic language. The conversation is written below: Data 1: Mother A: menurut saya bahasa Mandarin itu penting karena menunjukkan identitas kami sebagai orang Cina. Tapi bahasa Mandarin jarang dipakai jadi saya tidak ngomong dengan bahasa Mandarin. Dan juga menurut saya bahasa Mandarin terlalu ribet dan sulit. Saya cuman bisa sedikit tapi hanya dipakai sama saudara dan temen. (I think Mandarin is important because it shows our identity. But, I also understand that it is not a majority language to be spoken in Surabaya because in here people use Indonesian. And it is also considered to be difficult. I only speak a little with my sibling and my friends). In this case, mother A only used Mandarin with her friends but only a little. This was because she did not speak well and it was too difficult. Mandarin language was only a sign to show her identity. Indonesian Language Indonesian language is the majority language that is spoken by people in Surabaya. Since Mandarin did not inherit to the three Chinese families, Indonesian was known as their mother tongue. Mother tongue is the language that is used and taught by parents to their children in daily activities and the result of mother language usually comes up as the first language of the children and parents. The evidence of Indonesian language as mother tongue for Chinese family can be seen on the information of each parent below. Table 1. The evidence of Indonesian language that is used as mother tongue Mother A Mother B Mother C bahasa indonesia ya bahasa ibu dikeluarga kami. Soalnya dari kecil orang tua ngomongnya ya pakek bahasa Indonesia. (Indonesian is our mother tongue because it inherits by my parents). dari kecil saya pakek bahasa Indonesia, soalnya orang tua kalo ngomong ke kita ya pakek bahasa Indonesia. (I use indonesia since I was a kid because my parents also speak Indonesian to us). I was speaking Indonesian when I was a kid because parents taught that language to me. Meanwhile, we are living in Surabaya, so we must understand about Indonesian. From the table above, it proved that the three Chinese families used Indonesian as mother language because they were living in the area where Indonesian was used by people surrounding. In addition, the old generation also taught them spoke Indonesian. So, Indonesian was recognized as Chinese mother tongue. English Language English was the language that was also used by three Chinese families. English was becoming their language because it had an important role in many aspects: education and job opportunities. It was also known as International language and positioned as foreign language. English was one of foreign languages that are taught at every school since a long time.it was seen that Child C learnt English since she was a child. And it was also her language used. Data 2: Child C: yeah,, My parents taught me English since I was a child. They also sent me to English course. From the information above, English was her language used. It was proven that she her parents taught her English when she was a child and they also sent her to English course. It means that she used English as one of her languages used. On the other hand, English became a dominant language used by three Chinese families in Surabaya. It was argued by Family A and B that English must become the children's dominant language. They are stated as follow: Data 3: Father A: kami sudah terbiasa ngomong pakek bahasa Inggris. Itu sudah terbiasa karena digereja dan tempat kerja ya bahasa inggris yang dpakai. Di rumah kami juga ngomong pakek bahasa inggris. ya biar tambah lancar aja apalagi sama anak saya. Wajib itu mbak, meskipun gak setiap hari. (we used to speak in English. it is so because I speak it in church and working place because English is used there. I also speak English at home. it is because we will be fluent in it, especially with my children. It is a must even not in everyday communication). English became a dominant language to family A because they used to speak English almost in many domains: church, home, and working area. Father A supported his statement that English was also used at home in order to fluent their family English speaking. And it was strongly said that "wajib itu mbk meskipun gak setiap hari (it is a must even not in everyday communication)". So, from the statement above, English is recognized as their dominant language. It was proven that three Chinese families were multilingual families because they were able to speak in three languages; Mandarin, Indonesian, and English. Indonesian was their mother tongue because it is inherited through generations. Mandarin was their ethnic language that is functioned to show their identity, and English was used as their dominant language use. In this case, they are considered as multilingualism, this is the ability of speaking more than two languages Factors of Choosing English Language There were several factors why did three Chinese families choose English as their language communication. The factors are represented in the form of tables which consists of; modern era, communication, education, future carrier, and language habit. Here are some factors why did these families choose English. Modern Era See the advanced of high technology in modern era, it is proven that there so many communication tools with high technology that are used to interact with other people in order to get an easy ways to communicate with them. High technology facilitates the people to interact with people who live in foreign country. The three children were used English to chat with their foreign friends through social media. In this case, high technology helped them to interact with people who had long distance. The table below shows about English as language choice to interact with their foreign friends through social media. Table 2. Language Choice by Child A, B, and C in Modern Era Child A Child B Child C I like to speak in English with my foreign friends in social media. In social media, I am used to speak English with foreign friends. I have chat friends from Singapore. She is the daughter of dad's friend. I am used to talk with her in English. So, I like it. From the information on the table above, high technology was useful for three children to communicate with their foreign friends. English was usually used in high technology. It meant that social media was one of the result of high technology that used English as main language in the display. So, with the ability of speaking English by the children is helping them in using the technology to communicate with their foreign friends through social media. Communication The choice of language in a communication is affected both for speakers and addressees. It means that the language is chosen in order to get an effective ways to communicate with one to another. Three Chinese families used English in some domains and with certain addresses. It means that they used English with people who spoke English too. It was also said that the used of English was chosen because in some domains English was used. In this case, all people used English in church domain. Family B, on the other hand used English in church, working area, and home. This was because English was the language choice in church and working area, while it was their language used at home. Mother B showed that she spoke English in church, home, and working area. Data 4: Mother B: saya ngomong bahasa Inggris di rumah, tempat kerja, sama Gereja. Dirumah saya biasanya bicara sama suami sama anak-anak juga. Kalau ditempat kerja, saya ngomong pakek bahasa inggris sama GM soalnya dia dari India. Jadi bahasa kita ya Inggris sebagai penghubung. Kalau di gereja biasanya ya ngomong bahasa inggris sama head church sama temen-temen aja. (I speak English at home, working area, and church. I speak English with my husband and children. I also speak English at the office with general manager. This is because he is from India and English is our language. If it is at church, I speak English with the head of church and fellows). The intensity of using English language was a precursor for the family to shift into English. This was because English had become their dominant language used. Education Education sometimes becomes a place where English is used in state and public school but it is most used in international school. This was shown by three children of Chinese families who schooled at international language. The use of English was crucial in there and this was an obligation of each student to speak in English. Table 3. Language Choice by Child A, B, and C in Education Child A Child B Child C I speak English at school with teachers and friends. At school, I speak English with my teacher and friends I speak English at schools with teacher and friends The choice of English in school area is obvious. This is because it is the dominant language used in school. The school of three children is international school and English is language used in there. English is used to communicate with teacher and students in the classroom and used with friends outside the class. Future Carrier Future carrier always becomes a crucial part for someone to choose a language that gives a big role to the successful in working area. English is the language that gives a big contribution in future carrier. Most companies use English as one of language requirements for applicants who want to apply and get a job. Consider that Surabaya was urban city, big chance to get a good job in big companies. English must be the language that requires in there. It was argued by mother A that English was one of languages that were needed in big companies. Data 5: Mother A: pasti itu mbak. Karena pekerjaan sekarang banyak yang menggunakan bahasa inggris. Di Surabaya banyak sekali perusahaan-perusahaan yang syarat diterima untuk bekerja salah satunya adalah menguasai bahasa inggris. (ofcourse, this is because there are so many jobs that use English. in Surabaya, there are companies where one of conditions that the applicants can be accepted is able to speak in English). Saw Surabaya as urban city made mother A concerned about choosing English as one of language used in her family. This was because there were big companies that choose English as requirement for applicant who wanted to enter it. It was supported by her child who saw English as an important language for good job carrier in Surabaya. Data 6: Child A: because Surabaya is a big city after Jakarta and it is recognized as urban city where everything is in here. Everything means good education, good job, beautiful house, good technology, etc. It was argued by child A that in Surabaya had everything; good education, good job, beautiful house, good technology, etc. it means that to get all of them she must has a view to pass all of these. By learning English was one of steps to pass it because when she mastered it, she could work wherever she wanted. Language Habit The use of language in everyday communication will make this as language habit. Language habit can be a result of dominant language because it is the language used that is almost spoken. English was spoken at home as daily language because the parents wanted the children fluent their English. Father A showed that the using of English at home would make his family used to speak it. Data 7: Father A: iya. karena dengan memakai bahasa inggris dirumah kami jadi terbiasa untuk berbicara bahasa inggris.(yes, because with using English at home we will use to speak English). English was spoken in home domain where it was a crucial place to the acquiring the language that became the habit. It was supported by his child who used English as language habit because that was the perfect way in practicing of English. Data 8: Child A: Because practice makes perfect and if we think that English is important, we need to use it every day Child A said that the using of English for everyday communication was important. The used of English was showed as the real practice to make it perfect because it was because her daily language. The tendency of choosing and using English make English become the language habit. This is because they want to master English by using it as daily communication which makes English as their language habit. The factors of choosing English language show that English has an important role. The spread of English in many aspects make these three Chinese families choose English over other languages. The intensity of using English language show a precursor for these families to shift into English and it is unavoidable that these families will shift into English when they start to abandon their mother tongue and choose English as their new language. On the other hand, the precursor of shifting into English was also shown by three Chinese families because of some factors; attitude and values, social, demographic, and economic and political. The factors that give these three Chinese families precursor to shift into English will be explained below. Attitude and Values Attitude is one of the factors to occur the language shift. The choice of a language where dominant language is chosen than mother tongue will give a big tendency to them who tended to shift into English. It is show by Family A, B, and C who agreed that English has a high value. Table 4. Father A, B, and C's opinion about the value of English language Father A Father B Father C People will see us as an educated people. Because English is considered as international language and it is important. It will show our family background. It is also the language in the world that is used by various people. The spread of English in the world is admitted. So, at least, people must learn English for better future. See the Value of English and the attitude of each family make English has high status. This is because the important of learning English is no doubt. The tendency of using English is one of ways that will make them look educated which shows their background of family and by seeing the value of English these families showed the positive attitude by teach their children even used it in everyday communication. Children themselves showed the precursor of shifting into English by used in daily. Demographic Demographic is also the one of factors that contributes Chinese family who tended to shift into English, especially for the children. Moreover, English is used in big and international companies. So, people must able to speak English as one of requirements in get in that companies. All families agreed that demographic was one of factors that made them learning English in order to get a better job among other people who come to Surabaya to find a better job too. It was shown by mother A that English was one of ways to compete with other job seekers. Data 9: Mother A: intinya mbak, saya ingin anak belajar bahasa inggris agar bisa mendapat pekerjaan yang bagus. Karena banyak orang yang datang ke Surabaya untuk mencari pekerjaan. Jadi ya, dengan bahasa Inggris kami bisa berkompetisi.(the point is, I want my children to learn English in order to get a good job. There are people who come in Surabaya to get a job, so only with English we can compete with them). From the opinion that was said by mother A, it proved that the competition in urban city was real. This was because there were many people who came from another city to get a good job in Surabaya. So, the only way to compete with them was able to speak in English because in big companies must use English as one of the requirement. If people wanted to be a success people, they must start it from big companies where so many chances could be found. Chinese people, with all their vision and to see the future must being the best future was about a competition in urban city. People who live in urban city with such kind of opportunities will make Chinese people not give up upon everything. Economic and Political Economic and political factors are considered as an obvious factor in language shift. From the data gotten, economic aspect gave a big contribution for three Chinese families who tended to shift into English. Child C went to international school and English course to fluent her English ability. Data 10: Child C: I go international school and having various kinds of friends. I also go to English course to learn English. My parents said that by learning English I will be a successful person and get much money so I can make them proud of me. It was seen that by studying English since the children was a kid will let them ready to the get a better life by having a good job. Social Social gives a big contribution to the shifting of one language to dominant language used. English was used by people in wider community; Church, working area, and environment. All parents and children were used English in church. The communities (addressee) in church were used English too to communicate with others. It happened to family C who tended to shift into English. Besides school and church, environment and working area were the area where family C used English as their daily language. It happened because some of their neighbors were mixed marriage couple. Data 11: Child C: I also speak with my friend, Farah. She lives next two blocks from my house. Her family is from Singapore. The tendency of using English by all families in certain domains and addresses in some situation make them tended to shift from Indonesian into English. The obvious way is showed by the children. The condition where English is used in certain domains and situations see the precursor of language shift where English replaces Indonesian. The choices of English as communication tool and the intensity that are shown by three Chinese families show the precursor of language shift. This is because they use English almost in their daily language. The factors of language shift also become the precursor by three Chinese families to shift into English. Language maintenance towards Indonesian Language by Chinese Family in Surabaya Chinese families were living in Surabaya where Indonesian is the majority language used by people in Surabaya. However English comes to Surabaya and influence all aspects in it, still, the majority language that was spoken in Surabaya was Indonesian. It was shown by family A who cared about Indonesian language as majority language in Surabaya. It was supported a reason given by Mother A: Data 12: Mother A: iya lah mbak. Semua harus bisa bahasa Indonesia, soalnya kita kan tinggal di Surabaya. terus kalo mau kemana-mana ya dominan nya pakek bahasa Indonesia. (Yes, of course. All my family must able to speak in Indonesian because we are living in Surabaya. If we want to go somewhere, the dominant language that is spoken is Indonesian). The positive attitude towards Indonesian was showed by the family. It was shown that Indonesian is important to be learnt and spoken. Chinese family, especially parents inherits Indonesian to their children. This is because they are living in Surabaya. The positive attitude toward Indonesian that is spoken at home makes its language long- maintained. Discussion In Discussion section, it collects all the data findings in result section and to be related with the theories provided. The data has founded is Multilingualism, Factors contribute language choice and the effort in Maintaining the Indonesian Language. Those data that have been related to the theories provided will be discussed below: Language Used by Chinese Families The finding shows that both parents and children of Chinese families were able to speak in three languages; Mandarin, Indonesian, and English. Indonesian was their mother tongue because it inherited to their children. Mandarin was their ethnic language that was learnt in order to show their identity, and English was their dominant language used among three Chinese families because the intensity of using English was more than Indonesian and Mandarin. In this case, they are considered as multilingualism because they able to speak more than two languages. Quay in Auer and Lie (2007: 45) said that with the greater mobility of people and consequent cross-linguistic and cross cultural relationship, an increasing number of children are growing up with early exposure to two languages in the family. Indeed, more than two languages may be in the linguistic repertoire of the family, rendering a case of family multilingualism. Factors of Choosing English Language There were some factors that contributed three Chinese families chose English language in their daily communication. They were modern era, communication, education, future carrier, and language habit. High technology was useful for three children to communicate with their foreign friends. English was usually used in high technology. It meant that social media was one of the result of high technology that used English as main language in the display. So, with the ability of speaking English by the children is helping them in using the technology to communicate with their foreign friends through social media. In communication factor, these families chose English to communicate to because the addressees had the same potential of speaking English and because of some reasons made these families chose English; working area and neighborhood. The intensity of using English language could precursor them tend to shift into English. This was because English had become their dominant language used. In addition, the families chose English to communicate to because the addressees had the same potential of speaking English and because of some reasons made these families chose English; working area and neighborhood. Schooled in international language was the reason by three Chinese children to choice English in education area. This was because it was the dominant language used in international school. English is used to communicate with teacher and students in the classroom and used with friends outside the class. In future life factors, it was said by the three Chinese families in Surabaya that they were trying many ways to prepare their children to have a good quality of life in future. By studying English since the children was a kid, put them in international school and English course will let them ready to the get a better life by having a good job in the future. It was shown by the three Chinese families that the tendency of choosing and using English in certain domains and addresses in some situation make English became the language habit. This was because they wanted to master English by using it as daily communication which made English as their language habit. Setiawan (2013) suggests the certain reasons for language choice in bilingual or multilingual society from the city parent's view: Emblematic value, strategic reason (politeness), pragmatic reason. And the factors of language choice by Chinese families is related with the pragmatic reason that is connected to practical purposes; modern era, communication, education, future carrier, and language habit The intensity of using English is the precursor that is shown these families to shift into English which was also shown by three Chinese families in some factors; attitude and values, social, demographic, and economic and political. The factors that give these three Chinese families precursor to shift into English will be explained below. Attitude and Values Saw the important value of English made Chinese families showed the positive attitude towards English language. This was because English was considered as international language which has high value in the world. The attitude of parents by put their children to the international school showed that the important of English was obvious. It is supported by Holmes (2001:61) that when second language has status of an international language, it can contribute to positive attitude towards the language and it is chosen by the speakers over first language. This positive attitude toward the value of English made these families tended to shift into English. Demographic Consider that Surabaya is urban city, English is used in big and international companies. So, people must able to speak English as one of requirements in get in that companies. It was shown by three Chinese families who learn English to compete with other people in order to get a good job. With many populations and the competition in big city are reasons for these families to learn English. Holmes (2001:59) said that resistance to language shift tend to last longer in rural than urban areas. This is partly the fact that rural groups tend to be isolated from the centers of political power for longer. Economic It was found that three Chinese families in Surabaya were trying many ways to prepare their children to have a good quality of life in future.by studying English since the children was a kid will let them ready to the get a better life by having a good job. It is supported by Holmes (2001:58) that economic is the factor that leads community to shift from using one language to another language by seeing an important reason for learning the second language to get a good jobs. Social The tendency of using English was showed by all families in certain domains and addresses in some situation make them shift the Indonesian into English. It is supported by Myers-Scotton (2006) that in case after case, when a younger generation is exposed to a more dominant language in the nation than the L1 (through schooling and school peers) and it is hard to stop a shift to that second language by the next generation. The effort in Maintaining the Indonesian Language The important figure to maintain Indonesian is parents. And all three Chinese family has already shown the effort to maintain Indonesian by inherit it to their children. And the most obvious effort was that the use of Indonesian in home domain, even only a little. This is one of the ways to maintain Indonesian. Children used it to appreciate the Indonesian speakers and the appropriate ways of language contact with Indonesian speakers. The positive attitude toward Indonesian makes its language long- maintained. It is supported by Chaer and Agustina explain that language maintenance is the matter with the attitude to be consistent in using a language among other languages (1995: 193). CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION In this chapter, there are two sections that are displayed. Those are conclusion and suggestion. The conclusion is drawn based on the results and discussions that relate to the statement of the problem in this research in the chapter 4 which also presented. In addition, the suggestion is the section to give any information or advice that will lead the further researcher related to the area of language shift and maintenance in specific and sociolinguistic in general. Conclusion Three Chinese families are known as multilingual families because they are able to speak in three languages; Mandarin, Indonesian, and English language. Mandarin is known as their ethnic language because it has a function to show their identity. Indonesian is known as their mother tongue because it inherits through generations. English, on the other hand is known as their dominant language because the intensity of using English was more than Mandarin and Indonesian. Regards to the multilingual family, they use the three languages in different domains and addressees. There are some factors that support these families choose English as language in communication. They are modern era, communication, education, future carrier, and language habit. In addition, the choice of English because of those factors gives a precursor for these three Chinese families, especially for the children. It is also shown that they tend to shift into English. The factors contribute language shift appear in three Chinese families that show the precursor to shift into English. The factors are attitude and values, social, demographic, and economic and political. The choice of English becomes the precursor of these families to shift into English. The shifting may be happen if the children show the negative attitude towards Indonesian which can be said that they abandon their mother tongue and replace it with the new language. The positive attitude that is showed by three Chinese families is the way to maintain Indonesian. Besides, Indonesian language is known as mother tongue of each family, it is considered as the majority language used by Surabaya people. So, these make three Chinese families maintain Indonesian language. Suggestion Through this study, it can be seen language shift can occur to anybody and any situation even the process to become shifting. Language shift and maintenance are the obvious situation that can happen to all people in a city, country, even village. It is just the way and effort of every people to shift or maintain their language from the changing of culture, language, or even economic. The researcher hopes that the study of Language shift and maintenance by non-migrant community; Chinese families in Surabaya who show the precursor of language shift would help the next researchers to find more phenomena about language shift and maintenance that is done by other ethnics who come from non-migrant community in Surabaya. The next researcher may use the theory from Joshua A. Fishman about language shift. REFERENCES Chaer, A., & Agustina, L. (1995). Sosiolinguistik Suatu Pengantar. Jakarta: Rineke Cipta. . Holmes, J. (2001). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. England: Pearson Education Limited. Liu, H. (2005). The Transnational History of a Chinese Family: Immigrant Letters, Family Business, And Reverse Migration. US: Rutgers University Press. Loewenstain, L. K. (Ed.). (1977). Urban Studies: An Introductory Reader (Second Edition ed.). United States of America: The Free Press. Myers-Scotton, & Carol. (2006). Multiple Voices: An Introduction to Bilingualism: Blackwell Publishing. Setiawan, S. (2013). Children's Language in a Bilingual Comunity in East Java. Germany: Scholars' Press. Sharifian, F. (Ed.). (2009). English as an International Language: Perspectives and Pedagogical issues Great Britain: MPG Books Ltd. Wardhaugh, R. (2006). An Introduction to Sociolinguistic (FIFTH EDITION ed.): Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Wijayanti, R. D. (2008). language shift and maintenance found in bataknese families in surabaya. Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Unpubliced. Windarti, L. (2007). A Study of Language Shift Among Flores People In Surabaya. Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Unpublished. http://www.surabaya.go.id/profilkota/index.php?id=22

Machine generated contents note: Section One Introduction to Telemental Health -- 1.Introduction / Kathleen Myers -- Introduction -- The Telemental Health Imperative -- Current Trends Supporting the Broader Adoption of Telemental Health -- Organization of This Book -- References -- 2.Telemental Health as a Solution to the Widening Gap Between Supply and Demand for Mental Health Services / Michael Flaum -- Workforce Shortages in Mental Health: The Example of Psychiatry -- What Is the Current Supply of Psychiatrists in the United States? -- Rate of Growth in Psychiatrists and All Physicians Over Time -- The Psychiatry Pipeline: Trends in Residency Training -- The Aging-Out Effect -- What Is the Current Need or Demand for Psychiatrists in the United States? -- Quantifying the need for different kinds of providers of mental health services -- The Distribution of Psychiatrists: The Iowa Example -- Telepsychiatry as a Key Strategy for Closing the Gap -- Workforce Issues of Psychology Health Service Providers -- Conclusions: The Optimal Use of Telemental Health to Address Workforce Shortages -- References -- Section Two Developing a Therapeutic Space During Telemental Health -- 3.Establishing Therapeutic Rapport in Telemental Health / Dehra Glueck -- Introduction -- Review of the Literature on Rapport and Alliance -- Technological Considerations Impacting Rapport -- Establishing Therapeutic Rapport with the Patient -- Explaining Telemental Health to Patients -- Developing Rapport with Special Populations -- Establishing Therapeutic Rapport with the Referring Clinic -- Building Rapport with Staff: An Open-Door Policy -- The Importance of a Clinical Coordinator in Facilitating Rapport at the Patient Site -- Establishing Rapport with the Broader Community -- Conclusion -- References -- 4.Ethical Considerations in Providing Mental Health Services Over Videoteleconferencing / Sarah E. Velasquez -- Introduction -- Applying Ethical Principles in Telemental Health -- Principle A Beneficence and Nonmaleficence -- Principle B Fidelity and Responsibility -- Principle C Integrity -- Principle D Justice -- Principle E Respect for People's Rights and Dignity -- Concerns Specific to Research -- Emerging VTC-Related Technologies -- Home Telehealth and VTC -- Mobile Devices and VTC -- Integration of Technologies -- Conclusion -- References -- 5.Integrating Culturally Appropriate Care into Telemental Health Practice / Jay H. Shore -- Culturally Appropriate Care and Telemental Health: An Introduction -- What Is Culturally Appropriate Care? -- The Use of Telemental Health with Rural, Distant, and Underserved Populations -- The Interplay Between Culture and Telemental Health -- Prior Research Examining Telehealth with Cultural Subgroups -- American Indian Veteran Telemental Health Clinics -- Telehealth Treatment with the Elderly, Child, and Adolescent Populations -- Treatment with Linguistically Diverse Populations -- Treatment with Other Cultural Subgroups -- The Appropriateness of Telemedicine -- Understanding the Patient Culture and Community -- Community Leaders and Key Informants -- Local Outreach Workers -- Utilizing Local Information -- Incorporating the Community for Effective Telemental Health Services -- Establishing Local Partnerships and Collaborations -- Dual Relationships in Rural Areas -- Technological Considerations When Working with Diverse Populations -- Communication -- Technological Knowledge and Comfort -- Conclusion -- Case Studies -- The Use of Talking Circles in Telemental Health Group Therapy -- Using Telemental Health to Increase Access in a Medically Underserved Area -- The Use of Asynchronous Technology to Bridge Language Barriers -- References -- 6.Managing Risk and Protecting Privacy in Telemental Health: An Overview of Legal, Regulatory, and Risk-Management Issues / Jay H. Shore -- Introduction -- Legal and Regulatory Issues -- Licensure -- Malpractice -- Credentialing and Privileging -- Security and Privacy Considerations -- Data Security for Electronic Protected Health Information -- Special Considerations for Mobile Devices in TMH Care -- Other Privacy Considerations -- Clinical Practices to Manage Risk -- Informed Consent -- Safety Plans and Emergency Management -- Risk Issues in Home-Based TMH -- Conclusion -- References -- Section Three Establishing a Telemental Health Practice -- 7.Business Aspects of Telemental Health in Private Practice / Dehra Glueck -- Introduction -- Choosing a Telemedicine Group or Technology-Only Support -- Technology-Only Models -- Group-Practice Models -- Institution-Based Practice Model -- Direct-to-Consumer Model -- Deciding on the Model of Care -- Direct Care Versus Consultation -- Direct Care -- Evaluation of Patients -- Direct Care -- Ongoing Treatment of Patients -- Consultative Care -- Deciding on a Model: Strength and Needs Assessments -- Financial Feasibility -- Understanding Costs: Patient and Provider Perspective -- Impact of Patient Volume on Costs -- Impact of No-Show Appointments on Costs -- Reimbursement: Insurance -- Reimbursement: Private Payment -- Reimbursement: Contracted Time -- Practical Considerations -- Malpractice, Licensure, and Consent -- Informed Consent and Standard of Care -- Staffing -- Sharing Records -- Technology -- Selection, Use, and Technical Support -- Technology: Bandwidth -- Technical Support -- Building a Referral Base and Growing a Practice -- Lifestyle Benefits -- Conclusion -- References -- 8.Technology Options for the Provision of Mental Health Care Through Videoteleconferencing / Carolyn L. Turvey -- Introduction -- Standards-Based Versus Consumer-Grade Software -- Hardware-Based Codecs -- Software-Based Applications -- Mobile -- Dedicated, Direct Connections to VTC Equipment and End Points -- Bandwidth -- Impact of Cloud Computing -- Audio -- Microphones -- Echo Cancelation -- Video -- Video Standards -- H.264 -- Screen-in-Screen -- Camera Options and Clinical Implications -- Screen Size -- Video Issues and Troubleshooting -- Packet Loss -- Technology and Privacy -- HIPAA Compliance and Videoteleconferences -- What Behaviors Are Important to Maintain Privacy -- Security Standards -- Backup Technologies and Protocols Should VTC Equipment Fail -- Conclusion -- References -- Section Four Improving Access for Special Populations Through Telemental Health -- 9.Telemental Health in Primary Care / Caroline Bonham -- The Rationale for Collaborative and Integrative Care -- A Continuum of Collaboration -- Four Key Concepts in Collaborative Care -- Tailoring TMH to Models of Care -- TMH Consultation and Collaboration for Children, Adolescents, and Their Families -- Primary Care Sites -- School-Based Health Centers -- TMH Consultation and Collaboration for Adults -- Direct Care Models -- Consultation Care Model -- Collaborative Care Models -- Asynchronous Telepsychiatry -- Cultural Considerations -- Conclusion -- References -- 10.Geriatric Telemental Health / Terry Rabinowitz -- Introduction -- The Need for Better Geriatric Mental Health Services -- Barriers to Mental Health Care for the Elderly -- Studies on Geriatric Telemental Health Services -- Acceptability of Telemental Health Among the Elderly -- Telepsychiatry in Nursing-Home Settings -- Remote Telemonitoring and Geriatric Mental Health Care -- Suicidality -- Case Presentations: Three Examples of the Use of Telehealth with Geriatric Populations -- Telepsychiatry in Nursing-Home Settings -- Tele-DCM for Elderly Rehabilitation Patients -- Telemonitor-Based Depression Care Management in Home Care -- Conclusions -- Acknowledgment -- References -- 11.Child and Adolescent Telemental Health / L. Lee Carlisle -- Introduction -- Literature Review -- Developmental and Clinical Considerations -- The Practice of Child and Adolescent Telemental Health -- Models of Care and Clinical Practice: Primary Care -- Models of Care and Clinical Practice: Other Sites of Practice -- Optimizing the Virtual Clinical Encounter with Children and Families -- Treatment in Child and Adolescent Telemental Health -- Telepsychiatry in a Youth's System of Care -- Summary and Conclusions -- References -- 12.Rural Veterans and Telemental Health Service Delivery / Karen Kloezeman -- Introduction -- Rural Veteran Population -- Mental Health Disorders in Veterans -- Rural-Urban Health Disparities in Veterans -- Access to Care -- VA Health-Care Service Utilization -- Barriers to Access to Care -- Limitations in the Access to Care Literature -- TMH and the Department of Veterans Affairs -- Clinical Effectiveness of Psychotherapies Delivered via CVT -- Considerations Associated with CVT Delivery -- Challenges Associated with CVT Delivery -- Limitations in the CVT Literature -- Future Directions -- Conclusions -- References -- 13.Videoteleconferencing in Forensic and Correctional Practice / Robert D. Morgan -- Videoteleconferencing Health in Forensic and Correctional Practices -- The Development of Videoteleconferencing in Forensic and Correctional Settings -- Barriers to Health Care -- How Can VTC Improve Services in Criminal Justice Settings? -- Demonstrating the Effectiveness of VTC -- Challenges Facing VTC in Corrections -- The Need for Specialty Best Practice Guidelines -- Future Directions -- Spotlight on TMH and Telelaw Programs -- Summary -- References -- Section Five Assessment and Intervention -- 14.Special Considerations in Conducting Neuropsychology Assessment over Videoteleconferencing / Maria C. Grosch -- Background and Scope -- Why Teleneuropsychology? -- Limiting Factors -- Availability of Equipment -- Data Transmission Speeds -- VTC Environment -- Setting Up Teleneuropsychology Services -- Evidence for VTC-Based Diagnosis and VTC-Based Cognitive Assessment -- Consumer Satisfaction with VTC-Based Services -- Practical and Ethical Issues in Teleneuropsychology -- Mobile Teleneuropsychology Applications -- Future Directions -- Summary -- References --

 Troll is a fairly entertaining movie (but that is not what this post is about)To repeat something I have said before, if,  as it has often been claimed, philosophy begins with Socrates then it also begins with its particular antagonism, its particular anti-philosophy in the sophist and sophistry. It seems to me that if one wanted to read the history of philosophy in this way, with a founding event and founding antagonism, then one might want to consider who is our anti-philosopher today, who is the contemporary equivalent of the sophist? The answer would seem to have to be the troll. This is my preamble to what is now becoming an ongoing discussion of Florida's vanguard fight against knowledge and reason; or more to the point, destruction of knowledge and truth in order to preserve whiteness.  As it was revealed recently, the new curriculum of black history in Florida teaches middle schoolers that "slaves developed skills which, in some instances, could be applied for their personal benefit." There is so much to unpack about this claim, as they say in grad school. First, there is the assumption that the people captured from Africa had no skills, no knowledge, no history, nothing but their bodies and skin. Such a claim not only follows from the mythology of a Dark Continent, outside of civilization and history, it confuses an effect from a cause. The people who became slaves were stripped of their knowledge, culture, and social relations. What Orlando Patterson calls a social death was also the reduction of a person to pure labor power, to a capacity to work and nothing else, an animate tool, as Aristotle put it. Second, as the architects of this change doubled down on this claim, since that is what trolls do, providing a list of individuals who gained "valuable job skills" during their "unpaid internship" on a plantation, they provided a list of mostly false claims, listing individuals who were never enslaved, or, in the case of Booker T. Washington, learned literacy and other skills after their emancipation. This "feel good" story about slavery is, like so many feel good stories about history, just not true. Of course there might be a case, or even a few, of people who learned a valuable skill during slavery--it could have happened. That does not defend the claim, or, more importantly does not defend its inclusion in a curriculum. It is, I would argue, an example of exception trolling, in which an isolated case or incident is used to obscure or confuse a general or structural tendency. Focusing on these isolated or unique cases, which often appeal to an anecdotal way of thinking that is predominant in our culture, is used to obscure what is generally the case. I would argue that part of gaining knowledge, part of thinking, is understanding the difference between an exception and a rule. Once, when I was in sixth grade, I think, I had the job of feeding the school's snake, a python or boa constrictor. I dropped the live rat in the tank with the snake, watched the snake coil and strike, and saw the rat bite the snake in the eye, blood spurting everywhere, eventually killing it. (This is probably why feeding live animals to snakes is no longer recommended. Not only is it cruel; It is also potential risky). This happened, I saw it with my own eyes, but I would still say that snakes kill and eat rats, and not the other way around. Exceptions exist as do rules, and the former does not negate the latter. Exception trolling is a persistent strategy of trolling, in which exceptions are made to obscure or conceal rules.I should say, as something of an aside, that this exception trolling has one of its conditions the transformation of all knowledge into discrete bits of information, facts, that can be found, cited and circulated independent of context, conditions, and larger implications. Joseph Vogl's book Capitalism and Ressentiment does an interesting job of charting the history of the current regime of contextless and thoughtless information, but that is for another time. (I just finished a review of that book.) In this reduction of all knowledge to isolated facts and bits of information any discussion of meaning or significance of this or that fact, its place within history or a system of values is impossible. As the clip below makes clear, anyone arguing against the claim that slaves learned skills is either an idiot or lying. Meaning, significance, and importance disappear in the absolute binary of facts. One exception is all that it takes to disprove any claim about systemic discrimination, exploitation, or marginalization. This is why the exception troll has a well stocked set of links and tabs of these exceptions, "reverse racism," false claims of sexual harassment,  happy slaves, etc., It is not facts and logic, as is often claimed, but the logic of the (singular and isolated) fact. This raises the question, what goal does this trolling serve? I think that trolling has to be understood as not just a failure to think, to distinguish exceptions from rules, but as itself the articulation of its own logic. In other words, trolling must be read symptomatically. It is necessary to see what is being said in what is not being said, or what is not being said by being said. In some sense these remarks about the virtues of slavery, and, if you watch the clip above, the holocaust could be understood as the culmination of "negative solidarity." Even the slave, the denizen of the concentration camp, cannot complain, they are gaining valuable job training, they just have to make themselves useful and everything will turn out fine. There is nothing to criticize, nothing to complain about. (I see culmination because I cannot imagine something worse than someone saying "slavery was not that bad, they were gaining job skills," but what I can imagine and what monstrosities history can produce are two different things). As such it also can be considered the culmination of "right workerism." Work is the ultimate meaning and justification of existence, those who do not work not only do not eat, but do not have a right to exist. The arguments about slavery and the holocaust are not just horrible distortions of a horrible past, they are alibis for a darker future. One in which the worst possible jobs, or unpaid internships, are seen as building valuable skills, or, if there are no skills involved, developing a solid work ethic. Anyone who praises slavery is preparing for you to become a slave. 

The modernity of the Flaubertian writings challenges his contemporaries but makes it possible to understand how Flaubert wishes to be positioned in the margins. He refuses the classic stages of bourgeois life that are marriage, paternity and the purchase of real estate.The history of the construction of the Flaubertian notoriety is also an approach to understand the places of memories. This relationship to the area has been conceived in relation to the defense of a local heritage. We have focused on the complexity of process that bring together rather than distinguish. In order to capture this memory, the study of places becomes unavoidable because it embodies all the conflicting dimension of the Flaubertian figure. In the first part, the aim of the study is to locate Gustave Flaubert in his literary time by highlighting the major turning point represented by Madame Bovary for the history of literature, but also as a foundation for Flaubertian posterity. We explain how the mechanisms of recognition are set up, Flaubert is the main perpetator thanks to his work. We have presented a complex man, not in the episodes of his life but in his role as an artist, both in his ideas and his achievements. Of an insatiable curiosity, that his last unfinished work - Bouvard and Pécuchet - symbolizes, the comments and acts around his death in 1880 offer a face less complex aspect and is more likely to allow a posterity suitable for the greatest number. The second part attempts to understand how this status obtained during his lifetime continues and evolves after his death. Without the determination of some flaubertists, these places of remembrance could not be legitimized. Far from seeking to lock up the memory of the writer, these commemorations are intended to maintain a flaubertian material and physical presence, in contrary his own dimension during his lifetime. It represents the modern figure of an unclassifiable writer going beyond school quarrels. Portraits from 1880 to the celebration of 1921, the considerable distance is long and subject to financial difficulties but also human. The third part depicts the assertion of a patrimonial policy - in the sense of discourse choosing as much by constructed spaces as by temporal cycles. Indeed, thanks to the first committees, heritage achievements are concretized around the first statues, the Flaubert Pavilion and then with his native chamber. The anchoring in multiple sites takes a decisive importance for the actors of the setting in patrimony which take care of "to make them visible" for the general public. The Norman notables tend towards the affirmation of a regional culture. It is the choice of what to celebrate that defines a commemoration policy. These spaces constitute tourist routes in a period of opening towards a new public waiting for a constituted speech. The last part shows how the presence of manuscripts in different places largely affects the organization of Flaubertian celebrations. From academic research groups to learned societies, Flaubertian studies present sometimes conflicting anchors. After the important role played by Caroline Commanville, niece of the novelist, the memory of the writer gains a form of independence. Finally, the digital turning point is not to be neglected. Their new lighting is enabled by these virtual provisions that facilitate the work of researchers but also the interest of simple curious people. We were able to understand that Flaubert's social construction of notoriety was also an acknowledgment of failures and forgotten paths. For the small quarrels in Rouen, after a period of complete silence of his hometown to the great recognition of his genius in the twenty-first century, Gustave Flaubert remains unclassifiable. ; La modernité des écrits flaubertiens déroute ses contemporains mais permet de comprendre comment Flaubert souhaite se positionner dans les marges. Il refuse les étapes classiques de la vie bourgeoise que sont le mariage, la paternité et l'achat d'un bien immobilier. L'histoire de la construction de la notoriété flaubertienne est aussi une démarche pour comprendre les lieux de mémoire et les lieux de souvenirs. Ce rapport au territoire a été pensé au regard de la défense d'un patrimoine local. Nous nous sommes attachés à la complexité des parcours qui rassemblent plutôt qu'ils ne distinguent. Afin de saisir cette mémoire, l'étude des lieux devient incontournable car elle incarne toute la dimension conflictuelle de la figure flaubertienne. Dans la première partie, l'étude a pour objectif de situer Gustave Flaubert dans son temps littéraire en mettant en lumière le tournant majeur que représente Madame Bovary pour l'histoire de la littérature, mais aussi comme fondement de la postérité flaubertienne. Nous expliquons comment se mettent en place les mécanismes de la reconnaissance, dont Flaubert est le principal instigateur grâce à son œuvre. Nous avons présenté un homme complexe, non dans les épisodes de sa vie mais dans sa position d'artiste, tant dans ses idées que dans ses réalisations. D'une curiosité insatiable, que sa dernière œuvre inachevée -Bouvard et Pécuchet- symbolise, les commentaires et actes autour de sa mort en 1880 offrent un visage moins complexe et plus à même de permettre une postérité convenant au plus grand nombre. La deuxième partie tente de comprendre comment ce statut obtenu de son vivant perdure et se transforme après sa mort. Sans la détermination de quelques flaubertistes, ces lieux de souvenir ne pourraient être légitimés. Loin de chercher à enfermer la mémoire de l'écrivain, ces commémorations ont pour but de maintenir une présence flaubertienne matérielle et physique, à l'inverse de sa propre dimension de son vivant. Il représente la figure moderne d'un écrivain inclassable dépassant les querelles d'écoles. Des portraits de 1880 à la célébration de 1921, le chemin parcouru est long et soumis aux difficultés financières mais aussi humaines. La troisième partie approfondit l'affirmation d'une politique patrimoniale -au sens de discours choisi- fonctionnant autant par espaces construits que par cycles temporels. En effet, grâce aux premiers comités, des réalisations patrimoniales se concrétisent autour des premières statues et du Pavillon Flaubert puis avec sa chambre natale. L'ancrage dans des sites multiples prend une importance décisive pour les acteurs de la mise en patrimoine qui s'occupent de les « rendre visibles » pour le grand public. Les notables normands tendent vers l'affirmation d'une culture régionale. C'est le choix de ce qu'il faut célébrer qui définit une politique de commémoration. Ces espaces constituent des parcours touristiques dans une période d'ouverture vers un public nouveau en attente d'un discours constitué. La dernière partie montre comment la présence de manuscrits dans différents lieux touche largement l'organisation des célébrations flaubertiennes. Des groupes de recherche universitaire aux sociétés savantes, les études flaubertiennes présentent des points d'ancrage parfois opposés. Après le rôle important joué par Caroline Commanville, nièce du romancier, le souvenir de l'écrivain gagne une forme d'indépendance. Enfin, le tournant numérique n'est pas à négliger. Leur éclairage nouveau est permis par ces dispositions virtuelles qui facilitent le travail des chercheurs mais aussi l'intérêt de simples curieux. Nous avons pu comprendre que la construction sociale de la notoriété chez Flaubert était aussi un constat des échecs et des pistes oubliées. Des petites querelles rouennaises, après un temps de silence complet de sa ville natale, aux grandes reconnaissances de son génie au XXIe siècle, Gustave Flaubert reste inclassable.

[spa] La investigación «Fronteras y transmigraciones del diálogo intercultural: implicancias del acto educativo como acción estética y emancipadora» consiste en el diseño (en el marco de la metodología de modelización ecosistémica) de un proyecto pedagógico (investigativo/interventivo) cuyo objetivo es reflexionar críticamente acerca de los elementos fundamentales de la educación en perspectiva intercultural y dialógica. En tal sentido, se documentan algunas reflexiones episte-metodo-lógicas acerca de temáticas relevantes en este campo. Éstas se han trabajado en paralelo (e interconexión) a una serie de acciones socioeducativas en ámbitos formales e informales de la ciudad de Barcelona. En relación a las temáticas de interés investigativo, se abordan (en los capítulos respectivos) una serie de cuestiones importantes, a saber, los debates acerca de las diferencias entre las tradiciones multi e intercultural; el desarrollo de la filosofía intercultural durante las últimas décadas; las formas de la inteligibilidad (en ocho metáforas) del fenómeno intercultural; la alfabetización intercultural como referente teórico de la acción socioeducativa; también lo referente entre interculturalidad, hermenéutica diatópica e intertextualidad; se propone, por otra parte, hacer explícito el marco constituyente entre cultura y alteridad entendido como fundamento de principio del pensamiento intercultural; además se realiza un compendio de las conceptualizaciones en relación a la "cultura" en las tradiciones humanista y antropológica, y su traducción pedagógica en términos de vecindad e imaginación; lo anterior a la luz de las implicaciones que tiene la noción de la experiencia para la investigación educativa, y la compresión de la metodología como una forma de tekné. Como se señaló previamente, estas inquietudes son concurrentes a la formulación y ejecución de una serie de acciones socioeducativas en la ciudad de Barcelona: 1. La participación en la fundación Migra Studium en cuatro escenarios: el grupo de visitas y monitoreo al Centro de internamiento para extranjeros (CIE) de Barcelona, la construcción del programa de parejas lingüísticas "Alliberar la paraula", el montaje (junto al colectivo de teatro La Trilateral) de la obra "Ramon Llull a la ciutat nova", y el diseño de los espacios de "Espai de Trobada Intercultural". 2. La participación en la Comisión de Pedagogía de la Comunidad de Aprendizaje (Escola Coves d` En Cimany), los grupos interactivos, y la ejecución del proyecto comunitario "Las nuevas aventuras de las bacterias cromáticas". 3. La colaboración (en la organización) y participación en el encuentro "Imaginarios desarmados. Arte y exilio", que tuvo por objetivo apoyar los acuerdos de Paz de la Habana (entre el gobierno colombiano y las fuerzas armadas revolucionarias de Colombia) junto a un grupo de colombianos (y otros aliados) residentes en Barcelona. 4. Por último, la participación como profesor invitado a los seminarios de antropología para estudiantes de educación social y pedagogía de la UB (campus Mundet). Desde la complementariedad de estos niveles se delimita la hipótesis de trabajo de investigación, que se formuló tardíamente como «la (im) posibilidad de una educación intercultural». Esta consideración se expone en la introducción. Con base en esta hipótesis se invita a la filosofía de la educación, esto es, a la pedagogía, a convenir en un pacto donde poner entre paréntesis esas (im) posibilidades, entendidas en tanto retos pedagógicos. En otras palabras, se pone en consideración que establecer una agenda educativa sobre el diálogo intercultural se trata de un asunto que reviste unos retos significativos. De los cuales el principal sería estimar el pedagógico de dicha educación, dígase a propósito de los principios sobre los que se fundamenta. Esta reflexión se pone en contraste (e interlocución) con la discusión política sobre la posibilidad de una ciudadanía mundial, principalmente teniendo en cuenta algunas consideraciones acerca del arraigo, la solidaridad, la globalización y el cosmopolitismo. Acá se marca un escenario de complejidad. En el prefacio se establece que la "esperanza" pedagógica frente a las (im) posibilidades se enriquece en la analogía del "intercambio epistolar" (entendido como correspondencia en la amistad). A partir de estas consideraciones se propone a la correspondencia y la amistad como fundamentos del diálogo intercultural. En esto orden de ideas, se plantea comprender el horizonte de la interculturalidad en la perspectiva de una política de los afectos: donde los sujetos políticos son capaces de pactar alianzas. Lo que aparece de nuevo como interpelación sobre el alcance de esas alianzas, pregunta fundamental para la pedagogía que piensa la educación intercultural. Como cuando Gonzalo Arango afirmaba: "Ni usted ni yo necesitamos presentación. Tenemos tres cosas en común: esta tierra, la vida y la muerte. En eso somos semejantes, casi amigos." ; [eng] This research entitled points to design a pedagogical ecosystem modeling, consisting on a research/intervention project. It aims to enhance the critical pedagogical reflection on intercultural and dialogical education. Several subjects are documented to achieve it, including episte- methodological issues, which have been connected to formal and informal educational actions performed in Barcelona city. Concerning to the key conceptual topics important issues are addressed, namely, multi and intercultural discussions; last decades' intercultural philosophy developments; eight metaphorical interculturality understandings; intercultural literacy and socio-educational action; intertextuality and diatopical hermeneutics; culture and alterity as a intercultural constituent framework; humanistic and anthropological approaches to culture, and its pedagogical translation as neighborhood and imagination based on the experience`s role on systemic modeling methodological tradition. As previously noted, these concerns were linked to a number of socio-educational actions: 1. NGOs participation on four Migra Studium scenarios: the CIE´s visit and monitoring Group, linguistics couples program "Alliberar la paraula", design and execution on "Ramon Lllull a la Ciutat nova" social theater project, and the involvement on the intercultural space meetings "Espai de Trobada Intercultural". 2. Learning- Community contributions on pedagogical commission, interactive groups, and the project execution "Las nuevas aventuras de las bacterias cromáticas" (supported by the school Coves d´ En Cimany and Juan Marse´s neighborhood library). 3. "Imaginarios desarmados. Arte y Exilio" collaborations, which aimed to build community alliance around the Havana Agreements between Colombian government and Farc´s Guerrilla. 4. University of Barcelona Guest Professor on Anthropology classes. Related to this complementary "between-levels" analysis, the research hypothesis, which was later formulated, is defined as follows: . Based on this rhetoric statement an invitation is required to pedagogy: to put in parentheses those impossibilities as if were pedagogical challenges. In other words, establishing an educational agenda concerning to intercultural dialogue poses significant challenges. The main would be estimating it´s pedagogical «scope» based on certain principles. To make a contrast on this idea, some political arguments about world citizenship are brought: roots, solidarity, globalization and cosmopolitism. A complex scenario is thus marked. Because of these impossibilities, a pedagogical hope is suggested: as an analogy (to an exchange symbol) based on an epistolary frame. Correspondence and friendship notions are highlighted from this idea. Furthermore, an affections politics is proposed in this sense: the political subject´s power is thus understood as the ability to pact alliances. In short, pedagogical hope is referred to solidarity and potential arrangements. Both values whose "devaluation" appears worrisome, but involve the possible, as Gonzalo Arango used to say: "Neither You nor I need an introduction. We all have three common things: the land, life and death. Places where at least We are similar, almost friends."

The modernity of the Flaubertian writings challenges his contemporaries but makes it possible to understand how Flaubert wishes to be positioned in the margins. He refuses the classic stages of bourgeois life that are marriage, paternity and the purchase of real estate.The history of the construction of the Flaubertian notoriety is also an approach to understand the places of memories. This relationship to the area has been conceived in relation to the defense of a local heritage. We have focused on the complexity of process that bring together rather than distinguish. In order to capture this memory, the study of places becomes unavoidable because it embodies all the conflicting dimension of the Flaubertian figure. In the first part, the aim of the study is to locate Gustave Flaubert in his literary time by highlighting the major turning point represented by Madame Bovary for the history of literature, but also as a foundation for Flaubertian posterity. We explain how the mechanisms of recognition are set up, Flaubert is the main perpetator thanks to his work. We have presented a complex man, not in the episodes of his life but in his role as an artist, both in his ideas and his achievements. Of an insatiable curiosity, that his last unfinished work - Bouvard and Pécuchet - symbolizes, the comments and acts around his death in 1880 offer a face less complex aspect and is more likely to allow a posterity suitable for the greatest number. The second part attempts to understand how this status obtained during his lifetime continues and evolves after his death. Without the determination of some flaubertists, these places of remembrance could not be legitimized. Far from seeking to lock up the memory of the writer, these commemorations are intended to maintain a flaubertian material and physical presence, in contrary his own dimension during his lifetime. It represents the modern figure of an unclassifiable writer going beyond school quarrels. Portraits from 1880 to the celebration of 1921, the considerable distance is long and subject to financial difficulties but also human. The third part depicts the assertion of a patrimonial policy - in the sense of discourse choosing as much by constructed spaces as by temporal cycles. Indeed, thanks to the first committees, heritage achievements are concretized around the first statues, the Flaubert Pavilion and then with his native chamber. The anchoring in multiple sites takes a decisive importance for the actors of the setting in patrimony which take care of "to make them visible" for the general public. The Norman notables tend towards the affirmation of a regional culture. It is the choice of what to celebrate that defines a commemoration policy. These spaces constitute tourist routes in a period of opening towards a new public waiting for a constituted speech. The last part shows how the presence of manuscripts in different places largely affects the organization of Flaubertian celebrations. From academic research groups to learned societies, Flaubertian studies present sometimes conflicting anchors. After the important role played by Caroline Commanville, niece of the novelist, the memory of the writer gains a form of independence. Finally, the digital turning point is not to be neglected. Their new lighting is enabled by these virtual provisions that facilitate the work of researchers but also the interest of simple curious people. We were able to understand that Flaubert's social construction of notoriety was also an acknowledgment of failures and forgotten paths. For the small quarrels in Rouen, after a period of complete silence of his hometown to the great recognition of his genius in the twenty-first century, Gustave Flaubert remains unclassifiable. ; La modernité des écrits flaubertiens déroute ses contemporains mais permet de comprendre comment Flaubert souhaite se positionner dans les marges. Il refuse les étapes classiques de la vie bourgeoise que sont le mariage, la paternité et l'achat d'un bien immobilier. L'histoire de la construction de la notoriété flaubertienne est aussi une démarche pour comprendre les lieux de mémoire et les lieux de souvenirs. Ce rapport au territoire a été pensé au regard de la défense d'un patrimoine local. Nous nous sommes attachés à la complexité des parcours qui rassemblent plutôt qu'ils ne distinguent. Afin de saisir cette mémoire, l'étude des lieux devient incontournable car elle incarne toute la dimension conflictuelle de la figure flaubertienne. Dans la première partie, l'étude a pour objectif de situer Gustave Flaubert dans son temps littéraire en mettant en lumière le tournant majeur que représente Madame Bovary pour l'histoire de la littérature, mais aussi comme fondement de la postérité flaubertienne. Nous expliquons comment se mettent en place les mécanismes de la reconnaissance, dont Flaubert est le principal instigateur grâce à son œuvre. Nous avons présenté un homme complexe, non dans les épisodes de sa vie mais dans sa position d'artiste, tant dans ses idées que dans ses réalisations. D'une curiosité insatiable, que sa dernière œuvre inachevée -Bouvard et Pécuchet- symbolise, les commentaires et actes autour de sa mort en 1880 offrent un visage moins complexe et plus à même de permettre une postérité convenant au plus grand nombre. La deuxième partie tente de comprendre comment ce statut obtenu de son vivant perdure et se transforme après sa mort. Sans la détermination de quelques flaubertistes, ces lieux de souvenir ne pourraient être légitimés. Loin de chercher à enfermer la mémoire de l'écrivain, ces commémorations ont pour but de maintenir une présence flaubertienne matérielle et physique, à l'inverse de sa propre dimension de son vivant. Il représente la figure moderne d'un écrivain inclassable dépassant les querelles d'écoles. Des portraits de 1880 à la célébration de 1921, le chemin parcouru est long et soumis aux difficultés financières mais aussi humaines. La troisième partie approfondit l'affirmation d'une politique patrimoniale -au sens de discours choisi- fonctionnant autant par espaces construits que par cycles temporels. En effet, grâce aux premiers comités, des réalisations patrimoniales se concrétisent autour des premières statues et du Pavillon Flaubert puis avec sa chambre natale. L'ancrage dans des sites multiples prend une importance décisive pour les acteurs de la mise en patrimoine qui s'occupent de les « rendre visibles » pour le grand public. Les notables normands tendent vers l'affirmation d'une culture régionale. C'est le choix de ce qu'il faut célébrer qui définit une politique de commémoration. Ces espaces constituent des parcours touristiques dans une période d'ouverture vers un public nouveau en attente d'un discours constitué. La dernière partie montre comment la présence de manuscrits dans différents lieux touche largement l'organisation des célébrations flaubertiennes. Des groupes de recherche universitaire aux sociétés savantes, les études flaubertiennes présentent des points d'ancrage parfois opposés. Après le rôle important joué par Caroline Commanville, nièce du romancier, le souvenir de l'écrivain gagne une forme d'indépendance. Enfin, le tournant numérique n'est pas à négliger. Leur éclairage nouveau est permis par ces dispositions virtuelles qui facilitent le travail des chercheurs mais aussi l'intérêt de simples curieux. Nous avons pu comprendre que la construction sociale de la notoriété chez Flaubert était aussi un constat des échecs et des pistes oubliées. Des petites querelles rouennaises, après un temps de silence complet de sa ville natale, aux grandes reconnaissances de son génie au XXIe siècle, Gustave Flaubert reste inclassable.

In the last four decades, Chile's education system has experienced a deep transformation, a neoliberal revolution. Since the dictatorship (1973-1990), an education market developed in the different levels of education. After the restoration of democracy in 1990 and during the following two decades government, led by a centre-left coalition, the education market was consolidated with an active engagement of the State. This period introduced multiple adjustments to the model, which ultimately developed an education system of hybrid morphology. Education stood out progressively as a major public issue and, in 2011, a social crisis became unavoidable. The questioning of the educational architecture reveals the fissures of the Chilean society concerning the predominance of neoliberal regulations. This event motivated a phase of revision, discussion, and proposition around another form of thinking education. This thesis traces the course of the educational policies implemented since the dictatorial irruption until 2010 when 20 years of democratic recovery under the direction of the same conglomerate, the Concertación, ends. The objective of this study is to understand the evolution of this issue, in the interface between the institutional administration, political parties, and civil society. This overview will allow us to grasp the maze of policy making and to understand how the educational disagreements arise. This analytical perspective consists in a socio-historical reconstruction of the educational policy, which triangulates the analysis of historical texts, legislative texts, and interviews with both political and administrative actors. This analytical lens will enable us to understand how education is the cornerstone of the modernization process in Chile. This is characterized by significant and undeniable advances in development, especially those concerning the educational expansion at all levels. The State is increasingly involved in education, from a role of arbitrator and supervisor of the market functioning, reinforcing and increasing the complexity of the neoliberal structure. Thus, a new order emerges, in which the education becomes a private good under the protection of a generalized competition and a culture of evaluation. This model clashes with society's increasing demands for democratization of education. The education system deploys strategies of individual positioning that legitimize and reinforce the privatization of education, while society denounces the systemic school segregation while, on the other side. ; Durante las cuatro últimas décadas, Chile ha sido escenario de profundos cambios en su sistema educativo: una revolución neoliberal. Desde el régimen dictatorial (1973-1990), un mercado educativo se desarrolló en los distintos niveles de educación. Luego del retorno de la democracia en 1990, y en el curso de dos decenios de gobiernos dirigidos por una coalición de centro-izquierda, el mercado educativo terminó por consolidarse con el compromiso activo del Estado. Este último, introdujo múltiples ajustes al modelo, que finalmente termina por desarrollar un sistema educativo de morfología híbrida. Luego de ese periodo, y de manera progresiva, la educación va a imponerse como un tema público, y en 2011 la crisis social va a ser ineludible. El cuestionamiento a la arquitectura educativa va a develar las fisuras de la sociedad chilena en cuanto a la preponderancia de las regulaciones neoliberales, dando paso a una fase de revisión, discusión y proposición alrededor de una nueva forma de pensar la educación. Esta tesis describe el recorrido de las políticas educativas adoptadas desde la irrupción dictatorial hasta el año 2010, momento en que terminan 20 años de recuperación democrática bajo la dirección de la coalición Concertación de Partidos por la Democracia. El objetivo de este trabajo es entender la evolución de este proceso, en la interfaz entre la administración institucional, los partidos políticos y la sociedad civil. La visión de conjunto nos permitirá discernir el entramado de las decisiones políticas y entender cómo se construyen las controversias educativas. La perspectiva analítica es una reconstrucción socio-histórica de la política educativa, que triangula el análisis de textos históricos, textos legislativos y entrevista a actores (políticos o administrativos). Este enfoque nos permitirá comprender cómo la educación devino el pilar fundamental del proceso de modernización en Chile, en el que se observan avances significativos e innegables de desarrollo, particularmente en relación a la expansión educativa en todos los niveles. El Estado se involucra cada vez más en la educación, con un rol de árbitro y supervisor del funcionamiento del mercado, reforzando y complejizando la estructura neoliberal. De esta forma, un nuevo orden educativo termina de plasmarse, en el que la educación deviene un bien individual bajo la égida de la competencia generalizada y la cultura de la evaluación. Este modelo termina por chocar con las demandas crecientes de democratización por parte de la población, que denuncia la segregación escolar del sistema, pero que paralelamente actúa con estrategias de posicionamiento individual que legitiman y refuerzan la privatización educativa. ; Durant les quarante dernières années, le Chili a été le scénario de profonds changements, notamment dans le domaine de l'éducation : une révolution néolibérale s'y est opérée. Depuis le régime dictatorial (1973-1990), un marché éducatif se développe en effet à tous les niveaux d'enseignement. Après le retour à la démocratie en 1990, deux décennies de gouvernements présidés par une coalition de centre-gauche finissent de consolider ce marché éducatif, en renforçant l'engagement actif de l'État. Ce dernier introduit dans le modèle de multiples ajustements qui encadrent le développement d'un système d'enseignement dont la morphologie est définitivement hybride. Dans ce contexte, l'éducation va s'imposer progressivement comme un enjeu public majeur au point que, en 2011, la crise sociale deviendra incontournable. La remise en question de l'architecture éducative dévoile les fissures d'une société où prédominent les régulations néolibérales. Elle engage une phase de révisions, de discussions et de propositions axées sur une autre manière de penser l'éducation. Cette thèse retrace le parcours des politiques éducatives mises en place depuis l'irruption dictatoriale jusqu'en 2010, date qui marque la fin de vingt années de récupération démocratique sous la direction du même conglomérat, la Concertación. Notre objectif est de comprendre l'évolution de cette thématique en étudiant l'interface entre l'administration institutionnelle, les partis politiques et la société civile. Cette vue d'ensemble nous permettra de saisir les enjeux des décisions politiques et de comprendre les tenants et les aboutissants des querelles éducatives. La perspective analytique est celle d'une reconstruction socio-historique de la politique éducative, articulée à partir de la triangulation de l'analyse de textes historiques, d'entretiens avec acteurs (politiques ou administratifs) et d'étude de textes législatifs. Cette démarche nous permettra de comprendre comment l'éducation s'impose comme la pierre angulaire d'un processus de modernisation du Chili qui se traduit par des avancées significatives et indéniables en termes de développement, notamment en ce qui concerne l'élargissement de l'accès à tous les niveaux d'enseignement. L'État s'investit certes de plus en plus dans le domaine de l'éducation, mais dans une perspective d'arbitrage et de surveillance du fonctionnement du marché, renforçant et complexifiant par là même la structure néolibérale. Ainsi, un nouvel ordre éducatif finit par prendre forme, dans lequel l'éducation est définie comme un bien individuel dans un contexte de concurrence générale et de culture de l'évaluation. Pourtant ce modèle va se heurter aux demandes croissantes de démocratisation de l'enseignement d'une société qui, d'une part, dénonce la ségrégation scolaire mais, d'une autre, utilise des stratégies de positionnement personnel dont les choix légitiment et renforcent la privatisation éducative.

In the last four decades, Chile's education system has experienced a deep transformation, a neoliberal revolution. Since the dictatorship (1973-1990), an education market developed in the different levels of education. After the restoration of democracy in 1990 and during the following two decades government, led by a centre-left coalition, the education market was consolidated with an active engagement of the State. This period introduced multiple adjustments to the model, which ultimately developed an education system of hybrid morphology. Education stood out progressively as a major public issue and, in 2011, a social crisis became unavoidable. The questioning of the educational architecture reveals the fissures of the Chilean society concerning the predominance of neoliberal regulations. This event motivated a phase of revision, discussion, and proposition around another form of thinking education. This thesis traces the course of the educational policies implemented since the dictatorial irruption until 2010 when 20 years of democratic recovery under the direction of the same conglomerate, the Concertación, ends. The objective of this study is to understand the evolution of this issue, in the interface between the institutional administration, political parties, and civil society. This overview will allow us to grasp the maze of policy making and to understand how the educational disagreements arise. This analytical perspective consists in a socio-historical reconstruction of the educational policy, which triangulates the analysis of historical texts, legislative texts, and interviews with both political and administrative actors. This analytical lens will enable us to understand how education is the cornerstone of the modernization process in Chile. This is characterized by significant and undeniable advances in development, especially those concerning the educational expansion at all levels. The State is increasingly involved in education, from a role of arbitrator and supervisor of the market functioning, reinforcing and increasing the complexity of the neoliberal structure. Thus, a new order emerges, in which the education becomes a private good under the protection of a generalized competition and a culture of evaluation. This model clashes with society's increasing demands for democratization of education. The education system deploys strategies of individual positioning that legitimize and reinforce the privatization of education, while society denounces the systemic school segregation while, on the other side. ; Durante las cuatro últimas décadas, Chile ha sido escenario de profundos cambios en su sistema educativo: una revolución neoliberal. Desde el régimen dictatorial (1973-1990), un mercado educativo se desarrolló en los distintos niveles de educación. Luego del retorno de la democracia en 1990, y en el curso de dos decenios de gobiernos dirigidos por una coalición de centro-izquierda, el mercado educativo terminó por consolidarse con el compromiso activo del Estado. Este último, introdujo múltiples ajustes al modelo, que finalmente termina por desarrollar un sistema educativo de morfología híbrida. Luego de ese periodo, y de manera progresiva, la educación va a imponerse como un tema público, y en 2011 la crisis social va a ser ineludible. El cuestionamiento a la arquitectura educativa va a develar las fisuras de la sociedad chilena en cuanto a la preponderancia de las regulaciones neoliberales, dando paso a una fase de revisión, discusión y proposición alrededor de una nueva forma de pensar la educación. Esta tesis describe el recorrido de las políticas educativas adoptadas desde la irrupción dictatorial hasta el año 2010, momento en que terminan 20 años de recuperación democrática bajo la dirección de la coalición Concertación de Partidos por la Democracia. El objetivo de este trabajo es entender la evolución de este proceso, en la interfaz entre la administración institucional, los partidos políticos y la sociedad civil. La visión de conjunto nos permitirá discernir el entramado de las decisiones políticas y entender cómo se construyen las controversias educativas. La perspectiva analítica es una reconstrucción socio-histórica de la política educativa, que triangula el análisis de textos históricos, textos legislativos y entrevista a actores (políticos o administrativos). Este enfoque nos permitirá comprender cómo la educación devino el pilar fundamental del proceso de modernización en Chile, en el que se observan avances significativos e innegables de desarrollo, particularmente en relación a la expansión educativa en todos los niveles. El Estado se involucra cada vez más en la educación, con un rol de árbitro y supervisor del funcionamiento del mercado, reforzando y complejizando la estructura neoliberal. De esta forma, un nuevo orden educativo termina de plasmarse, en el que la educación deviene un bien individual bajo la égida de la competencia generalizada y la cultura de la evaluación. Este modelo termina por chocar con las demandas crecientes de democratización por parte de la población, que denuncia la segregación escolar del sistema, pero que paralelamente actúa con estrategias de posicionamiento individual que legitiman y refuerzan la privatización educativa. ; Durant les quarante dernières années, le Chili a été le scénario de profonds changements, notamment dans le domaine de l'éducation : une révolution néolibérale s'y est opérée. Depuis le régime dictatorial (1973-1990), un marché éducatif se développe en effet à tous les niveaux d'enseignement. Après le retour à la démocratie en 1990, deux décennies de gouvernements présidés par une coalition de centre-gauche finissent de consolider ce marché éducatif, en renforçant l'engagement actif de l'État. Ce dernier introduit dans le modèle de multiples ajustements qui encadrent le développement d'un système d'enseignement dont la morphologie est définitivement hybride. Dans ce contexte, l'éducation va s'imposer progressivement comme un enjeu public majeur au point que, en 2011, la crise sociale deviendra incontournable. La remise en question de l'architecture éducative dévoile les fissures d'une société où prédominent les régulations néolibérales. Elle engage une phase de révisions, de discussions et de propositions axées sur une autre manière de penser l'éducation. Cette thèse retrace le parcours des politiques éducatives mises en place depuis l'irruption dictatoriale jusqu'en 2010, date qui marque la fin de vingt années de récupération démocratique sous la direction du même conglomérat, la Concertación. Notre objectif est de comprendre l'évolution de cette thématique en étudiant l'interface entre l'administration institutionnelle, les partis politiques et la société civile. Cette vue d'ensemble nous permettra de saisir les enjeux des décisions politiques et de comprendre les tenants et les aboutissants des querelles éducatives. La perspective analytique est celle d'une reconstruction socio-historique de la politique éducative, articulée à partir de la triangulation de l'analyse de textes historiques, d'entretiens avec acteurs (politiques ou administratifs) et d'étude de textes législatifs. Cette démarche nous permettra de comprendre comment l'éducation s'impose comme la pierre angulaire d'un processus de modernisation du Chili qui se traduit par des avancées significatives et indéniables en termes de développement, notamment en ce qui concerne l'élargissement de l'accès à tous les niveaux d'enseignement. L'État s'investit certes de plus en plus dans le domaine de l'éducation, mais dans une perspective d'arbitrage et de surveillance du fonctionnement du marché, renforçant et complexifiant par là même la structure néolibérale. Ainsi, un nouvel ordre éducatif finit par prendre forme, dans lequel l'éducation est définie comme un bien individuel dans un contexte de concurrence générale et de culture de l'évaluation. Pourtant ce modèle va se heurter aux demandes croissantes de démocratisation de l'enseignement d'une société qui, d'une part, dénonce la ségrégation scolaire mais, d'une autre, utilise des stratégies de positionnement personnel dont les choix légitiment et renforcent la privatisation éducative.

Die vorliegende Arbeit ist ein Beitrag zum Studium der Beziehung zwischen Tradition und Moderne in der 1. Hälfte des 20. Jh. am Beispiel des Lebenswerkes des rumänischen Architekten und Intellektuellen George Matei Cantacuzino (geb. 1899 in Wien, gest. 1960 in Jassy). G. M. Cantacuzino (im Text GMC genannt) gilt in Rumänien als Doyen der Moderne und als bedeutendster Architekturtheoretiker des Landes. Leben GMC studiert Architektur an der Pariser École des Beaux-Arts (1920-1929), zuerst beim erzkonservativen Gustave Umbdenstock. Doch es sind zwei liberal eingestellte Professoren, die GMC am stärksten prägen: der Bauhistoriker und Theoretiker Georges Gromort sowie der Praktiker Roger-Henri Expert. In Rumänien entfaltet GMC eine reichhaltige schöpferische Tätigkeit als Architekt, Theoretiker, Kritiker, Übersetzer, Maler, Kurator, Pädagoge und Politiker. Seine Bauten, Schriften und das Konzept der klassischen Haltung begründen GMCs Autorität als unangefochtene integrative Leitfigur der jungen rumänischen Architekturszene der 1930er Jahre. 1928 legt er einen Palladio-Essay vor (in Französisch), 1947 stellt er die erste Vitruv-Übersetzung ins Rumänische fertig. 1934-1936 ist GMC erster rumänischer Korrespondent der L´Architecture d´aujourd´hui, 1937-1940 Chefarchitekt der rumänischen Eisenbahngesellschaft CFR, 1942-1948 Professor für Geschichte und Theorie der Architektur in Bukarest. 1920-1940 unternimmt er zahlreiche Studien- und Arbeitsreisen in Europa, nach Vorderasien und in die USA. 1939-1947 entwickelt sich GMCs Kulturzeitschrift Simetria zu einer Zentrale des "ästhetischen Widerstandes" gegen Faschismus und Kommunismus. Nach seiner Inhaftierung als Regimegegner (1948-1954) lebt und arbeitet er meist am Rande der Gesellschaft (1954-1957 beim Denkmalschutzamt) bis zum frühen Tod (1960). Architektur GMC-Bauten sind gekennzeichnet von kompositorischer Ausgewogenheit und Dichte, von ruhiger, diskret ornamentierter Baumassenästhetik und von Materialethik. Dabei nimmt GMC als Epochenskeptiker, der dem «élan vital» Henri Bergsons verpflichtet ist, Abstand davon, den Stilbegriff auf die Dynamik zeitgenössischer Architektur zu übertragen. In der Folge weist GMCs thematisch breit gefächerte Architektur durch seine gesamte Laufbahn hindurch zwei formalästhetische Konstanten auf: den historischen Palladianismus und Syntheseversuche zwischen früher Moderne, spätbyzantinisch-rumänischen und klassizistischen Traditionssträngen. Beeinflusst ist GMC auch von Le Corbusier, v. a. aber von der Groupe des Architectes Modernes um Perret, Garnier, Sauvage und Expert sowie von der Schinkel-Semper-Wagner-Loos-Schule. Eine klassische Haltung GMCs Schaffen wird von einer linksliberalen politischen Überzeugung getragen und von freimaurerischem Gedankengut inspiriert. Ihnen liegt das Konzept einer klassischen Haltung zugrunde, die Tradition mit Moderne verknüpft und Ästhetik an Ethik bindet. Damit belebt GMC zwei antike Begriffe wieder: die aristotelische Auffassung von Architektur als eine pragmatischen Kunst und den vitruvianischen Symmetriebegriff als geglückte Proportion und dynamisches Gleichgewicht. Als baugeschichtlich-philosophischer Interpretationsansatz (in Bezug auf das Studium von Klassikern und die anthropologisch gebundenen formalästhetischen Kompositionsprinzipien wie Proportion, Rhythmus und Harmonie) bildet die klassische Haltung eine Grundlage für den Architekturentwurf. Dieser gründet auch auf der Architektenpersönlichkeit und dem Aufgabenkontext (u.a. Landschaft, Kultur, Stadttextur, Baustoffe). Kulturpolitisch erscheint die klassische Haltung als eine Strategie zur architekturkulturellen Erneuerung und als ein Versuch, die Vision eines plurikulturellen Rumäniens architekturkulturell zu gestalten. Dabei löst GMC den Konflikt zwischen rumänischem Heimatstil und Internationalismus, indem er sie nicht als festgefügte Stile, sondern als Strömungen behandelt. Darüber hinaus sind für ihn Tradition und Moderne nicht gegensätzlich, sondern gegenseitig, da wesensverschieden. Mit der klassischen Haltung bietet GMC einen Beitrag zur Klassik-Debatte (Wölfflin, Klopfer) und zur Diskussion des "Rappel à lordre" (Cocteau). In Bezug auf die theoretische Auseinandersetzung mit Leitbegriffen der Architektur lässt sich auch eine bemerkenswerte Nähe zu Rudolf Wittkower ausmachen. Als Erneuerungsstrategie kann die klassische Haltung verglichen werden mit Schinkels Theorie der Verschmelzung zwischen Antike und Gotik, der "Theorie widerstreitender Kräfte" von Colin Rowe und Fred Koetter, dem Kritischen Regionalismus oder mit Gerd de Bruyns Klassizismus-Begriff. Ein bemerkenswertes kulturpolitisches Echo findet GMCs transformatorische Rückbesinnung auf die vitruvianische Symmetrie auch im Begriff der "Dialogik" (Edgar Morin 1988) als ein Kennzeichen der europäischen Kultur: "Europa symmetrisiert" (GMC 1947). ; This study of the work of the Romanian architect and intellectual George Matei Cantacuzino (b. 1899 in Vienna, d. 1960 in Jassy) aims at deepening the insight into the relationship between Tradition and Modernism during the first half of the 20th century. G. M. Cantacuzino (referred to as GMC in the text) is acknowledged for being one of the doyens of Modernism in Romania and the pre-eminent architectural theoretician in that country up to the present day. Life GMC studied architecture at the Parisian École des Beaux-Arts (1920-1929), starting as an élève in the class of the arch-conservative Gustave Umbdenstock. But GMCs way of thinking about architecture was in large measure shaped by two liberal professors: the historian and theoretician Georges Gromort, and the practising architect Roger-Henri Expert. Back in Romania, GMC performed a fruitful diversity of creative activities as an architect, theoretician, critic, translator, teacher, painter and politician. It is by virtue of his buildings, writings and Classical attitude, that he earned his reputation as unchallenged integrative leader of the young Romanian architectural scene of the 1930s. In 1928, he published a critical essay on Palladio (in French), in 1947 he accomplished the first translation into Romanian of Vitruvius. With L´Architecture d´aujourd´hui, he became the first Romanian correspondent of the magazine (1934-1936). He also went on numerous study journeys through Europe, the Middle East and the USA (1920-1940). Additionally, GMC was chief architect of the Romanian Railway Company CFR (1937-1940), and professor of history and theory of architecture in Bucharest (1942-1948). His cultural magazine Simetria (1939-1947) became a sort of centre of the "Aesthetics of Resistance" (Peter Weiss) against Fascism and Communism. After his imprisonment due to his opposition to the regime (1948-1954), GMC first worked for the Commission of Historic Monuments (1954-1957) and then experienced social exclusion until his untimely death (1960). Architecture GMC´s projects are marked by compositional balance and density, the aesthetic principle of discreetly ornamented, simplified mass, and the material ethics. At the same time, GMC proved sceptical towards epoch labels. Very much affected by the "élan vital" coined by French philosopher Henri Bergson, GMC refused to apply the term "style" to the dynamism of contemporary architecture. Actually, his wide-ranging architecture aroused particular interest with Palladianism and various attempts at a synthesis between Modernism, late Byzantine-Romanian traditions and Classicism. Although being impressed by Le Corbusier, GMC was rather influenced by two other mouvements: the Groupe des Architectes Modernes with Perret, Garnier, Sauvage and Expert, and the school of Schinkel-Semper-Wagner-Loos. A Classical attitude GMC´s wide range of activities was inspired by a liberal polical attitude and freemasonic thinking. These were backed by the concept of a Classical attitude, which links modernism to tradition, and binds aesthetics to ethics. Thus GMC revived two antique ideas: the Aristotelian notion of architecture as a pragmatic art, and the Vitruvian symmetry as happy proportion and dynamic balance. As a concept of historical and philosophical interpretation (referring to the study of classics and aesthetic principles of composition as proportion, rhythm and harmony) the Classical attitude contributes to the act of designing which is further based on the personality of the architect and on the context of the project (i.e. landscape, culture, urban fabric, materials). In terms of cultural and educational policy, the Classical attitude might be interpreted as a strategy for an architectural and cultural rejuvenation, and as an architectural cultural attempt at designing the vision of a pluricultural Romania. For GMC offered a solution to the conflict between neo-Romanian Heimatstil and Internationalism: He considered them not as already fixed styles, but as movements. Tradition and Modernism, as GMC saw them, were not at all opposed to each other, but were, being different in nature, rather complementary to each other. With the Classical attitude GMC contributed to the debates on Classicism (Wölfflin, Klopfer) and on the "Rappel à l´ordre" (Cocteau). In terms of architectural theory, there is an astonishing closeness to Rudolf Wittkower. As a strategy for an architectural and cultural rejuvenation, the Classical attitude might be related to Schinkel´s theory of fusing of Greek Antiquity and Gothic, to the "theory of contending powers" of Colin Rowe and Fred Koetter, to Critical Regionalism or to Gerd de Bruyn´s notion of Classicism. Eventually, in a cultural and political sense, GMC´s recollection of the antique notion of symmetry astonishingly echos the notion of "dialogic" coined by French philosopher Edgar Morin (1988) as a character trait of European culture: "Europe symmetrisizes" (GMC 1947).

Die Großherzog Wilhelm Ernst Ausgabe deutscher Klassiker wurde seit 1904 bis in die Zwanziger Jahre hinein im Insel Verlag in Leipzig publiziert. Die Buchreihe hat nicht nur für den Verlag und die Druckerei Poeschel in der sie gedruckt wurde eine ganze Reihe von Neuerungen nach sich gezogen, auch für den deutschen Buchmarkt hat die Klassikerausgabe einen Meilenstein bedeutet. Sie hat einige Eigenschaften des Taschenbuches vorweggenommen. Sie orientierte sich an der Qualität bibliophiler Buchpublikationen, aber war dennoch preislich erschwinglich. Zeitgenössische Klassikerausgaben erschienen zumeist mit einem Kommentar. Nicht so die Großherzog Wilhelm Ernst Ausgabe. Der Text wurde zwar von führenden Wissenschaftlern editiert, aber sie war dennoch unkommentiert. Der Text war in einer Jenson-Antiqua gesetzt obwohl die Debatte um individuell gestaltete Künstlerschriften und die Diskussion um die als deutsche Schrift begriffene Fraktur unter den wichtigsten Protagonisten des deutschen Buchgewerbes ihren Höhepunkt noch nicht erreicht hatte. Ziel für die Klassikerausgabe war darüber hinaus, das zur Jahrhundertwende leicht angestaubte Image der Stadt Weimar aufzupolieren. Über das Patronat des Großherzogs hinaus hätte man die Gewinne aus dem Verkauf der Bücher der Permanenten Ausstellung für die Anschaffung von modernen Kunstobjekten zur Verfügung stellen wollen, die unter der Leitung von Harry Graf Kessler stand. Sieht man den Inhalt der Werke der in der Klassikerreihe erschienen Dichter Goethe, Schiller und Körner in einem ästhetischen Kontext mit dem der Philosophen Schopenhauer und Kant, wird im Spiegel der Formalästhetik der Klassikerausgabe Graf Kesslers Bildungs- und Kulturbegriff erkennbar, der sich in den Jahren nach der Jahrhundertwende zu seinem Lebenskunstideal verdichtete. Der zerrütteten Existenz der Zeitgenossen, wie Friedrich Nietzsche sie beschrieben hatte, sollte der Inhalt der Ausgabe in seiner modernen Form eine moderne Wertehaltung entgegensetzen. Die Lektüre der Klassiker sollte den deutschen Philister "entkrampfen" und ihm ein Stück der verloren geglaubten Lebensfreude wieder zurück bringen, in dem dieser auch die Facetten des Lebensleids als normal hinnehmen und akzeptieren lernte. Die Klassikerausgabe repräsentierte aus diesem Grund auch den kulturellen und politischen Reformwillen und die gesellschaftlichen Vorstellungen die der Graf für ein modernes Deutschland als überfällig erachtete. Die Buchreihe war aus diesem Grund auch ein politisches Statement gegen die Beharrungskräfte im deutschen Kaiserreich. Die Klassikerreihe wurde in der buchhistorischen Forschung zwar als bedeutender Meilenstein charakterisiert und als "wichtiges" oder gar "revolutionäres" Werk der Zeit hervorgehoben, die Ergebnisse der Forschung kann man überspitzt aber in der Aussage zusammenfassen, dass es sich bei der Großherzog Wilhelm Ernst Ausgabe um einen "zufälligen Glückstreffer" deutscher Buchgestaltung zu handeln scheint. Zumindest lassen die Aussagen, die bisher in dieser Hinsicht gemacht wurden, keine eindeutige Einordnung zu, außer vielleicht der, dass die Klassiker von der englischen Lebensreform inspiriert wurden und Henry van de Velde und William Morris einen Einfluss auf ihre äußere Form hatten. Gerade die Gedankenansätze dieser Beiden nutzte Graf Kessler aber für eigene Überlegungen, die ihn schließlich auch zu eigenen Vorstellungen von idealer Buchgestaltung brachten. Da für Kessler auch Gebrauchsgegenstände Kunst sein konnten, wird das Konzept der Klassikerausgabe bis zur Umsetzung in ihrer `bahnbrechenden´ Form in das ideengeschichtliche und ästhetische Denken des Grafen eingeordnet. Die Klassiker werden zwar in buchhistorischen Einzeluntersuchungen bezüglich ihrer Komponenten, dem Dünndruckpapier, ihrem Einband oder der Schrifttype exponiert. In buchwissenschaftlichen Überblicksdarstellungen wird ihr Einfluss hingegen weniger beachtet, denn verschiedene Kritiker bezogen sie seit ihrem ersten Erscheinen nicht als deutsches Kulturgut mit ein, denn sie lehnten sowohl die englischen Mitarbeiter Emery Walker, Edward Johnston, Eric Gill und Douglas Cockerell wie auch ihre Gestaltung als "welsche" Buchausgabe ab. Richtig ist, die Großherzog Wilhelm Ernst Ausgabe hatte dieselbe Funktion wie die von Graf Kessler in Weimar konzipierten Kunstausstellungen und die dortige Kunstschule unter der Leitung seines Freundes Henry van de Velde. Auch das für Weimar geplante Theater, das unter der Leitung von Hugo von Hofmannsthal hätte stehen sollen und die Großherzog Wilhelm Ernst Schule, hätten dieselben Ideen der Moderne mit anderen Mitteln transportieren sollen, wie die Großherzog Wilhelm Ernst Ausgabe deutscher Klassiker. ; The Grand Duke Wilhelm Ernst Edition of German Classics was published by the Insel Verlag in Leipzig from 1904 well into the 1920s. While this series of books obviously sparked a range of innovations at both the publishing house and the printer Poeschel, the overall impact of the series was much wider, and as a whole it represents a significant milestone in the development of the modern German book market. In many ways, the series already anticipated some of the characteristics of the modern paperback. The level of quality echoed that of serious literary publications, but the pricing was reasonable. The Großherzog Wilhelm Ernst series appeared without commentary, in stark contrast to other editions of the classics at the time. The text itself was edited by leading literary experts, but the content was delivered "pure". The books were typeset in Jenson-Antiqua; this at a time when the entire debate between new artistic typefaces and Fraktur, i.e. the "old German" script, hadn't even reached the main players in German publishing. One of the goals of this fresh repackaging of the classics was to give a new shine to Weimar's slightly dusty image as a city. Thanks to the patronage of the Grand Duke Wilhelm himself, it was planned that the profits from sales of the books would be made available to Weimar's Permanent Exhibition, managed by Harry Graf Kessler, for the purchase of modern art objects. Looking at how the series juxtaposes works of the poetic writers Goethe, Schiller and Koerner with the philosophical ideas of Schopenhauer and Kant, and brilliantly packages them all into a publishing work of such beauty, one can see Graf Kessler's concepts of education and culture clearly reflected in both the content and the form. These are the concepts he slowly solidified into an ideal "art of living" in the years just after the turn of the century. The rotten, decayed existence of contemporary man as Friedrich Nietzsche had viewed it, was to be answered with a set of modern values firmly rooted in the classics. Reading the classics was meant to "uncramp" the German philistine and bring him back a piece of his supposedly lost joy of life by learning to see life's suffering and accept it as normal. For this reason, the Großherzog Wilhelm Ernst series of classics also embodied a slightly subversive will for political and cultural reform, as well as a spark of social imagination that Graf Kessler viewed as long overdue in a modern Germany. In effect, the series was a political statement against the conservative elements of the German Kaiserreich. Although researchers have characterised the series as a milestone and even gone so far as to label it an "important" or even "revolutionary" work for its time, the general opinion of these literary historians can be curtly summarised by saying that the great success of Großherzog Wilhelm Ernst editions was little more than a "happy accident." Their statements do not attribute any serious weight to the series, other than occasionally mentioning that it was inspired by the English arts and crafts movement, and that Henry van de Velde and William Morris had an influence on its appearance. But it was actually the fundamental ideas of these two men rather than just their design approach that Graf Kessler had used as a basis for further developing his own ideal approach to book publishing – and to other areas. Kessler was clear that everyday objects could also be works of art, so the very concept of a new edition of the classics and its groundbreaking execution is clearly an expression of the Graf's views of philosophical history and his aesthetic thinking. In literary research, the series is occasionally praised for specifics such as the quality and feel of its thin paper, its binding and its typeface. But in historical literary summaries, scant attention is paid to the overall influence of the series because many critics of the time simply excluded it from consideration as a work of German culture. They rejected the involvement of English employees such as Emery Walker, Edward Johnston, Eric Gill and Douglas Cockerell, and dismissed the "garden variety" design of the books. What is clear is the Grand Duke Wilhelm Ernst Edition of German Classics did indeed have a very serious purpose; one that was shared by nearly all of Kessler's projects. Like the art exhibitions he conceived for Weimar, like the establishment of Art Academy under the care of his friend Henry van de Velde, like the Grand Duke Wilhelm Ernst School, and like the planned theatre for Weimar that was to have been led by Hugo von Hofmannsthal, the Großherzog Wilhelm Ernst series had a serious, somewhat provocative purpose: to unite art with life, to make the classics relevant to the common man, and in so doing, inject a breath of creativity into the stifled society of Germany under the Kaisers.

Tutkimuksen kohteena on kolmen maailmanhistorian perusrakennetta käsitellen metahistorijoitsijan Yhdysvalloissa saama vastaanotto. Amerikkalaisen Brooks Adamsin pääteos The Law of Civilization and Decay ilmestyi 1896, saksalaisen Oswald Spenglerin Der Untergang des Abendlandes 1918-22(engl. The Decline of the West I-II 1926-28) ja englantilaisen Arnold J.Toynbeen 12-osainen A Study of History 1933-61. Tutkimus perustuu laajaan aikalaiskirjallisuuteen, erityisesti käsiteltävistä teoksista johtavisssa tieteellisissä ja kulttuurilehdissä julkaistuihin arviointeihin. Työ jakautuu yhdeksään päälukuun jossa esitellään kunkin globaaalihistorijoitsijan teoriat sekä aikalaisreseption avulla selvitetään em. historianfilosofien vaikutusta Yhdysvaltalaisen liberaalin eliitin tulkintaan Amerikan roolista maailmanhistoriassa. Tutkimus osoittaa, yleisellä tasolla, että aina Puritaanien maailmanreformaation ajatuksesta Francis Fukuyaman Historian loppu - teoriaan saakka globaalista historiaa koskevilla teorioilla on ollut suurempi merkitys Yhdysvalloissa kuin Euroopassa. Yhdysvaltain poliittisen eliitin piirissä erityisesti debatilla sivilisaatio-käsitteen sisällöstä on ollut keskeinen sija Amerikan maailmanpoliittisen roolin hahmottamisessa. Yhdysvaltain liberaalien näkökannan mukaan Valistuksen aatteisiin perustuva nykyaikaistuminen tuli suorittaa Yhdysvaltain johdolla ja Amerikkalaisen sivilisaation periaatteet vallitseviksi koko maailmassa. Aihe on tutkimuksen ­ ja nykyisen maailmantilanteen ymmärtämisen kannalta ajankohtainen. Yhdysvalloissa on syntynyt laaja maailmanhistoriaa kokonaisuutena käsittelevä globaalisen historian koulukunta. Tämä oppiala on noussut yleisen historian erääksi merkittävimmäksi osa-alueeksi. (Globaalinen historia pohtii senkaltaisia kysymyksiä, kuin mitkä olivat maailmanhistorian yhdistävät teemat? johtiko kadonneiden sivilisaatioiden tuhoon valloittajien sotakoneet, vai heidän mukanaan tuomansa mikrobit? johtavatko suuriksi uskonnoiksi muodostuneet aatteet sivilisaatioprosessia?. etc.) Väitöskirja selvittää osin Adamsin, Spenglerin ja Toynbeen osuutta globaalisen historian oppialan syntyyn Yhdysvalloissa. Brooks Adamsin (1848-1927) merkitys globaalisen historian ja globalisaatioteorian pioneerina on jäänyt hänen kuuluisamman historijaveljensä Henryn varjoon. Brooks Adams, Bostonilainen patriisi ja presidentti Theodore Rooseveltin taustavaikuttaja hahmotteli 1900-luvun alkuvuosikymmeninä Yhdysvaltain maailmanvallan ympärille luotavaa maailmanjärjestystä: korporaatioiden ja kovan tieteen hallitsemaa maailmaa, vapaakauppaa, sekä arvoista ja ympäristöstä riippumatonta hallintotapaa, joka on eksakti ja tehokas. Ensimmäisen maailmansodan jälkeen sivilisaatio ja kulttuuri käsitteiden uudelleenarviointi oli maailmanhistorian kirjoituksessa sen keskeisin teema. Tutkimus osoittaa myös, ensi kertaa transatalanttisessa kontekstissa, että Oswald Spenglerin Europassa 1919 kohua herättänyt Länsimaiden perikato saavutti myös Yhdysvalloissa 1920-luvun Jazz-kaudella New Yorkin älymystön piirissä suorastaan kulttimaineen New Yorkin lehdistössä Spenglerin uhkaava preussilainen hahmo oli kuin modernin aikakauden Cato, joka lupasi tuhoa amerikkalaistyyliselle massakulttuurille. Mutta 1930-luvun poliittisessa ympäristössä Yhdysvaltain johtavat liberaalit leimasivat Spenglerin yksimielisesti fasismin profeetaksi. Toisen maailmansodan jälkeen merkittävä englantilainen historiantutkija ja kansainvälisen politiikan vaikuttajan Arnold Toynbeen laaja uskonnollissävyinen sivilisaatiohistoria sekä Toynbee henkilönä nousi maineeseen ja asemaan, jota kenelläkään historioitsijalla Yhdysvalloissa ei ole ollut. Tutkimus osoittaa, että tämän Toynbee-ilmiön taustana oli toisaalta kylmän sodan alkuvaiheen uhkaava tilanne ja toisaalta Timen ja Lifen mahtavan kustantajan Henry L. Lucen innostus Toynbeeen selitykseen maailmanhistoriasta spirituaalisena prosessina eli Lucen luentana Toynbeen teoriasta Amerikasta kristillisen sivilisaation esitaistelijana. Arvostetun The Survey of International Affairs-julkaisun päätoimittajan Toynbeen vihamieliset lausunnot Yhdysvaltain ylimielisestä roolista maailmanpolitiikassa 1950-luvulla käänsivät kuitenkin amerikkalaisten uusliberaalien mielipiteet Toynbeetä vastaan. Tutkimus näyttää myös, että Toynbee on oppilaansa Chicagon yliopiston professori William McNeillin koulukunnan kautta keskeinen globaalisen historian oppi-isä. ; This dissertation deals with three metahistorians and their reception in the United States. American Brooks Adams published his main work The Law of Civilization and Decay 1896, German Oswald Spengler, Der Untergang des Abendlandes 1918-1922 (The Decline of the West, in English, 1926, 1928) and Englishman Arnold Toynbee A Study of History (12.vols. 1934-1961). The study is based on an extensive material dealing with the three world-historians, mainly in the leading scholarly [a majority in history and social sciences] and highbrow magazines, such as The New Republic and The Atlantic Monthly. The book is organized in nine main chapters, which include a summary of each thinker s theory of global history and their assessment of America s role in world-history; the chapters also explore through reception-analysis the American reaction to the major works of the three world-historians and the zeitgeist that informed the reviews. The study, in its general theme, demonstrates how world historical ideas from the Puritan idea of world reformation to Francis Fukuyama s End of History -hegemonic liberalism have been conceptualized by the American political and scholarly elite. The text argues that the liberal consensus of the definition of the term civilization consists in the United States mainly of modernization and Enlightenment values which are expected to bring positive changes to the world through emancipation, freedom, and material affluence. This progressive description of the liberal paradigm which the pessimistic metahistories, and the prophets of decline, in spite of their brief popularity in the U.S. tried to depose could not, in the final analysis, be defeated. The study also argues that, because of its perennial concern for civilization [the American political elite from Franklin D.Roosevelt to George W. Bush use the term, in defining their world-political agendas] the United States has been more receptive to world historical explanations than Europe. Furthermore the study is important, because in the United States world-history, as an academic discipline, has returned to university curriculums. World history draws its basic agenda partly from the metahistorians, by asking questions, like: why did great civilizations collapse? what is the role of the great religions in world history? what is the role of technological modernization in the global change?. As a pioneer of global history and globalization theory Brooks Adams (1848-1927) has not received up-dated attention from contemporary scholarship. The dissertation demonstrates how the Boston patrician partly outlined technocratic and activist policies, which his friend president Theodore Roosevelt used in order to create the American superpower. The book also demonstrates how Adams was also a pioneer in the field of global history and globalization theory, who paved the way for subsequent efforts. After the First World War the revaluation of the concepts of civilization and culture was the central theme of world-history. The breakthrough from Victorian optimism to a modernist post-war gloom focused attention to Oswald Spengler s famous world-historical interpretation The Decline of the West. The argument demonstrates in the transatlantic context, that also the cynical and disillusioned Jazz Age, Smart Set New Yorkers accepted Spengler as the prophet, who doomed the 1920s American spending spree and its mass- culture. When the political context changed in the 1930s the same New York liberals condemned Spengler as a precursor of the Nazi-movement. After the Second World War British historian, and respected expert in international politics, Arnold Toynbee and his large, spiritually flavoured, world historical synthesis A Study of History rose to the status in the United States that hardly any historian, or theory of history, has achieved. The study shows that behind this Toynbee phenomenon was, on the other hand the threatening situation at beginning of the Cold War 1947, on the other hand the enthusiasm of the Time-Life-Fortune publisher Henry Luce, who presented him as a prophet of the American Century and in Luce s American reading of Toynbee s theory also as a defender of the Christian civilization. When Toynbee s opinions turned against American foreign policy, in the1950 s, and his religiosity into syncretism, American New Liberals opinion turned heavily against the superhistorian. The study shows also that through his pupil William McNeill, and his Chicago school of world- historians, Toynbee is one of the founders of the contemporary discipline of world-history writing.

The Mercury October, 1908 HEW THOSE WHO HELP US. The Intercollegiate Bureau of Academic Costume. Cotrell & Leonard, ALBANY, N. Y. Makers of CAPS AND GOWNS i'o Gettysburg College, Lafayette, Lehigh, Dickinson, State College, Univ. of Penn B.i Ivnnia, Harvard, Yale, Princeton, "Wellesley, Bryn Mawr and the others. Class Contracts a Specialty. Correct Hoods ^ Degrees. Right Now is not too soon for the senior, the college man, to let us know whether he would be interested in any sort of an office, sales, tech-nical or teaching position. Your choice of location and lines of business. Twelve offices covering the entire country, each operat-ing a department for college men. Write stating line of education and location desired. Hp.pGrB©B THE MERCUKY. extent brought under the influence of a force over which he has little or no control. So great is the power of tradition, that many are wondering what really is the attitude of the present undergraduates in ques-lions of truth and falsehood, than which nothing can be of greater importance, if the practical end of a college course is to be "training good members of society." Do our students have any dominating sense of honor, or are they predominantly gov-erned by the stray survivals of an impalpable and damaging tra-dition ? Behold, says the world to the college, you have received our choicest young men, you are training those who are to be the iiower of our citizenship, the leaders of men, yet you surround them with an atmosphere smirched with the vestiges of a past which knew neither the glory nor the honor of our democracy. The skeptic sees in the little college world only a false and de-cisive transcript of the larger world. He wonders when students will cease their imitation of the small boy, who one minute reads the riot-act of manly independence, and the next pleads the baby-act of thoughtless irresponsibility. He wonders when fac-ulties will cease their skipping about from "in loco parentis" to '.he "on honor" theory. Those best able to learn the attitude of students toward ques-tions of truth and falsehood find much that is encouraging. None set for college officers a standard of honor so sensitively' high. Disingemiousness in a professor the students find intol-erable, and once discovered it may mean the permanent blasting of his usefulness. A man may lack extraordinary personal .•harm, he may yet gain and keep the confidence of the students by scrupulous candor in all his intercourse with them, but lack of this element of frankness is sure to call forth their condem-nation. In no department of life can you find a loftier standard than the one which students have set for themselves in their athletic "iiaining. If athletics were not accomplishing anything else that is worth while, the fact that they get and keep a lot of young men "in training," renders justifiable their demand for con-tinued support. To the extent of rigidity has the standard of honor in .atliletic training been elevated. A student has no J THE MERCURY. purer means of branding himself than the breaking of training. And what body of more mature men has a finer sense of what constitutes leadership? No one, therefore, need seriously fear that undergraduates are without a keen ethical perception. And yet, in spite of these healthy signs, we cannot disregard 'he discouraging observations of a scrutinizing world. It sees in the average undergraduate such little sense of proportion: open and gentlemanly as he is, he appears honest and honorable only in spots. A manufacturer requires that into the product of his plant his workmen shall put honest material and honest toil,—his success depends upon that requirement. Need we wonder that he should grow impatient with our institutions of learning, which claim to enroll the choice youth of an enlightened country, when so much of the work turned out by them has the ear-marks of dishonesty, —not to speak of the vast amount of work that is never done at all? Can the college rightly expect much sympathy from the man of business, when he observes so many annually leaving col-lege walls who have never learned the real meaning of work, never practiced strenuous industry or appreciated the value of iime? The community would not feel so keenly disappointed with the growing numbers who go to college more for the social life than for learning, if that social life were invigorated to a greater extent by the moralities which govern society at large, :md if it had at least a more certain tendency to promote the greatest of all arts, the art of living. Is the judgment of the world too harsh ? Is it not too exact-ing to demand that youthful immaturity be subjected to the ligid standards which logic and the community at large seem to approve ? Only those yet under the charm of tradition—be they slumni, faculty or undergraduates—look with complacency upon the happy-go-lucky codes the extravagances and distortions of our colleges. But happily the number of these is decreasing, and never before, we believe, has the time been so propituous for the obliteration of this damaging tradition. This is true even among the undergraduates themselves. They ma}' not be desir-ing increased supervision or more stringent regulation, but a great majority of them stand ready to be released from false-standards and to adopt sound and sane ones in their stead. C THE MERCURY. Is it just that the picked young men of America should any longer be brought into and permitted to perpetuate a delusive-atmosphere? An atmosphere in which acts of obvious dis-honesty and vice and inhumanity are socially elevated and put into good repute, when the perpetrators should be put into bad repute, certainly deserves no place in an enlightened country 'ike our own. Undergraduates are free to confess that in their excesses quite frequently they are but following custom and can oiler no other excuse; and by their very manner many of them indicate that a higher standard is struggling to gain ascendency. Who shall assist them in completely throwing off the cruel rhackles of tradition, or must they effect their own deliverance? If the purifying and the uplifting of college honor is to pro-gress, along sane and invigorating lines, what greater service can be rendered the undergraduates than to place among them a vigorous, guiding personality,—not a college officer, but one who, sympathizing with the students' own point of view, can liberate Ihem and act as their interpreter and guide. THREE SENSES, BUT A COMPLETE SOUL. MARY HAY HIMES, 'OS. JELEN KELLEB'S name is already too familiar to each of you to need a special introduction. The world of to-day knows it well and has accorded to its owner not a little fame because of her attainments. Though Miss Keller has to do without both hearing and sight she has achieved a position among her fellowmen which we must, in the circum-stances, recognize as surprising. She is now twenty-seven years old and her education has served to make her a writer of no mean ability. She is a college girl, having been graduated from Radeliff with the degree of A.B., in 1904, and she is now entering upon a career of service io bo wrought both by her own hands and through influencing ••(hers to favor and aid beneficent undertakings. But whatever THE MJ5RCURY. rhe does she will not neglect the task of improving her mind and she will continue to write. She has had the unusual privilege of knowing intimately many of the great men of her day such as Phillips Brooks who was her main instructor in things religious, Henry Drummond the mem-ory of whose strong warm handclasp she likened to a benediction, Oliver Wendell Holmes whom she called her beloved poet, John (Treanleal' Whitticr in whose home she visited the summer before he died, Edward Everett Hale whose friendship helped her over many of the rough places, Mark Twain from whose lips she read one or two of his good stories, and Joseph Jefferson who acted for her in private the most striking parts of a number of his plays ro that her education even in this line is not so defective as one might naturally suppose. Of these, her friends, she has written: "In a thousand ways they have turned my limitations into beau- : if ill privileges and enabled me to walk serene and happy in the shadow cast by my deprivation." Books have meant much more in Helen Keller's education than in that of others for they serve to bring knowledge to her which comes to an ordinary person through his eyes and ears. She has read widely and is thoroughly familiar with a large num- .,er of the best works in prose and poetry. She says literature is her "Utopia for no barrier of sense shuts her out from the dis-course of her book-friends. All these things have broadened and enriched Helen Keller's mind so that she is well fitted to exercise her natural bent to writing which lias won for her the excellent place that she oc-cupies in the literary world. She has written for many of this country's best periodicals and has been asked to speak in state legislatures and at hospital dedications in the cause of the deaf and blind! Her book called "The Story of My Life," has been sold by the thousands, and her articles which have lately been oublished in the "Century" are of unique merit. It seems nowise unfit ihat Miss Keller should be regarded as one of the most wonderful women that have ever lived when we note that she has attained this high position in spite of the fact that she has been deprived of the two of the five senses which are of such paramount importance to each one of us that we depend on them almost entirely, paying hardly any attention to the cul- 10 THE MERCURY. tivation or use of the three upon which she must depend alto-gether. Some of the knowledge which would generally come to one through his eyes and ears is brought to Helen Keller by taste, touch, and smell. Through these three senses sounds and shapes penetrate her consciousness and by certain mental processes of adding, multiplying, comparing what these senses bring her she gets definite ideas of whole objects, distance, degree and differ-mce. But there are concepts whose getting belongs to hearing or sight so particularly that we would think it impossible for a deaf-blind person to obtain them, no matter how high might be the cultivation of his three remaining senses. A great gulf here opens dividing the deaf-blind person from the hearing and seeing world. Yet in the case of Miss Keller we find no gulf there, for her soul in its activity and completeness reaches out and fills up the void. She makes use of the analogy between the material and the soul worlds and from the very fulness of her inner life is able to "mploy that whicli in her case has no correspondent without, to give her knowledge of that which her senses can never reveal. So far as the appreciation of music is concerned, she may have far better understanding of its nature than many a person with bearing ears but without any soul-intelligence to interpret what, through them, comes to him. We are made to feel this from her own account: "Sweet, beautiful vibrations exist for my touch even though they travel through other substances than air to i-each me. So I imagine sweet, delightful sounds and the artis-tic arrangement of them which is called music, and T remember '.hat they travel through the air to the ear conveying impressions somewhat like mine. I also know what tones are since they are perceptible factually in a voice." Her ideas of things which are revealed to us through our eyes are not lacking in clearness. She thus describes the way she gets her concept of color: "I have talked so much and read so much about colors that through no will of my own I attach mean-ings to them just as all people attach certain meanings to ab-stract terms like hope, idealism, monotheism, intellect, which cannot be represented truly by visual objects." Again she says: "The flash of thought and its swiftness explain the lightening's THE MEUCLTRY. H flash and the sweep of a comet through the heavens. My mental .-ky opens to me the vast celestial spaces and I proceed to £11 them with the images of my spiritual stars. I recognize truth by the clearness and the guidance that it gives my thought, and knowing what that clearness is I can imagine what light is to the eye. The utmost bound to which my thought will go is the horizon of my mind. From this horizon I imagine the one which the eye marks." It is only when we awake to self-consciousness that we begin to think. The awakening of the soul must come before we can know how to use the knowledge which reaches us through our reuses. There are persons who, having all five senses yet walk blind in the midst of the beauty which can only be seen through • lie windows of the soul. "Our blindness," says Helen Keller^ '•'changes not a whit the course of inner realities. Of us it is as true as it is of the seeing that the most beautiful world is always entering through the imagination. Faith is a mockery if it Reaches us not that we may construct a world unspeakably more complete and beautiful than the material world. And I, too, may construct my better world, for I am a child of God, an in-heritor of a fragment of the Mind that created all worlds." Indeed as we read the works of Helen Keller we often be-come conscious of the flutter of the spirit wings and we feel that in her flights of soul we axe somehow uplifted and refined. All this tells a wonderful story about the real nature of the soul, its dignity, energy, and power. It puts to route those phi-losophers who would hold this wonderful part of man subject to the petty rule of flesh, who claim that the possession of all five senses is necessary for a full and complete knowledge,—that the soul is dependent upon sense for its full life. It shows the soul to be something separate and apart from the body in which it dwells and utterly independent of it. The loss of any of the senses affects one's soul as little as the loss of a hand or foot would affect his personality. The soul has wonderful capabilities of growth and action which nothing but its own will need limit. Nothing need be a prison-house to the spirit, such power does it possess. It has KIeh unexplainable and wonderful qualities as man has always been drawn by his nature to reverence and worship—truly he 12 TUB MERCURY. bas been made a little lower than the angels. It is the soul which each man must respect within himself. Of what significance, then, is this in disclosing the nature of" the life of the sonl? If the soul is not affected by the small changes as they occur in the body, will the final destruction of the body by death lay chains upon the spirit and drag it down to nothingness? If man were a merely natural being, Nature's des-tiny would be his also; but we have seen that the soul is super-natural, able to mount over the barriers imposed upon the na-tural, and therefore deserving a different fate. What then do we face but immortality ? If eternity be not for the soul, man's very greatness, his capacity for thought and action and for ideals were direst mockery! Is it not rather that the soul sojourns-here for a time in the physical body as in a prison from which death will set it free to dwell forever in that unseen world where its real interests are and where it will remain after all earthly end material things have passed away? Having the great gift of eternity and a soul active and power-ful to do what it will, does not one's destiny rest in his own hands? If he learns to enjoy the soul-world by thinking of it here and earning a place in it surely happiness will await him in the future. We have seen that Helen Keller is making wonderful use of" her powers and know that she is building firm and strong. Her wonderfully courageous fight stands a firm rebuke to our sloth-ful spirits, and her victories in overcoming the obstacles in her way hold great encouragement for those on the verge of despair. THE MERCURY. 13.-. A CLEAR AND A GLOOMY DAY AT COLLEGE. L. W. TAYLOR, '08. HE day dawns gloomily, and at the last possible moment the heavy-eyed student rolls out of bed and gazes through a streaming window into the dense fog which has settled over all the campus, hiding from view every beautiful feature of the place. No vigorous heart-beats stir his torpid blood as he buttons his raincoat about him in anticipa-tion of the weary trip to breakfast and the not-altogether enjoy-able chapel service following. But such a day must be endured, and the only remedy is to dispel the gloom and forget the rain—if possible. The college student is an adept at this and although all is dismal without. the dormitories seem filled with merriment. The pipes are pro-duced, and dense clouds of smoke soon arise and fill the atmos-phere as though in opposition to the clouds of mist outside. Here and there groups of students settle down to a friendly game of cards, while others, perhaps, coil upon a pile of cushions to enjoy an interesting book. From various quarters comes the tinkling of mandolins and guitars, sometimes accompanied by snatches of song. But despite all this assumed gayety, everyone feels a spirit of' depression which he cannot well shake off. It follows him about, hinders him in his work, making all seem drudgery, and lurks nearby in his pastime although it may be forgotten for a short while. And as evening approaches, this feeling of confinement becomes worse and worse until it is well nigh unbearable, and darkness 'settles down over a restless and disconcerted person who feels that the day has gone for naught. But bow different the clay which dawns brightly upon a fresh, green world. The student arises early, wakened by the gay ••hatter of birds, and the bright sunbeams which stream in through his window. He springs up with energy and feels the-oright red blood coursing through his veins and filling his whole being with the joy of life He faces the day with eagerness, and the spirit of achievement is strong within him. Chapel appears .ess odious, and he looks forward to recitatior«^kl^teas^£?«'**^^ | GETTYSBURG COLLEGE | i Gettysburg, Pa, - LIBRARY - 14 THE MERCDET. Such a clay fills the whole place with gayety and college seems u veritable paradise in which youth and energy abound. The pastimes are now out in the open where no walks confine, and where fresh breezes bring health and vitality to all. The tennis courts -are filled with white-garbed figures, while from Nixon irield resounds the crack of the bat as it sends the leather sphere out to some expectant hand. The brawny arms of clean-limbed f.thletes of the more classic sort,can be seen flashing in the sun-light as they circle the track with strong strides. Others indulge their freedom by strolling out over the battle-field, some in quest of botany specimens, some in the interests of geology, and many simply for the invigoration afforded by the pure air and sunshine. When darkness falls, the students are still loath to confine themselves within four walls, and so they stroll along the streets of the historical college town, and perchance when the moon .•ioods the campus with soft light, they gather on the steps of '•Old Dorm" and sing, or enjoy the peace of evening in medita-tive silence, thus ending n day filled with many joys and rich in life for all. j* SHOULD THE SCHOOL TERM IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS BE REDUCED TO EIGHT MONTHS? L. VAN DOREN,. '09. 8HE question of reducing the school, term in the public-schools from nine to eight months has been uppermost among the questions that have been troubling the minds of the men who have to attend to the welfare of our schools. The school term should not be reduced to eight months, be-cause the general age of the pupil in the public schools is under twelve years, and they are at the very age when they are learn-ing the rudiments of the different branches and getting the foun-dation upon which to build their lives; also they are at that age when they most easily forget what they are being taught, for THE MEKCURY. 15 their past experiences are few and they are continually passing through new experiences, which tend to drive out the training they are receiving from day to day in the school room. There-fore, to reduce the school term to eight months would be giving ;Jiese forces one extra month in which to work, and it would take twice that time to replace what would be lost, so instead of gain-ing a month it would be losing three. Also when the child is out of school he is free from the disci-pline which there exists. Some may say, he is under the home-rule. That is very true but the home-rule is in very few cases as strict as the discipline of the school room, and it can not be as stringent, for every one knows that in the school room the child ■s continually under the eye of his teacher, whereas at home, if he were there, for nine times out of ten after school hours he is roaming around with his comrades and is under no discipline at all—his parents have their domestic duties to attend to and are unable to keep a close watch upon him. So to give the child one month more of freedom from school-room discipline would not be to his advantage, but rather it would be detrimental to his childhood training. It is undoubtedly true that the children become very tired of being shut up in the school room during the spring and long to be free to roam wherever they may choose, and this very long- 'ng suggests a reason for not reducing the school term to eight months. The fact that a large number of the children loiter around after school hours with their companions is no reason for not reducing the school term, but the fact that they do not loiter inerely with their child companions but instead, around the street corners and other places is an argument against it. Here they come in contact with all kinds of people and see what those, some years older than they, are doing, such as smoking and chew-ing, and hear obscene language which is extremely disadvanta-geous to the training of the moral elements in the child. When the child sees or hears these things what does he do? Does he run away? No, he docs the exact opposite; he remains longer than he would otherwise have done, he is not satisfied with what hehasscenor heard but he wishes to see and hear more, and it docs not stop with the mere seeing and hearing; the child wishes to be like those who do these things, and thinks he is elevated to a 1G THE MERCURY. Uglier plane if he takes a smoke or uses curse words. He is sadly mistaken, for instead of being elevated, he is being de-graded. Therefore if the school term were reduced to eight months, he would be given one month more in which to mingle with this element, which works against his moral character. Thus there are three reasons, and very essential reasons too. why the school term in the public schools should not be reduced to eight months. In the first place the child would be deprived of a month's training in the fundamentals when it is the most opportune time; secondly, he would be free from the school-room discipline an extra month, and lastly, he would be given one more month in which to associate with that class of persons who stand on the street corners and in other public places. SIMILARITY OF PURSUITS THE BASIS OF FELLOWSHIP. G. L. KIEFFER, '09. XDIVIDUALS in this world are all prone to seek com-panions. The kind of companions sought varies in proportion to the degree of development of the indi-vidual. These individuals that mutually agree to en-joy each other's fellowship must certainly have as their posses-sion some common ground, where all differences disappear. This r-ommon ground quite frequently proves to be a similarity of pur-suit. In harmony with this fact is the old saying: "Birds of a feather flock together." Who has not seen, or read about, the old country store gathering. Here the farmer is wont to meet his neighbor for an evening's fellowship, mutually desired and en-joyed. This fact of similarity of pursuits being the basis of fellow-ship is not alone true of the laboring class. It is also true of the cultured class. The coffee house in the days of Ben Johnson was the fellowship club of the literary lights of that age. Here they met and enjoyed each other's wit and humor as well as shared each other's troubles. THE MERCURY. 17 The fact that similarity of pursuits is the basis of fellowship is ; hewn in the manner in which those who are following the same line of work are banded together. We, to-day, have the great labor unions' as an outgrowth of this among the laboring class. In higher walks of life are found this association and that asso-ciation. Banded together for each other's protection and develop-ment, these unions and associations are quite a factor, working for the betterment of humanity's condition of life. The strong characters thus intimately associated with the weak possess a great opportunity for living a life according to their Master's com-mands. Granted these associations carry with them evils, never-theless the benefits outweigh them. Therefore, in time past as well as at the present time, indi- \iduals who have had the common ground of similarity of pur-suits have banded themselves together in order that they might enjoy each other's fellowship. In all walks of life this has been true. It is likewise true that the benefits to the individuals of these bonds of fellowship can hardly be estimated. THE INEXORABLE IN THE WORLD. HESSE, '09. JWENTY and one half centuries ago, there lived, in beau-tiful Greece, a childlike and simple hearted people, but endowed with intellects that shone as the stars in their own wonderful heavens. Of experimental science they had none, but their intuition and reason led them to experience the loftiest thought and the profoundest emotions that fill the imman breast. They attained the heights of intellect we must strive in vain •■ompletely to comprehend, and they laid the foundation for modern culture in its length and breadth. They reveled in meta-physical speculations, they looked through the stars and through the multitudinous phenomena of earth, and saw within the com-plexity of all a oneness which they called the universe. Nor is there a theory of modern science or philosophy which in its 18 THE MERCURY. broad outlines they had not conceived. In the sixtli century before Christ there was taught the doctrine of creation by evolu-tion, the nebular hypothesis, the indestructibility of matter and the conservation of energy, the sphericity of the earth, the fact of sex in plants, as well as in animals, and their theory of music has never been changed. They recognized order, plan, and design in this cosmos of theirs, and so affirmed mind as its author. As those old Greeks had grasped the fundamental conceptions which are necessary to understand natural law in the material universe, so, too, by a native insight they grasped the ethical principles of the world. They felt themselves to be free-willed personalities, but they saw with crystaline vision that man, in order to find safety and perfect freedom, must have a will sub-servient to the laws set in order by the Divine Creative Mind, and that a will out of harmony with these laws incurs peril, tem-poral and external. During those early days the laws in physics, optics, chemistry. ,«md biology were unknown, and will was recognized as the only force capable of initiating motion. Accordingly, those old 'Greeks created, by their vivid imagination, gods invested with power to rule over certain definite spheres of human activity. Nevertheless, they were conscious that back of even Father Zeus liimself, there was a mysterious, an inexorable something, to which, with their most vivid imagination, they could not assign a personal existence in the home of the gods on high Olympus. The Greek philosopher was struck with awe, as he contemplated this mystery underlying his fanciful explanation of the move-ments in nature. He realized the presence of a force which lie oould not attribute to the capricious gods. He felt the cold hand of stern necessity, of unbending compulsion, that inexorable Power, which is no respector of persons, and to which all crea-tion is obedient, the great cause of the perpetuity of the world. He saw it manifested in (lie composition of the elements and represented graphically by the starry heavens. To him it was Ihe soul of all natural phenomena and the absolute authority over the hearts of men. The Greeks, in their thought were striving to represent this inexorable Power, and to that end, created a word. They spoke of it as avayKrj and to it they resigned self. Sopocles, in THE MERCURY. 19 that magnificent tragedy, "Oedippus Bex," says, "Not even the gods fight against amy/c^. And Aeschylus, in the Promotheus Bound, tell how, in the beginning, poor pitiable mortals were crashed through their ignorance of natural laws and forces, hav-ing no power of development, and that at length rejected and given over to destruction by the Olymphic Zeus. He tells how, in their blindness to the means of development which avayK^ afforded, they suffered untold pain and woe. They failed to re-alize that existence is a struggle in which the victory is not to tiie strong but to those whose souls are atune with the eternal plan of progress. Mortals seemingly were helpless, but upon re-ceiving fire, "the teacher of every useful art," there was opened to them illimitable resources. Science was born, and by learning. dowly and painfully, the workings of the universe, man was raised to a higher plane of living. Centuries have rolled by, and man himself has become a god. AVe have advanced until we are conscious that all natural forces invite us to rise higher in material development by cdping with opposition. The idea of limitation and the laws of nature that stand seemingly in opposition to our physical, mental, and moral development may be considered as the dark avay/o? of the ancient Greeks, and yet in reality it is merely the necessary op-position by which action is made possible. There could be no flight of birds, if it were not for the change-less law of gravitation and the defiance of ethereal space. Our fouls could not soar to higher worlds, and, in our intellectual and • loral struggles we should fail, but for the very defiance we meet. 't is the order of things yet to some, it is so dark and fearful. But why should it be? It is but rational to accept the limita-tions which He who made the world has set as the boundaries of-human activity. Endowed with an immortal soul and placed in, a vast theatre of struggle, a man so often surrenders to the evils, that he meets. His confidence in the All Wise fails, he rebells,. and succumbs to fate. The purpose of the Infinite remains obscure, but the wisdom of' ihe plan which he has adopted is being revealed and its justice, •indicated, as age after age pushes back the horizon of knowl-edge. We are now standing in the morning twilight of a new era of thought, and, as we read the message of the past, we see 20 'J'KE MERCURY. the problems which perplexed the ancient mind, in a measure ceing solved. As solution follows solution, there opens to our view mysteries of wider scope. Human interests are essentially the same, but humanity drinks from a larger cup of bliss than ever before. As dark shadows disappear and the boundaries of Ignorance recede, we enlarge our horizon. The periphery of the universe expands, and in realms growing still more vast avoy/07 the inexorable, appears, as a legion of mysterious forces and influences, drawing out and showing human aspira-tions in an intricacy of thought and action. No longer do we. as did the children of Mars, march to certain death upon the field of battle and call it fate. But, while understanding so much of the mystery of existence from the starry heavens to the microscopic world, while recognizing the reign of law as inexora-ble, we know comparatively nothing of the problems that re-main. There are principles we can not fathom for they grow darker as we seek their significance. These are appalling fea-tures that bind and hold the race in their iron grasp. Society hems us in on every side. There are boundaries im-movable. The individual, born to act within his sphere, the physical, mental, and spiritual limitations of which there is ab-solutely no hope of crossing, is as really hound by the hand of fate, as was Promotheus of old. We are doomed to play our role in the drama of life within a certain narrow sphere. The law of heredity and our personal contact with the outer world bind and keep us closer than would the eye of a jealous Grecian deity. We are under the law, and violation of natural laws brings about unnatural conditions. Perpetration of deeds, unnatu-ral, breeds in humanity tendencies to repeat crime even to the fifth generation. This, indeed, is determinism. It is the avayKrj of the nncient Greeks. They whom such fate overtakes are of mortal ones most to be pitied. The old Grecian idea of avay/oj comprehends all such, yet the principle is that of eternal justice which is enthroned high above the limitations of man's understanding. Stern necessity, the inexorable bond which obtains in this uni-verse of law and order must be considered as the hand board di-recting man. It points out a perilous way, but it will lead, Rventually, to more perfect human relations. ITIJS MERCURY. The harmonious stream of existence follows inexorable law. .All is harmony, yet unintelligible to the passing multitudes, who-through selfishness and by acts of rebellious will toll a sad knelL and depart forever. But, the imperishable stream flows on. He who would be wise embarks and.acts according to the light he has. Outside of the light, or in realms unexplored, there is abso-hitely no mercy for him who seeks to break the limitations set by law. The ancient Greeks with their partial insight bowed in sub-mission before the inexorable; not only they, but their Olympian gods as well. Dim and hazy, felt rather than seen, and having no habitation as did Zeus, this illimitable power never became anthropomorphic. It was never a Father into whose face they amid look- and say, "Thy will be done." Rather they surren-dered to an unknown, impersonal necessity whose decree was in-evitable We recognize the same power manifesting itself in the physical world, and we call it natural law; and in the world of humanity, we call it, in the fine phrase of Matthew Arnold, "The power in history, not ourselves, which makes for righteous-ness." FEUDS IN OUR RURAL COMMUNITIES, bo|raa^!'*' [ GEfTYSBURG tc__ Gettysburg, Pa. LIBRARY - - 26 THE MERCURY. and the principal works dealing with the Confessions of the Church. In practical theology we have the complete works of Luther, devotional books, sermons and treatises, some in pamph-let form, others in the original manuscript. Some of the authors represented in Systematic Theology are, Dorner, Martensen, Miiller, Beck, Sprecher, Schleiermacher and JSTitzsch. Commentaries are by Meyer, Keil, Bretheau, Hengs-tenberg, Tholuck and others. Philosophy is also extensively represented both in histories and complete works on the subject. It contains the works of nearly all the great German philosophers, such as Kant, Fichte, Hegel, Shopenhauer, Lotze, V. Harman, Wundt, and others. Besides these comprehensive works thre are many German and Englisl treatises and dissertations on philosophical subjects. Another and doubtless the most exhaustive department is So-ciology. In this department the productions of Dr. Stucken-berg form an important and valuable feature. Along with his works are found all the most noted German contributions to the science as well as many other historical and systematic pro-ductions of authors of different nationalities. Some of the au- Ihors represented are Marx, Lange, Wagner, Schaffle and Blunt-schli. Among the many works on History are found the following: Macauley's, "History of England," Humes', "History of Eng-land," Tierre's, "History of the Consulate and Empire of Na-poleon," Gibbons' Complete AYorks, Fronde's, "History of Eng-land." Also a large number of works dealing especially with Church History, such as. Millman's, "Latin Christianity," His-tories of Protestant Theology and works dealing with the Ameri-can Church. Some of the authors represented are jNTeandet'. Jleppe, Bohringer, Schaff and Planck. Tn the collection of biographies are those of all the great re-ligious, intellectual and political leaders, such as St. Augustine, Melanchthon, Schleiermacher, Martensen, Henhofer, Humbold, Tholuck,Webster, Beecher, Burke, Scott, Garrison, Garrick, Mar-tineau and others. The encyclopaedias and dictionaries form an important fea-ture of the library, especially along the lines of Theology and Sociology. Although some of these works are not the latest and THE MERCURY. 27 most up-to-date editions, the majority of them are still recog-nized as authority in their particular departments. Such is Herzog's "Theologische Beal-Encyklopadie." Besides this partially classified material there is of course a large amount of miscellaneous material, such as works and trea-tise on Natural History and Geography. There is also some fic-tion and high class English and German literature. The works of Goethe, Schiller, Lessing, Heine, Jean Paul Bitter, Shakes-peare, Milton and others are found complete. AT SUNSET. BY ARTHUR CHRISTOPHER BENSON. How pure, how spare the hues that lie O'er these wide plains, from sky to sky! . As tho some brush, of airy skill, Had washed, had tinted, field and hill. Soon falls the change; the daylight dies; The dusk o'erbrims her boundaries; The sun flares westward, fiercely rolled 'Mid purple islets ridged with gold. Air me, ah me! alike they fade— Brief space of sun, swift lapse of shade; The wistful eye, that saw and loved, The heart so strangely, sweetly moved. Yet, tho the creeping dusk enfold My faint-hued hopes, my dreams of gold, At last, her patient journey trod. This trembling soul shall leap to God. —Prom the Daily Mail (London). I H E ERCURV Entered al the Posloffice at Gettysburg as second-class Matter. VOL. XVI GETTYSBURG, PA., OCTOBER, 1908 No. 5 Editor in-Chief P. F. BLOOMHARDT, '09 Exchange Editor H. REY WOLF, '09 Business Manager CHARLES L. KOPP, '09 Ass't Bus. Managers G. C. KNIPPLE, '10 PAULS. AIILLER, '10 Assistant Editor CHARLES F. V. HESSE, '09 Associate Editors SAMUEL FAUSOLD, '10 EDWARD N. FRYE, '10 Advisory Board PROF. C. F. SANDERS, A. M. PROF. P. M. BIKLE, PH.D. PROF. C. J. GRIMM, PH. D. Published each month, from October to June inclusive, by the joint literary societies of Pennsylvania (Gettysburg) College. Subscription price, one dollar a year in advance ; single copies 15 cents. Notice to discontinue sending THE MERCURY to any address must be accompanied by all arrearages. Students, Professors and Alumni are cordially invited to contri-bute. All subscriptions and business matter should be addressed to the Business Manager. Articles for publication should be addressed to the Editor. Address THE MERCURY, GETTYSBURG, PA. EDITORIALS. The words of welcome to the new students, as published in the Gettysburgian pleased us very much. We are pleased even more on account of the enthusiasm, which, if possible, is greater than that manifested during previous years. It is the spirit of "Greater Gettysburg" entering into every phase of college life. The vari-ous activities of our college have been well presented to the new men, and they, in turn, have re- THE MERCURY. 29 spondecl with that well known heartiness requisite to the well-being of a new man. A Gettysburg man will be impelled to branch, out, taking in all possible advantages, or elese he will be (ompelled to plod his more narrow path with ever increasing difficulty. This is as it should be. It is not merely a rule gov-erning college activities, but is a universal law. It seems, in-deed, needless to devote further discussion to this topic. We would rather compliment the new men as being able to see readily what we mean to suggest. We would therefore say to all new men, faithful class work joined with good faith, as shown by the way you take up the subsidary features of college life, will lead to the summum bonum. Literary attainment is the most valuable asset in a liberal education. By its means we learn of a man's physical, mental, and heart-life all at once. Each professor under whom you have literary work will take special interest in you, especially when you aim to produce something worthy of recognition in the MERCURY. And besides, all the professors and students will ; rd your trivial imperfections with increased charity, when you show by your effort that you mean to succeed. Let each man busy himself, not alone to gain these advantages, but let him go in for all there is in the performance of duty, and other things will come to him in due time. Join one of the literary societies and aim to have your work there be of a high stand-ard. The MERCURY is watching for the best from the best men. Number yourself with the best. If you are willing to do these Things, Gettysburg has great pleasures in store for you. Year after year, the importance of joining a literary society and of taking an active interest in such work has been much, dis-cussed. But in recent years this importance has not been real-ized as it should be. It is merely talked about. It has not been so very long ago that literary work occupied a high place in the sphere of college activities whilst our successes in athletics were not so marked. Of late, however, we are inclined to believe chat the reverse of this has been true. We would in no wise discourage the great interest in athletics which has meant so much to Gettysburg's teams, but we would also claim for liter- .30 THE MF.BCURY. ary work the proper attention and interest due to its real im-portance in college life. Few men who go through college are ignorant of this importance for it is a real necessity in the mak- :rjg of a cultured man, but the attention of most men is so en-grossed in other ways that the society work is neglected to their own disadvantage as well as to the injury of the respective so-cieties. In our opinion, everyone who enters college should strive to become as well-rounded a man as possible,—by this we mean that he should take advantage of as many varied lines of work as he can; for instance,—he is as much at fault who be-comes a grind in his regular work required by the faculty as the man whose attention is entirely held by other things to the detri-ment of his class standing. He whose interest is limited to ath-letics alone will fail of becoming a broadly cultured man just as easily as the literary "shark" who has no time for athletics. So. for this reason, we would urge every new man, not to fail to join one or the other of our literary societies, and, once having joined, not to let his interest wane. The result of his labors will surely be evident before his graduation. BOOR REVIEVS. \BE Social Secretary, David Graham Philips, Philo 11, 5. Among the many books of present day American life written by this author, this volume is the most captivating. We hear much of the struggles of the newly-rich to enter the social circles at Washington and the con-trast of the social life of America's capital with the customs of foreign courts. "The Social Secretary" presents such pictures of present-day Washington society life that all the best Ameri-can traits are revealed and compared favorably with the polished :nanners of foreigners. The book is written very attractively in the form of a diary. It is not a very large book nor is it dif-ficult reading. What would otherwise be but a dull description is enlivened by several real love incidents which are superin-tended by a natural, sensible American mother of the right sort. ■I'l-TB afERCURY. 31 It also shows to what extent the affairs of the nation are affected by the influence of the social circles at the capital. The Bar Sinister, Richard Harding Davis, Philo 11, 7. This bhort story of dog life is one that will appeal to all lovers of ani-mals. It belongs to that class of recent fiction in which dumb brutes are given the position usually accorded to the hero or heroine. In this book, a bull terrier named "Kid" is given the place of honor. It is a delightful story of how "Kid's" noble blood showed up in spite of the disadvantages which were met until at last he carries off all the prizes in the kennels. The: little book is written in a peculiarly tough dialect which suits I lie nature of the dog very well and shows a noble heart within the dumb breast. The tale is made more attractive by the fact (as stated by the author) that',it is founded on truth. There is a real original dog as well as the other character in the story. It makes pleasant reading for a half hour's recreation. The House of Fulfillment, by George Martin Madden, Philo 11, 7, is a book of much interest to the reader, who loves char-acter sketches. In it the two extremes of human nature are set forth, the romantic and the stern, the light and free-going nature of the Southerner, and cold rigid Presbyterian of the North. Alexina Blair, the product of these two extremes, is of special interest. She is to be admired for the stand which she takes in relation to her uncle, Austen Blair, and her care for her weak charactered mother. There is a thread of love story running "hrough the latter part. The reader will find the book very agreeable and will be very much inspired by the spirit displayed in some of the characters. The Blaclc Bag, by Louis Joseph Vance, Philo 11, S. This novel gives an account of some very exciting adventures of a voung man in London. Philip Kirkwood, while pursuing his studies in painting, receives the news that he is made penniless by the San Francisco disaster. Hence he prepares to return to-the United States and help his partner. Almost at the moment of his departure, his services are solicited by a man of doubtful appearance, to take charge of his daughter, a young lady of about eighteen. Upon doing this, he misses his steamer and has some very thrilling experiences. The author thoroughly under- 32 THE MERCURY. ttands the different phases of life in London and depicts his fharacters well. The reader's interest is aroused at once and never lags. He follows every detail, reading every part with the closest attention, even though it is drawn out in many places to the point of attenuation. This fact shows the author's skill as a writer Another fascinating point in the novel is, that one is in doubt as to how he feels toward the young man; sometimes he is ready to condemn, and again to admire him. The book is full of action from beginning to end and can be read with rapidity. The Orphan, by Clarence E. Mulford. Philo 11, 8. Clarence E. Mulford does not give his readers a story of "domestic inter-est" notwithstanding its title, The- Orphan. On the contrary the orphan of the story is a cowboy and something of a "bad man.'" The scenes are laid in the arid Southwest. Above all things this is a story of dramatic and exciting incidents. In the beginning the or-phan has become an outlaw. Under unexpected circumstances, the Sheriff and he come face to face. In the sequel the man of lavr learns that the orphan, whom he has been pursuing relentlessly. is probably not so black as he is painted. Further dramatic de-velopments ensue on the introduction of the Sheriff's sister. The orphan rescues her from Apaches. But why go on? Mr. Mul-ford has written an exceptionally good story of action, repro-ducing the atmosphere of the alkali country, ami portraying the characters with sufficient clearness and care to make them stand out. The Orphan is to be read for the thrills and excitement, of which there is an abundance. Need it be said that the Sheriff's sister pays back her debt to the orphan by converting him from the evil courses of his life ? Mr. Mulford has written a worthy successor to "Bar-20," and this is the same kind of a breezy, outdoor, vivid stoiy of incident and action. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. THE BEST PEN F03 GUIEGE ME There's no pen that gives such all-round satisfaction as Conklin's Self-Filling Fountain Pen. It's the best pen for College Men. When an ordinary fountain pen runs dry in the middle of a word, it means you've got to stop right there, hunt up a rubber squirt gun, fill your pen to overflowing, clean both pen and dropper, wash your hands, and then endeavor as best you can to collect your lost CrescentJI train of thought It's different with CONKLIN'S JSSh FOUNTAIN PEN "THE PEN WITH THE CRESCENT-FILLER" To fill, just dip it in any ink, press the Crescent-Filler, and the Conklin is filled and ready to write instantly. You can't over-fill it Hence no inky fingers, no loss of time, no ruffled temper. The feed of the Conklin is feet No waiting for ink to come—no jerking—no slips, ss or blots. Leading dealers handle the Conklin. If yours does not, order direct. >k (or the Crescent-Filler and refuse substitutes. Prices, 33.00 and Send at once ior handsome new catalog. THE COHKLIH PEH CO., 31 Manhattan Building, Toledo, Ohio. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. FUf(NITUP]E Mattresses, Bed Springs, Iron Beds, Picture Frames, Repair Work done promptly. Under-taking a specialty. - Telephone No. 97. !E=E_ 23. IBem-d-ex, 37 Baltimore St., : : : : .• .• attlpubvrg; /*« EDGAR C. TAWNEY BAKER West Middle Street. J. B. WINEMAN, DEALER IN CHOICE FAMILY GROCERIES, PROVISIONS AND FRUITS, BOARDING CLUBS A SPECIALTY. SUNDAY SCHOOL LESSON HELPS AND SUPPLIES, R ANSTADT & SONS, Publishers, Book and Job Printing of all Kinds UJriia for Price*. YORK, PA, PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. EMIL ZOTHE COLk^tEM3 ENGRAVER, DESIGNER, AND MANUFACTURING JEWELER 722 Chestnut St, Phila. SPECIALTIES : MASONIC MARKS, SOCIETY BADGES, COLLEGE BUTTONS, PINS', SCARF PINS, STICK PINS AMD ATHLETIC PRIZES Ail Goods ordered through G. F. Kieffer, CHARLES S. MUMPER. HEAL,KB IJV FTT5?_^TT*TITT!R"S P,CTURE FRAMES OF ALL SORTS ** ™""N * * W •ATVJSfy REPAIR W0HK DONE PROMPTLY I WILL ALSO BUY OR EXCHANGE ANY SECOND-HAND FURNITURE NO. 4 CHAIYIBERSBURG STREET, GETTYSBURG, PA D. J. SWARTZ DEALER IN COUNTRY PRODUCE, GROCERIES, CIGARS AND TOBACCO. GETTYSBURG. SHOES REPAIRED —BY— j. \i. 8°Hep» 115 Baltimore St., near Court House GOOD WORK GUARANTEED. —IS— J. {. iVfUlfPE^ Your PhotograDher ? If not, why not? 41 BALTIMORE ST., GETTYSBURG, PA. 8EFT0N I FLEMMING'S LIVERY, Baltimore Street, First Square, Gettysburg,'Pa. Competent Guides for all parts of the Battlefield. Arrange-ments by telegram or letter. Lock Box 257. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. W. T. BRUBAKER, Manager. Midway between Broad St. Station and Reading Terminal on Filbert St. A convenient and homelike place to stay while in the city shopping. An excellent restaurant where good service combines with low prices. ROOMS $1.00 PER DAY AND UP. The only moderate priced hotel of reputat.on and consequence in 3?±iila.cLelpIaJLa THE . Mode^steamuundry . . OF YORK . . Offers the COLLEGE STUDENTS first-class work at Special Low Prices. E. C. STOUFFER, Local Agt. C. D. SMITH, Prop. COMPILER IMPRINT ON JOB WORK MEANS TA3TT WORK CAREFULLY DONE. MENU CARDS, LETTER HFAOS, WINDOW POSTERS. ENVELOPFS, DANCE CARDS TICKETS, Programs of all kinds. Everything- the College Man wants in Paper and Ink. Specially designed work. Latest Effects in Paper,, done in Colors along lines of College Men's Associations. Catalog and Book work. The Gettysburg Compiler will keep old and new students in touch with, town and college life.

Issue 44.4 of the Review for Religious, July/August 1985. ; REvtEw Fo~ R ELIGIOUs(ISSN 0034-639X), published every two months, is edited in collaboration with the faculty members of the Department of Theological Studies of St. Louis University. The editorial uffices are located .at Room 428; 3601 Lindell Blvd., St. Louis, MO 63108-3393. REVIEW FOR R ELIGIOLIS is owned by the Missouri Province Educational Institute of the Society of Jesus, St. Louis, MO. © 1985 by R EV~EW FOR R ELIGtOUS, Composed, printed and manufactured in U.S.A. Second class postage paid at St. Louis, MO. Single copies: $2.50. Subscription U.S.A. $10.00 a year; $19.00 for two years. Other countries: add $2.00 per year (postage). For subscription orders or change of address, write REvl[w RELIGIOUS: P.O. Box 6070; Duluth, MN 55806. Daniel E X. Meenan, S.J. Dolores Greeley, R.S.M. Iris Ann Ledden, S.S.N.D. Richard A. Hill, S.J. Jean Read Editor Associate Editor Review Editor Contributing Editor Assistant Editor July/August, 1985 Volume 44 Number 4 Manuscripts, hooks for review and correspondence with the editor should be sent to RI:vIEW ~OX RELIGIOUS; Room 428; 3601 Lindell Blvd.; St. Louis, MO 63108-3393. Correspondence about the department "Canonical Counsel" should be addressed to Richard A. Hill, S.J.; J.S.T.B.; 1735 LeRoy Ave.; Berkeley, CA 94709. Back issues and reprints should be ordered from REVlEW FOR R EL~amUS; Room 428; 3601 LindeH Blvd.; St. Louis, MO 63108-3393. ~Out of print" issues and articles not published as reprints are available from University Microfilms International; 300 N. Zeeb Rdo; Ann Arbor, M! 48106. Answering the Call of Christ M. Ingeborg Rohner, 0 S. E This article is based on a,talk given by Mother Ingeborg at the national meeting of the Institute on Religious Life which was held, in Washington D.C. in June of this year. Mother lngeborg is sgrving as provincial of her community,,and resides at St. Francis Convent; 2120 'Central Avenue; Alton, IL 62002. All of us here have heard a great deal in recent years about vocations to the religious life. So very much of what we have been hearing goes under the general heading of "Vocation Crisis~---why the crisis arose, and what we. should be doing about I do not intend here to propose'new analyses to explain, or remedies to resolve this crisis. Rather I would hope,to be able to share simply with you a summation of what we in our community have been doing to foster vocations, and what we have learned from the effort. My primary credential for addressing this subject has been my fourteen years of experience (1970- 1984) as director of novices for my community, du.ring which time I have also been responsible for vocation recruitment. Before sharing these experiences with you, I would like to attempt to give some formulation to the fundamental and evolving understanding of the nature of vocation that I have brought tothis twofold task given to me by my community. I am made the,bolder in this attempt because I find myself in such agreement with the statements of our Holy Father in his apostolic exhortation Redemptionis Donum: "The call to the way of the evangelical counsels springs from the interior encounter with the love of Christ, which is,a°redeeming love. christ calls precisely through this love of his" (n. 3). The Holy Father cites the well-known passage from Mark (10:21), 481 4112 / Review for Religious, 'July-August~ 1985 applying it specifically to the matter of vocation: "And Jesus, looking upon [the young man], loved him." This look--a specifically personal look takes on a spousal character, the Holy Fath, et notes, involving as it does a choice made on the basis of an exclusive love-relationship. The gospel narrative is the basis of my confidence that there will always be vocations to that explicit form of evangelical radicalism which we call religious life. I am confident of this simply and in the final analysis because we have been created for God--and thus created for love. Every vocation has its origin when Love itself--our loving God--looks into the eyes,into the hearts, of those who truly seek h'im. Whenever this happens, the fire of a radical love-response will be enkindied. St. Francis looked once into the ~yes of the Crucified One and under-stood this well. From that moment of encounter, he would cry: "Love is not loved!7 ¯ What .did Francis ,see? He saw what each person who is truly called by Christ sees in some fashion: Infinite. Love reaches out to his creature, and asks for a response of love. And that lo~k, and the response it invokes, in briefest terms, constitutes the "vocation-story" of each and every person . who has ever been called by Christ. Since God is Love, I am called to respond to his love. Pontius Pilate once asked: "What is truth?" Perhaps the question for our time ~ought to be: "What is lo.ve?"--because our modern perceptions of the meaning of love seem so distorted. Especially for us religious is ,thi's question of supreme importance because not only does one's initial call/response, but also to a considerable extent does one's perseverance depend on how one understands the meaning of love. The Meaning of Love ¯ St. Thomas Aquinas has defined love as "velle alicui bonum"---to will (effectively) for another~what is good. In its richest understanding, this definition would seem to include within its comprehension., all efforts, to bring another person alive in some fashion; to make another person full and i'ich; to enable another person to realize the full flowering of his or her potential. . In his.Spiritual,Exercises, St.!gnatius of Loyola noted that authentic love becomes manifest~more in deeds than inwords, that it consists in the exchange of complete mutuality between lovers, insofar as this is possible. Quite evidently what is intended in these simple phrases is a real sharing, not ,merely a: verbal exchangi~-of facile promises. What is intended is a sharing of all that I have and, much more difficult and frightening--and fulfilling--of.~all that I am. Answering the Call of Christ / 483 This is the form of love that is also at the base of that special covenant relationship which we call spousal. In our humhn experience this form of covenant bonding may, perhaps', begin with a kind of fascination, an experience which is not deliberately chosen, but which "happens" to indi-viduals. Yet, when it is authentically human, it ends with a commitment, it ends with a :decision, it ends with a definitive'choice, a choice that-is characterized by the word unconditional, a~ choice which includes as its further limit,forever. " " This is the kind of love that is revealed in the life and being and teaching of Christ. When the Holy Father talks about the love that the religious somehow experiences, to which the religious is called to make a responsei .it is this kind oflove to which he is pointing. It is the love of choice, of commitment, it involves the definitive handing over of oneself. It. is a love, therefore, that ischaracterized by fidelity in the commitment that has been undertaken. ~. The Mystery of V9caf!on ~, A vocation, the call or summons from Christ that isaddressed:to an. individual, involves.a mystery. However it happens, however the.process i~ launched, to whatever moment we point,as marking its "beginning," the more fundamental question ofeach~vocation story yet remains: Whatis it in, me, ,in my personal.history, that has already "set me up" so that 1 become responsive to that particular stimulus, and choose to answer in this particular way? How do I come to perceive that I am called, that I am called to this particular community? ~ ~ ~ " " What.is' it, this mysterious .something, that can bring (o the convent door and entrance into religious life, a person ~who oftentimes, is barely Christian, a person who knows.the proper words, perhaps, but has not yet really heard them, and is not reallylquite sure what they mean--words fis fundamental as: God,-Trinity, Christ, sacraments, Church. Yet. there clear!y is something.thatdraws this particular person to a ;way of life that, she does not know, that she does not understand,, but upon which she is some.how simply willing to embark. How can the response of such a person be a response of love, the unique response to a unique call that is centered upon the ~rson of Christ who is to become her All, when she does not even know, really, who Christ is?0 ' .~. I have witnessed this process, too often to be able to deny it. God, in his goodness, mysteriously touches the soul of such a persrn in a way ihat makes it possible for her to hear him say to tier:~ "You, come and follow me!'?.She, in turn; effectively says: "Who are you?'l don't even know you." 484 / Review for Religious, July-August, 1985 And he says, in effect: "Come andsee! In time you will know! For now, just come and follow me." And, so very often, this is what she does. And, so very often, this is what actually happens. When the person is responsive, it does happen that, out of such seeming nothingness there can blossom, a genuine vocation. Out of seemingly nothing a :relationship does grow and develop between her person and the person of Christ. A soul content with its God even thus vaguely understood, a soul that is beginning to consider everything else as of little value,is a soul that is opening unto God and to the movements of God within it. And God can and does act on that soul. .In each individual, then, what is of crucial importance to the develop-ment of a vocation are those specific components of .personality which make us to be the individuals that we are, those peculiar sensitivities which make us to bealert and attentive so as to hear God's call in the first place, and tO respond to its gradual unfolding within our life-story. Every vocation is always utterly unique, even as is the person to whom it is addressed. Christ deals with each soul in a vefy~concrete way. The transcript of his dealings with each soul constitutes that person's life-history. It is in the working out Of this life-story 'that different individuals .arrive through so many different paths at the convent door.' It really does not make much difference, .then, what actually brings a person to the convent door. All kinds of influences and incentives can be found to be operative, even today, in bringing this to pass: adolescent hero-worship; distinctiveness of dress or function, a specific career choice, a generous, but barely differentiated impulse to serve. All of these have been operative in the different vocation stories. It really doesn't matter, very much what it is that actually brings a person, to the door. What is of crucial importance for the development of authentic human life within the convent is why the person remains, even though the final coming to terms with this may involve a process of growth that can even require years for its full development. It is the openness to the possibility of such growth that is absolutely required if this life-choice is not to be frustrated. Vocation as aProcess . , Experience has ~convinced me that typically by the time of vows the novice really is in a position to commit herself--if only after a fashion but still effectively--to the way of life that she has chosen for herself. I am not at all sure, though; that every novice, even by the time of vows,-has yet~truly found her vocation, her call, the concrete determinants that will specify her way of responding. The newly professed are often still very far from know- Answering the Call of Christ ing how to, or even being willing to, let God be God in their lives. Even as their director, then, I don't always fully understand how a vocation develops within each individual. I do know we formation people do not cause any vocation to grow. Our office is' to discern, to invite, to clarify matters with the individual. Our task is to maintain an atmosphere that is nurturing, one in which this mystery that is.a vocation can develop. But beyond these forms of enablement we are only bystanders and observers of the developing relationship that takes place between the individuaiand her God. Vocation, then, is a process. It is not an instant product. It is a Very ,gradual process, one that has a beginning and a middle, but there is no identifiable end-point to its development in this world. I don't know how, or even that the process is going on day after day--even in my own soul--except by looking back, by recognizing in retrospect how he has brought me, in ways that I don't often understand, to ~xperience him in ways that I could not predict; and he has done this not according to any plan of mine, but according to his own free determinations. Christ does not normally call saints tO religious life. Normally he calls d~velol6ing, limited human persons who are willing, even if inconsistently so, to become saints. He calls them to enter upon a lifelong enterprise with him. ~And herein, it seems tome, lie the essence and the theology of religious vocation. The Vocation "to Be" "In the 50s, 60s and 70s, and even into the 80s, we religious had been putting a great deal of emphasis in our vocational literature on the works that we do. We used to advertise constantly the service that our congrega-tions were doing "for Christ": teaching, nursing, social work, and so forth. And we invited young people to join us in those enterprises, But, especially today, sooner or later there must arise the question: "But why be a religious? I can do all these works 'for Christ' as a lay person." And that, of course, is quite true! This is the reason why 1 personally atiach such great importance to a theme that our Holy Father, John Paul II, has been trying so very hard, and in such a variety of ways to emphasize, as he also does in Redemptionis Donum: What religious are is of far greater.importance than what religious do. Our vocation is a call to be, more than it is a call to do. "Doing," .of course, is going to follow out of that call, out of that "being~" But the call to religious life is a call to be! This is a theme of such great importance, one which we in formation work must find ways of communicating convincingly to our young people. 4116 / Review for Religious, July-August, 1985 This is the understanding of vocation that' has influenced so strongly what we in our community and province have been doing in our vocational ministry. But enough o.f theory! Let us pass, now, to facts regarding our com-munity and its experience of the past fourteen years of exercising this ministry. A Summary of Our Congregation Worldwide, the total number of sisters in our congregation is 1,917. Our motherhouse is in Germany; we also have provinces in-Holland, Japan, Indonesia, Africa, and America (including a rapidly developing mission in Brazil). In descending order, our largest novitiates are located in Germany, USA, Brazil, and Indonesia. The combined American province includes all of the United States, as well as Brazil. ~The mission in Brazil, now twelve years old, includes seven stations and hasa rapidly growing novitiate and postulancy. The total ,population of,our, combined province is 134 sisters, with an ave.rage age of 28. For the United States proper these figures are 10! sisters, whose aver~age age is 31 years. It is about this segment of our province that I propose now to comment. In my tenure as director of novices (1970-84), 101 you.ng women entered our 6ommunity. Fifty-five of this number remain in the community while, all told, forty-six have left. Of those fifty-five sisters, sixteen are in first formation, twenty-four are. junior-professed, and fifteen are sisters with final vows. Statistics on ThoJe Who Have Left the Community : 26 individuals left as postulants: 18 chose to leave 8 were asked ! 1 sisters left as noyices: 6 chose to leave 5 were asked 8 sisters left as juniors: 7, chose to leave, I was asked 1 finally professed sister chose to leave. Hopefully the fundamental motivation of the fifty-five sisters wh'o remain in our community is clear: these are women who want to continue on the way they have chosen, the way of learning how to return love for Love, life for Life, and, with his grace, they will persevere in this course that they' have Chosen. ' Reasons for Departure Regarding those who have left our community, the discoverable reasons for., their departure are manifold. Almost a fifth of these women were found to be afflicted ,with some incapacitating mental illness. Sometimes it is the pressure of convent living which brings such to the surface. Answering the Call of Christ / 487 Doubtless~in. some instances the potential for this factor should hax?e been discovered prior to admission--and we are getting better at this important task. On the other hand, our candidates come from all over (he continent, and in the practical order it is difficult to have sufficient time with them for the successful identification of every latent illness. ~ ' In "a few instances, those who departed from our community finally yielded tO' faniily pressure. It takes ~ourage and at times a great deal:o~" stamina to'live out the Gospel imperatives which demand that one' lbave family and all things else in order to be a disciple of Christ. "Whoever puts tiis hand to the plow but keeps looking back is unfit for the reigfi of Grd" (Lk 9:62). In these instances, apparently, the faith of the individual was hot strong enough to withstand the pressure generated by the drain of the contrary feelings experienced in the face of familial displeasure. In yet other instances, ianguage barriers and transcultural trauma affected the outcome of admission. Perhaps in these instances I was naiv~ in not assigning greater weight to the difficulty that such factors would briiag to the formation experience when I accepted into the novitiate per-sons too recently arrived in this country, or too recently con{,erted to the Church. Chastity, too, is a source of a variety of problems, the basic remedy of which remains the same. St. John, the virgin apostle resting on tl~e bosom of Christ, remains the symbol of th~ love-relationship which must develop ¯ between the consecrated celibate and God. Its absolute necessity li~s been evidenced again and again in my experience. What is at issue here is not the maintenance of some form of sterile virginity,_ but the hurturing of a "garde~a well protected," of a "secret place" reservbd for the One Bridegroom to whom th~ individual has pledged herself, whom she has chogen for herself. There is room as well of course! for the 1rye-experience of a Mary Magdalene, who knew ho~, ~o love totally because she knew how to love ardently. Bfit no~mally virginity tl~rown carelessly away, or purity held. cheaply does not provide fertile soil for the growth of true love. So it was that about a fifth of thosewho departed from our community had been 'playing (I chose the term' deliberately) with sex, 6yen while still among us, apparently~ scar~:ely realizing the gravity of their actions against their own lives and hopes, as well as against God, the community, and the larger society. Lacking in genuin~ interior discipline, they often seemed weakened in spirit to the point of no longer even recognizing or desiring their ~:rnsecrated chastity as a positive value. ~ Theexperience of being sex.ually abused in childhood was fi fact~,r in a few instances of those Whose leaving was partly motivated by the demands of "41~11 / Review for Religious, July-August, 1985 chastity. I know that often in such Eases something effective can be done-- because I have seen it happen. In these instances, however, we were-not able to find that "something." In regard to the need for friendship in religious life and our natural hunger for human love, a spiritualdirector once said: "Don't give yourself to love unless you have given up love." In some cases this principle appar-ently was not grasped, or, if grasped,' was not accepted. There was one clear instance of lesbianism. But evidence of immaturity and an excessive sensu-ality in the quest for intimacy seemed to be operative in other cases. The "Third Way" is no longer considered "in." But there has lingered a misun-derstood desire for friendship leading to relationships which prove to be actually counter-productive, stifling genuine interest in growing or even maintaining a spiritual life. Eventually some individuals were asked to leaye. ¯ Perseverance Reflecting upon the experience we have had with all those who have left our community, I have come to the conviction that if "vocation" is a mystery, perseverance in one's vocation is no less so. I have wondered how applicable, in certain of these instances, might be the suggestion contained in Bonhoeffer's phrase: some were "hoping to live by 'cheap grace.'" St. Paul wrote: "You have been purchased, and at a price!"(l Co 6:20). It is the cross of Christ that is the purchase price of our redemption. There isjusi no cheap or easy way to give my life back to him in the daily lived response of my love. ~ A very evident problem of our time is that of perseverance in one's commitment. The young people Who join us come from.a society that is geared to the expectation of instant results. Their expe, ctation is real, even if its fulfillment is beyond the realm of the possible. There is no such thing in real life corresponding to what is longed for in our "instant society,." bu~t they have been taught that the dream is real, and they have. bought into the dream. And the dream undermines their seriousness of purpose and their constanc~ in commitment. The young people who come to us have spent a tremendous proportion of their lives before a TV screen. Formation persons .should look at TV from time to time specifically to remind themselves of the surrounding culture out of which their young charges have come. They might look specifically to see what has been so formative in the lives of today's young people. Perhaps as formative as the shows and movies of TV is the constant repetition of the message of easy success and instant gratification that is communicated in the flow of advertising. All commercials, it seen/s, prom- Answering the Call of Christ ise in one fashion or other instant satisfaction, immediate relief from pain, the effective remedy to every discomfort, success in business, wealth beyond measure, the guarantee of the deepest and most enduring of interpersonal relationships--parenting as well as r.omantic--all of which attractive goals are to be won by th~ use of mere products. The key to Prince Charming's Success lies in a tube of toothpaste; a lozenge guarantees success in meeting the girl of one's dreams--and effort-lessly living happily ever after! Oh, no one consciously, knowingly assumes such patently absurd attitudes. But attitudinal formation is seldom conscious and knowing. And so they come to us, the young, with their expectation of "instant holiness" as well! They really do anticipate immediate and unending union with God, constant consolation in prayer, gratification in work, an imme-diate perception of the worthwhileness of whatever they are doing. They really do look forward to finding heaven on earth in the convent. They really do anticipate living out their days 'with lovable and loving compan-ions, within the walls of perfect, ready-made Eommunities. And the pain of disillusionment is heavy indeed. Our young people today need a great deal more attention and care, counseling and encouragement, and affirmation ~than did our generations of a simpler age. In my own novitiate, there was one director for l I0 novices. Today we offer the young much, much more help--both from within the community, through the greater number of persons assigned to the work of formation, ahd through reliance on a variety of outside resour-ces as well. Yet there is no sure or magic remedy for solving all problems. There is no structure, no system that can guarantee perseverance, l can no mo~e guarantee my fidelity to my vocation than I can guarantee my salvation. The strength that I need can only be found in him who~called me, and in ¯ his acceptance of my self:gift. Left to myself, then, 1 could not guarantee even today. But relying on him, I have confidence that, even if I should fail today, he, the Faithful One of Israel, will raise me up again; he will make up for my infidelity. I know this to be true because I have experienced it to be so in my own life, and I have witnessed it to be so in ~the lives of so many others. I have experienced and I have seen that he uses our weaknesses, even as he uses our strengths, in order to fastiion the persons he loves and calls into being. Apart from him, because of my own experience of being human, I know I could not promise him "forever." With him, I could hope to do so because he accepts my promise, and in accepting my promise he pledges himself to be my enablement. 490 / Review for Religious, July, August, 1985 Another source of unrest, a negative influence on t.he possibility of perseverance for the young today, is the emphasi.s that our culture places on feelings. Faith is not. a matter of feelings, but of trust and decision. Young people, however, tend to base their decisions largely on fedings. If I feel good, what I am about is all right. If I feel bad, then I made a wrong decision, and should simply change my situation. 'This is also perhaps the greatest source of failed commitment in our society today--witness our soaring divorce rate. A vocation is the source of a developing relationship .between persons. It is a personal encounter, one on one, and involves the personal experience of the redeemi ~ng love,invitation of Christ and the personal response made by the individual, an integral person, made up of a very concrete body and a very part~c~ular soul. Christ does not extend his invitation to an. abstrac-tion, nor is a stereotype capable of making a personal response. A vocation, then, is always deeply involved with concrete, historical specificity--which means that it has to do with an individual ~with a very particular history, wiao is Composed of very specific wrinkles and warts, Stains and blemishes, the sum of all his or her shortcomings as well as of his or her assets, which, all combined, constitute the existential reality, that is the object of the choice Christ made when he said to the individual: "Come!" .~ I don't know for certain that all the forty-six young women who left our community during those fourteen years did not have a call from God to the religious life. I don't know--whether through their fault or mine--a real vocation was lost in one or other instance. On the other hand, there is also the Gospel story to consider of the man from Gerasa out of whom Christ drove unclean spirits. This man, too, wanted to follow Christ, but he was told: "Go home to your family, and make it clear to them how much the Lord in his mercy has done for you." (Mk 5:19). Whatever the result of such a reflection, ,every departure from the convent works some hardship on the community as well.as on the individual. There is always some degree of tension and an experience of sorrow sur-rounding every departure. ~ And so by tile end of my tenure in office, I became much more careful in screening candidates, both for their sake and for ours. Even so, when novices or postulants leave I am not overly concerned. Their coming, after all, was for the ~ke of a testing. But St.~ Paul says: ":God's gift and his call are irrevocable!" And so it would seem that, once a call has been confirmed by the acceptance of her vows in the .Ch, urch, the individual making profession should be able to persevere in her commitment ~with the help of God's grace. Every departure of a professed sister leaves me uneasy, questioning, most especially if the sister be finally professed. I Answering the Call of Chris~ / 491 do grieve over each such departure--~ven as, at times, 1 can recognize its inevitability. Who Is Accepted? Understanding vocation in the way I have outlined obviously is going to have ramifications on our attitudes and on procedures we devise for receiving young women into our community. On principle, any girl who applies will be,given serious consideration. This principle is based, not on what some might call the "warm body syndrome," but on the conviction that God is generous with his grace, and that we in our turn must be eager to identify, nurture and celebrate the gift of this grace--which is a ,voca-tion- whenever and wherever we find it. Our openness to the discovery of vocations must be a very active openness. ~ 'Thus it :is that we have accepted girls of vastly varied backgrounds and conditions into our community. We have accepted graduates fight out of high school, provided that they have reached their eighteenth .birthday. We have accepted ~some young women with incomplete college experience, as we have accepted others with undergraduate and graduate degrees. In fact, we have accepted two women who came to us with Ph.D.'s. And we have also accepted candidates coming to us from a variety of other backgrounds in the kind and length of the work experience they bring. For myself, and experience has convinced me of this, I belie~,e that criteria,based on age and education or the length of work experience play but relatively little part in helping us to discern a ,readiness on the part of a candidate to answer Christ's call to religious life. The ideal candidate pos, sesses, obviously, a readiness and a capacity to love--and to give her life entirely to Christ, Such a person will always have some intuitive perception that this includes embracing his cross as well; involving the need for self-denial. The presence of such traits in some degree, surely, is what identifies who is clearly ready to enter into religious life. But sufficient for entrance also, other things being equal, can be simply a willingness to be generous. The desi~:e or need to be a caring person can be enough to warrant the beginning of the process of discerning a vocation, hence ultimately, perhaps, of admitting a candidate into religious life, In short, I remain firm in the.conviction that the seed of vocation is to be found in very simple soil, that God is, indeed, generous with his gift of the charism of vocation among his People.ol~believe that I find support for this conviction in the. injunction addressed by St. Paul to the Church of Corinth: ~ Brothers, consider ygur situation. Not many of you are wise, as men account wisdom, not many are influential; and Surely, not many are well- 492 / Review for Religious, July-August, 1985 born. God chose those whom the world considers absurd to shame the wise; he singled out the weak of this world to shame the strong. He chose the world's lowborn and despised, those who count for nothing, to reduce to nothing those who were something; so that mankind can do no boasting before God (1 Co 1:26-29). All of us who have answered Christ's call are carrying a precious treasure in "earthen vessels." We are all fragile and limited. In point of fact, it is precisely persons of the sort that Paul describes who do answer, and have always answered, the call of Christ. Do young people today prefer, or look.for "traditional" communities? At first glance it might seem that they do; the facts seem to suggest this conclusion. But being "traditional" of itself will not attract or keep new members in a community. As for our own congregation, 1 hope and pray that it would be our love for God and his Christ, our love for the Church, our joyful service of God's People, our constant endeavor to overcome our sinfulness, our desire to live in community, and, perhaps most of all, our evident awareness of who we are and what we are trying to accomplish with our lives, with the help of his grace--that these are what constitute our attractiveness and the effec-tiveness of our invitation to young people to come be with us, and to strive with us to do the same. The procedure we follow in establishing and maintaining contact with potential candidates is simplicity itself. We have very modest advertisements in a few publications; there is word of mouth; and to some extent there is theinfluence of our few institutions. These are the sourcesofjust about all of our initial contactg. But, whatever the source, every contact is taken very seriously, and every individual who makes contact receives individual, consistent--and even persistent--attention. The sisters who undertake this labor of maintaining personal contact have made lasting friendships beyond the circle of' those who actually became candidates, who actually entered. This, in barest outline, is our entire procedure of vocation-re-cruitment. There will always be vocations to the radical living of the Gospel, just as there will always be people who would "dare to let God be God'in their lives." The seriousness and the respect with which we treat every initial contact is based on this assumption. , Surely we live in times that are hard for religious life. Of course we are aware that throngs of young people are not beating on convent doors seeking entrance. Yet we ought not to abandon hope as though God were not Lord. This difficult age is the time into which you and I are born by ,God's Answering the Call of Christ / t193 holy will. And we always seek to embrace this holy will. We have to pray, to sacrifice, and to surround with tender, but also with effective care, those whom God has called and entrusted to us. We have to make earnest efforts to find these young people and to invite them to continue the project of religious life into the future, not for the sake of maintaining a community or an institution, but that God's grace.might continue to be evidenced to a world that is hungry for our witness, and that his kingdom might be enfleshed in our time, too--in accordance with his most holy will. Speaking to seminarians in 1979, our Holy Father said: It is worth dedicating oneself to the cause of Christ, who wants valiant and decided hearts . It is worth making an option for an ideal that will give you great joys, even if at the same time it demands a good many sacrifice!! May those who have received the gift of a call to this life and service take these words into their hearts with courage and joy! "It is worth it!"---as we all here today know so well. Trinitarian Image Let us make man to our image and likehess (Gn 1:26). The Father's image: creating, loving, providing; Dimmed by destroying, not caring, denying. The Son's image: compassionate, patient, self-immolating; Blurred by indifference, impatience, self-seeking. The Spirit's image: sanctifying, consoling, strengthening; Marred by debasing, neglectihg, undermining. Dimmed, blurred, marred By life's harsh ways, Unexpectedly, breathtakingly revealed By mankind suffering. Sister Catharine Consilii, S.S.J. 17 ! I Race St. Philadelphia, PA 19103 Facing the Future: Formation in Apostolic Spirituality Patricia Spillane, M.S. C. Our readers will recognize Sister Spillane as the author of"From Tablet to Heart: In-ternalizing New Constitutions," which appeared in the issues of July/August and September/October, 1982, and which is still available as a single reprint. Sister, a 'Missionary of the Sacred Heart, is a novice director for her community, and is involved in "Philadelphia's very ac~tive inter-community formation program." She may be addressed at the Sacred Heart Novitiate; 67th and Callowhill Streets; Philadelphia, PA 19151. As theologians, spiritual writers, and religious leaders struggle with the attempt to define and clarify apostolic spirituality---especially as it is emerging today among American men and women religious--we, as minis-ters of formation, have a special problem. ~There are fifteen years remaining until 2000 A.D. During these years, how are we to fulfdl our responsibilities to our congregations, to the Church, arid to the wrrld in helping to form men and women who are ready for the adventure and challenge of apostolic religious life? Some of us may be tempted to ignore the challenge before us, maintain-ing a style of formation that certainly worked in the past, but may not prepare persons for the reality they must face in the next fifteen years. Others of us may see so much flux about us that we may decide that "mainstreaming" is the best approach to formation, and so fail to provide the basic core of stability necessary for religious and human development. How do we avoid these two extremes? I am sure that all of us will spend the closing years of this millennium in seeking adequate responses to that question. 494 Formation in Apostolic Spirituafity / 495 In these pages I would like to focus on some characteristics of our emerging apostolic spirituality, and offer some tentative formational guidelines: To begin with, it seems to me: Apostolic religious are called to be evangelizers in an environment that it " increasingly de-structured and stressful. This calls for greater maturity in ' both religious identity and personal identity. Apostolic Religious Are Called to Be Evangelizers , If we are to be, and to form, men and woman of and for the Church, we are called to form evangelizers since: ° Evangelizing is in fact the grace and vocation proper to the Church, her deepest identity,. She exists in order to evangelize.~ Therefore, beyond any professional skills with which men and women come to religious life today, and the professional formation ,.we may subse-quently giv~e them, there must be a primary commitment to .the central mission of evangelization. Whether a Young religious is destined io. be a DRE, a parish social minister, a CEO in a large hospital, or a Dean of Students in an academic environment, he or she must be primarily an eWhgelizer within any given structure or situation. , To prepare persons to become evahgelizers calls for a twofold thrust. On'the one hand, We need to motivate them for their o,wn ongoing spiritual journey: [they] have a constant need ~f being evangelizqdthemselves, if [they] wish to retain freshness, vigor, and strength in order to proclaim the Gospel (EN 15). On the other hand, we need to encourage personal maturation in them of the human foundation on which the spiritual Can build the maturation in self-awareness and capacity for discernment which is so essential for mission and evangelization. For example, we need to help persons in formation to recognize their own tendency to hide behind a role, or profes-sional structure, .or human efficiency instead of dealing directly with the risky business that evangelization can be. Not only must they be in an evangelizing stance with those to whom they minister, but even more importantly, also with their lay collabora"tors and peers. Often those who can easily minister to students, patients, or parish families are threatened when called upon to address those same issues with faculty, staff, pastoral associates, and others. If our religious institutions are to remain viable into the third millennium, this evangelization of staff is even more essential. As formators of apostolic religious, we need to help men and women in 496 / Review for Religious, July-August, 1985 initial formation to grow in the strength and clarity of their personal religious identity so that they can face the anxiety-provoking and risky challenges of evangelization at all levels. In becoming aware of who they really are and who they are called to be, young religious can move away from defensively using comfortable positions and allow themselves to be confronted by the unsettling demands of evangelization. Similarly, those who have become Comfortable with evangelization need to be flexible enough to respond ~to the needs of the congregation within its institutiom, see the evangelical possibilities in that setting, and not cling to situations that may be' more personally satisfying. A growing capacity for mobility and flexibility--for realistic adjustments to the demands of the apostolate; .congregation, and Church--is essential for apostolic religious formation. Otherwise, we run the risk of always having to adjust the apostolate, congregation and Church to the demands of the individual. In an Environment That Is Increasingly De-structured In many congregations, much of the pre-Vatican II system of a well-or-dered religious life regulated by stated norms and given structures has disappeared. However, the need for personal and group order remains. What has replaced the external structures and systems? A vacuum? Chaos? Peer pressure? Ideally, we would like to think that it has been replaced by individuals who have the cap~icity to structure themselves and make deci-sions about external structures that are both human .and value-oriented. But since experience teaches us that this does not happen automatically, what are we doing as formators to foster the'development of such individ-uals? Are we providing people in initial formation with sufficient opportu-nity to make their own decisions, build up their own "structures, and then reflect on how those decisions and structures promote their formation?' The decrease in numbers of personnel has also contributed to destruc-turing. Men and women entering religious life today must be ready to enter into smaller communities; they may be the sole religious in a school, clinic or agency. Again, this requires a different style of relating, a greater facility in communicating with different .types of people. Religious need to be much more independent, while at the same time committed to the value and process.of community-building. Hence the identities of which I have already spoken must include the'capacity for both autonomy and intimacy in the kind of religious life that can move ahead to the millennium. The decrease of religious structures also means that we do not live surrounded by visible reminders of our faith, but in an increasingly secular-ized world. Consumerism, professionalism, self-actualization can appeal to our emotional needs and dull that faith vision of who we are and what we Formation in Apostolic Spirituality / 497 ¯ are called to be in the world for others. People coming into religious life (and those already present!) can bring with them a real confusion between their needs and values, colored and encouraged by a society of which they are a part. To be able to distinguish clearly between what is emotionally attractive and what is consonant with the Gospel requires a process of human and spiritual integration that takes time and skill. However, with-out it, apostolic discernment can flounder, our faith vision can be distorted in the service of ourselves, and we can substitute our personal preferences for the Gospel .of Christ. In An Environment That Is Increasingly Stressful Change, work, pressure, being too alone, being too close--all of these can prove threatening to different individuals at different times, producing stress and tension. While a certain amount of life-stress is inevitable and should be an impetus for growth, certain kinds and levels of stress tear at the very fabric of apostolic religious life. Naturally, we will experience the tension of renunciation between our own needs and Gospel values if we are trying to follow the Lord, but he rarely asks us to labor passively under continuous stress. Persons differ in their capacity to withstand stress and in their ways of coping with it. Some carry such an inner burden of conflict that hardly any external pressure is needed before they feel any stress; these may be the same persons who have never developed effective coping mechanisms to deal with the normal tensions of life. Others may unconsciously deny the inner effects of external pressure--only to end up ulcerated, aggravated or acting out in inappropriate ways. People in early stages of religious life development need to have a good handle on their inner stress patterns and coping mechanisms so that they will be able to face the realistic difficulties ahead of them. Unrealistic expectations of future community and mission need to be encountered and dealt with one by one, along with an understanding of what inner factors interact with external difficulties to make stress reach intolerable levels. The years of initial formation would seem to be an excellent time for dealing with inner tensions, so that later these may not be the source of distortion, projection and unnecessarily high tension in the community and mission. For example, someone who expects community to be far more nurturing than it can or should be may need help to understand what factors in them produce such a,need-expectation for support, affirmation and comfort. Another who expects community assignments to enhance her own profes-sionalism must confront why her inner security and self-esteem are so 4911 / Review for Religious, July-August, 1985 shaky. Both kinds: of situations produce frustration and stress that can. easily become intolerable unless they can begin to be defused :by one ,who understands both the person and the values of the congregation. Since so many religious congregations .are .in a state of bridging between, the past that is still with us and a future that breaks out here and there, we need to address with those in formation those realistic sources of tension that are built into our current state of religious life; i.e., tensions ~that may be generated by: -living with religious who are threatened by or resentful of change; -being the only religious ministering in a particular institution; -having assumed too much work and too ~much responsibility and more. We need to be able to deal with the stress inherent in forging ahead, which always involves leaving behind: -leaving behind familiar patterns of living and working, to risk the new and unfamiliar in an effort to respond to God's people; -enduring Separation from friends and loved ones. to move to areas where the need is greatest; -leaving behind our own concepts of ministry to be able to. listen and respond to what the community is asking; -"letting go" of consumer comforts that we can use to,assuage our tensions and pain. All of this indicates that we should not be passive victims of stress, but active collaborators in seeking to integrate and hear what the Lord is saying behind or through each tension. As formation ministers, we cannot expect to help others unless we ourselves have dealt with our own stress issues:- the stress of unrealistic expectations from the community, of dis-agreements with those in authority, of our own sense of inadequacy in facing certain problems, of our own reluctance to confront certain individ- Uals or situations. All 'of these create stress; as a :result.we may try to avoid or deny .the problem; repress our anger and depression, somatize our difficulties, or displace upon otherskand never provide the modeling in stress management that young people in. formation need to see in us. Maturity in Religious Identity The 1983 document of the International Union of Superiors General on Apostolic Spirituality maintains that living a truly apostolic religious life calls for "bold initiatives, constancy in self-giving,0and humility in adversity.~2 Such a challenge can only be met on the solid foundation of an integrated life where religious identity has gradually consolidated and merged with personal identity. As the same document reminds us: "Grace Formation in Apostolic Spirituafity / 499 presupposes nature, is grafted onto it, and ennobles it" (AS 9). (Actually it is :misleading to speak of these two identities as separate, but for discussion .purposes, I.~will look at them sequentially.) Religious identity is not a matter of religious enthusiasm or intellectual curiosity, of certain behaviors, practices or opinions. It is the result of a slow process that occurs where someone (whose personal identity has already crystallized to some extent)gradually surrenders to the Lord, stage by stage and step by step, in a context of growing relationship. Often in very young persons or those whose identities are poorly formed for many reasons, :a cloak of religious appearances may cover up the underlying emptiness. In some religious communities, this may take the form of exter-nal conformity and going along with the group; in other communities it may take :the form of using all the right phrases, being involved in all the current issues. However, this pseudo-religious front (which is unconscious to the person) may mask a lack of genuinereligious struggles and personal convictions, of hard.won growth in prayer and faith over the years. It is possible for one whose identity is weak or confusedto join a group that promises a clear picture of who the person is supposed to be. Religious identity is then "put on" as an external garment, rather than being slowly built up from within~. Certainly, religious identity calls for transformation in Christ, but it would seem that normally Christ looks for someone who already t~ in order to enter into transforming dialogue, A pseudo~religious identity will always be looking for external clues in ambiguous community and ministerial situations. He or she will be seeking security along familiar and well-trodden paths. On the contrary, a trans-formed .personal identity will be one that can risk, dare, step out (if even in .only hidden and small ways), He or she will be taking small steps toward the "profound interiority" (AS 20) which alone can see the world with a transforming gospel vision. Only one who is maturing humanly and spirit-ually can enter into genuine ~relationship with the Lord, allowing defenses to. crumble until one stands naked and loved before him. From that matu-ration comes the kind of compassion for other~ and "apostolic love" (-AS 17) that is .the hallmark of apostolic spirituality. How do we promote this process as religious formators? First of all, we must be in .touch with our own faith journey over the years, seeing the various phases of our own maturing in fidelity--as well as being willing to confront those infidelities 'with which we still struggle. Only in that way can we trust .our own intuitions about the maturation in faith of those with whom we work. -~ Secondly, we must insure that "religious identity" is not being Used defensively by identification with religious structures, works or lifestyle.We 500 / Review for Religious, July-August, 1985 must look to see if the entering person has sufficiently consolidated a sense of self so that grace can build upon nature~ Thirdly, we must remember that religious and human development are intertwined and actively encourage people in formation to get integrated professional help to resolve the inconsistencies that ma3) hamper the development of their voca-tion. Fourthly, we should continue to'provide experiences throughout the formative period where our men and women in formation have the oppor-tunity to struggle with their own religious beliefs, practices and values alone or with less support than they would like. This may sound~cruel, but if they are always surrounded by an environment that is protective of their values, they may be unconsciously only complying for the sake of rewards or punishments, or identifying for the sake of belonging to the. group. (Of .course, we have to be able to provide the hdp to process the experience and support them through the difficulties.) Unless young people find themselves occasionally in situations devoid of rewards or group support, how will they ever know if they have.internalized the value for the sake of the Lord they profess to follow? Whereas a pseudo-religious identity is based on compliance and identification, a genuine religious identity is based on internalization of gospel values that are uniquely appropriated by the indi-vidual within the context of a loving relationship with Christ that extends outward to the community and to the world.4 In an environment where the external structures and norms supporting compliance have disappeared, often we can search for like-minded groups that will support our choices and values. This is one of the reasons why identification with community is so strong among people entering religious life today. Identification is a normal stage for someone entering religious life, but that stance needs to mature and grow. At best, identification is a temporary solution on the road to forging a more mature religious identity that can both walk alone and be with others during the next fifteen years. For example, someone could have identified with a social justice group that provided significant formative influence and support for his emerging identity. While that is a good departure point for a ministry to the poor, sooner or later the person needs to face deeper issues in himself; e.g., perhaps how his anger when his work is not appreciated has more to do with his own conflicts than with his love forthe poor, or how his generosity wanes when his companions move onto another field. A preferential option for the poor needs to be at the service of the poor--not at the service of one's own needs for approval or esteem, or as an expression of one's narcissism or displaced aggression. The poor and emarginated. deserve the best we can give them--the persevering self-less labor of one willing to lay down his life because he has truly understoodand internalized Formation in Apostolic Spirituafity / 501 Jesus' attraction to the powerless and oppressed. We can help people to grow to that point of self-less giving--and often the best place to start ourselves is by embracing the often thankless, frustrating, and lonely posi-tion that is ours as ministers in the service of formation. Maturing in Personal Identity I have already mentioned several components of emerging personal identity that strengthen and consolidate the human foundation that the Lord draws to himself: -the ability to structure oneself in a meaningful and integrated way; -the ability to handle internal and external stress; -the capacity to internalize gospel values which provide a dynamic motivational source. There are many ways in which personal identity interfaces with religious identity, but I would like to mention only one additional factor because of its significance for evangelization--i.e., that maturing in personal identity transforms one's manner of relating to others. Maturing in personal identity is intertwined with the process of individ-uation-- that struggle whereby an individual moves away from either an overly-dependent position of symbiosis or cohesion with another (or group)--or from an overly-independent position of aloofness or distance. Obviously evangelization suffers whenever the evangelizer is fixated at one or another of these levels. But the emerging personality is also being deprived (although the person would not feel it that way!)~ither because the person is too fearful to withstand the necessary experience of being alone--or too fearful to interact--and therefore is effectively deprived of that enriching and maturing stretching that the threatposes. It is through facing and dealing with such initially threatening alternatives (between being with or being without another) that each person rtioves along the individuation spectrum to where autonomy begins to be possible--where someone is personally secure enough to "go it alone" when the Lord calls for that in different apostolic or communitarian situations--while at the same time, retaining a genuine capacity for interaction and dialogue. Thus true autonomy and intimacy are fruits of the long journey towards personal identity for the apostolic religious--characteristics which-.can make them servants of the Lord and of the Church--instead of being bogged down in their own fears and resistances.5 We would be foolish to expect people in formation to have completed this passage. More realistically, we need to recognize the individuals who are dependently enmeshed in relationships that are more dependent than intimate (as well as have the courage to recognize when we ourselves are 509 / Review for Religious, July-August, 1985 caugh~tA in that bind !), and then lovingly and persistently confront through all the stages of denial and resistance that. follow. Similarly, we need to approach the more disengaged person and persuadg them with time and patience to begin to enter into relationship. In this way, the journey of a thousand miles towards genuine autonomy and intimacy, if it has not already begun by the time of entrance, can do so, with singlebut significant steps ,in the right direction, at the beginning of religious life. Formational Implications Many.formational implications have already been noted in the course of this article. Le me crystallize a few others under two headings: Formation Personnel: If we accept ~he thesis that we need strong religious and human identities to be ev~angelizers in a de-structured and stressful world, then we first have to address these issues for ourselves as formators. How do we as formation personnel deal with prioritizing our own time and energies, with managing our own stress reactio.ns, strugglin~g with our own issues of personal and religious identity? What are we doing for our own perso.nal and spiritual growth processes? How can we understand and empathize with people in formation if we are "detached ~pectators" observ-ing. their struggles from some safe distance or if we are only aware of them on some intellectual level, having,nev~er allowed ourselves to ,get in touch with our own.feelings and our own sense of ourselves? How can we be companions to_those on the formative journey unless we have jou~eyed and been ~accompani~ed ourselves? Obviously there is need for training programs for formation person.nel bu, t, not all.prggrams deal with the issues of personal integration of which.I am speak, ing. It would seem to me that each formator needs to make decisions about where and how he or she will receive this,kind of personal integrating assistance, .so as to be a disciple for the Church and the world by .the turn of the century. Persons in Initial Formation: . Much fine work has.been written concerning spiritual learning and direction _in t,he pre-novitiate, and juniorate programs which needs not be repeated here. However, the issue of how human formation ,interacts with spiritual development.-~-sometimes to enhance.and sometimes toimpede is often a more difficult one for formation personnel. !n recent years, there has been much interest in "readiness criteria" for various stages of formation which include elements, of both religiousand personal identity; for example Formation in Apostolic Spirituality /'503 Giallanza and ~Gleason's concern for comfort with affectivity, personal independence, social comfort, generosity.6 It would seem that apostolic religious life calls for some degree of actualization of ttiese areas prior to entrance, as well. as reliable indications of capacity to continue to grow in .those directions. How can this be addressed.'? ,~ It would seem that one way would be for the congregation to be in dialogue with the professional doing psychological' testing, indicating ahead of time to the psychologist what are their areas of concern for their religious life and apostolate. Specific feedback can then be requested in these areas concerning the person being tested. The psychologist should be able, through depth interviewing, projective and non-projective testing, to assess the strengths and weaknesses of the applicant, to indicate their capacity to grow and mature in the needed areas and under what circum-stances- e.g., spiritual direction, delaying entrance, growth therapy, work experience, etc. In addition to providing feedback on the person's strengths and weaknesses, a psychologist who is a religious may also offer a perspec-tive on how mature the persbn's religious values seem to be. Feedback to the individual is essential so that the assessment can chal-lenge the person to work with formation personnel on their growing edge. There should be also the possibility of further ongoing help so that, ~by ,growing in self-awareness, the individual may free himself or herself more for the kingdom and the great work of evangelizat.ioh to be dofie in the Church. Another equally important component of maturing identity for ~pos-tolic religious life is apostolic experience, carefully planned and monitored to allow the individual to experience the joys and frustrations, challenges and monotonies of missi6n. However, apostglic experience can eithe'r be a tool for grov~h or an occasion of disillusionmeiat and bitterness, dependihg on how aware the persons are of their own tend.encies, of the apostolic reality that lies before them, and of how much help they have had, prior and during, .to process the experience.7 Finally, I think it is important for people entering religious life to gee that we are all engaged in the same struggle and that we, as professed, take our own ongoing formation as seriously as we do initial. In that way, they can have more realistic expectations of where they should be along the continuum of religious life as they move to final profession--and how much the work of maturing in apostolic religious life is the journey of a lifetime. The document on Apostolic Spirituality maintains that: The integration of prayer and action., is a gradually evolving and quite often a falteringly progressive experience. However falteringly, if lived in 504 / Review'for Religious, July-August, 1985 sincere response to God's ongoing call and constantly molding action, it giv~es rise to that Christ-mindedness which should characterize the true apostle (AS 45). Men End women in initial formation need to feel that they are partners with us in the same "falteringly progressive experience." We accompany each other on this passage into Christ-mindedness, steadfastly encouraging ,those who are pilgrims with us along the way. NOTES ~Paul Vl. On Evangelization in the Modem World, Dec., 1975 no. 14. 2"Theological Reflections on Apostolic Religious Life." Molinari; Ewen, Vallejo. USIG Bulletin, no. 62, 1983. (This document was also printed under the same title in Review for Religious, Jan/Feb, 1984.) Hereafter referred to as AS. ~For a more extensive treatment of the interrelationship between human and spiritual development, see: Joyce Ridick, S.S.C., 71"easures in Earthen Vessels: the Vows. Sthten Island: Alba House, 1984. 4For more discussion on the relationship between compliance, identification and inter-nalization in ~:eligious life, see: Luigi Rulla, S,J, Depth Psychology and Vocation. Chicago: Loyola University Press, 1971, esp. pp. 146-152, 307-318. ~For further discussion on the role of identity in religious life, see: Patricia Spillane, M.S.C., "Called to Be Both Loyal and Prophetic," In-Formation, May, 1982. 6Joel Giallanza, C:S.C., and John Gleason, C.S.C., "Reflections on Initial Formation," Human Development, Fall, 1984. 7patricia Spillane, M.S.C., "When is Apostolic Experience Formative for Religious Life?" Reprints of the Religious Formation Conference, October, 1981. Cross-Cultural Formation: ¯ Culture Does Make a Difference Pat Forster, 0 S.E Sister Forster is director of six novices and seven sisters with temporary profession. Her previous experience included nursing and mission work in Latin America. She has earned a Master's Degree from the Franciscan School .of Theology. Sister Forster may be addressed at 727 East Margaret Street; St. Paul, MN 55106. ~n addressing the subject of cross-cultural formation, I believe it is neces-sary to discuss the racial and cultural implications for both the initiate entering a formation culture and for the directors involved in the orientation of a new member to the community as well as of the community, to the new member. I will, then, first speak of the reflections I have embraced as a formation director. Later, I will addressthe implications for the initiate in a multi-cultural environment. Perhaps the call to formation personnel is a little simpler in that the expectations of what is hoped fo, r are put on one person or one team rather than on a whole cgmmunity. Somehow a community expects of formation personnel what in reality .is important for all of its members. The basic needs are the same. Each person in community is essentially a formation dir.ector, and needs the suggestions that will follow in this article. However practically speaking, we all know that doesn't happen. Formatioia personnel will probably be more effective in cross-cultural formation if they have experienced another culture and have, therefore, an understanding of the pain of oppression as well as of the freedom of having entered into another lifestyle. Formation personnel must also be prayerful people who through their reflection and love respond with transcendent 506 / Review for Religious, July-J4ugust, .1985 values. They would, then, respect the whole person, regardless of c61or, culture, education, beliefs, or personality. It seems that one of the major areas of concern would be that formation personnel have a good grasp of who they are.and who the other is. This will include a good psychological grasp of the stages of growth and development in adults as well as an understanding of the formation person's own personal growth and devel-opment. Granted, this is a lifelong process, and as individuals we are always limited in our ability to do this, there must be some indication that something of depth is in process for this director and her or his God. A few worthwhile questions for formation personnel might be: In what way am I oppressed? If a woman, do I recognize my oppression as a woman? If of a minority culture, do I identify xwho I am and embrace this difference? Am I threatened by not understanding my feelings and thus deny them, or am I open to the unfolding of myself and the other (see Mk 14:66-82)? Foi'mation directors, in addition .to being prayerful .and clear about who they are, will need to be friends who emPower the initiate (see Jn 21:5-17). Each initiate is in the same process as the.director--that is, pre-paring for loving service which is essentially unknown: "And somebody else will put a belt round you and take you where you would rather, not go" (Jn 21:18). To change and to accept who we are and who the other is, is a challenge because we really do not know the outcome. The results will be realized in a new fullness, in the mystery of death and resurrection. Cross-cultural vocations ~;ill need an environment which is, at one time, of their own familiar tradition find, at another time, of the tradition of the other. As Bishop Lyke stated: "W~ need to be with our own at one time and at another time, we need to be with the other."l Because there are no answers ~ind the process is rather a continued one, cross-cultural formation programs will need frequent evaluations and multiple opportunities. An environment which offers multicultural opportunities would be positive. If the initi~ite can actually experience his or her own culture in the parish or in a Specific Christian community while also experiencing the mixture of cultures within the community, distinctions could be made which would identify "yours, mine, and ours." "There is one Body, one Spirit, just as ybu were all called into one and the same hope when you were called" (Ep4:1-~5). Another area of particular importance is that of couhseling. A forma-tion and/or spiritual director must be very aware of differentiation. For example, the way one culture approaches authority, modesty, family life, and so forth, is different from the way another culture d6~s. If several cultures are involved, the formation director will need to be very sensitive to the nuances of languages and culture. The ideal would be that the~dii'ector~ Cross-Cultural Formation / 507 be bilingual and thus know moreconcretely the difficulties of understanding variations in meanings. We must always assume that, if two languages are being used, there is a language problem, This is also true of the differefit languages used.between the whites of Northern U.S.A, and the blacks of Southern U.S.A. Another language is involved. The challenge'is on both sides, not on one or the other. Both verbal and non-verbal messages and feelings need to be understood. The more sensitive person is often the more highly motivated person and the most open to new experiences, so a sensitive person is most helpful. Yet knowledge and experience in another culture tan increase sensitivity andthe ability to identify with another person, and motivate him/her toward further growth? Those directing formation will need to be able to live with the tensions between cultures and facilitate an integration into community. They will ~need to encourage personal identity with the person's culture and within the community. They will need to discern that which is a personality weakness, strength, cultural difference, and simple adjdstment to the for-mation culture and the community culture. Ehch person has a special charism. So, special parish or civic experiences will be important within the pari~h or~ civic community, ~With a variety of°cultures, special coimselors will be important. A black woman needs a bla~k counselor perhaps, or a special house of formation may be needed for the new Hislbanic candidates. Special prayer styles, studies, communications, liturgies, periodicals, and love will be necessary for-all hoping to live effectively in a cross-cultural community. Basic Theology : There is a basic theology which I would name, poetically, a theology of "Conversion and Conflict: ~. ontemplation and Creativity." A multi-culturMcontext implies the challenge of a.multiplici~y of ~,iewpoints which correspond with the differing experiences of people from diverse backgrounds and cultural traditions. A multi-cultural context suggests that no one group has a monopoly on truth. It further implies that.people from cultural and racial backgrounds other than our own are not merely "strange" or "different" or "inferior," but have a perspective of their own) Each person then is unique and important. No one person or culture is to remain isolated, Human beings or groups are always called to live in .tension. This tension can be both negative and positive. It is negative when it causes too much self-occupation or gelf-negation. It is positive when it calls the person to growth and conversion. Transcendent values take the individual to conversion. The human person possesses a character of abso- ¯ 508 / Review for Religious, July-August, 1985 luteness which transcends as well as~ constitutes the person. To live in a cross~ultural community, conflict and conversion are simultaneously necessary. Conversion is necessary because .it is a turning to the Lord, a turning ~to the truth within self, to the home within. It is a turning to the truth of the other. This truth is known through walking in some confusion and conflict to a new openness and finally to a solidarity. Within this process the human spirit releases its true spirit which is symbolic of a transcendent reality. The transcendent-reality to which I refer is that pro-cess of unfolding the~ true person within the transforming-converting power of the Lord Jesus. This is the individuation or humanizing process which creates new persons and/or new communities. Sacrament and Sacred Having spoken for an openness to constant conversion in ~he midst of differences and conflict, I now wish to speak of the need for a theology of the sacred.All is sacred. All is created by God. We as dependent creatures can interpret all as sacred or profane. In the life of every person the underlying plea is that we interpret the other as sacred. In community, too, the underlying plea is that we interpret the other as sacred. To treat another sacredly is to recognize sacrament. Jesus in his humanness is the primordial sacrament; this is, Jesus, first ¯ and foremost, announces God's loving kindness, compassion, recon.ciliation,¯ presence, otherness. Insofar as we are receptive to this presence in another, we are recognizing the other as sacrament. Our taking time to understand the uniqueness of the other in his or her culture and history is taking the time to know a new divine reality, a new sacrament, the sacred: Doing this will create a new community, a.cross-cultural community. It will mean I never take for granted that I know your history or even that I know my own. It does take for granted that I do not know but am learning daily. Formation directors of cross-cultt~ral communities, then, will be recon-cilers, knowing they have failed to love both locally and globally. ~They will be taken beyond today and beyond the United States. They will begin to see themselves as a minority who will be open to the majority. They will be men and women willing to create a "civilization of love." Cross-Cultural Formation For some years now, perhaps even centuries, there has been something of a debate about culture. Does it make a difference? We North Americans have had a sense of the "melting-pot" within our heritages. Today, in 1985, the "melting-pot" concept is basically unacceptable. Today we respect and honor the sacredness and uniqueness of each person, and further, of each Cross-Cultural Formation / 509 culture. As a people, we do not.ask one anothei" to be part of a melting-pot, we speak more appropriately of a "mosaic," that is, of a people who Choose to come together and are aware of their uniqueness and innate value systems. These people then identify their culture and acculturate on the basis of self and communal awareness. This is an informed decision and it is a decision which retains its own value system. The initiate, then, who chooses toj0in a community which has another cultural.orientation must be a person who knows his/her identity as differ-ent and cherishes that identity while knowingly entering into and accultur-ating to the community only insofar as her/his uniqueness and richness are not compromised. This, of course, will not be possible for many initiates. They will not have that security about their self-identity and thus will need more time or, more specifically, their own time. ,George DeVos states that the following areas will need to be addressed for the persons of multiple cultures coming together: I. Each culture raise~ questions regarding a differentiation between the culture and physical, or motor development; 2. There are issues related to the information-processing mecli-anisms in personality. That is, cognition, perception, and logical thought which carries with the culture; 3. The expressive components in human behavior related to the nature of symbolic thought in the person and its expres-sion through myths, dreams, ritual practices, ideologies, and other bodies of emotional and affective motivations vary within cultural traditions; 4. Empirical investigations find socialization patterns unique. Certain cultures collectively have prevalent child-rearing practices, role expectations, and specific values on the intel-lectual and emotional developments of their members; 5. The mode of change and its implications in cultures differ. Unless there is an asserted effort by social sciences to under-stand change in concert, each discipline and each culture will have partial answers; 6. There are issues~ related to the prob.lems of mental health. What is conformity in one culture .is deviance in another.4 ¯ Over the past four years, I have seen all six of these principles in action. I have 'ministered in two formation programs and the persons included in. the programs were black, white,~Hispanic, and Asian. Let me now address each area specifically. Physical and Motor Development .~ The most important cultural influences on physiological growth are, of 510/ Review for Religious, July-August, 1985 course, related to diet. Other cultural influences related to physiological growth are those of intense sensory stimulation. Included in this stimulation is the effect of such things as circumcision, piercing of the nose, ears, or lips, inoculations, shaping of the head, clothing, experiences of extreme heat and cold, or the .administration of internal stresses such as emetics, irritants, or enemas. When these kinds of things are found in a culture, theperson is found to be taller,.than those in a culture where there is no such stimulation. There are also noticeable differences between carnivorous and non-carni-vorous eaters, between smokers and non-smokers. Cultural pa.tterns tend to,be related~to ~the physiological, psychological, and spiritual patternings .of a.people~ ~ ' Information and Processing One's perception, cognition, and logical thought~change with the family environment, societal pressures, and global awarenesses. If a person is given an intelligence test which is standardized for the Anglo, a Chicano will likely fall short because of another environmental influence. It is of utmost importance that testing personnel or information seekers are com-petent in the minority or culture they are ministering to, If they are not of that culture, they must be very competent in cross-cultural questions. The examiner must establish a rapport with the examinee and'must be sensitive to cognitive differences. For example, people Who have been trained for years to be introverts will be less responsive to external stimtili and more responsive to values of an internal nature: Special training is required of the examiner for linguistically different learners. Testin~ and information seeking should ideally be donb in the t~stee's first language. Testing results require value jl]dgrnents and, therefore, cannot be '~all-or-nothing decisions." Other criteria must be used for cognitive, perceptive, and logical interpreta-tions. ~Using test score~s as the b~is for making a decision tha! will adversely affect an individual's,.education or occupational (vocational) future consti-tutes a clear abuse of the testing process."5 The problem of cultural bias in criteria must be one of primary focus for testing, employment, motivational evaluation, and cross-cultural growth. Human expression of inner attitudes will vary With gestures, folklore, verbal communication, and more. Without recognition of the differences in cognitive thought the "melting-pot" will continue. That is, witho.ut conscious" awareness of identifying the differences, it is possible to expect people tO blend into another's culture rather than maintain uniqueness. Expressive Components Each cultural tradition has different expressive components. These Cross-Cultural Formation / 511 components are noted, particularly in affective expressions. Dreams, too, are related to a culture and cannot be interpreted except within the cultural context of the dreamer. Family ties are frequently misinterpreted with differing cultures. The components of each culture are. complex and unex-plainable. They must be lived and listened to. An initiate, in order to be tinderstood, will need to be assertive enough to tell the myth of her/his family. The expression of this myth will include family affectivity, ritual; prayer life, food, clothes, games, and so forth. Socialization-Empirical Investigation Socialization patterns vary considerably, depending on the economic level of the "person. One of the young women in formation telling of her myth explained how important it was to the family to eat potatoes; this seemed very logical to the rest of us, the majority of whom came from rural farming areas. However, with further storytelling, the woman indicated that since the income of the family was .were in the form of potato chips in a so.me pop and hamburger. This family to buy a large sack of potatoes and a so minimal the potatoes purchased small package along with perhaps never had enough money on hand large piece of meat on sale. Their money came and went on a day-to-day basis. This econQmic situation formed the physiognomy of the family, its buying power, the habits of the family in terms of diet, and ability of the family to .budget. Another important socialization~ pattern is that of the roles assigne~ to various members of the family. One,child may~be assigned as the home-maker, another as outdoorswoman or man and another as the student. These roles are assigned within a culture, which then.doubles.the significance of the role for a young woman who comes to community and has never learned to cook because she was the ~utdoorswoman, or for the young man who never learned to cook while .in his home but now as a novice must cook fo~ the local community. When the.young man happens to be a Hispanic, the cultural shock is even greater. Men in the Hispanic culture are even more distanced from the kitchen than those in a white culture. Change .Concerning the' issues of change in society,- it is of paramount impor-tance that each culture understand the effects of cultural change on the adaptation and adjustment of individuals. For the individual considering two cultural changes, that of religious life and that of another cultui:al environment, chang~ will be more complex. The personality of the individ-ual will remain in spite of acculturation; and, in fact, it becomes exaggerated in its strengths and weaknesses. This alone can be very difficult for an 512 / Review for Religious, July-August, 1985 individual. Without much notice the anger they knew within themselves before seems to have twice its potential. The passivity an individual identi-fied previously now seems twice as passive, and so forth. Initiates must be counseled in these normal phenomena. There are variations of definitions from one culture to another. What is known to be bizarre in one culture is normal in another. Each ethnic group or person must. recognize the basic culture which belongs .exclusively to itself. The initiate must know her/his history and culture. It is not true that we come knowing our history. The initiate must also return to the culture of her/his past and reflect on that which is truly culture, that which is familiar only, and that.which is unique to be one with the "whole lot" while maintaining and sharing that which is uniquely hers/his. This requires a good deal ofself-possession and self-assertion. -. Mental Health ' '~' ThiS area bears little comment since it has been stated already that the mental health of an individual in one culture is very different from that 'of one in another culture. It is perfectly acg, eptable for North Americansto behave like "work~ihoiics" and then take off work for three days because of a cold. It is less acceptable for North Americans to be lazy than for them to be doing something behavioral which would prevent~ the cold. It is very acceptable for a black or Hispanic woman to miss work or a social gathering .because of her monthly cycle than it is for a North American to do so. The initiate, then; must be a person of deep faith, willing to move beyond self. The step beyond self is a step of faith. All persons involved in the cross-cultural formation l~rogram must be a transcendent people. To be a transcendent people is to be a people who believe in a God of surprises. The willihgness to gift one another with the space and place to be whb we are as well as~to become a new people, a transcendent people, is to be a people, who beli~ive ina new richness, a new community. NOTES ~Bishop James Lyke, O.EM., Assisi Lectures, February 1, 1982,.Berkeley, California. 2Paul P. Pedersen, Juris G. Draguns, Walter J. Lonner, and Joseph E. Trimble, Co,.u.nseling Across Cultures (Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press, 1981), p. 316.~ 3Archie Smith, Jr., Ph.D., "Pastoral Care in Multi-Cultural Contdxt," Guest Lecturei', Pacific School of Religion, February,, 1983, unpublished paper. 4George DeVos, "Problems and Research in Comparative Human Behavior;" Proceed-ings of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 113, No; 5, October, 1968, ppl 351 ff. 5Joe L. Martinez, Jr., Chicano Psychology (New York: Academic Press, 19~77), p. 181~ Christian and Religious Obedience Brian O'Leary, S.J. Father O'Leary's earlier article, "Celibate Friendship," appear.ed in the issue of Janu-ary/ February, 1980. Father resides in Manresa House (Dollymount; Dublin'3; Ireland) where he is occupied in research and teaching courses in Jesuit spirituality and in the theology of religious life: O ui~ whole relationship"with God can be both e~perienced and under-stood ~n terms of obedience and "disobedience. Obedience is not just one virtue among other virtues. It is not part of a relationship, that is experienced in isolation, or that can be examined in isolation from the remainder of that relationship. It is an element ir~ every virtue, or if one prefers, it is the soil in which all other virtues take root and grow. This, of course, is taking obedience in its widest sense as cooperation with the will of God, bt~t this is also its most fundamental sense. There is an all-pervasiveness about obe-dience ~vhich reaches into every nook and cranny of our human existence. Obedience as Listening It is illuminating to reflect on the root meaning of the Latin word oboedire which means to listen. We are called to listen to God as he speaks, communicates, reveals himself in Scripture, in the teaching of the Church, in other people, in the signs of the times, in our consciences, in the stirrings of our hearts. Such listening can take myriad forms, from basic self-a~cep-tance, throughan eager following of one's special calling within the Christian community, to the final Amen in accepting the time and manner of one's death. Samuel's "Speak, Yahweh, your servant is listening" (1 S 3:10) is the basic,'lifelong attitude and prayer of the devout Christian. Since Christianity is a form of theism, its adherents are committed to a 513 514 / Review for Religious, July-August, 1985 belief in the self-revelation of a personal God. Consequently much emphasis is placed on the supernatural modes of God's speaking, such as inspired and inerrant Scriptures, and the life and teaching of Jesus himself! At various times in the past ~and in various different ways, God spoke to our ancestors through the prophets; but in our own time, the last days, he has spoken to us through his Son, the Son that he has appointed to inherit everything and through whom he made everything there is (Heb 1:'1-2). But we ought not to minimize the more ordinary, natural modes of God's speaking. God is the God of reality, and so every aspect of reality is a vehicle for his communication with us. Listening begins, therefore, with what is closest to us--our experience of ourselves. We listen to our bodies as they reveal their~ needs to us (e.g. for nourishment, rest, shelter). We listen to our affectivity with its constantly fluctuating attractions and revulsions. We listen to our souls yearning for ultimate meaning, for aesth~etic expe-rience, an'~ for everitual immortality. To fail to listen to ourselves is to fail to listen to God. As we move outwards from our own psyches there awaits us the invitation to listen to others. Men and women in their very humanity, in their interpersonal relationships and as constitutive of society, are mediators of God and his lording pla, n for us. We are called to listen, n~ot just.to the words people use, but to the experiences,~the Vulnerability, the fragility, the mute i0ngings ~that lie behind the words. This mode"of attentive, empathetic listening, this contemplative attitude towards people, involves encountering the other as other find not as a mere projection of ourselves and our o.wn concerns. As the other speaks, so God communicates, whether we are meeting~ttlat other'as individual or as societal, o~ Obedience as Faith ' The all-pervasive, all-embracing quality of obedience is also underlined in Paul's phrase, "the obedienc~ of faith." ~ Through him [Christ] we received grace and our apostolic mission to preach the obedience of faith to all pagan nations in honor of his name (Rm 1:5). .Glory to him who is able to give you the strength tO liv~ according to the Good News I preach, a~nd in which I proclaim Jesus Christ, the revelation of a mystery kept secret for endless ages, but now so clear that it must be broadcast to .pagans everywhere to bring them to the obedience of faith (Rm 16:25-26). ere obedience is clearly not a particular moral virtue, but that total human response to the Good News. which is proclaimed in the apostolic preaching. Paul's mission is to bring people to this surrender in faith to Christian and Religious Obedience / 515 God. This surrender is not forced; it may be refused. It is a free acceptance of, and response to the Word. This is the radical experience of metanoia for which Paul's own conversion on the road to Damascus could ser~e as a paradigm. Ultimately, for Paul faith is obedience and "obedience is faith, while unbelief is disobedience and .disobedience is unbelief. In the Old Testament Abraham exemplifies this faith-obedience both in his response to God's call (Gn 12:1-5) and in his willingness to sacrifice his son, Isaac (Gn 22:1-18). In the latter story Abraham is asked to take and offer as a holocaust not only "your son, your only child Isaac, whom you love" (which would be a natural and personal tragedy), the one person through whom the promises of Yahweh were to be fulfilled for the Chosen People (which would be a spiritual ~and national tragedy). The.key to the biblical writer's interpretation of this complex story is found in the words: All the nations of the earth shall bless themselves by your descendents, as a reward for your obedience (v. 18). But the primary model of Christian Obedience is that of the adult man Jesus to his Father. Time and again, in St. John's gospel particularly, wd see the deep fascination which the Father exercised on the human sensibility of Jesus. Much light is thrown on what it meant for Jesus tO be°Son, and how his personal se~nse of identity came from his experience of filial'~relationship. His mission appears, not so much as something entrusted to him from outside, but a~s intrinsic to who he is. "To be Son" is "to be ~ent'~ is "to be on mission." My food is to do the will of the one who sent me, and to complete his work (Jn 4:34): 1 can do noticing by myself; I can only j6dge as I am told to judge, and my-judging is just, because my aim is to do not my own will but the will of him who sent me (Jn 5:30). When you have lifted up the Son of Man, then you will know that I am he and that I do nothing of myself: what the Father' h~ taught me is what I preach; lie who sent me is with me and has not left me to myself, for I always do what pleases him (Jn 8:28-29). The world must be brought to know that I love the Father and that I am doing exactly what the Father told me (Jn 14:3 l). The cumulative effect of such textspowerfully communicates the obe-diential attitude of Jesus into which the Father wishes to draw all Christians. Obedience within the Church The Father sent his Son to carry out a saving mission which culminated in the Paschal Mystery, the death and resurrection ,of Jesus. The Father 516/ Review for Religious,, July-August, 1985 and the Son sent the Holy Spirit to carry out a sanctifying mission which inaugurated the community of the New Israel at Pentecost the commu-nity that is Church. Through baptism each person who is initiated into the Church is at the same time inserted into this two-pronged saving/sanctifying mission. Every Christian is not only saved and sanctified but called to share in the saving and sanctifying of others, to be sent into the world as'was the Spirit-filled Jesus. But the primary subject of this sending or mission is not the individual but the community or Church itself. It is by being in com-munion with the Church that the individual receives his/her mission which has its ultimate source ("author") in the Father. Hence the need for authority. Without authority and the means to exercise that authority the Church could not maintain itself in,unity nor fulfill its mission to the world. Since .the Church .is of divine institution and part of God's plan for humanity, the only aut.hority which can legitimately exist in it is God's autho.rity. When we reflect on Scripture we see how God reveals himself, communicates his mes.sage, and exercises his authority through intermediaries or mediators. Moses mediated the Old Covenant to Israel in the Old Testament, while Jesus in his hum~inity mediated the New Covenant in New Testament times. Now the risen Christ through his Spirit shares this mediated authority with th.e Church as a whole and with its duly-constituted leaders. Ho~v such authority is exercised need not concern us here; enough to recognize that it exists and that it is coextensive with the needs of the community for its internal well-being and its saving/sanctifying mission. Much can be learned from the final logion in St. Matthew's gospel: All authority in heaven and on earth has been given to me. Go, therefore, make disciples of all the nations; baptize them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, and teach them to observe all the commands I gave you. And know that I am with you always; yes, to the end of time (Mt 28:18-20). Christ's presence thrrugfi the ages guarantees the reality of the lifeline linking the Church with the source, the author, of all authority God the Father. Religious Obedience There is a parallel, although not an identity, between the authority which exists in the community that is Church,and that which exists in the community that is a religious institute. In both, the ultimate source of authority is God; in both, that authority is mediated; in both, an obediential response is required. Such authority within a religious institute is recognized in faith by a person making a vow of obedience, and then responded to existentially through the daily living out of that vow. Although~both the Christian and Religious Obedience / 517 authority and the obedience are mediated, the vow itself can only be made to God, More precisely, it is made to the Father. As with Christian obedience in general, of which religious obedience is a particular expression, our response-pattern as religious is that of Jesus who "emptied himself to assume the condition of a slave" (Ph 2:7), yet knowing that he is the Beloved Son of the Fatfier. Furthermore the religious state constitutes a closer imitation and an abiding ¯ reenactment in the Church of the form Of life which the Son of God made his own when he came into the world to dothe will of the Father (Lumen Gentium, 44). A question, however, can be raised about the legitimacy of my (or any Christian's) making a vow of obedience in a particular institute. There is a presupposition that the' will of God fbr m~ is to be found with more certainty and clarity in the context of this specific group of people. Both logically and chronologically, before the vow, and necessarily underpin-ning it, is :an act of faith. How can such an act of faith be justified'?. The answer is twofold, Subjectively, there is my own inner experience of call which is leadihg me, not into marriage, nor into the single lay state, nor into some other religious institute, but into this concrete grouping of likeminded and vowed Christians. It is presumed that this subjective experience has been prayer-fully and realistically discerned with the aid of competent spiritual direction. Objectively, there is the guarante6 of the Church which, in approving this institute, has recognized it as a milieu in which the Holy Spirit is present and acti~,e. When the institute in its turn decides to accept me as a member, I can be sure that the Holy Spirit will speak to me in the context, and through the authority structures, of thisgrouping. Within such an institute ongoing discernment isopossible, and such discernment brings together harmoniously the interdependent realities of authority and obedience. The vow implies that never again~do I discern anything merely asan individual. Religious obedience is primarily the attitude of the whole institute seeking the will of God through living out the impliEations of its charism in the contemporary 'world. At any particular time this communal attitude may be more or less faith-ful, and so more or less obediential, more or less Christlike. (A barometer, in psychological terms, is often that of'morale.) The individual member, in turn, may be more or less in ha~rmony with this communal attitude. If I have a strong sense of belonging, then I will actively and enthusiastically participate in the institute's communal search for God's will, striving together towards viable and relevant apostolic choices. On the other hand, if I feel alienated from the institute, living on its fringes, I will tend to opt out of the communal search. I will become 518 / Review for Religious, July-August, 1985 passive in regard to discernment and forward planning, at best adopting a privatized approach to obedience~doing what I am told, perhaps, but otherwise abandoning my responsibility to play an active role in the dis-cerning and decision-making process within the institute.,~This is a form of disobedience and a failure in faith. Four Aspects of Obedience , ~ Christian and religious obedience involves the whole person and calls for a radical stance which can only originate at the core of a person's being. If that cbre has not been touched, obedience remains superficial if not inauthentic. Because of its all-pervasive nature, obedience is multi-faceted and needs to be examined from different points of view if its reality is not to be distorted. With religious obedience especially in mind we~ will now raise up four of these aspects or dimensions. Ascetical The human person is not obedient by nature. There is both a positive and a negative reason for this. Positively, autonomy or self-rule is the mark of the mature pets.on. The journey from childhood to adulthood is in large part a growth in desire for, capacity for, and exercise of autonomy. But since .a per.son lives in a human community, this autonomy has to be balanced by the demands of interpersonal,, social and political realities. Accepting the need for such balance, and integrating the corresponding limitations of one's autonomy, are also parts of the maturation process. All of this already presupposes an ongoing asceticism. Limitations imposed on one's autonomy by external factors and forces invariably pro-voke resistance, anger, pain and yet eventually they have to be rdcognized as inevitable. This process of growth is sometimes presented as moving through the stages of dependence, independeiice, and interdependence. This iast is the mark~of the mature, socially-integrated adult: an autonomy which recognizes the corresponding autonomy and rights of others. Negatively, there are the realities of sin and disorder. The healthy drive towards autonomy is seduced and vitiated by an unhealthy drive towards egoism and pride. While human autonomy can never b~ absolute, yet we are constat~tly beguiled by Satan's promise: "You will be like gods" (Gn 3:5). It is surely significant that the sin of Adam (ht~mankind) is presented in Scripture as disobedience arising from an overweening desire for autono-my the auionomy of God himself. Against this background the ascetical aspect of religious obedience becomes clearer. Obedience is a human virtue, an attitudinal habit which must be learned through its exercise. The aim is never to break a person's Christian and Religious Obedience / 519 will, but to lead the religious to a genuine inner freedom which will prevent manipulation either by outside pressures or by disorders within the-self. Such freedom will express itself not only in docility and availability, but also in creativity and initiative. Mystical. . This second aspects.of obedience consists in that contemplative gaze towards Christ which enables one to discover him in the interplay between authority and obedience. Given this contemplative attitude a religious actualizes an increasingly intimate union with Christ in two ways. Firstly, the person recognizes in the authority of the superior the authori.ty of Christ, and in the person of the superior the person of Christ. Secondly, othe religious enters into and continually enfleshes, the obediential attitude of Christ himself. The Risen Lord does not hand over, as it were, our obedience t6 the Father as something extrinsic to himself. Rather, since we died and rose again with him in baptism, our obedience is part of his obedience, a prolongation of it in today's ~vorld, just as our prayer is part of his-prayer and is offered to the Father as the prayer of the Whole Christ: the Body-~- head and members. Religious obedience, therefore, is both obedience to Christ present in the superior, and a sharing in the obedience of Christ as he responds filially and radically to his and our Father. He was humble and walked, the path of obedience all the way to death his death on the cross (Ph 2:8). Our obedience and that of Christ are co-terminous. They both lead to Calvary. Obedience, therefore, can be compared with martyrdom, as indeed it has been in the tradition. Martyrdom haaS, either be that total, instan-taneous and violent handing over of ourselves to God through other-in-flicted d~hth, or the piecemeal, gradual, daily handing over of ourselv~es to God through the self-inflicted consequences of the vow of religious obedience. The latter is experienced as continued self-emptying which builds'up to that final and inevitable self-emptying of our natural death when we shall hopefully say with utter freedom and love, "Father, into your hands 1 commit my spirit" (Lk 23:46). Apostolic ¯ Insofar as religious obedience is a union with the obediential will of Christ, so far is it also a union with the salvific will of the Father who "wants everyone to be saved and reach full knowledge of the truth" (1 Tm 2:4). As such, along with every other expression of Christian obedience, it is truly apostolic. Nevertheless, in specifically apostolic institutes the link between obedience and apostolate is much more explicit and direct. Here obedience is primarily in function of mission, a spiritual tool of mission. ~90 ] R~view for Religious, July-August, 1983 The reality of, authoi-ity-obedience is thee channel through which mission, ¯ which originates with the Father, is mediated to the institute and to the individual members. Since mission is constittitive of the basic charism of - such institutes, and is not an optional or subsidiary dimension, obedience as apostolic.has an enormous importance and centrality. Under this heading comes the whole area bf apostolic discernment, both personal and communal. Apostolic choiceS---the selection of ministries and plans for running and evaluating them--become a major issue. A deep level of trust and openness between the members of the institute, and especially in relations with superiors, is necessary. Underpinning this, a spirit.uality which closely integrates contemplation and action is required. Authority calls 'forth and harnesses the good will, talents and energies of all, directing them with zeal and in the spirit of the institute, towards mission. In ,such an atmosphere of faith and serious purpose one dare not trivialize obedience, for example, by seeing it merely in terms of discipline, good order, or even of asceticism. If mature adult obedience does not flourish, neither does the charism of the ir~stitute, and neither does the. mission which is that of the contemporary Christ. Unitive Obedience leads to a union of minds and hearts. However, this is true only when its ascetical demands have been accepted, its mystical dimension has been experienced, and its apostolic thrust has become a powerful dynamic in one's own life and that of one's fellow:religious. This unitive aspect emerges almost spontaneously as the result of religious obedien~ which i~ lix;ed authentically and faithfully. It is not the direct purpos.e of obedience, but rather a side effect which can be gratefully recognized and received as part of the hundredfold promised by Christ to those who have left all for his sake. Vowed Celibacy and Human Sexuality M. Keith, 0 S. E Sister Keith works at the Parish Center of St. Alphonsus Church; 154 Church Street; Deet'~eld, MI 49238, where she may be addressed. There is no doubt that the mentors of our society today, probably at no time more so in history, have placed a great deal of emphasis on complete sexual fulfillment as the answer to everything. Heavy demands are placed on people for self-fulfillment via genital satisfaction. New patterns of sexual manners and morals aris'e constantly. This stress on genital intimacy makes it even more difficult to ignore. Media blitzes, which overtly and covertly proffer a barrage of sexual invitations to genital intimacy to the whole of society, at times overwhelm people. It can be said then, without a doubt, that our culture's emphasis on genital sex dbes provide at least subliminal seduction to all. Therefore, in this age, with its stress on genital intimacy for self-fulfill-ment, celibacy seems an impossible contradiction to the expectations for life which most people hold as a value. Lifelong celibacy, deliberately and freely chosen in the face of one of the most sex,oriented of societies, seems like the ultimate madness. To choose celibacy is a challenge to the cultural idols of hedonism and consumerism. Not only does our culture attack the value of celibacy, western attitudes also undermine even the previous supports that once were available for the~celibate lifestyle. In fact, in some ways, ours is the most discouraging culture possible for a celibate option. Celibac~y today demands the courage of a totally countercultural stance. Today it is much harder to avoid coming to grips with sexuality than it used to be. We are more aware how much sexuality pervades a person's 521 522 / Review for Religious, July-August, 1985 entire life situation. One's sexuality is seen to extend to every level of being: bodily, emotional, intellectual and volitional. More specifically, human sexuality is a powerful stimulus to move toward others and away from self-centeredness. Human sexuality thus helps attenuate ego-centrism, which dehumanizes both self and others. "Genital sexuality," of course, refers to acts, thoughts, fantasies, desires and feelings which involve or promote direct genital behavior. It is in this sense that today's society holds to the .notion that humanity is impossible without full gratification of the sex drive. Such, however, is not a universal truth. It is the purpose of this paper to show that a vowed celibate is and can become a fully integrated, psycho-sexually mature being without genital sex. Human sexuality is a basic ontological determinant of who we are as persons, and personal i~dentity is.a prerequisite for sexual maturity/identity. This personal identity is, in significant ways, worked out within images of sexual identity and sexual complementarity. Such is fully attained only in the arena of human relationships. Psychological. research shows that the incidence of sexual difficulties and immaturity is neither greater nor less among celibates than among non-celibates. Psychologist Abraham Maslow (1954) pointed out that it is not sexual abstinence as such that is pathogenic, but .the feelings or motiva-tions accompanying it. It is now well known that many cases are found in which celibacy has no pathological effects. Clinical work with non-neurotic people gix;es clear answer that sexual deprivation becomes pathogenic in the severe sense only when it is felt by the individual to represent'irejection by the opposite sex, inferiority, lack of.worth, lack of respect, isolation, or thwarting of basic needs. Sexual deprivation can be borne with some relative ease by individuals for whom it has no such implications. Religious celibates in no way deny or wish to reject their sexuality. In fact their understanding of their celibacy and of their sexuality matures as they advance in age and experience. Becoming an enlightened and respon-sible sexual being is always a lifelong challenge, This challenge involves, among other things, the development of psychosexual maturity. ,And the goal of psychosexual maturity is not orgasm; it is the capacity to love. In the celibate, this maturity is evidenced in the fuller development and harmonious interplay of the individual's psychological and sexual capacities within an ordered value system. Dr. Menninger has stated that "Insofar as choice determines behavior, it stems from some consideration of values." Psychosexual development in the celibate quite evidently cannot be iso-lated from choice and values. There is no realistic way of doing so. Vowed Celibacy and Human Sexuaflty / 523 In choosing celibacy, then, what is at issue is not a negation of any human good or value. It is rather a relativizing of priorities in fife. In choosing a celibate lifestyle, it is a tribute to the values in life that one chooses to celebrate. Celibacy lived means to the individual that: 1) the development of full humanity is more important than genital sexual expression; 2) that true generativity is greater than sexual potency; 3)that self-transcendence is more fully human than self-fulfillment. Psychosexual maturity is not static; it is a dynamic, ongoing process. Whether'a person becomes a celibate or marries, the same maturity, accep-tance of self as a sexual being and the ability to live with impulses and integrate them into the self, is a requirement to achieve full humanity. The bald fact of not being married, of not being involved in a sexual relationship does not constitute the celibate life. To be a vowed celibate means to be empty for God, to be free and open for his presence in many people and to be available for his service. In the past, perhaps, it was not uncommon for some religious and laity to think of celibacy as a state of being asexu~il. In fact, though, vowed celibacy is not an asexual state, even though it precludes full genital inti-macy. Taking vows does not snuff out personality. To say that a vowed celibate drops out of the sexual rivalry game doesn't suggest that the person is no longer a sexual being. It is normal to have sexual feelings. ~ Modern modes of expression would say that the celibate is still fully a sexual being, but without actual genital expression. As stated above, becoming an enlightened and responsible sexual being is a lifelong process; and the celibate, like all other humans, must redirect the tendency to regress into becoming selfish.Celibates need to realize that sexual abstinence does~not automatically confer the capacity to love people in general any more than incontinence in marriage increases the love for anyone. As a matter of fact, though, one difference in the celibate lifestyle is that it does move toward a more freeing love than do other lifestyles. The heart of vowed celibacy is rather.a special, unique and total conse-cration to Christ. The true celibate is effectively head over heels in love with God?' Vowed celibacy is a commitment to love Christ. This is achieved by a genuinely mystical form of life. Without some graspof mystical vision, the celibate is unlikely to remain celibate for long, The depth, and quality of personal prayer manifests itself in the depth and quality of vowed celibacy. Without vision, there is risk of psychic damage. Ignace Lepp (1963) states that ". the libido cannot be channeled in a different direction without injury to sexuality, unless it finds itself entirely consumed in the service of a higher psychic activity." This sublimation means to redirect the sexual drive. It does not mean 524 / Review for Religious, July-August; 1985 to pretend that the sex drive doesn't exist, or to forget it, or to set it aside. Sublimation channels the sexual impulse; it does not stamp it out., But in attempting sublimation, the person must be free and sufficiently motivated by life-ideals which can actually utilize these sublimated energies. The vowed celibate life, attempted without convictions and some form of mysticism, is an attempt at sexual suicide and self-destruction. If lived without an internal conviction, the response will be the simple negation of all the good of life and love and humanity in the individual. One's vowed "celibacy cannot be a complete withdrawal of all involvement in human sexuality; such a step would be the denial of humanity. Rather, consecrated celibacy must become a positive affirmation of beauty and strength. The vow of celibacy, lived with faithfulness, speaks out. against the negative aspects and excesses of the sexual revolution of our time. It contradicts the contemporary attitudes where infidelity and failure to keep commitments is an accepted way of life. Celibacy makes a positive contribution to life since Christian celibacy is an explicit affirmation that a person is aperson first and not second to his or her sex function. It provides a deeper insight into the sexuality of persons themselves. Vowed celibates are seen as total persons, not as individuals dichotomized into body/spirit. Authentic celibacy, then, is an enfleshed experience. Celibacy cannot be understood in isolation. It is experienced in a heterosexual society. It is a growing life experience in and with Christ. This means growing in love with Christ and growing in prayer with Christ. The effects of this lead celibates to a growth and deepening in their love for all people, especially for all those with whom they come into contact. Their response will grow, become actualized and manifest itself in time. And like all love, it defies description. Mature love does not come easy; it is always a growth process. For the b, elibate, this entails a process of growing as a sexual being. It is a continual becoming of the person the celibate is called to be through and. with Christ. Thus celibacy is a call to wholeness and holiness that involves patience, discipline and care. Far from lessening our need of the experience of love, celibacy offers a greater freedom in loving--a freedom to love, at times, without hope .of returned love, and to love the unlovable. This form of unselfish love witnesses to the compassion and mutual respect which are integral to justice, and moral rightness. Celibates live fundamentally indePendent lives; lives not directed to the well-being of.the single destiny for two that is common to. marriage, but directed by the demands of Christ and the Church. Religious celibacy is for loving and living. Vowed Celibacy and Human Sexuaflty / 525 Celibate love is primarily universal in character. It is a call to be con-stantly open to authentic relationships, to befriend any person met with a non-demanding love. It thus is a challenge to celibates to become the persons they are meant to be, to maximize their love and self-giftedness to others. The challenges and rewards of celibacy are the challenges and rewards of love itself. The celibate experience, in sum, is a way of making love, something everyone must do, and, like all lovemaking, it defies close scrutiny. Like all lovemaking, it is a relational exiaerience beyond words. Another great value of the celibate experience is that of availability. ¯ The vowed celibate belongs to no one person, hence to all persons. There is risk to this. Depending on how it is lived, cdibacy can either render the individual sterile or productive. Unless there is a giving away of self, celibacy is supreme sterility. Lived positively, selflessly, celibacy can be distinctively and consciously creative. These creative powers can be termed "generativity. ~ ¯ Generativity is the ability to give, nurture, and sustain life. Erikson states that: ". to know that adulthood is generative does not necessarily mean one must produce children. But it means to know what one does if one does not produce children." In Erikson's eight stages of the development of the person, generativity characteristics of adult life are met even in institutions committed to celibacy. Celibates believe that they will attain a sense of.generativity through loving relationships with people, thus creating life: The celibates'.self-abun-dance and vitality and life-giving existence will be evidenced by their presence and participation in the world. Specifically, the generativity found in vowed celibacy is a commitment to a care and concern that is universal; to a love that is life-giving and without limit. Although there is total and° exclusive intimacy between the vowed celibate and Christ, this does not exclude other relationships. In~ fact inti-macy with Christ depends on other relationships to make it possible. Friendship and support are necessary to the celibate, as is deep prayer and honesty before Christ. Religious celibacy has everything to do with inter-personal relationships. The celibate is a person firmly ~planted on earth for relating to others. Indeed, to be human is to be relational. And, of course, the psychosexually mature celibate loves individuals, not abstract humanity. Today there is a great emphasis on the forming of authentic friendships among both men and women religious. Research has shown that good psychosexual development involves and demands relationships with a vari-ety of people. Drs. Conrad Baars and Anna Terruwe, who have integrated psychiatry with their faith, note that masculine/feminine relationships, as well as same sex friendships, help to develop a wholesome emotional.life. 526 / Review for Religious, July-August, 1985 ~. There can be no genuine happiness without friendships. Friendships, however, are not easily acquired. They demand work, time and cultivation. Human relations are never finalized, Celibacy also requires the development ofa capacity for deep and lasting relationships. Friendship in th~ lives of religious celibates takes many forms, As one moves across the spectrum from a.cquaintance to friendship, however, the reality of celibacy becomes more pertinent. The love of authentic friendship is not easy, and there are those hurts and disappointments which are part of the "human condition" (Sr. Marie Dugas, S.S.A. 1983)~ But the benefits of friendship help make life worthwhile. Jesus is the model for celibates. He loved all people. He also had several disciples and social friends~ These friendships also developed through hurts, misunderstandings and disappointments. The love experienced in celibate friendship is that of the giving and receiving of love. This experience introduces one into a new understanding of life and one's relation to life. It allows one to rid oneself of the unneeded, counterproductive defenses which hinder growth and integration. It allows one tO be touched by the power beyond the self. Research has shown that true growth and healing take place only in a relationship characterized by love. Celibates, then, should have close friends. The development of friendships in the celibate lifestyle is critical to inter-nal/ external integration which if properly pursued will result in an ade-quately mature personality. Sexual urges will not put the celibate value system and behaviors out of sync in genuine friendship. The celibate friendship is less a response to physical attractiveness and more of a caring for what is good in theperson. The celibate friendship is an attentiveness to the other in a flexible manner rather than in a fixation. Mutual love cannot mean mutual possession. Celibates ~are united in friendship only by the bond of their free will, a bond that is not indissoluble as is that of marriage. And celibate friendships normally do not simply happen. There is ever present the element of choice involved in who twill be admitted, and to what degree of intimacy he or she will be admitted, AlL people, not only celibates, fill their heed for intimacy through. friendships. Intimacy in human living is important for personal growth, self-esteem and for a feeling that life is worthwhile. The more we live in :a mass society, the more importaiat are intimate relationships to maintain our individuality and identity. For Abraham Maslow, in the self-actualiz-ing person, the higher need is for intimacy. If this need is satisfied, the need for genitaljty is lessened Vowed Celibacy and Human Sexuafity / 527 Intimacy can be defined as unfeared self-abandonment, an unfeared self-disclosure and a dissolving of ego boundaries. In intimacy, one gives up control of what is seen by the other. It involves the sharing of one's real identity with others. Eric Berne (1974) calls intimacy a "game free" relationship. Healthy interpersonal living always involves both distance and intimacy. A celibate person striving for universal love must realize that this does not mean universal intimacy. Intimacy requires disciplined living. Besides being grounded in one's own vocation, the celibate must affirm and desire the growth of the other. This non-possessive, non-exclusive love also encourages the growth of the other's relationships with people. The celibate is pleased when the other develops new, outside relationships and interests, knowing that they are the sources of life and growth. The celibate knows that it is important that people never stop growing in love. One definition put it this way, "A friend is one who knows you as you are, understands where you've been, accepts who you've become and still gently invites you to grow" (Sr. Marie Dugas, S.S.A. 1983). This is the heart of intimacy for the celibate lover. If the intimate relationship is healthy, life-giving and creative, it will enhance the quality of the celibate's prayer life, of other relationships and the general well-being itself of the celibate. Vowed celibacy is a viable lifestyle. Although the way of celibacy suits relatively few persons, it is in itself, and for those persons a "normal" way to be, a viable way to meet life and create it. Celibacy means distinguishing between needs and wants. It is a meaningful lifestyle. This life entails an act of radical rejection of some values ih the culture that easily become idola-trous. Celibacy is much more than a set of sexual mores; it is an extension of Christian virtue. It is an act of affirmation about certain human and gospel values that easily become submerged in the culture~ The celibate lifestyle is thus prophetic in its witness. The celibate life lived in the Spirit of Christ can be a very profound and rewarding way of life, The celibate, by foregoing the type of mutuality found in marriage, is saying that no 'human efforts or human projects can ever achieve the full destiny possibl6 for humanity. The celibate is, saying that our full destiny is achievable, not by our own power, but through the power of Jesus Christ. Celibacy joyfully lived, presents an alternate vision. This lifestyle proclaims that the end of life is intimacy with God and others. Joyfully lived, this lifestyle points to what must ultimately be the end of any lifestyle, love of God and others for the "sake of the kingdom." Far from being quixotic, celibacy simply is one way that some men and women find it in their heart to be worth following, a way to be fully alive in this world. The Clown on the Cross Margaret Halaska, 0 S. F. Sister Halaska's previous article in these pages was "A Model of Discernment: The Experience of a Franciscan,' (March/April, 1984). As with that earlier article, the present one also offers a reflection based on a personal experience. Sister Halaska may be addressed at Holy Family Convent; Box 6; Bayfield, WI 54814. I It was a Day of P~rayer for me. I unlocked the door of the house where I was staying that day and walked in. A cross with the clown on it was standing on the living room floor, leaning against a table. The figure caught me off guard, and for a brief moment I was caught in the paralysis of.surprise. But its presence was an invitation.which I could not resist. In a short time I was sitting on the floor directly opposite the strange appari-tion. It intrigued me. A soft clown-figure in place ofothe usual corpus of/ hardened plaster., a clown that was warm and gentle even to the eyes . a clown whose puffy cheeks you could squeeze, creating temporary dimples ¯. a clown whose face reflected pain and peace all at once., a clown who was held to the cross partly by an outsized crown of thorns, one of which pierced his clown-hat and held him fast to the wood. During the course Of the day, I prayed long and often befOre the Clown on the Cross. I didn't say much. I tried to listen. The Clown was silent. I was silent. But the silence was not sterile. Eventually, in an explicable way, the Clownflrew me to himself. Suddenly, | wanted to hug him. It was the moment of prayer. The desire became stronger but I became aware that the Clown was too little and I was too big. And that, too, was prayer. I moved closer to the Clown, touching his face and probing his hands and feet. I felt, not the rigor of death, but the softness of Life. In a new and very powerful way the Paradox of the Cross was again speaking to me: One must die to live. 528 The Clown on the Cross / 529 One exceptionally long thorn pinned the clown-figure to the cross. Needle sharp, piercing, it hooked the hat. I found myself feeling a 'slight sense of relief that it was only the hat! At the same time, it appeared that the thorn was what secured the C!own to the Wood, leaving his arms a little more free .than those of the more conventional plaster casts which are nailed tightly. Somehow those arms

If you enter the fevered corners of the info-verse, you might hear that Tim Walz is a Manchurian Candidate. The governor of Minnesota, just selected by presidential candidate Kamala Harris to serve as her running mate, does indeed have a longstanding interest in China.After graduating from college in Nebraska (where, among other things, he took classes in East Asian Studies), Walz spent the 1989-90 school year teaching English and American history in Foshan, Guangdong Province as part of Harvard's WorldTeach program. The Chinese "are such kind, generous, capable people," the 26-year old told a reporter after returning home. "They just gave and gave and gave to me. Going there was one of the best things I have ever done."Walz and his wife Gwen later honeymooned in China. And they launched a company, Educational Travel Adventures, that led student trips to Beijing, Shanghai and elsewhere in the PRC.For some, this story might sound promising – a politician who actually knows something about the world's second most powerful country. For others, though, it sounds suspicious. Maybe even downright scary.Fox News proclaimed that Walz has a "bizarre infatuation" with China. The New York Post declared that the VP candidate "has fawned over Communist China." Richard Grenell, director of national intelligence under former President Donald Trump, said on X that "no one is more pro-China than Marxist Walz." Rogan O'Handley, a conservative influencer, called Harris' Democratic Party running mate "a CCP puppet."What's the evidence?China hawks seem most exercised about a brief clip from a longer interview in 2016 with an agribusiness news outlet. Walz, then a member of Congress from a rural district in southern Minnesota, discusses legislation before the agriculture committee and then, more than six minutes into the conversation, his work on the bipartisan Congressional-Executive Commission on China. He tells the reporter that he doesn't believe the U.S. must have an "adversarial" relationship with its then-leading trade partner. But he also goes on to challenge China's increasingly aggressive behavior in the South China Sea — a statement excised from the clip shared by many on social media.In fact, Walz has been openly critical of China's human rights record, as well as its brutal authoritarianism. In 2009, while still in Congress, he co-sponsored a resolution blasting the PRC for arresting and detaining Liu Xiaobo, the pro-democracy activist who won a Nobel Peace Prize. In 2016, he met the Dalai Lama, Tibet's exiled leader who is viewed as a dangerous "splittist" by Beijing. In 2017, he was one of two House members to push the Hong Kong Human Rights and Democracy Act, which called for sanctions on Chinese officials responsible for "undermining fundamental freedoms and autonomy" there. The bill did not pass until 2019, when Walz took up his position as governor of Minnesota. But he still won praise from a human rights activist in Hong Kong: "The fact that he supported it when very few people did and that his support was sustained – that's different and that's who he is."Some critics also claim that Walz, as governor, has allowed China to infiltrate institutions throughout the state. They point specifically to Beijing-backed Confucius Institutes, which teach Chinese language and culture to college students in the United States. But the University of Minnesota shut down its institute after Walz took office, and St. Cloud State University has suspended its institute, pending a review.Although the governor has called for engagement with China, especially on climate change and trade, he has not been afraid to also question its foreign policy. Last year, in an interview with a Japanese newspaper, he said he was "disappointed with China's recent performance – on the Ukraine issue, they are on Russia's side."None of this supports the claim that Walz is a Manchurian candidate. In China, few are predicting that Walz, as vice president, would have a significant impact on Washington-Beijing relations. Zha Daojiong, an international relations scholar at Peking University, told the Washington Post that, on U.S. policy toward China, there is "a ready and rich template among the two political parties in America" that would not change much with a single election.The political kerfuffle over Harris' selection of Walz actually tells us a lot more about ourselves than about the veep wannabe. In the U.S. today, there is a bipartisan streak of unhinged fear and hostility toward the PRC. It runs so deep and so wide that a substantial segment of American punditry loses its mind over the emergence of a politician who has pleasant memories of living in and visiting China in more youthful days, a politician who has dared to advocate for engagement with Beijing, even as he criticizes much of its behavior today. And the rest of us, generally, respond as if this is pretty normal.

Le secteur agricole dans les pays sous-développés fait face à l'une des questions préoccupantes qu'est l'accès aux innovations agricoles développées (Ouidoh et al., 2018). Divers défis tels que l'amélioration de la gestion des ressources naturelles, l'aménagement du territoire pour le développement des filières et des chaînes de valeur agricole entravent le développement du secteur. Mais un grand nombre de contraintes institutionnelles ont également limité l'adoption massive par les petits producteurs, des technologies et pratiques socio-économiques bénéfiques (Sterk et al., 2013 ; Jiggins et al., 2016). Les différents défis exigent alors un environnement institutionnel (politiques, marchés, institutions) favorable à la production de connaissance et d'innovations adaptées et accessible aux différents acteurs des chaînes de valeur et mis en application, de façon économique et sociale. Ceci doit impliquer plusieurs intervenants provenant des communautés, du gouvernement, des ONGs, la recherche et le secteur privé. Bien que cette approche puisse nécessiter plus de temps et une facilitation intensive, les résultats sont susceptibles d'être plus durables et de plus grande envergure. En effet, de nouvelles approches basées sur le concept de systèmes d'innovations (SI) ont été récemment introduites en réponse à l'échec des approches de dissémination généralement développées par les Systèmes Nationaux de Recherche Agricoles (SNRA) (World Bank, 2006 ; Hounkonnou et al., 2012). Les approches développées par les SNRA regroupent l'approche linéaire de transfert de technologie (ToT) et les approches participatives basées sur le Farming-System Research telles que les Farmer Field Schools (FFS), Training and Visit (T&V), etc. Par ailleurs, les principales faiblesses de ces approchent résident en ce qu'elles visent principalement le producteur et son exploitation. Ces approches ne s'intéressent pas aux actions de promotion des chaînes de valeur, des marchés, des modes de consommation et des valeurs citoyennes qui créent un environnement propice à un changement global (Klerkx et al., 2012 ; Wigboldus et al., 2016). Par ailleurs, les nouvelles approches prenant en compte tout un SI cherchent à corriger ces insuffisances organisationnelles et institutionnelles afin de créer un environnement favorable à l'adoption des innovations par les petits producteurs. Elles accordent plus d'attention aux interactions entre les acteurs et donc le co-apprentissage. A cet effet, les approches visant le développement de relations au sein des SI, notamment par la facilitation de plateformes d'innovations (PI) sont perçues aujourd'hui comme les approches les plus adéquates de développement et de promotion des innovations agricoles (Ouidoh et al., 2018). La plateforme d'innovation est un outil qui permet d'identifier les acteurs de la chaîne de valeur, d'examiner les goulets d'étranglement et les maillons faibles de la chaîne de valeur, de créer et de renforcer les partenariats et l'apprentissage collaboratif entre les acteurs (publics et privés) et d'examiner les opportunités commerciales et les nouveaux produits permettant d'améliorer les résultats du marché, la sécurité alimentaire et la gestion des ressources naturelles (AfricaRice; 2020). A l'instar des pays de l'Afrique de l'Ouest, l'agriculture malienne est confrontée aux conséquences néfastes de la variabilité et du changement climatiques qui compromettent les efforts de développement économique et social du pays. Cependant, il existe des potentialités de développement du secteur agricole à saisir dans un contexte de changement climatique à travers le développement d'une agriculture intelligente face au climat (AIC). Le CCAFS Afrique de l'Ouest met en œuvre un projet de « développement de chaînes de valeur et paysage climato-intelligents pour accroitre la résilience des moyens de subsistance en Afrique de l'Ouest ». Le projet s'articule autour de plusieurs activités dont (i) l'analyse des chaînes de valeur afin d'identifier les risques climatiques et autres contraintes auxquelles font face les chaînes de valeur et qui pourraient être résolues par des options climato-intelligentes et, (ii) l'intégration d'options agricoles climato-intelligent fondées sur des évidences dans les chaînes de valeur sélectionnées par le biais des plateformes d'innovation multipartites. Dans le cadre de la mise en œuvre du projet, il est prévu la création d'une plateforme multi-acteur au Mali pour supporter l'intégration des options d'AIC dans des chaînes de valeur (CV) agricoles prioritaires. Lors de l'atelier de développement du profil de risque climatique de Ségou en novembre 2020, cinq CVs (riz, niébé, ovins/caprins, cultures maraichères, mil) ont été retenues pour le développement de CV agricoles climato-intelligentes. À travers les PI, les « problèmes » et les opportunités sont identifiés. L'approche multi-acteurs permet aux PI de travailler à tous les niveaux des chaînes de valeur agricoles retenues ; problèmes organisationnels et institutionnels (dispositions contractuelles, règles de contrôle de la qualité), problèmes relatifs aux pratiques et technologies AIC (par exemple, quelle variété convient le mieux à l'environnement local ? Comment pouvons-nous rendre plus efficace l'étuvage et l'usinage du riz par exemple ?) et les problèmes liés à l'action collective, à l'apprentissage, au partage des connaissances et les processus de formulation des politiques visant à améliorer la gouvernance des chaînes de valeur agricoles prioritaires pour la région de Ségou.