Suchergebnisse

Деятельность предприятий оборонно-промышленного комплекса не подчиняется классическим схемам рыночных отношений. Черта рынка военных закупок, монопсоническое положение государства и олигополистическое положение производителей. Цена на продукцию определяется не согласно закону «О спросе и предложении», как это происходит на предприятиях, занимающихся коммерческой деятельностью, а отражает взгляд заказчика (государства) на стоимость данного контракта. Российское и международное законодательство регулирующее деятельность оборонно-промышленного комплекса регулирует договорные отношения между поставщиком и заказчиком, но не определяет методику бухгалтерского учета. Данные методики каждая отрасль или организация разрабатывают самостоятельно. К особенностям бухгалтерского учета в оборонной промышленности относится: ведение бухгалтерского учета по отдельным видам продукции с формированием полной себестоимости, то есть использование исключительно позаказного метода учета затрат; обязательное представление полной информации о плановых и фактических затратах в рамках работы по государственному оборонному в момент запроса от заказчика вне зависимости от формирования бухгалтерского отчетного периода; корректировки фактических затрат прошлых периодов. Эти и другие особенности позволяют работать в формате российского бухгалтерского учета, однако переход на международные стандарты финансовой отчетности потребует пересмотра всех принципов формирования стоимости государственного оборонного заказа и законодательных документов. ; The activity of the enterprises of the military-industrial complex is not subject to the classical schemes of market relations. Market procurement is monopsony position of the state and олигополистическое situation of producers. The price for the production of the state defense order reflects the view of a state customer for the cost of this contract. Thus, the price is not formed according to the law "About demand and предожении". Russian and international legislation regulating the activities of the military-industrial complex determines the contractual relationship between the supplier and the customer, but does not define the method of accounting. Each branch or organization develop independently of methods of accounting. Peculiarities of accounting in the defense industry: accounting for certain types of products with the formation of the total cost, using only the cost-of orders; the presentation of full information about planned and actual costs in the framework of the state defense order in the time of the request from the client, regardless of the formation of the accounting period; adjustment of the actual costs of previous periods. These and other features allow you to work in a format of Russian accounting. However, the transition to international financial reporting standards require a review of all the principles of formation of cost of the state defense order and legislative documents

В работе показывается, что договоренность по поводу толкования норм уголовного права должна основываться на социальных и правовых началах. Показаны четыре возможных аспекта исследования этой проблемы: толкование конвенционных норм, постановлений ЕСПЧ, правил соотношения их с нормами Конституции РФ, постановлениями Конституционного суда РФ, уголовного права; толкование конституционных норм, преломление их в уголовном праве; межотраслевое толкование норм, в том числе регулятивного и уголовного, деликтного и уголовного права в соответствии с Конституцией РФ и нормами международного права; внутриотраслевое толкование норм уголовного права, также основанное на Конституции РФ, нормах международного права и на положениях фундаментальных наук. В работе отмечены знаковые положения недавно принятых постановлений: Пленума Верховного суда РФ от 27 июня 2013 г. № 21 «О применении судами общей юрисдикции Конвенции о защите прав человека и основных свобод от 4 ноября 1950 г. и Протоколов к ней» и Конституционного суда РФ от 6 декабря 2013 г. № 27П по делу о проверке конституционности положений ст. 11 и п. 3 и 4 ч. 4 ст. 392 ГПК РФ в связи с запросом президиума Ленинградского окружного военного суда. ; This article reveals that the agreement concerning the interpretation of norms of the criminal law should be based on social and legal principles. There are four possible aspects of this problem research: interpretation of the conventional norms, the resolutions of the European Court of Human Rights, rules of their correlation with the norms of the RF Constitution, resolutions of the Constitutional court of the RF, criminal law; the interpretation of the constitutional norms according to the criminal law; the inter-branch interpretation of norms, including regulative and criminal law, tort and criminal law in accordance with the RF Constitution and the norms of the international law; intra-branch interpretation of norms of the criminal law which is also based on the RF Constitution, norms of the international law and the regulations of the fundamental sciences. The article mentions the sufficient regulations of the resolutions which have been accepted recently: Plenary session of the Supreme Court of the RF of June 27, 2013 № 21 «About the application of the Convention concerning the protection of human rights and basic freedoms by the courts of general jurisdiction of November 4, 1950 and its Protocols» and the Constitutional Court of the RF № 27-P of December 6, 2013 concerning the inspection of the constitutionality of the resolutions (Art.11 and items 3 and 4 part 4 Art.392 CPC of the RF) according with the demand of the Presidium of Leningrad district military court.

Внешняя политика один из ресурсов продвижения ««мягкой силы»» государства. При этом источником привлекательности на международной арене должно, по мнению Джозефа Ная, быть гражданское общество. В статье рассматривается, как в российских внешнеполитических документах на концептуальном уровне представлено взаимодействие государства и гражданского общества в сфере продвижения внешнеполитических интересов России. Автор приходит к выводу, что на данном этапе гражданское общество воспринимается государственными структурами как инструмент продвижения «мягкой силы», а не как самостоятельный актор и источник привлекательности России на международной арене. Россия подходит к международным процессам как к двухуровневому процессу с демократическими ценностями и правилами на глобальном уровне и разнообразием моделей развития на национальном уровне. При этом демократический режим необязательно означает демократическоe поведениe на международной арене, и наоборот. Примером такого мышления может быть восприятие Россией внешней политики США, которая основана на либерально-демократических идеях и во многом ею движут ценности, но в России эта внешняя политика воспринимается как realpolitik. Для большинства российских аналитиков США используют ценности для прикрытия своих настоящих национальных интересов, и такой подход отличается от самовосприятия США. В статье также анализируется такой элемент «мягкой силы», как политические ценности и модель развития. Для регионального уровня Россия имеет достаточно чётко сформулированную модель развития сотрудничества на постсоветском пространстве, которая может выступать руководством к принятию внешнеполитических решений. На глобальном же уровне Россия может чётко сформулировать те правила поведения, которые она хотела бы видеть на международной арене, но Россия не формулирует тот вклад, который могла бы сделать российская национальная или же региональная постсоветская модель развития в мировое развитие. ; Foreign policy is one of the instruments of promoting soft power of a state. According to Joseph Nye, civil society is the main source of a state's international attractiveness. The article analyses how Russian official foreign policy documents present interaction between the state and civil society in order to promote Russian soft power. At the present stage Russian civil society is perceived by state structures as an instrument and not a source of soft power. The article also analyses political values and models of developments as elements of soft power as they are presented in official documents. Russia has a coherent normative model of regional development for the post-Soviet space. For the global level Russia formulates rules of behavior that it would like to see at the international arena, but Russia does not formulate how Russian or regional post-Soviet models of development can contribute to world development.

Nas últimas décadas assistimos a um avanço dos estudos feministas, que têm trazido importantes contributos para garantir a integração e igualdade de género nas várias áreas, revelando ser uma corrente inovadora por completar e dinamizar a análise, estudo e compreensão da questão de género em especial relativamente à paz e aos conflitos. Até há pouco tempo, os assuntos relacionados com as Mulheres e a Paz não eram temas prioritários e nem eram motivos de discussão da política internacional permitindo que durante anos fossem cometidas atrocidades contra as mulheres, sem que a Comunidade Internacional desse por isso. Atualmente, as mulheres começaram a assumir um papel mais influente nos processos de reconstrução da paz. Esta evolução tem vindo a ser acompanhada por várias iniciativas e contributos a nível internacional, mediante a elaboração de importantes documentos e promoção de fóruns de debate e sensibilização da sociedade global, como é o caso da Resolução 1325 publicada pelo Conselho de Segurança das Nações Unidas, em 2000. Todos estes processos têm vindo a revelar a importância da promoção da igualdade de género em todas as fases dos processos de (re)construção da paz e da promoção da segurança, incluindo em países como a Guiné-Bissau; ABSTRACT: "The role of women in the peacekeeping processes. The case of Guinea-Bissau" In the last few decades we have witnessed a breakthrough of feminist studies, which have brought relevant contributions to ensure integration (of women to the politics discussion) and gender equality in various areas, what revealed to be an innovative and dynamic chain to improve the analysis, study and comprehension of the gender matters particularly peace vs. conflict subjects (issues). Until this and for many years, issues related to Women and Peace were not a priority and weren't grounds for discussion of international politics which allowed that all the atrocities committed against women remain covered to the eyes and judgement of the International community. From the last few years to now on we can observe how women start to play a more influential and active role in what concern to the development of peacemaking (and peacekeeping) processes. Such evolution has been motivated by different worldwide initiatives and contributions, followed by the development of important documents, promotion of discussions and the awareness of global society forums, such as the 1325 resolution, published by the Security Council of the United Nations in 2000. All these actions (processes) revealed the importance of promoting gender equality in all phases of the (re)construction of peace and the improvement of women rights and safety, including in countries such as Guinea-Bissau.

Includes bibliographical references. ; The Qualification Directive intended to achieve the harmonization of the asylum determination procedures among European states. The Qualification Directive introduced minimum standards for the determination of asylum claims, aiming at equal outcomes in decision-making processes, especially on first instance levels. While all member states had to change their national legislation to comply with the provisions of this Directive, they were allowed to adopt more favorable legislation. However, after a period of four years and an assessment of the situation, it became clear that the Qualification Directive failed its goal at least partly, since imbalances in asylum determination processes still existed. These resulted in immense differences in recognition rates of same country nationals in European states, despite the goal of the concept to reach uniform standards. The cause was said to be insufficient guidance coming from the Qualification Directive for the decision-making authorities. Consequently, the European Commission adopted a recast Qualification Directive in 2011. It demanded national legislation to be adapted accordingly by the 21st of December 2013. The international refugee regime is governed by the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees (hereinafter 1951 Convention). Being a party to that Convention is a prerequisite for joining the EU. Thus all European states are bound by the obligations arising from the 1951 Convention. Consequently, the recast Qualification Directive is "based on the full and inclusive application" of the 1951 Convention. Nonetheless, due to the development of international human rights law, in terms of the protection of women's rights, it is evident that the 1951 Convention lacks sufficient clarification and guidance for asylum claims arising from women's experiences of traditional harmful practices. Those harmful and discriminatory practices comprise for example forced marriage, female genital mutilation, domestic violence including rape, China's one child policy and the risk of forced sterilization emerging in this context as well as in others, traditional dress codes, dowry burning or honor killings. This list is not meant to be exhaustive, since women might be subjected to several other norms, customs, rules or policies, which they try to escape from and base their asylum claims on. Asylum claims that deal with these forms of harm are often referred to as gender-related asylum claims. However, under the refugee definition of the 1951 Convention a specific ground of 'gender' or 'sex' is missing.

Школы преподавания языков стран Ближнего и Среднего Востока (арабского, иврита и турецкого), а также языков ряда стран Закавказья и Средней Азии (азербайджанского, узбекского, туркменского) базируются на кафедре, ведущей свою историю от кафедры арабистики, созданной в 1871-1872 гг. при Лазаревском институте восточных языков. У истоков создания уникальной арабистической школы МГИМО(У) находился профессор Х.К. Баранов (1892-1980), выдающийся учёный, возглавлявший кафедру с 1924 по 1975 г. Он создал московскую арабистическую школу, стал автором первого в мире полного словаря современного арабского литературного языка, и по сей день доказывающего свою универсальность и незаменимость для арабистов всех специальностей. Ежегодно кафедра выпускает около 20-25 международников-арабистов, бакалавров и магистров. Отсюда можно представить вклад кафедры за весь период ее деятельности в составе МГИМО в подготовку квалифицированных кадров востоковедов, работающих в международной, политической, экономической, юридической, журналистской и научной сферах не только в Российской Федерации, союзной Белоруссии и странах Содружества Независимых Государств, но также в тех иностранных государствах, которые традиционно считали МГИМО базовым высшим учебным заведением для овладения различными специальностями в области международных отношений. На кафедре традиционно преподаётся турецкий язык. Преподавание языка иврит ведётся на кафедре с середины 1970-хгг. В настоящее время иврит в качестве первого иностранного языка преподает доцент Ю.И. Костенко. С 1995г. на кафедре существует сектор тюркских языков. Это связано с тем, что кроме турецкого языка на кафедре преподаются тюркские языки: с 1995 г. азербайджанский язык, с 2000 г. туркменский и узбекский языки. У истоков формирования научных и методических традиций преподавания тюркских языков в МГИМО стояли опытные педагоги: азербайджанского языка доцент М.Г. Алиев (1938-2008); туркменского языка доцент М.М. Клычёва; узбекского языка доцент А.М. Саматов. С 2010 г. по настоящее время азербайджанский язык преподаёт доктор философии в лингвистике, известный учёный-литературовед, доцент А.М. Багиров. ; School of Middle Eastern languages (Arabic, Hebrew and Turkish), as well as a number of languages of the Caucasus and Central Asia (Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan) is based on the intellectual heritage, tracing its history to the Department of Arabic Studies, established in 1871-1872 years when Lazarev Institute of Oriental Languages. The department provides a high level of theoretical and practical teaching of modern Arabic literary language and the spoken language of a number of Arab countries. Department annually produces 20-25 international affairs Arabists working in international, political, economic, legal, journalistic and other areas in the Russian Federation, the CIS countries and abroad.

Цель: Анализ правовых основ регулирования дипломатической деятельности в Украине и Российской Федерации. Методология: Автором использовались формально-юридический и сравнительно-правовой методы. Результаты: В статье сделан вывод о том, что с развитием современных средств связи и транспорта слабеет роль постоянных дипломатических представительств в сфере высшей политики. В то же самое время интенсификация межгосударственных связей обуславливает возрастание значения дипломатических связей для обеспечения национальных интересов государств в различных сферах общественной жизни. Автором отмечено, что впервые принципы правового регулирования дипломатической деятельности на международном уровне были закреплены в 1961 году с принятием Венской конвенции о праве международных договоров. В рамках национальных правовых систем Украины и Российской Федерации были приняты целые комплексы нормативно-правовых актов, призванные регулировать дипломатическую деятельность. Основные принципы организации всей внешней политики и, соответственно, деятельности дипломатических органов как в Украине, так и в России закреплены в проанализированных в статье законах этих государств. Новизна/оригинальность/ценность: Статья имеет определенную научную ценность, поскольку содержит авторские обобщения, позволяющие уяснить структуру внутригосударственного законодательства России и Украины в сфере регулирования дипломатической деятельности и выявить основные принципы ее организации. ; Purpose: The analysis of legal bases of regulation of diplomatic activity in Ukraine and the Russian Federation. Methodology: The author used formal-legal and comparative legal methods. Results: In article the conclusion is drawn on that, with development of modern means of communication and transport the role of permanent diplomatic representations in the sphere of the highest policy weakens. At the same time the intensification of interstate communications causes increase of value of diplomatic communications for ensuring national interests of the states in various spheres of public life. It is noted that for the first time the principles of legal regulation of diplomatic activity at the international level were consolidated in 1961 with adoption of the Vienna convention on the right of international treaties. Within national legal systems of Ukraine and the Russian Federation the whole complexes of the normative legal acts, urged to regulate diplomatic activity were accepted. The basic principles of the organization of all foreign policy and, respectively, activity of diplomatic bodies both in Ukraine, and in Russia are enshrined in the laws of these states analyzed in work. Novelty/originality/value: Article has a certain scientific value as contains the author's generalizations, allowing to understand structure of the domestic legislation of Russia and Ukraine in the sphere of regulation of diplomatic activity and to reveal the basic principles of its organization.

International audience ; A propos de l'intégration, deux approches coexistent dans les études sud-américaines. La première, issue des relations internationales, étudie les processus de régionalisation conduits par les États à l'échelle continentale. La seconde, développée par la géopolitique, se concentre sur l'intégration territoriale et la conquête des espaces périphériques à l'échelle nationale. Ces deux approches montrent des phénomènes antagonistes : ouverture des frontières sous l'effet de l'intégration continentale, renforcement des frontières et fragmentation de l'espace continental sous l'effet des politiques d'intégration nationale. C'est ainsi que le faible dialogue entre les analyses menées à l'échelle continentale et à l'échelle nationale conduise à une impasse méthodologique : la concomitance de dynamiques d'intégration sud-américaine et d'intégration nationale, qui est pourtant un fait établi, devient difficile à penser.Pour sortir de cette impasse, il faut compléter l'approche géopolitique classique où l'intégration est analysée comme une réalité politique construite par les États, par une approche constructiviste où l'intégration est envisagée comme une construction sociale permettant de réguler les rapports entre les habitants frontaliers. Dans les régions transfrontalières, les acteurs sociaux s'emparent des processus politiques conçus à l'échelle continentale et nationale et les redessinent en fonction de leur stratégie et leur représentation.La tri-frontière entre la Bolivie, le Pérou et le Brésil est un lieu stratégique pour mettre en œuvre cette complémentarité des approches, parce que cette région au centre du continent, mais loin des centres nationaux, concentrent des dynamiques d'intégration nationale, continentale et locale. La première partie du texte montrera les enjeux actuels de l'intégration continentale en Amérique du Sud : le hiatus entre les discours emphatiques sur l'intégration et les réalisations concrètes dans ce domaine, la tension entre les grands pays et les petits pays et la difficulté de concilier le vieux paradigme géopolitique de l'intégration nationale (présent dans tous les pays) avec ce nouveau paradigme de l'intégration continentale. La seconde partie du texte essaye de montrer les effets de ce processus d'intégration à l'échelle locale et la façon dont l'intégration (envisagée cette fois comme une construction sociale régulant les rapports entre les habitants transfrontaliers) évolue. Si les dynamiques d'intégration continentale donnent naissance à un espace de circulation continentale où la trifrontière occupe une place de choix, cela ne signifie pas que l'intégration à l'échelle locale progresse. Il semblerait même que nous soyons face à un système paradoxal où l'intégration continentale fait reculer le métissage de la région, expression historique de l'intégration régionale transfrontalière. Nous tenterons de montrer les raisons de ce paradoxe.

The purpose of this thesis is to illuminate the importance of researching Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) in International Relations (IR), through a social constructivist perspective. This is a two-folded study. The first part of the study sets out to investigate the development of CSR as an international norm, and seeks to identify the drivers of CSR as a norm in Norway and India. The second part of the thesis is a case study of the Norwegian textile company, the Varner-Group. The case study investigates CSR on a practical level through exploring the Varner-Group's CSR practices in India. The study applies a qualitative method and the main approaches made use of, was literature review and interviews. The literature review consisted of both primary and secondary sources, while the interviews were conducted both in India and Norway. The respondents mainly consist of representatives from the corporate sector, nongovernmental organizations (NGO) and research institutes. The first part of this study argues that CSR is on the verge of becoming an internationally institutionalized and internalized norm. In order for CSR, as norm, to become fully institutionalized, it needs to venture through all three stages of the Norm Life Cycle Model, which is presented through a social constructivist perspective. The three stages of the model are norm emergence, norm cascade and norm internalization. The norm consolidation actors, are those recognized as drivers of CSR between the second and third stage of the norm life cycle. The consolidation around the third stage of the CSR norm life cycle is evident through the implementation of CSR in state legislations such as in Norway and India. In 2013, CSR reporting was implemented in the Norwegian accounting law, while in India the Companies, Act 2013, demands companies of a certain size to spend two percent of their surplus on CSR purposes. The case study investigates how Norwegian companies, on a practical level, conduct CSR. The study argues that the Varner-Group's CSR work has evolved in accordance with the norm development of CSR, since the company created a CSR department in 2003. Furthermore, the study identifies several challenges the Varner-Group faces through their operations in India. The challenges include countering the societal issues, a different business culture and CSR traditions. Finally, the study places the company in the Economic/Ethical segment of the Three-Domain Model of CSR. This model shows the grounds by which the Varner-Group bases their business strategies in relations to CSR. ; M-IR

Worldwide expenditures on international development in the form of assistance or "aid" have continued to increase as developed countries look to both help and influence developing countries. In 2011, more than $140 billion in development aid was distributed globally, more than double the amount expended for international development aid in 2003. Many of the countries that are in need of aid have governments that do not have the resources, the experience, political stability, or well-functioning institutions to effect long-term structural change to bring their people out of poverty. Ethiopia is a country receiving large amounts of development aid, and one of the poorest regions in Ethiopia is the Borana Plateau in the Oromia state. The people are semi-nomadic pastoralists who live off the livestock they raise. Climate change, as well as overgrazing and population growth, has reduced the amount of land available for pasture. Additionally, drought conditions can cause huge livestock losses due to death and the pressure to sell animals during droughts to generate money to buy food. The pastoral system is in constant danger of overstocking and suffering a system crash when drought events occur. Linear programing was used in this study to test various "scenarios" that shed light on how drastically drought and overpopulation impacts livestock numbers and overall livelihoods of the Boran pastoralists. How well livestock survive through droughts determines, in large measure, the need for food aid in the Borana Plateau and, with climate change increasing the frequency of drought events, the system struggles to rebound following droughts. These scenarios examined in this study tested the economic incentive the Boran have to clear land, and what impact clearing land has on livestock numbers, especially during drought years. The analysis also tested how keeping livestock in the system, as a result of drought mitigation strategies such as brush clearing, reduces the need for food aid during droughts and also reduces the rebound time for livestock numbers following a drought. The results determined that brush clearing provided the forage needed to keep cattle alive through a drought at various stocking levels up to and including estimated full capacity. This suggested that brush-clearing activities created an environment where people could return to pre-drought production levels without any rebound time following a drought if enough brush clearing and/or kalo development is undertaken. Kalo(s) serve as forage reserves, created from land cleared of brush and produce much more grass than from brush clearing alone and do it at a lower household cost.

There is a possibility that the development ministers of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Devel¬opment (OECD) will agree on a new definition of official development assistance (ODA) at the end of 2014. Ongoing discussions on this matter may appear purely technical at first glance. While there is a range of specific technical aspects to the concept and development of ODA, it is becoming clear that the debate about a suitable new definition covers the entire spectrum of development policy topics involving structural change. Consequently, the current ODA debate reflects the various perspectives within the policy area as a whole. Do we simply need to make a few internal system adjustments to the ODA concept or might we in fact be seeing the beginning of the end of development cooperation as we know it, particularly as we have known it since the early 1960s? Is the provision of outside support to poor countries becoming obsolete as a model of international policy? There are two key reasons why the OECD countries agreed on an internationally applicable concept of ODA to begin with. Firstly, it allows standards and, by extension, qualitative requirements to be defined that distinguish ODA from other approaches to cooperation, such as instruments for promoting foreign trade and military cooperation with other states. Secondly, it makes it possible to keep quantitative records of contributions to development and of comparisons between countries that play a part in collective global action. Experience over the last few decades has shown that providing comparative inter¬national data can indeed put a degree of pressure on governments and parliaments to pursue or increase development cooperation activities. The United States, for instance, has never made a specific commitment to provide 0.7 percent of its economic output as ODA, a target generally accepted by donors. The European Union countries have attempted to flesh out this target in a step-by-step plan, yet have failed to achieve it on numerous occasions. For a long time, the Scandinavian countries and (until 2012) the Netherlands were considered to be role models in achieving the 0.7 percent target, and now the United Kingdom has also taken on a leading role in this respect, having recently enshrined the target in its legislation. Discussion about this target shows that statistical measurement has most definitely provided an international incentive for countries to increase their inputs.

International audience ; A propos de l'intégration, deux approches coexistent dans les études sud-américaines. La première, issue des relations internationales, étudie les processus de régionalisation conduits par les États à l'échelle continentale. La seconde, développée par la géopolitique, se concentre sur l'intégration territoriale et la conquête des espaces périphériques à l'échelle nationale. Ces deux approches montrent des phénomènes antagonistes : ouverture des frontières sous l'effet de l'intégration continentale, renforcement des frontières et fragmentation de l'espace continental sous l'effet des politiques d'intégration nationale. C'est ainsi que le faible dialogue entre les analyses menées à l'échelle continentale et à l'échelle nationale conduise à une impasse méthodologique : la concomitance de dynamiques d'intégration sud-américaine et d'intégration nationale, qui est pourtant un fait établi, devient difficile à penser.Pour sortir de cette impasse, il faut compléter l'approche géopolitique classique où l'intégration est analysée comme une réalité politique construite par les États, par une approche constructiviste où l'intégration est envisagée comme une construction sociale permettant de réguler les rapports entre les habitants frontaliers. Dans les régions transfrontalières, les acteurs sociaux s'emparent des processus politiques conçus à l'échelle continentale et nationale et les redessinent en fonction de leur stratégie et leur représentation.La tri-frontière entre la Bolivie, le Pérou et le Brésil est un lieu stratégique pour mettre en œuvre cette complémentarité des approches, parce que cette région au centre du continent, mais loin des centres nationaux, concentrent des dynamiques d'intégration nationale, continentale et locale. La première partie du texte montrera les enjeux actuels de l'intégration continentale en Amérique du Sud : le hiatus entre les discours emphatiques sur l'intégration et les réalisations concrètes dans ce domaine, la tension entre les grands pays et les petits pays et la difficulté de concilier le vieux paradigme géopolitique de l'intégration nationale (présent dans tous les pays) avec ce nouveau paradigme de l'intégration continentale. La seconde partie du texte essaye de montrer les effets de ce processus d'intégration à l'échelle locale et la façon dont l'intégration (envisagée cette fois comme une construction sociale régulant les rapports entre les habitants transfrontaliers) évolue. Si les dynamiques d'intégration continentale donnent naissance à un espace de circulation continentale où la trifrontière occupe une place de choix, cela ne signifie pas que l'intégration à l'échelle locale progresse. Il semblerait même que nous soyons face à un système paradoxal où l'intégration continentale fait reculer le métissage de la région, expression historique de l'intégration régionale transfrontalière. Nous tenterons de montrer les raisons de ce paradoxe.

This thesis explores and analyses the manifold relations between migration and health, what I call the migration-health nexus, in the contemporary Nicaraguan context. The study is based on fieldwork in León and Cuatro Santos and a mixed-methods approach combining qualitative in-depth interviews and quantitative survey data. In the thesis health is "traced" within the migration process; i.e. in places of origin, during travel, at the destination and after return, including the situation and consequences for both migrants and family members to migrants ("left-behinds"). The study shows that migration-health relations in Nicaragua are connected to broader economic, social and political factors and to the country's historical experiences of colonization, neo-colonization and structural adjustments. Contemporary Nicaraguan migrations are primarily related to the strategies of making a living and the struggle for a better life (i.e. a practice of mobile livelihoods). In the study setting health concerns were both indirectly embedded in people's mobile livelihoods, as well as directly influencing decisions to move or to stay, and migration involved both advantages and disadvantages for health. Through migration, women could see an end to physical violence and sexual abuse. Internal migrants could improve their access to health care and medicine. Vulnerabilities related to the unpredictable nature conditions could be avoided through moving. And, through the money made from migrant work people's everyday lives and health could be improved, in terms of better nutrition, housing, and access to education, health care and medicine. However, remittances do not necessarily lead to development, as they are used to compensate for the lacking public sector in Nicaragua. Under these circumstances, I argue that the Nicaraguan population is not guaranteed their social rights of citizenship. I also argue that the negative aspects surrounding migration must be taken into account when discussing the development potentials of migration and remittances. Both internal and international migrants in this study experienced stress while moving to a new place. International migrants had difficulties accessing health care in the destination, particularly those lacking documentation. The separation within families due to migration often caused emotional pain. Family members left behind did not rate their physical health as good as often as non-migrant families. The vulnerability, stress experiences and sufferings of migrants and left-behinds varied, however. I therefore conclude that social differences (in terms of e.g. gender, class, skin colour, and legal immigration status) are key for the enactment of the migration-health nexus, and that an interplay of individual, social and structural factors influence the outcome.

Klimata pārmaiņu jautājums ir nozīmīgs starptautiskās politikas dienas kārtības elements. Šis jautājums tiek risināts globālā klimata režīma ietvaros starpvaldību "tirgošanās" jeb "divu līmeņu" spēles formātā. Starptautisko sarunu procesā ir iesaistītas gan industriāli attīstītās valstis, gan strauji augošās ekonomikas un attīstības valstis, līdz ar to, spēlē iesaistīto aktieru vidū rodas ar interešu un iespēju konfliktu saistītas domstarpības. Starptautiskās klimata vienošanās panākšana tiek īstenota, balstoties uz vienprātības principu. Tāpēc vienošanās panākšanai ir nepieciešams nodrošināt to, lai spēlē iesaistīto valstu preferences noteiktā punktā pārklātos. Līdz ar to, starptautisko klimata sarunu process ir komplicēts, un par galveno iemeslu lēmumpieņemšanas lēnajai gaitai tiek minēts starptautisko klimata sarunu "divu līmeņu" formāts. Darba mērķis ir izpētīt, vai "divu līmeņu" spēles pieeja kavē globālas klimata vienošanās panākšanu. Darbā tiek izvirzīta hipotēze " "Divu līmeņu spēles" pieeja kavē globālas klimata vienošanās panākšanu". Par gadījuma analīzi tiek izvēlēts 2010.gada Kankūnas Iesaistīto pušu konferences ietvaros panākto vienošanos analīze. Analīzes rezultātā hipotēze tika apgāzta. Atslēgvārdi: Globāla klimata vienošanās, starptautiskās klimata sarunas, "divu līmeņu" spēle, ANO Vispārējā konvencija par klimata pārmaiņām, post-Kioto Protokols, COP16 ; The climate change issue is an important element of the international politics agenda. The global climate regime serves as an issue-solving platform and the negotiations are being held in "two-level" format as an intergovernmental bargaining process. The process requires a global involvment, which means the industrially developed countries, the emerging economies and the development countries have to go through clash of opinions due to significant gap in interests and opportunities. Taking into account that the global climate agreement requires consensus of all parties involved, the overlapping of national "win-sets" is the key element for reaching the agreement. Thus, the process of climate negotiations is highly complicated and the "two-level" game format is claimed to be the main reason for the slow pace of the decision-making process. Therefore the aim of the thesis is to anlalyse, whether the "two-level" game approach is holding down the pace of the climate negotiations. The following hypothesis has been proposed: "The "two-level" game approach serves as an obstacle for reaching the global climate agreement". The decisions reached during the Cancun Conference of the Parties in 2010 serves as a basis for the case analysis. Following the case analysis, the hypothesis was rejected. The key words: Global climate agreement, international climate negotiations, "two-level" game, UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, post-Kyoto Protocol, COP16

New information technology and Internet specially have affected the ways of exploitation of musical Works, and application of copiright laws, too. This article deals with the problems of copyright in musical industry facing the digital environment from a legislative, legal and industrial perspective. In other words, it is about seeking the answers offered by national and international lawmakers for effective protection of copyright in musical industry, affected by the digital environment, and the position that appears in the legal scene from other legal systems in order to give a solution to this problem. The methodology used consists in a revision of national and international legislation and doctrines, implementing legal comparison, in order to identify solutions to this problem from other legal systems. ; Las nuevas tecnologías de la información y especialmente Internet, han impactado en las formas de explotación de las obras musicales, y con ello en la aplicación de las normas de derecho de autor. El artículo aborda la problemática de los derechos de autor en la industria musical frente al entorno digital desde una perspectiva legislativa, jurisprudencial y de la industria misma. Es decir, se trata de indagar sobre las respuestas que ofrece el legislador, nacional e internacional, para la protección efectiva del derecho de autor en la industria musical, afectada por el entorno digital, y la posición que surge en el escenario jurisprudencial en otros sistemas jurídicos para brindar una solución a este problema. La metodología que se emplea consiste en la revisión de la legislación y doctrina nacionales e internacionales, implementando la comparación jurídica, con el fin de identificar arreglos desde otros sistemas jurídicos a este inconveniente. ; As novas tecnologias da informação e especialmente Internet, tem impactado nas formas de exploração das obras musicais, e com isso na aplicação das normas de direito de autor. O artigo aborda a problemática dos direitos de autor na indústria musical frente ao entorno digital desde uma perspectiva legislativa, jurisprudencial e da indústria mesma. É dizer, trata-se de indagar sobre as respostas que oferece o legislador, nacional e internacional, para a proteção efetiva do direito de autor na indústria musical, afetada pelo entorno digital, e a posição que surge no cenário jurisprudencial noutros sistemas jurídicos para brindar uma solução a este problema.A metodologia que é empregada consiste na revisão da legislação e doutrina nacionais e internacionais, implementando a comparação jurídica, com o fim de identificar arranjos desde outros sistemas jurídicos a este inconveniente.