The development and surviving examples of Lithuanian chandeliers have hardly received any research attention before. For the lack of all-inclusive and generalising research, the main problem of the dissertation is the reconstruction of the features of chandeliers, their place in historical interiors, their production and import in Lithuania and its historical territories. The main types of chandeliers developed in Europe and their production centres are presented. For the first time the author looks for manifestations of the functioning of chandeliers in different social contexts of Lithuania: the discovered references to chandeliers in the inventories of manors belonging to the nobles and the clergy, burgher's homes, and descriptions of church chandeliers funded by patrons are analysed. The varying names of chandeliers in the written sources from the 17th to the 19th century are presented. Information of various nature found in documents is systemised: what types of chandeliers decorated residential, public and sacral buildings, from what materials they were manufactured, how many of them were hung on the premises and in what spots they were found. The thesis also reveals the value of the relatively recent chandeliers made during second half of the 19th century to the 1930s. The directions of their import in different political periods are traced. The surviving examples of chandeliers scattered in various repositories and locations have been collected and presented for the first time in The Catalogue of Surviving Chandeliers. The research has revealed the significance of chandeliers for the material culture of Lithuania.
The development and surviving examples of Lithuanian chandeliers have hardly received any research attention before. For the lack of all-inclusive and generalising research, the main problem of the dissertation is the reconstruction of the features of chandeliers, their place in historical interiors, their production and import in Lithuania and its historical territories. The main types of chandeliers developed in Europe and their production centres are presented. For the first time the author looks for manifestations of the functioning of chandeliers in different social contexts of Lithuania: the discovered references to chandeliers in the inventories of manors belonging to the nobles and the clergy, burgher's homes, and descriptions of church chandeliers funded by patrons are analysed. The varying names of chandeliers in the written sources from the 17th to the 19th century are presented. Information of various nature found in documents is systemised: what types of chandeliers decorated residential, public and sacral buildings, from what materials they were manufactured, how many of them were hung on the premises and in what spots they were found. The thesis also reveals the value of the relatively recent chandeliers made during second half of the 19th century to the 1930s. The directions of their import in different political periods are traced. The surviving examples of chandeliers scattered in various repositories and locations have been collected and presented for the first time in The Catalogue of Surviving Chandeliers. The research has revealed the significance of chandeliers for the material culture of Lithuania.
The second half of the 19th century is related to 1pskr.11 movements in different countries. During this period many Lithuanians left their homeland. The fact that Lithuania was situated between Russia and Germany facilitated their emigration. The largest number of Lithuanians migrated to the USA (1pskr.1 from the ports of Germany and Liepaja). The emigration of Lithuanians to America is a rather widely discussed topic. There are numerous historical sources about their social, cultural, political and everyday life beyond the Atlantic ocean. However, we should not forget that the U.S.A. was not the only place Lithuanians migrated to. As the railway lines were built, communication with the neighbour states became more convenient, therefore, Lithuanians moved to industrial Latvian cities, such as Riga, Liepaja and Jelgava, seeking job as at that time Lithuania was still an underdeveloped agrarian country. The biggest number of Lithuanians gathered in Riga – the centre of the governorate of Livland at that time, where local ethnic minorities had quite good opportunities to 1pskr.1 themselves in culture and education. Having these conditions Lithuanians began to form groups, which later became large fellowships with prominent representatives, active movement and merits to both Latvia and Lithuania. At present there is a lack of thorough researches about the activity of Lithuanian fellowships in Latvia. Nevertheless, a few researches were made by both Latvian and Lithuanian researchers. However, they only discussed life of Lithuanians in 1pskr.11n general but did not 1pskr.1 education and culture. For this reason in my research I focus on educational and cultural activity of Lithuanian fellowships in Riga from the end of 19th until the first half of 20th century. What concerns Lithuanian imigrants and the activity of their fellowships in Riga, first of all we have to find out the reasons why Lithuanians migrated to this seaport of Russian empire; what were political and economical conditions in the governorates of Kaunas, Kuršas and Livland and later in the republics of Lithuania and Latvia; what were the reasons of such choice; why Lithuanians were able to 1pskr.1 themselves more actively in Riga than in Lithuania. It is important to find out what motivated Lithuanians to establish fellowships and what was the nature of their activity. To summarize the research, it can be said that the first features of socio-cultural activity of Lithuanian fellowships in Riga were noticeable in the end of 19th century. With the help of fellowships Lithuanians cultivated Lithuanian culture through education, press and participated in politics.
The second half of the 19th century is related to 1pskr.11 movements in different countries. During this period many Lithuanians left their homeland. The fact that Lithuania was situated between Russia and Germany facilitated their emigration. The largest number of Lithuanians migrated to the USA (1pskr.1 from the ports of Germany and Liepaja). The emigration of Lithuanians to America is a rather widely discussed topic. There are numerous historical sources about their social, cultural, political and everyday life beyond the Atlantic ocean. However, we should not forget that the U.S.A. was not the only place Lithuanians migrated to. As the railway lines were built, communication with the neighbour states became more convenient, therefore, Lithuanians moved to industrial Latvian cities, such as Riga, Liepaja and Jelgava, seeking job as at that time Lithuania was still an underdeveloped agrarian country. The biggest number of Lithuanians gathered in Riga – the centre of the governorate of Livland at that time, where local ethnic minorities had quite good opportunities to 1pskr.1 themselves in culture and education. Having these conditions Lithuanians began to form groups, which later became large fellowships with prominent representatives, active movement and merits to both Latvia and Lithuania. At present there is a lack of thorough researches about the activity of Lithuanian fellowships in Latvia. Nevertheless, a few researches were made by both Latvian and Lithuanian researchers. However, they only discussed life of Lithuanians in 1pskr.11n general but did not 1pskr.1 education and culture. For this reason in my research I focus on educational and cultural activity of Lithuanian fellowships in Riga from the end of 19th until the first half of 20th century. What concerns Lithuanian imigrants and the activity of their fellowships in Riga, first of all we have to find out the reasons why Lithuanians migrated to this seaport of Russian empire; what were political and economical conditions in the governorates of Kaunas, Kuršas and Livland and later in the republics of Lithuania and Latvia; what were the reasons of such choice; why Lithuanians were able to 1pskr.1 themselves more actively in Riga than in Lithuania. It is important to find out what motivated Lithuanians to establish fellowships and what was the nature of their activity. To summarize the research, it can be said that the first features of socio-cultural activity of Lithuanian fellowships in Riga were noticeable in the end of 19th century. With the help of fellowships Lithuanians cultivated Lithuanian culture through education, press and participated in politics.
Little research has been carried out in the sphere of the relations between a pharmaceutical career and family in the historiography of pharmacy history. A peculiar influence of family on the choice of the pharmaceutical way of life came into existence in the period of Lithuanian national revival at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th. This article aims to reveal the relations between a Lithuanian family and pharmaceutical career, to analyze the influence of political, social, economic factors on these relations. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th the resistance of Lithuanian peasants against Russification, Polonification manifested in their objective to form Lithuanian intelligentsia. Priestly seminaries became the major centre for preparing new Lithuanian intelligentsia. It was prestigious to become a priest. Moreover, this profession guaranteed material wealth. Young people often left the seminary and started their work in pharmacies where they got a shelter and small 5 rubles earning of a pharmacy apprentice. Such runaways from parents settled in the university cities of czarist Russia and had a purpose to become self-dependent (i.e. to get education) without parents' support. The choice of a woman-pharmacist career, however, was greatly influenced by the profession of her husband. Some educated Lithuanian pharmacists encouraged their wives to choose the same specialty as theirs but such occasions were rare. Sometimes it happened so that pharmacists married, but there were only few Lithuanian women-pharmacists or assistants of pharmacists, and in the period of Lithuanian national revival the point of view on ethnically mixed families was negative. This article discusses about the career of women-pharmacists and the influence of family on the choice of a profession, as well as Lithuanian point of view on ethnically mixed families of pharmacists.
Little research has been carried out in the sphere of the relations between a pharmaceutical career and family in the historiography of pharmacy history. A peculiar influence of family on the choice of the pharmaceutical way of life came into existence in the period of Lithuanian national revival at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th. This article aims to reveal the relations between a Lithuanian family and pharmaceutical career, to analyze the influence of political, social, economic factors on these relations. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th the resistance of Lithuanian peasants against Russification, Polonification manifested in their objective to form Lithuanian intelligentsia. Priestly seminaries became the major centre for preparing new Lithuanian intelligentsia. It was prestigious to become a priest. Moreover, this profession guaranteed material wealth. Young people often left the seminary and started their work in pharmacies where they got a shelter and small 5 rubles earning of a pharmacy apprentice. Such runaways from parents settled in the university cities of czarist Russia and had a purpose to become self-dependent (i.e. to get education) without parents' support. The choice of a woman-pharmacist career, however, was greatly influenced by the profession of her husband. Some educated Lithuanian pharmacists encouraged their wives to choose the same specialty as theirs but such occasions were rare. Sometimes it happened so that pharmacists married, but there were only few Lithuanian women-pharmacists or assistants of pharmacists, and in the period of Lithuanian national revival the point of view on ethnically mixed families was negative. This article discusses about the career of women-pharmacists and the influence of family on the choice of a profession, as well as Lithuanian point of view on ethnically mixed families of pharmacists.
After the suppression of the 1863 Uprising, the 'Russification of the region' became an inseparable and very important part of the normative language moulding the Russian Empire's national policy in the Western Region. At the same time the officials, unlike the publicists, avoided characterising the official policy as 'Russification' of other nations, since this term, like, e. g., Polonization in the Russian national discourse, had negative connotations. According to the predominant historical canon, this region was Russian from both the historical and ethnic perspective, and therefore the bureaucracy was inclined to characterise its policy as the restoration of historical veracity. In other words, in order to ascertain the aims of the national policy in this region, analysis of the official and public discourses alone is not enough. Nevertheless, the use of the term 'Russification' in public discourse and in part also in official correspondence allows its meaning to be revealed. 'Russification' at that time could be understood in a variety of ways: as assimilation, acculturation, or integration. This term frequently had different meanings regarding various minor ethnic groups of the Northwestern Region: in the case of the Belarussians it frequently meant assimilation; regarding Jews, acculturation and integration; in case the Poles, first of all political integration; but the Russification of Lithuanians or Latvians is rarely mentioned.
After the suppression of the 1863 Uprising, the 'Russification of the region' became an inseparable and very important part of the normative language moulding the Russian Empire's national policy in the Western Region. At the same time the officials, unlike the publicists, avoided characterising the official policy as 'Russification' of other nations, since this term, like, e. g., Polonization in the Russian national discourse, had negative connotations. According to the predominant historical canon, this region was Russian from both the historical and ethnic perspective, and therefore the bureaucracy was inclined to characterise its policy as the restoration of historical veracity. In other words, in order to ascertain the aims of the national policy in this region, analysis of the official and public discourses alone is not enough. Nevertheless, the use of the term 'Russification' in public discourse and in part also in official correspondence allows its meaning to be revealed. 'Russification' at that time could be understood in a variety of ways: as assimilation, acculturation, or integration. This term frequently had different meanings regarding various minor ethnic groups of the Northwestern Region: in the case of the Belarussians it frequently meant assimilation; regarding Jews, acculturation and integration; in case the Poles, first of all political integration; but the Russification of Lithuanians or Latvians is rarely mentioned.
Lithuanian military history of the 18th century was closely related to the military history of the Polish Kingdom and that of the Republic of Two Nations. Therefore, the main scientific research works were drafted in Poland at the end of the 19th century and in the 20th century.
Lithuanian military history of the 18th century was closely related to the military history of the Polish Kingdom and that of the Republic of Two Nations. Therefore, the main scientific research works were drafted in Poland at the end of the 19th century and in the 20th century.
Lithuanian military history of the 18th century was closely related to the military history of the Polish Kingdom and that of the Republic of Two Nations. Therefore, the main scientific research works were drafted in Poland at the end of the 19th century and in the 20th century.
At the second half of 19th century the formation of the modern Lithuanian nation took place. This process took place together with the formation of modern Poles and other ethnic groups living in the territory of the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania (GDL). In Lithuania, landlords and clergy played an important role in the national movement, influencing the religious-national consciousness of the commons. The cause of tension and disagreement between Lithuanians and Poles was often the issue of the use of the mother tongue in churches. The paper reviews the extent to which the common events in Inturkė and Joniškis parishes were reflected, how the Polish and Lithuanian national attitudes spread in the society and how the processes were reflected in the media of both nations. Ethnic relations in Joniškis and Inturkė parishes of Giedraičiai dean's office of Vilnius diocese were chosen as the object of research of master's thesis. This study, analyzing the processes of formation of national identity in both parishes, pays attention to Lithuanian-Polish religious-national aspirations, problems of change of their national identity, systematizes existing data, adding new, unpublished sources. The aim of the work is to examine the change of national relations and ethnolinguistic identity in Joniškis and Inturkė parishes of Giedraičiai deanery of Vilnius diocese. To achieve the goal, the following tasks were set: to review the main theories of nationalism and national movements; to determine the change of the national Catholic composition in Joniškis and Inturkė parishes in 1864–1914; to study the ethnic affiliation of Joniškis and Inturkė parish clergy and its role in the national and Catholic movement; to find out Lithuanian and Polish religious-national aspirations during the press ban and their influence on mutual relations; to discuss the manifestations and change of ethnolinguistic identity in Joniškis and Inturkė parishes in 1864 - 1914. In order to achieve the aim of the work, a descriptive method is used, which provides a detailed picture of the research objects on the nature and extent of ethnic conflicts in a particular parish. The comparative analog method is used to compare information from sources, revealing Polish and Lithuanian attitudes towards national relations. The statistical method was used to collect and summarize data on the population of parishes and their ethnic composition. The method of literature and source analysis helped to analyze and systematize scientific and ethnographic literature and narrative sources. The Lithuanian State Historical Archive and the Wroblewski Library of the Lithuanian Academy of Sciences store official questionnaires of priests, complaints of the residents and requests to the Vilnius Diocese administration. Some priests 'reports and explanations, as well as deans' letters, made it possible to collect and supplement data on clergy and their activities, and to clarify and compare the facts available on the processes of ethnic disagreement in the parishes under study. The analyzed press provided an overview of how the manifestations of ethnolinguistic identity were reflected. One of the most common modernist theories of nationalism was chosen for this study. Its researchers emphasize that education and access to high culture are important for the formation of modern society. This is relevant in the analysis of the role of the Lithuanian clergy and landlord in the modern national movement in 19th century. At that time, the majority of the population was low-educated peasants, who were most influenced by the faith and the Church. The national press language, which played a significant role in national self-identification, had important ideological and political significance for all national movements. Summarizing the research, it can be stated that in Vilnius county in the 19th century Lithuanians accounted for about 65% of the total population, but no language had a clear linguistic predominance. There are no precise data on the composition of the population of Joniškis and Inturkė parishes. The collected data are not reliable, as some of them were made up of parish priests, who could correct them according to their national beliefs. In the parishes of Giedraičiai deanery in the end of 19th century Lithuanians made up the majority of the population, and church services were held in Lithuanian. At the beginning of the 20th century, the Lithuanian language was used in only a few churches, including Inturkė and Joniškis churches. Comparing the data of the end of 19th century with the beginning of the 20th century, at the beginning of the 20th century, an increase in the number of Poles can be observed in Vilnius County. At the beginning of the 20th century, the language of prayer was considered to be the criterion for choosing a language during the parish census. The parish census sometimes caused serious public disagreement. Until the second half of the 19th century only Polish language was used in the church by Parish clergy. Later, most clergy of Joniškis and Inturkė parishes fostered the Lithuanian language, supported nationality, organized and distributed a forbidden press, raised the spirit of national revival, actively participated in the Lithuanian national movement, fought for the rights of the mother tongue in churches and spoke in the press. At the end of the 19th century in the mixed parishes of Inturkė and Joniškis conflicts often arose in Churches because of Mass language. Both, Poles and Lithuanians, wrote complaints and requests to the governors of the Vilnius diocese. Both nations sought to legitimize their native language in the church. Local landowners demanded to leave the Polish language in the church especially intensively. Complaints and conflicts of both, Poles and Lithuanians continued throughout the first decades of the 20th century. Manifestations and change of ethnolinguistic identity in Joniškis and Inturkė parishes in 1864–1914 are reflected by the press of that time, which became a condition of the identity of the modern democratic nation and a means of communication for the national movement. The newspapers of that time paid a lot of attention to the discussion of ethnic relations, reported on the events in the parishes, and published the complaints and speeches of the parishioners, which showed the national attitudes.
At the second half of 19th century the formation of the modern Lithuanian nation took place. This process took place together with the formation of modern Poles and other ethnic groups living in the territory of the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania (GDL). In Lithuania, landlords and clergy played an important role in the national movement, influencing the religious-national consciousness of the commons. The cause of tension and disagreement between Lithuanians and Poles was often the issue of the use of the mother tongue in churches. The paper reviews the extent to which the common events in Inturkė and Joniškis parishes were reflected, how the Polish and Lithuanian national attitudes spread in the society and how the processes were reflected in the media of both nations. Ethnic relations in Joniškis and Inturkė parishes of Giedraičiai dean's office of Vilnius diocese were chosen as the object of research of master's thesis. This study, analyzing the processes of formation of national identity in both parishes, pays attention to Lithuanian-Polish religious-national aspirations, problems of change of their national identity, systematizes existing data, adding new, unpublished sources. The aim of the work is to examine the change of national relations and ethnolinguistic identity in Joniškis and Inturkė parishes of Giedraičiai deanery of Vilnius diocese. To achieve the goal, the following tasks were set: to review the main theories of nationalism and national movements; to determine the change of the national Catholic composition in Joniškis and Inturkė parishes in 1864–1914; to study the ethnic affiliation of Joniškis and Inturkė parish clergy and its role in the national and Catholic movement; to find out Lithuanian and Polish religious-national aspirations during the press ban and their influence on mutual relations; to discuss the manifestations and change of ethnolinguistic identity in Joniškis and Inturkė parishes in 1864 - 1914. In order to achieve the aim of the work, a descriptive method is used, which provides a detailed picture of the research objects on the nature and extent of ethnic conflicts in a particular parish. The comparative analog method is used to compare information from sources, revealing Polish and Lithuanian attitudes towards national relations. The statistical method was used to collect and summarize data on the population of parishes and their ethnic composition. The method of literature and source analysis helped to analyze and systematize scientific and ethnographic literature and narrative sources. The Lithuanian State Historical Archive and the Wroblewski Library of the Lithuanian Academy of Sciences store official questionnaires of priests, complaints of the residents and requests to the Vilnius Diocese administration. Some priests 'reports and explanations, as well as deans' letters, made it possible to collect and supplement data on clergy and their activities, and to clarify and compare the facts available on the processes of ethnic disagreement in the parishes under study. The analyzed press provided an overview of how the manifestations of ethnolinguistic identity were reflected. One of the most common modernist theories of nationalism was chosen for this study. Its researchers emphasize that education and access to high culture are important for the formation of modern society. This is relevant in the analysis of the role of the Lithuanian clergy and landlord in the modern national movement in 19th century. At that time, the majority of the population was low-educated peasants, who were most influenced by the faith and the Church. The national press language, which played a significant role in national self-identification, had important ideological and political significance for all national movements. Summarizing the research, it can be stated that in Vilnius county in the 19th century Lithuanians accounted for about 65% of the total population, but no language had a clear linguistic predominance. There are no precise data on the composition of the population of Joniškis and Inturkė parishes. The collected data are not reliable, as some of them were made up of parish priests, who could correct them according to their national beliefs. In the parishes of Giedraičiai deanery in the end of 19th century Lithuanians made up the majority of the population, and church services were held in Lithuanian. At the beginning of the 20th century, the Lithuanian language was used in only a few churches, including Inturkė and Joniškis churches. Comparing the data of the end of 19th century with the beginning of the 20th century, at the beginning of the 20th century, an increase in the number of Poles can be observed in Vilnius County. At the beginning of the 20th century, the language of prayer was considered to be the criterion for choosing a language during the parish census. The parish census sometimes caused serious public disagreement. Until the second half of the 19th century only Polish language was used in the church by Parish clergy. Later, most clergy of Joniškis and Inturkė parishes fostered the Lithuanian language, supported nationality, organized and distributed a forbidden press, raised the spirit of national revival, actively participated in the Lithuanian national movement, fought for the rights of the mother tongue in churches and spoke in the press. At the end of the 19th century in the mixed parishes of Inturkė and Joniškis conflicts often arose in Churches because of Mass language. Both, Poles and Lithuanians, wrote complaints and requests to the governors of the Vilnius diocese. Both nations sought to legitimize their native language in the church. Local landowners demanded to leave the Polish language in the church especially intensively. Complaints and conflicts of both, Poles and Lithuanians continued throughout the first decades of the 20th century. Manifestations and change of ethnolinguistic identity in Joniškis and Inturkė parishes in 1864–1914 are reflected by the press of that time, which became a condition of the identity of the modern democratic nation and a means of communication for the national movement. The newspapers of that time paid a lot of attention to the discussion of ethnic relations, reported on the events in the parishes, and published the complaints and speeches of the parishioners, which showed the national attitudes.
The goal of the article is to define the place of folk's - Lithuanian - language in the agitation messages. The main forms of particular agitation are discussed, original translations of the leading patriotic hymns into Lithuanian are presented. During the years of political patriotic movement and the uprising of 1863, Lithuanian language was used both by revolutionary forces and by Russian authorities as a tool of political agitation, with the intent to win the peasants over. Agitative sermons would be preached as well as similar speeches would be held, patriotic songs would be sung in Lithuanian. Likewise Russian government used Lithuanian to proclaim the admonitions regarding the peasants' social attitude. The written agitation messages included revolutionary proclamations and translations of Polish patriotic hymns, official decrees of the Lithuanian and Polish rebel command, as well as pronouncements of Russian authorities and papers of the Church leadership formulated under their direction. In the Lithuanian agitative texts prepared by the uprising organisers, peasants were addressed, explaining the essence of manifestation and insurrectionary benefit, providing information on religion's persecution. Hereby peasants were encouraged to fight against the invaders for land, for freedom of Homeland and religion. Provincials were called for solidarity with Polish and landlords, and were threatened for disobedience. Some of the texts revealed political platforms of different revolutionary strata. The peasants' attitude was influenced by the insurrectionary agitation in the native language, especially when clergy got involved into it. A similar impact was achieved also by the counterrevolutionary agitation of Russian authorities.
