Suchergebnisse

During the first half of the 20th century in Italy, the theme of national belonging was at the center of the political and cultural debate: the post-unitary discussions on national identity, the patriotism of interventionists, post-World War I, and later fascist, nationalism. Among the Italian intellectuals of the time, many shared double origins: their families were Italian, and yet they were born and raised abroad. Their belonging to the homeland was not automatic. I have looked at the way in which their need for an identity relates to the tensions that were shaking the country, their involvement in the political events of those years, and wondered whether it is possible to isolate any similarities between them that might be connected to their multicultural origins.In November 1927, an interview to Alberto Savinio was published in the Parisian journal "Comœdia." In it, he criticized Italian art and claimed that he lived in Paris because the mental openness of the French favored artistic development. At the height of Fascism, these declarations bothered a number of Italian intellectuals, who accused him of not loving his homeland. He was therefore excluded from national cultural life for a few years. Giuseppe Ungaretti stood up for him, despite both having declared his Fascism and not sharing a particularly close relationship with Savinio. They had met in Paris in the early 1910s, when they both gravitated around Soffici and his group, especially Apollinaire, who was a fundamental reference: he was their artistic guide, but also someone who shared their uprootedness, since he was French by adoption. His enrollment in the French army was therefore particularly significant for them. Savinio and Ungaretti kept in touch throughout the decade and collaborated to the projects of journals such as "La Vraie Italie" and "Commerce," whose goal was to make Italian art better known in France. Starting in 1925, their relationship became strained, also due to a general climate of mistrust, but the "Comœdia" affair shows us that their supernational conception of culture surpasses personal issues. Nevertheless, they often seemed to contradict this idea, repeatedly emphasizing Italy's superiority compared to other countries and displaying growing nationalism, which reached its apex when they adhered to Fascism. They took part in World War I as a way of claiming their belonging to the Italian nation, but it was starting from the following years that they began to show their patriotism by exalting the fighters, criticizing peace agreements that proved unfavorable to Italy, and affirming the idea of Italy's intellectual primacy. Their support of Fascism was the natural consequence. During the "Ventennio," Savinio and Ungaretti wrote several articles in journals that were supportive of Mussolini, where they employed many of the rhetorical topoi of those years. This is the extreme point in their search for Italianness: the affirmation of their identity went beyond the individual and found its place within the collective dimension of the "State." World War II, which they considered madness, brought about a change of heart regarding the regime. Ungaretti and Savinio shared the idea that Fascism had betrayed its principles. Italy's greatness needed to play within a universal context, rather than an enclosed one. They thought that in order to achieve a collective renaissance, it was necessary to surpass national egotism and come back to Europe's Christian spirit. Therefore, the need for an Italian identity faded into the background compared to the necessity of a European identity. ; Dans l'Italie de la première moitié du XXème siècle, le thème du sentiment d'appartenance nationale est central dans le débat politique et culturel : on passe des discussions post-unitaires au sujet de l'identité nationale, au patriotisme des interventionnistes, au nationalisme de l'après Ière guerre mondiale, à celui des fascistes. Parmi les intellectuels italiens de cette époque-là, beaucoup ont une double origine : leur famille est italienne et pourtant ils sont nés et ils ont grandi à l'étranger. Leur appartenance à la patrie n'est pas automatique. On s'est demandé dans quelle manière leur besoin d'identité se met en relation avec les tensions qui traversent le Pays, à quel niveau ils sont impliqués dans les événements politiques de ces années-là et s'il est possible de retrouver chez eux des analogies liées à leurs origines multiculturelles. En novembre 1927 on publique une interview d'Alberto Savinio dans le journal parisien « Comœdia ». Il critique l'art italienne et affirme être à Paris parce que l'ouverture mentale du peuple français favorise le développement artistique. En plein fascisme ces déclarations heurtent beaucoup d'intellectuels italiens, qui l'accusent de ne pas aimer sa patrie. On lui interdit de participer à la vie culturelle nationale pendant quelques années. Giuseppe Ungaretti prend sa défense, tout en ayant déclaré son fascisme et bien que ses relations avec Savinio ne soient pas très intimes. Ils se connaissent à Paris au début des années 1910, étant tous les deux en contact avec Soffici et son entourage, et surtout avec Apollinaire, qui est un point de repère fondamental : il est leur guide artistique, mais aussi quelqu'un qui partage leur statut de déracinés, en tant que français d'adoption. Son enrôlement dans l'armée française est donc très significatif à leurs yeux. Les contacts entre Savinio et Ungaretti se poursuivent tout au long du décennie, et ils collaborent aux projets des revues « La Vraie Italie » et « Commerce », dont l'objectif est de mieux faire connaître la réalité artistique italienne en France. À partir de 1925, les rapports entre les deux se tendent, aussi à cause d'un climat de méfiance général, mais l'affaire « Comœdia » nous montre que chez eux la conception supranationale de culture surmonte les problèmes personnels. Toutefois ils semblent souvent contredire cette idée, en soulignant à maintes reprises la supériorité de l'Italie par rapport aux autres Pays et en manifestant un nationalisme croissant, qui atteint le sommet par l'adhésion au fascisme. Ils participent à la Ière guerre mondiale afin d'affirmer leur appartenance à la nation italienne, mais c'est surtout à partir des années suivantes qu'ils manifestent leur patriotisme, en exaltant les combattants, en critiquant les accords de paix défavorables pour l'Italie, en affirmant l'idée d'une primauté intellectuelle de l'Italie. L'appui au fascisme en est la conséquence. Pendant le « Ventennio » Savinio et Ungaretti écrivent plusieurs articles dans des revues solidaires de Mussolini, où ils utilisent les topoi rhétoriques de ces années-là. C'est le point extrême de leur quête d'italianité : l'affirmation identitaire dépasse l'individualité et se situe dans la dimension collective de l'« État ». La IIème guerre mondiale, étant considérée une folie, détermine un changement d'avis à propos du régime. Ungaretti et Savinio partagent l'idée que le fascisme ait trahi ses principes. La grandeur de l'Italie devait agir dans un horizon universel et non pas enfermé. Ils pensent que pour une renaissance collective il faut se dépasser des égotismes nationaux et revenir à l'esprit chrétien de l'Europe. Le besoin d'une identité italienne passe donc au deuxième plan par rapport à la nécessité d'une identité européenne.

My project explores and compares different forms of gender performance in contemporary art and visual culture according to a perspective centered on photography. Thanks to its attesting power this medium can work as a ready-made. In fact during the 20th century it played a key role in the cultural emancipation of the body which (using a Michel Foucault's expression) has now become «the zero point of the world». Through performance the body proves to be a living material of expression and communication while photography ensures the recording of any ephemeral event that happens in time and space. My questioning approach considers the gender constructed imagery from the 1990s to the present in order to investigate how photography's strong aura of realism promotes and allows fantasies of transformation. The contemporary fascination with gender (especially for art and fashion) represents a crucial issue in the global context of postmodernity and is manifested in a variety of visual media, from photography to video and film. Moreover the internet along with its digital transmission of images has deeply affected our world (from culture to everyday life) leading to a postmodern preference for performativity over the more traditional and linear forms of narrativity. As a consequence individual borders get redefined by the skin itself which (dissected through instant vision) turns into a ductile material of mutation and hybridation in the service of identity. My critical assumptions are taken from the most relevant changes occurred in philosophy during the last two decades as a result of the contributions by Jacques Lacan, Michel Foucault, Jacques Derrida, Gilles Deleuze who developed a cross-disciplinary and comparative approach to interpret the crisis of modernity. They have profoundly influenced feminist studies so that the category of gender has been reassessed in contrast with sex (as a biological connotation) and in relation to history, culture, society. The ideal starting point of my research is the year 1990. I chose it as the approximate historical moment when the intersection of race, class and gender were placed at the forefront of international artistic production concerned with identity, diversity and globalization. Such issues had been explored throughout the 1970s but it was only from the mid-1980s onward that they began to be articulated more consistently. Published in 1990, the book "Gender trouble: feminism and the subversion of identity" by Judith Butler marked an important breakthrough by linking gender to performance as well as investigating the intricate connections between theory and practice, embodiment and representation. It inspired subsequent research in a variety of disciplines, art history included. In the same year Teresa de Lauretis launched the definition of queer theory to challenge the academic perspective in gay and lesbian studies. In the meantime the rise of Third Wave Feminism in the US introduced a racially and sexually inclusive vision over the global situation in order to reflect on subjectivity, new technologies and popular culture in connection with gender representation. These conceptual tools have enabled prolific readings of contemporary cultural production whether fine arts or mass media. After discussing the appropriate framework of my project and taking into account the postmodern globalization of the visual, I have turned to photography to map gender representation both in art and in fashion. Therefore I have been creating an archive of images around specific topics. I decided to include fashion photography because in the 1990s this genre moved away from the paradigm of an idealized and classical beauty toward a new vernacular allied with lifestyles, art practices, pop and youth culture; as one might expect the dominant narrative modes in fashion photography are now mainly influenced by cinema and snapshot. These strategies originate story lines and interrupted narratives using models' performance to convey a particular imagery where identity issues emerge as an essential part of fashion spectacle. Focusing on the intersections of gender identities with socially and culturally produced identities, my approach intends to underline how the fashion world has turned to current trends in art photography and in some case turned to the artists themselves. The growing fluidity of the categories that distinguish art from fashion photography represents a particularly fruitful moment of visual exchange. Varying over time the dialogue between these two fields has always been vital; nowadays it can be studied as a result of this close relationship between contemporary art world and consumer culture. Due to the saturation of postmodern imagery the feedback between art and fashion has become much more immediate and then increasingly significant for anyone who wants to investigate the construction of gender identity through performance. In addition to that a lot of magazines founded in the 1990s bridged the worlds of art and fashion because some of their designers and even editors were art-school graduates encouraging innovation. The inclusion of art within such magazines aimed at validating them as a form of art in themselves supporting a dynamic intersection for music, fashion, design and youth culture: an intersection that also contributed to create and spread different gender stereotypes. This general interest in fashion produced many exhibitions of and about fashion itself at major international venues such as the Victoria and Albert Museum in London, the Metropolitan Museum of Art and the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York. Since then this celebrated success of fashion has been regarded as a typical element of postmodern culture. Owing to that I have also based my analysis on some important exhibitions dealing with gender performance like "Féminin-Masculin" at the Centre Pompidou of Paris (1995), "Rrose is a Rrose is a Rrose. Gender performance in photography" at the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum of New York (1997), "Global Feminisms" at the Brooklyn Museum (2007), "Female Trouble" at the Pinakothek der Moderne in München together with the workshops dedicated to "Performance: gender and identity" in June 2005 at the Tate Modern of London. Since 2003 in Italy we have had Gender Bender - an international festival held annually in Bologna - to explore the gender imagery stemming from contemporary culture. In few days this festival offers a series of events ranging from visual arts, performance, cinema, literature to conferences and music. Being aware that any method of research is neither race nor gender neutral I have traced these critical paths to question gender identity in a multicultural perspective taking account of the political implications too. In fact, if visibility may be equated with exposure, we can also read these images as points of intersection of visibility with social power. Since gender assignations rely so heavily on the visual, the postmodern dismantling of gender certainty through performance has wide-ranging effects that need to be analyzed. In some sense this practice can even contest the dominance of visual within postmodernism. My visual map in contemporary art and fashion photography includes artists like Nan Goldin, Cindy Sherman, Hellen van Meene, Rineke Dijkstra, Ed Templeton, Ryan McGinley, Anne Daems, Miwa Yanagi, Tracey Moffat, Catherine Opie, Tomoko Sawada, Vanessa Beecroft, Yasumasa Morimura, Collier Schorr among others.

Before considering the new concepts in cataloguing which are likely to govern bibliographic control in the future, it is important to look back at the way in which the migration of the card catalogue to a networked environment has affected the organization of libraries. In many ways, the implementation of the National Library Service (SBN) has played a decisive role in "the slow and painstaking process of standardising the catalogues, with respect to cataloguing rules and record formats", which is among the main concerns of the Italian library authorities and therefore marked as one of the objectives of a national action plan as early as 1959. The production of the tapes containing the National Bibliography records in 1975 is the first episode of some importance in the history of library automation in Italy. Used for the photomechanical processing of the bibliography in its printed version, those tapes provided data in machine readable form which could be exchanged within the framework of the Universal Bibliographic Control programme strongly endorsed by IFLA. These records were given the ANNAMARC format structure, a local variant of the MARC format in use at the Library of Congress at the time. It was Maltese who recommended the adoption of MARC on the assumption that this would facilitate the integration of the Italian agency in the international bibliographic circuit. For several years only a few libraries, if any, could benefit from the availability of the national bibliography records. Copy cataloguing was in fact not a traditional procedure in Italian libraries the way it had been since the beginning of the 20th century in North-American libraries. The success of bibliographic utilities such as OCLC, RLG, WLN and UTLAS as well as the adoption of MARC and AACR2 as standards can easily be explained with the practice of importing the records produced at the Library of Congress into the various local catalogues. Most Italian developed cataloguing systems, instead, did not even include an import-export module, making it therefore impossible for Italian librarians to consider copy cataloguing as a promising, cost-effective option. Technology is not the only explanation for such a scarcity of cooperative efforts. Other factors include the non existence of library schools and the absence of an overall coordination policy at a national level. The first task to be undertaken by the National Library Service was therefore of an educational nature: the systematic training of librarians towards the use of standard cataloguing criteria. This required the adoption of a closed, centralised architecture, which replaced the distributed model initially envisaged by Vinay and Boisset. In joining the network each library or group of libraries added its existing records to the union catalogue through successive migrations of data. As a consequence of such a process, the quality of the records became rather uneven, forcing the national library as a routine to merge the duplicates and clean up the indexes. Most important, the project led to the creation of a database consisting of over 4.5 million records, contributed day by day by a thousand libraries of all shapes and sizes. The sense of cooperation, resulting in a general refinement of the acquisitions strategies as well as in the improvement of the exploitation of existing bibliographic resources, is particularly important in view of the development of the Italian digital library, as was emphasized during the 3rd National conference of libraries held at Padua last February. Descriptive cataloguing should become a minor concern for libraries as a consequence of the improved coverage offered by the various bibliographic utilities, in conjunction with the increasing number of digital documents. This has nothing to do with the idea that digital entities will catalogue themselves and that cataloguing standards are becoming unimportant since they do not apply to web sites and the rest. Such views, according to Gorman, are "not only wrong but also noxious because, though masquerading as progressive, they are impeding progress". Instead cataloguers should aim at developing linking devices to connect packages of recorded knowledge and information, using their titles, edition statements, issuers, dates and any other known data, and adding formalized names and titles to those descriptions and to those digital entities that allow library users to retrieve and collocate those documents, and relating them to a location either physical or virtual. However, it proves difficult for most librarians to abandon a system of bibliographic control that has been so successful and to adopt an entirely new set of concepts that will take full advantage of the new digital environment. The professional debate at an international level seemed so far more concerned with improvements needed within the established framework and hardly looked in any great depth at new concepts in cataloguing which are required if one wants to benefit from the intrinsic feature of a computer which resides in the ability to "establish, coordinate and connect syntaxes of signs", as suggested by Serrai. The need for a reassessment of the foundations on which cataloguing is based appeared with great evidence in the theoretical activities leading to the publication of the Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records in 1998. On the one hand it was felt that many inconsistencies were caused by bibliographic representations heavily relying on ISBD, a standard which uses principles having little relevance in an electronic environment, having been defined with a concern for the printed versions of the national bibliography and the exchange of bibliographic record at an international level, rather than as a data model for the needs of the individual library catalogue. On the other hand, it is evident that because of the large size of many databases and the number of hits that most searches produce, users tend to be frustrated in attempting to use a catalogue and sometimes wonder if the complexity is really necessary, especially if compared to the apparent user-friendliness of the general web search engine. The difference, according to Ayres, is a conceptual one which is already to be found in information retrieval where two basic types of searching have become established. These are pre-coordinate and post-coordinate. Cataloguing has so far always been a pre-coordinate operation and is based on what cataloguers do at the input phase, both as regards the description and the access terms. In particular, authority control (or "entry point control" as Gorman termed it already in 1977) in its present form is expensive to set up, to maintain and to use. Nevertheless, it is the foundation stone of sound cataloguing and a key factor in information retrieval and digital resources management. Again Ayres suggests that authority control be used to provide the link rather than the preferred heading, bearing in mind that from the user's viewpoint the preferred heading is the heading that he/she searches by and that in searching he/she wants the heading that he/she has thought about to be linked to the headings that he/she has not thought about. This means that the present authority control files will become linking files and that the entire procedure will implicitly be a post-coordinate operation. A fully developed electronic catalogue should be able to function in two ways, according to the specific needs of the user, providing "intellectual" (that is, access to the contents of library resources) as well as "bibliographic" control (that is, access to the physical packages in which content appears). Eventually, catalogues should give access to cultural heritage information, not just of a bibliographic nature, which is now under distributed control, bridging the barriers to access that have been created by specific traditions of custody and documentation. The feasibility of such a vision largely depends on the capability of the system within which they are stored to interoperate with those around them, but above all it relies on the intellectual effort dedicated to build up some kind of semantic, political, human and legal interoperability, both nationally and internationally.

United or Disunited? The Regional Question and the issue of Federalism in ItalyThis article deals with Italy's regional crisis arising from the petitions –filed in the country over the last years – in favour of a transformationfrom the Italian centralized unitary system into a Federal form of government.This work reconstructs the origins of the regional question and its political-administrative decentralization since the Unity of Italy. It focuses mainlyon the territorial responses and the high points of the debate developingduring the XIX century between "Unitarians" and "Federalists". In particular,we discuss Carlo Cattaneo's argument over the creation of an actualautonomy of territorial communities generating the construction of theUnited Kingdoms of Italy.Outlining the genesis and the evolution of the Italian regions as space ofgovernment, this paper aims at identifying the practices of distribution,largely spread by cartographic representations. Moreover, it takes into consideration the persistence of such regional designs in Italians' collective imagination.Finally, it reconstructs the basic events of Italian regions – a processdelayed for several years – from the Union to Fascism, to the secondpost-war period, until their actual institution in the Seventies.At the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, following the crisis caused by"Tangentopoli" (aka bribesville), Northern League movements and Berlusconi'personal party' began to gain ground powerfully. In 2001, the changing political scene led to the approval of a constitutional amendment, introducing a concurrent legislation between State and Regions. The new legal frameworks resulting from a partial institutional revision in Italy can also be seen as the consequence of a controversial regionalization, opposing the historical "Southern question" to the merging of a new "Northern question". Finally, the work questions some fundamental issues emerging from the difficult transition from a Regional State to a Federal one, in this contemporary late-capitalist critical age.KeywordsRegions, federalism, "Northern question".Une ou divisible? La question régionale et le noeud du fédéralisme en ItalieCet article traite du problème régional en Italie et des instances – misesen oeuvre dans ce pays depuis quelques années – en faveur d'unetransition de l'Etat vers une forme de gouvernement de type fédéral.Ce travail revient sur l'origine de la question régionale et du problème de ladécentralisation politique et administrative, à partir de l'Unité d'Italie, etanalyse leurs effets au niveau territorial ainsi que les moments les plus importants du débat qui s'est développé au cours du XIXe siècle entre les"unionistes" et les "fédéraux". Il analyse notamment la polémique menée par Carlo Cattaneo pour la création d'une autonomie effective des communautés territoriales qui aurait pu donner lieu à la construction des Royaumes Unis d'Italie. Dans cet article on suit la genèse et l'évolution des régions italiennes en tant qu'espace de gouvernement, pour comprendre les modalités de diffusion – véhiculées en particulier par les représentations cartographiques – et la persistence de tels dessins régionaux dans l'imaginaire collectif des Italiens. Cette évolution est analysée au travers de la construction institutionnelle des régions italiennes, de l'Unité d'Italie au fascisme, puis de l'après Deuxième Guerre Mondiale, jusqu'à leur institution effective dans les années 1970. Entre le XXe et XXIe siècles, suite à la crise de "Tangentopoli" (le scandale de l'administration publique dans les années 1990), on assiste à la montée des mouvements de la Ligue du Nord et à la naissance du parti "personnel" de Berlusconi. Ce nouveau climat politique conduit, en 2001, à la modification de la Constitution, qui introduit une législation concurentielle entre l'Etat et ses régions. En Italie, de nouveaux tableaux normatifs, issus d'une révision partielle des institutions, sont également le fruit d'une régionalisation conflictuelle qui a opposé à l'ancienne "question de l'Italie du sud", la constitution d'une "question septentrionale". Dans la phase finale, ce travail pose quelques problématiques qui surgissent de la transition difficile d'un Etat de type régional à un Etat fédéral, dans le contexte actuel de crise du capitalisme à l'échelle mondiale.Mots-clésRégionalité, fédéralisme, "question septentrionale".

Nel 1990 il Mediterraneo aveva una popolazione costiera pari a 146 milioni e alcuni studiosi, nel 1998, avevano stimato che la popolazione urbana costiera avrebbe potuto aumentare di almeno altri 30 milioni di abitanti entro il 2025 con ulteriori 350 milioni di turisti all'anno (Hinrichsen, 1998). Nel 2005 il dossier redatto dall'UEP/MAP (Plan Bleu, 2005) ha ridimensionato tali valori, dimostrando che entro la stessa data saranno 20 milioni le persone che andranno ad aggiungersi alla popolazione residente, così come ulteriori 137 milioni di turisti si uniranno ai 175 milioni già presenti, e particolarmente i litorali. L'analisi di questi dati mostra inoltre che il 75% degli abitanti dei paesi prospicienti il Mediterraneo vive in aree costiere (in Italia il valore è compreso tra il 60 e il 70%). La fascia costiera italiana, che si sviluppa per oltre 7500 km, oltre ad essere caratterizzata da paesaggi di eccezionale valore naturalistico, ospita quindi anche una consistente parte delle risorse economiche nazionali, con importanti centri urbani e industriali, infrastrutture e attività turistiche. Gli scenari descritti, specie dopo i recenti report inerenti ai cambiamenti climatici in atto sull'intero globo (IPCC, 2007), hanno posto serie problematiche nella gestione della risorsa costiera e nella valutazione dei possibili rischi associati. Comprendere come la costa è destinata ad evolvere ha assunto perciò un'importanza strategica. Le ricerche interdisciplinari sviluppatesi nell'ultimo ventennio hanno messo in evidenza come gran parte delle pianure costiere mondiali (e quindi anche italiane) sono soggette al rischio erosione e allagamento per ingressione marina dovuta a fattori naturali (globali e locali) e antropici. Tra questi studi si porta l'attenzione del lettore al progetto VECTOR (Vulnerabilità delle coste e degli ecosistemi marini italiani ai cambiamenti climatici e loro ruolo nei cicli del carbonio mediterraneo), dal quale è nato l'argomento di questa tesi di dottorato. In questo lavoro è stato analizzato in dettaglio il litorale della Piana del F. Sele (Campania, Italia), contesto estremamente interessante al fine di comprendere l'evoluzione di una costa bassa e sabbiosa con concentrazione di importanti centri abitati (Salerno), aree turistiche imponenti (sito archeologico di Paestum, litorale di Capaccio-Paestum, litorale di Eboli) e condizioni morfologiche tali da rendere l'area suscettibile ai cambiamenti del sistema costiero. La piana in questione, così come le altre piane campane, ha sperimentato negli ultimi 6 millenni un prevalente trend progradazionale ben documentato da più sistemi di cordoni dunali (ad esempio i cordoni di Laura e Sterpina descritti da Brancaccio et al., 1995 in Piana Sele). Le più interne datano circa 6000 anni e marcano la massima ingressione del mare durante l'Olocene. A partire dal XX secolo questo trend si è interrotto e molti tratti di costa risultano affetti da un'erosione anche molto marcata. Le cause vanno essenzialmente ricercate nel ridotto apporto sedimentario legato alle sistemazioni idraulico-forestali, ma soprattutto alla realizzazione di numerosi invasi artificiali lungo i principali fiumi alimentatori. La prova di ciò è ben evidenziata dalla trasformazione delle foci fluviali dei principali corsi d'acqua, le quali si sono rapidamente modificate da fluvial dominated a wave dominated. A questo va aggiunta la forte antropizzazione dei litorali che si è avuta in particolare dopo la seconda guerra mondiale a seguito sia dello sviluppo turistico che di quello urbanistico. Partendo da tali presupposti l'obiettivo principale del presente lavoro è la determinazione delle caratteristiche morfologiche, sedimentologiche e delle dinamiche evolutive del tratto di costa sabbioso compreso tra le foci dei fiumi Solofrone e Picentino al fine di valutarne lo stato di vulnerabilità costiera. Una prima fase dello studio è stata dedicata ad un'approfondita ricerca dei dati bibliografici, cartografici e aero-fotogrammetrici inerenti l'area. L'analisi bibliografica ha permesso di individuare i tratti salienti dell'evoluzione geomorfologica, che appare requisito essenziale per la comprensione degli eventi morfogenetici e delle dinamiche recenti della costa. L'analisi cartografica e aero-fotogrammetrica, basata essenzialmente sul reperimento di documenti inerenti l'ultimo secolo, ha consentito di delineare l'evoluzione storica della linea di riva. In particolare sono state adoperate carte storiche dell'IGMI (Istituto Geografico Militare Italiano) del 1870, 1908, e 1954, la cartografia CasMez (Cassa del Mezzogiorno) del 1975, la CTR (Carta Tecnica Regionale) della Regione Campania del 2004, le foto aeree del 1944, 1954, 1984, 1998 e 2004. I documenti raccolti sono stati organizzati, corretti e adattati mediante l'uso di un software GIS (ArcGis ver. 9.2). In particolare è stato indispensabile l'orto-rettifica mediante un programma preposto (Erdas ver. 9.1) precedentemente l'utilizzo delle foto aeree. La seconda fase è consistita nella raccolta di dati originali mediante un lavoro di campagna, durante il quale, con l'utilizzo di un sistema di posizionamento DGPS (GNSS R6), si è rilevata la linea di riva al 2009 e la topografia di vari profili longitudinali di spiaggia. E' stato inoltre fatto uno studio con lo scopo di definire gli aspetti sedimentologici caratterizzanti i differenti contesti geomorfologici riconosciuti per i profili esaminati: sono stati prelevati 48 campioni lungo il litorale del Golfo di Salerno, su ognuno dei quali è stata eseguita un'analisi granulometrica, con relativa interpretazione statistica. I rilievi topografici sono stati successivamente correlati alle caratteristiche tessiturali dei sedimenti essendo questo passaggio fondamentale e propedeutico alla comprensione dei fenomeni morfo-evolutivi della costa: i sedimenti che costituiscono la spiaggia sono condizionati dalla dinamica litoranea in quanto, lungo gli assi di transito longitudinali e trasversali, le componenti granulometriche tendono a convergere verso il fondale in cui si trovano mediamente in equilibrio sotto l'azione del moto ondoso. Una fase fondamentale del lavoro è stata la valutazione del clima marittimo (wave climate) sia al largo che lungo costa, mediante l'applicazione di modelli fisici. Si è risaliti al tipo di ondazione incidente sulla Piana del Sele, così come si è giunti alla valutazione degli effetti di essa sulle spiagge con il calcolo di parametri specifici, quali il run-up e il set-up. Le informazioni raccolte hanno dato una chiara lettura e una dettagliata caratterizzazione dell'intera fascia rivierasca compresa tra Salerno e Agropoli (SA) e soprattutto sono state la base per l'implementazione di una nuova metodologia di analisi per la valutazione della vulnerabilità costiera. Il metodo ha permesso di realizzare una carta della vulnerabilità costiera potenziale, così come di effettuare valutazione e cartografie su range temporali più ampi: infatti, considerando gli scenari previsti dall'IPCC (2007) su 25 e 50 anni, è stato possibile introdurre tali parametri e costruire carte della vulnerabilità costiera proiettata su tali anni. Di seguito si da una panoramica sulle operazioni e i risultati ottenuti mediante l'esecuzione delle singole fasi di lavoro. L'analisi comparata delle linee di costa ricavate dall'indagine aereo fotogrammetrica e cartografica ha messo in chiara evidenza che, durante il XX secolo, è possibile individuare almeno 3 fasi evolutive. La prima, che va dal 1870 al 1908, mostra una costa in progradazione, in modo particolare alle foci dei fiumi Sele, Tusciano e Picentino, con trend che raggiungono i 5,50 m/a. Tale fase s'inverte completamente durante il lasso cronologico compreso tra il 1908 e il 1984, con valori di arretramento che tendono ad accentuarsi tra il 1975 e il 1985 (si nota che la foce del F. Sele arretrava con un tasso di 7,7 m/a). L'ultima fase va dal 1984 al 2009 (e con ogni probabilità continua ancora oggi), con la costa che tende all'equilibrio: infatti è possibile rilevare diverse aree in leggera progradazione e solo poche in arretramento (si tratta di quelle poste nelle vicinanze delle foce del F. Sele). Quest'analisi mostra in maniera decisiva che l'evoluzione della fascia costiera della Piana del F. Sele è strettamente legata agli apporti fluviali, basti notare che le aree fortemente influenzate dall'erosione sono proprio quelle prospicienti le aree di foce. Questo è certamente da mettere in correlazione alla drastica diminuzione degli apporti sedimentari causata dalla presa in alveo di materiale e alla costruzione di traverse e dighe. L'analisi effettuata sull'intero arco dei 140 anni ha mostrato che sulla zona costiera della Piana del F. Sele insiste una tendenza erosiva molto marcata, localizzata in modo particolare nei pressi delle foci del F. Picentino e del F. Sele, con valori di arretramento rispettivamente di 0,4 m/a e di 1,3 m/a. Per caratterizzare la morfologia e la morfometria della spiaggia emersa e sommersa, nonché gli aspetti sedimentologici sono stati effettuati 12 profili trasversali alla linea di costa in tratti rilevati del litorale. L'analisi morfo-sedimentaria della spiaggia ha messo in luce che l'intero settore è morfologicamente caratterizzato da spiagge ampie da un minimo di 20 m fino a un massimo di 80 m. Il settore sommerso della spiaggia è caratterizzato dall'esistenza di una grossa barra con relativo truogolo, mentre la pendenza della zona intertidale risulta marcata lungo la foce del F. Sele, attestandosi in media intorno al 13%, fino a digradare ad una pendenza vicina al 10% sul resto del litorale. Per le zone poste a S della foce del F. Sele, la pendenza della battigia è costante lungo l'intero tratto, attestandosi in media intorno all'11%. Nel settore di spiaggia indagato è presente un solco di battigia posizionato in media tra - 0,5 m e – 0,4 m. Lungo l'intero litorale la berma ordinaria è ben evidente, raggiungendo in alcuni tratti l'altezza di 0,6 m con stacchi di pendenza tra battigia e berma molto evidenti. Questo non vale per le berme di tempesta, che sono spesso cancellate dall'azione antropica e dove visibili, lo sono in maniera non sempre marcata. Il sistema dunale è in gran parte conservato, ma non sempre è in buone condizioni. Infatti in taluni casi (concentrati nella porzione meridionale del sistema e nella parte centrale) è possibile constatare che esistono almeno due a più ordini di dune, molto estesi a S e molto reincisi nei pressi della foce del F. Sele, mentre nella zona compresa tra la foce del F. Tusciano e Salerno la duna è quasi completamente scomparsa e/o estremamente antropizzata. Le analisi granulometriche effettuate sui campioni prelevati sulla spiaggia intertidale mostrano che le taglie dei granuli comprese tra 0,39 mm e 0,45 mm (sabbia media) sono prevalenti nei settori più vicini alla foce del F. Sele, mentre verso N si rivela la presenza di materiale ciottoloso: infatti si raggiungono valori compresi tra 0,69 mm e 0,97 mm (sabbia grossolana) nel tratto di costa centrale da Campolongo alla foce del torrente Asa. La parte più prossima a Salerno è invece caratterizzata da un tipo di sedimento estremamente ciottoloso. Nei settori meridionali e centrali arriva a valori di 0,55 mm (sabbia grossolana). Un dato anomalo, che mostra come questo litorale possa essere localmente condizionato dall'apporto di sedimento alloctono è il dato massimo del coefficiente di appuntimento che raggiunge il valore di 10,63 (valore molto alto se si tiene conto che Folk & Ward, 1957 propongono come limite massimo per questo indice il valore 3). Mediante gli studi effettuati sulla condizione del clima marittimo è stato possibile valutare l'ondazione prevalente con le relative altezze d'onda e periodo medio. Analizzando le serie ricavate alla boa di Ponza è stato possibile rilevare che l'altezza d'onda significativa media è pari a 4,34 m, con un periodo di 7,76 s. È stato valutato anche l'effetto della massima mareggiata della serie analizzata corrispondente a quella del 26\12\1999, con valori di altezza d'onda pari a 6,90 m e periodo di 11,94 s. La direzione prevalente è invece SSW-NNW. Tali valori hanno permesso di giungere al calcolo di parametri a loro strettamente legati, come la profondità di chiusura, pari a 7,714 m (11,191 m per la massima mareggiata registrata). Inoltre è stato valutato anche il set-up e il run-up d'onda incidenti per ogni profilo indagato con una media lungo tutta la costa della Piana del Sele pari a 0,05 m per il primo e 1,65 m per il secondo. C'è da dire che anche in questo caso possiamo notare settori con caratteristiche d'energia molto differenti: il run-up infatti varia da un massimo di 2,07 m a un minimo di 0,91 m, che vuol dire un'ondazione che può arrivare ad invadere la spiaggia emersa per valori compresi tra il 24% e il 101%. Sui profili di spiaggia analizzati è stato possibile realizzare anche opportune valutazioni previsionali sul trend evolutivo della costa in seguito al previsto innalzamento del livello marino (IPCC, 2007), applicando modelli matematici e morfologici capaci di valutare l'arretramento atteso. Per il caso preso in considerazione sono stati ricavati i diversi parametri utili a questo calcolo analizzando il regime meteo marino per il periodo compreso tra gli anni 1989 e il 2008 e i singoli profili topografici della spiaggia agganciati ai rilievi batimetrici eseguiti con rilievo single-beam. In particolare si è giunti a valutare l'arretramento da Sea Level Rise applicando due metodologie morfologiche e adottando il dato d'innalzamento del livello marino calcolato dal Antonioli & Leoni (2007) sulla base dei dati pubblicati dall'IPCC (2007). L' arretramento medio atteso è stato stimato pari a 0,16 m/a (utilizzando Bruun, 1964) o a 0,23 m/a (Davidson-Arnott, 2005). L'insieme dei dati e delle informazioni ricavare sono state la base per la realizzazione di un modello in grado di valutare la vulnerabilità costiera lungo il settore di costa preso in esame. La vulnerabilità costiera, intesa come suscettibilità di un dato tratto litoraneo ad essere inondato o eroso, è legata a numerose variabili che possono essere riassunte in tre blocchi principali: erosione, inondazione permanente e inondazione episodica. Esistono vari modelli per la valutazione e il confronto della vulnerabilità costiera in diversi contesti, metodi che vanno dal quantitativo al qualitativo. La metodologia proposta da Gornitz et al., 1997, per esempio, suggerisce il calcolo di un indice di vulnerabilità (CVI – Coastal vulnerabilità index) attraverso la parametrizzazione di elementi caratterizzanti un dato tratto litoraneo relazionati tra loro attraverso una regressione lineare multipla. Questa metodica, nonostante sia largamente utilizzata, ha il difetto di essere valida e sensata solo per ambiti territoriali e geografici molto vasti. Nel nostro caso, dunque, si è cercato di adottare la "filosofia" di questo metodo, apportando però sostanziali modifiche che lo rendessero idoneo alla caratterizzazione di sistemi costieri di piccola estensione, incrementando e perfezionando sensibilmente le variabili da analizzare e avvalendoci dell'uso di un sistema GIS (ArcGis 9.2 della ESRI). Si è giunti alla proposta di un nuovo indice di vulnerabilità (IVC) basato sulla valutazione dell'Erosione Potenziale e dell'Inondazione Potenziale e di due indici di vulnerabilità costiera (IVC25 e IVC50) che tengono in considerazione l'effetto del Sea Level Rise (S.L.R.) su 25 e 50 anni. Come per la metodologia dell'USGS la correlazione finale dei singoli indici avviene utilizzando la regressione lineare multipla, e il valore finale dell'indice utilizzando la relazione , già identificata e sperimentalmente provata da Gornitz et al., 1994. Il tratto maggiormente vulnerabile alle forzanti costiere studiate sono le aree comprese tra l'ospedale di Campolongo fino all'area in cui sorge il Molo Sirena, comprendendo interamente la foce del F. Sele. Quasi il 44% delle spiagge appaiono contraddistinte da una vulnerabilità costiera da alta a molto alta. L'applicazione di un nuovo modello regionalizzato e studiato per aree ristrette ha dato la possibilità di identificare e parametrizzare le caratteristiche principali del tratto litoraneo dell'unità fisiografica delle Piana del Sele, in modo particolare in merito alla sua erodibilità potenziale, al suo grado di suscettibilità all'inondazione e quindi alla sua vulnerabilità costiera. Appare un metodo molto semplice e dettagliato, adatto all'applicazione preliminare su qualsiasi contesto costiero e per questo un utile strumento di pianificazione territoriale. ; In 1990 in the Mediterranean zone there was a coastal population of 146 million; some authors, in 1998, estimated the urban coastal population growth at least of further 30 million by 2025 with 350 million of tourists (Hinrichsen, 1998). In 2005 the dossier edited by UEP/MAP (Plan Bleu, 2005) rescaled these values: by 2025 population will increase of 20 million people, and the tourists will be 137 million more compared to the 176 million already present mainly on littorals. The analysis of data shows, moreover, that 75% of mediterranean population lives in coastal zones (in Italy the value varies from 60% to 70%). Italian coastal zone, more of 7500 km long, in addition to the several beauties of landscape, has a substantial part of the national economic resources, with important urban and industrial centers, infrastructures and touristic activities. These circumstances, especially after the recent reports about climate change (IPCC, 2007), cause heavy problems in coastal resource handling and in connected risk assessing. It's therefore of primary importance to realize how the coast will develop. Interdisciplinary researches of the last 20 years highlight how many world coastal plains (Italian too) are subject to erosion and flooding risk by sea ingression due to natural (global and local) and anthropic elements. Among these studies we point out to the readers VECTOR project (Vulnerability of the Italian coastal area and marine ecosystems to climatic changes and their role in the Mediterranean carbon cycles) from which the subject of this PhD thesis originates. In this work has been analyzed in detail the littoral Sele river Plain (Campania, Italy) extremely interesting zone in order to realize the evolution of a low and sandy coast with concentration important built-up area (Salerno), great touristic places (archeological site of Paestum, Capaccio-Paestum littoral, Eboli beaches) and morphological conditions which make the area open to developments of coastal system. In the last six millennia this plain and all plains in the southern Italian region of Campania have experienced coastal progradation amply documented by several dune systems. Since the 20th century this trend has been interrupted and many stretches of the coastline are now affected by erosion, at times severe. This has serious implications both for public safety and of a socio-economic nature. The causes are essentially to be sought in the decrease in sedimentary discharge due to forest hydraulic engineering works but especially to the construction of many artificial lakes along the main water courses. Clear evidence of this is the transformation of the mouths of the main water courses from fluvial-dominated to wave-dominated. A further factor is intense urbanization, which took place especially after World War II in the wake of tourist development. Starting from these assumptions the aim of this work is the determination of the morphological and sedimentological characterizations and the evolution dynamics of sandy coastal sector between the Solofrone and Picentino mouths in order to estimate the state of coastal vulnerability. The first stage of the study provides an in-depth search of bibliographic, cartographic and photogrammetric data concerning the study area. Bibliographic analysis specifies the salient points of geomorphological evolution, that is essential requirement to realize the morphogenetic events and recent coast dynamics. Cartographic and photogrammetric analysis, essentially founded on finding documents about the last century, outlines the historical evolution of shoreline. In particular have been used historical maps by IGMI (Istituto Geografico Militare Italiano) on 1870, 1908 and 1954, the cartography CasMez (Cassa del Mezzogiorno) on 1975, the CTR (Carta Tecnica Regionale) by Campania Region on 2004, the aerial-photos on 1944, 1954, 1984, 1998 and 2004. The documents collected have been organized, rectified and adapted by a GIS software (ArcGis rel. 9.2). In particular, for the aerial-photos has been used a software (Erdas rel. 9.1) to orthorectify them before the employment. The second phase consisted in collecting original data through a campaign work, during which, with the use of a DGPS positioning system (GNSS R6) has identified the shoreline in 2009 and the topography of various longitudinal profiles of beach. It was also made a study in order to define the sedimentological aspects characterizing the different geomorphological contexts recognized for the profiles examined: 48 samples were collected along the coast of the Salerno Gulf, on each of whom is performed a particle size analysis, with relative statistical interpretation. The topographical surveys were then linked to the textural characteristics of sediments as this critical step and preparatory to the understanding of geo-morphological phenomena of the coast: sediments that form the beach are affected by coastal dynamics because, along the transit longitudinal and transversal axes, granulometric tend to converge towards the bottom where they are on average in equilibrium under the action of waves. An important stage of work was the evaluation of wave climate both off and along the coast, through the application of physical models. It was back to the type of wave climate on the Sele Plain, as well as the assessment of the effects of it on the beaches with the calculation of specific parameters, such as the run-up and set-up. The information collected gave a clear reading and a detailed characterization of the entire coastal strip between Salerno and Agropoli (SA) and especially were the basis for implementing a new method of analysis for the assessment of coastal vulnerability. The method gave the possibility to create a map of potential coastal vulnerability, as well as to carry out evaluation and maps on wider range of time: in fact, considering the scenarios predicted by the IPCC (2007) on 25 and 50 years, it was possible to introduce these parameters and construct maps of coastal vulnerability projected onto these years. The following is an overview of operations and the results obtained by running the individual phases of work. The comparative analysis of coastlines taken from cartographic and photogrammetric survey showed clear evidence that during the 20th century, it's possible to identify at least three evolutionary phases. The first, from 1870 to 1908, shows a progradational phase, especially at the mouths of Sele, Tusciano and Picentino rivers with trend reaching 5.50 m/y. This phase is reversed completely during the chronological period between 1908 and 1984, with values of backing down that tend to increase between 1975 and 1985 (notice that the mouth of river Sele retreated at a rate of 7.7 m /y). The last phase goes from 1984 to 2009 (and likely continues today). In fact the littoral is in equilibrium: there are areas that show little progradation, while not much beaches are in retreat (near the mouth of Sele river). This analysis shows that the evolution of the coastal strip of the Piana del Sele is closely linked to the river inputs, just note that areas strongly influenced by erosion are exactly the ones facing areas of mouth. This is certainly to correlate to the drastic reduction of contributions sedimentary caused by removing sediment on the river bed and construction of crosspieces and dams. The analysis conducted in 140 years showed that on the coastal area of Sele Plain insists a trend erosive very marked, localized especially near the mouth of Picentino river and Sele river, with values of retreat respectively 0,4 m/y and 1,3 m/y. To characterize the morphology and the morphometry of backshore and nearshore, and the sedimentological aspects, 12 profiles have been traced, transversal to the coast line on prominent parts of the waterside. Morpho-sedimentary analysis of the shore has shown that the entire sector is morphologically characterized by shores whose extent goes from 20 m to a maximum of 80 m. The nearshore sector is characterized by the existence of a big bar with its trough, while the slope of the intertidal zone is considerable along the mouth of the Sele river, with a mean of 13%, and it reduces to a slope of about 10% on the rest of the coast. Regarding the zones on the southern side of the mouth of the Sele river, the foreshore slope is constant along the whole line, with a mean of about 11%. On the inspected sector of the shore there is a foreshore step located in the range -0.5 m to -0,4 m. Along the whole coast the berm is very evident, reaching the height of 0.6 m with very evident slope contrasts between the beach-face and the berm. This is not the case of the storm berm, which are often erased by the anthropic action and, where visible, they are not always definite. The dunal system is preserved in the most part, but it is not always in good condition. In fact, in some cases (concentrated in the southern portion of the system and in its central part) it is possible to notice the existence of at least, very wide at South and very cut near the mouth of the Sele river, while in the region between the mouth of the Tusciano river and Salerno the dune has almost completely disappeared and/or is extremely urbanized. Granulometric analysis carried out on the samples collected on the foreshore show that the grain sizes between 0.39 mm and 0.45 mm (medium sand) are predominant in the sectors nearer to the mouth of the Sele river, while towards North gravel sediment has been revealed: in fact the sizes go from 0.69 mm and 0.97 mm (coarse sand) in the stretch of central shore from Campolongo to the mouth of Asa stream. The part nearer to Salerno is instead characterized by a type of gravel sediment. In the southern and central sectors it reaches values of 0.55 mm (coarse sand). An anomalous datum, which shows how this coast can be locally influenced by the contribution of external sediment, is the maximum of the Kurtosis index which reaches the value of 10.63 (a really high value, considering that Folk & Ward, 1957 suggest a maximum limit of 3 for this index). With the studies carried out on the condition of the wave climate it has been possible to evaluate the prevalent wave climate with the relative wave heights and average period. Analyzing the series obtained at the Ponza buoy it has been possible to notice that the significant wave height average is 4.34 m, with a period of 7.76 s. In addition, it has been evaluated the effected of the maximum sea storm from the analyzed series, dating to 26/12/1999, with wave height of 6.9 m and a period of 11.94 s. The prevalent direction is SSW-NNW. Such values have been used to evaluate some parameters strictly related to them, like the closure depth, equal to 7.714 m (11.191 m for the maximum sea storm detected). Furthermore the set-up and the run-up of the incident waves have been evaluated for every investigated profile, with a mean value along the entire coast of the Sele Plain of 0.05 m for the former and 1.65 m for the latter. In this case as well we can notice the presence of sectors with energy characteristics very different: in fact, the run-up goes from a minimum of 0.91 m to a maximum of 2.07 m, which means that an wave climate can flood the emerged shore for values between 24% and 101%. On the analyzed shore profiles it has been possible to estimate the evolution trend of the coast, as a consequence of the expected increase in sea level (IPCC, 2007), using mathematical and morphological models capable to evaluate the expected retreat. For the examined case the parameters needed for this evaluation have been measured analyzing the wave climate for the period between the years 1989 and 2008, and the individual topographic profiles of the shore. In particular, the SLR retreat has been evaluated using two morphologic methods and using the sea level increment calculated by Antonioli & Leoni (2007) on the basis of data published by IPCC (2007). The retreat for this has been estimated to a value of 0,16 m/y (using Bruun, 1964) or a value of 0,23 m/y (Davidson-Arnot, 2005). The data obtained with this study have been used to derive a model addressed to the coastal vulnerability determination along the coastal areas that have been analyzed. The coastal vulnerability, which is intended as the susceptibility of a determined coastal area to be affected either by flooding or erosion, is linked to several parameters that can be grouped into three main categories: erosion, permanent inundation and episodic inundation. There are several models for the vulnerability evaluation and comparison among different coastal areas, models that are both qualitative and quantitative. The model proposed by Gornitz et al. (1997), suggest the determination of a coastal vulnerability index (CVI) through the determination of several parameters which can be considered representative of the considered coastal area, and by applying a linear regression to these parameters. This method, which has been largely applied, has the limit that it can be just used for large areas. In my case, I have tried to use this method by applying some modifications that could make it useful also for the study of small coastal environment by improving the number of parameters to calculate and by using a GIS software (ArcGis 9.2). I was so able to propose a new index of vulnerability (IVC) which is based on the evaluation of the Potential Erosion and the Potential Flooding and two more index of coastal vulnerability, (IVC25 e IVC50), which consider the Sea Level Rise (SLR) at 25 and 50 years. The final correlation of the described indexes is obtained trough a multiple linear regression, and the final index value is derived by the expression , which was already used by Goritz et al. (1994). In Fig. 1 it is reported the case study of the coastal areas of the Sele Plain, with the individuation and the representation of the different classes. The areas with the highest values in the IVC are comprised between the Campolongo Hospital and Molo Sirena, an area which include the Sele river mouth. The use of a new model addressed to small areas has allowed to the determination of the main features of the littoral portion of the Sele plain system, with a particular attention to the potential erodibility and to the susceptibility to the flooding and so the determination of the coastal vulnerability. It seems to be a simple a detailed method, which can be used for preliminary studies of all the coastal systems and it is so an instrument useful to the coastal planning. ; Dottorato di ricerca in Ambiente e Territorio (XXIII ciclo)

[ita] Antiutopía y Control. La distopía en el mundo contemporáneo y actual è una tesi dottorale che nasce con l'obiettivo di studiare, dal punto di vista politico, sociale e culturale, le più rilevanti tipologie di controllo a cui varie forme di governo, dalle dittature alle democrazie, hanno sottoposto e sottopongono i propri cittadini. Focalizzandosi principalmente sul XX e XXI sec., l'analisi storica, sociologia e psicologica del fenomeno parte, però, da un punto di vista inusuale, quello letterario della distopia. Oscuro e disincantato opposto dell'ottimista utopia, essa è un genere letterario che descrive il peggiore dei mondi possibili e racconta di popoli pesantemente manipolati, disperati e repressi. L'intenzione dichiarata della letteratura e del cinema distopico è di mettere in guardia i loro fruitori dalle possibili conseguenze di situazioni politiche, sociali o ambientali già degenerate nelle realtà di riferimento degli autori. Lo fanno usando mondi immaginari, lontani nel tempo o nello spazio, invece che ambientazioni contemporanee ai lettori, ma, nella maggioranza dei casi, il male esposto non è altro che la trasfigurazione di una paura o di un problema reale, drammaticamente attuale. La distopia non è solo svago e divertimento, essa può aiutarci a capire l'attuale stato delle cose perché la letteratura, il cinema e i fumetti di una data comunità riflettono la società a cui appartengono. Se il contesto è infetto, la cultura riconoscerà, assimilerà e denuncerà l'infezione. Le ipotesi principali da cui la tesi muove sono tre: La distopia, con la sua brutale estremizzazione e/o la sua dissacrante parodia di problematiche attuali, può aiutare a delineare un'analisi storica, sociologica e psicologica del controllo politico, sociale e culturale. La distopia non è solo una degenerazione rintracciabile nei noti processi repressivi del potere totalitario o autoritario, ma è uno strumento di persuasione usato anche nei poteri democratici. La differenza maggiore tra la distopia dei regimi dittatoriali e quella delle società democratiche risiede nel differente dosaggio che essi fanno di controllo positivo e negativo, di piacere e dolore, di benessere e paura. Per sviluppare e dimostrare queste ipotesi, la tesi è divisa in tre parti principali. Nella prima, si ripercorre la storia dell'utopia e della distopia, rintracciandone le tematiche ricorrenti e maggiormente caratteristiche e focalizzandosi sul sottogenere politico. Quest'ultimo, infatti, è il tema che più di tutti mostra connessioni con la ricerca in corso, dal momento che la distopia specificatamente politica presenta società fortemente controllate e gerarchizzate, con popolazioni spersonalizzate e manipolate dal potere. Si procede, quindi, con l'analisi di quelle opere che, secondo chi scrive, meglio esprimono il senso soffocante e deformante dell'autorità, come ad esempio 1984 di George Orwell, Brave New World di Aldous Huxley e Fahrenheit 451 di Ray Bradbury. Completata questa analisi, la tesi si dedica allo studio più strettamente storico, sociologico e psicologico del fenomeno distopico. Nelle seconda e nella terza parte, infatti, si mettono in comparazione le caratteristiche principali delle opere riportate con quelle di diverse realtà storiche del secolo passato e di quello presente. Nella seconda parte, nello specifico, ci si occupa dei poteri dominanti, ossia di totalitarismi e autoritarismi, perché essi incarnano tragicamente meglio di qualunque altro sistema politico l'idea di distopia. Il nazismo, il fascismo, il franchismo, il socialismo sovietico e i regimi che gravitano intorno ad esso, le dittature in America Latina o in Asia, infatti, portano letteralmente l'inferno sulla terra e condannano all'incubo milioni di vite. Nella terza parte, invece, sono le società democratiche, con la loro tendenza a controllare le popolazioni attraverso tecniche suadenti e persuasive del genere panem et circenses, le protagoniste dell'analisi. Sia per i poterei dominanti, sia per quelli democratici, si prendono in esame delle tematiche specifiche. Si indaga sugli agenti e sulle ragioni della violenza fisica e psicologica a cui le popolazioni sono sottomesse, oltre che sull'uso della cultura, della religione, dell'educazione e dell'informazione come strumento di repressione e di condizionamento, soffermandosi in particolare sul ruolo della propaganda e dei mass-media. Si studia la rappresentazione del nemico, in tempo di pace e guerra, e la necessità della sua esistenza per mantenere meglio il controllo sui cittadini. Si valuta, inoltre, la risposta psico-fisica della popolazione all'uso della repressione e della persuasione, per osservare come l'autorità possa influenzare, modificare o, peggio, distruggere, i corpi e le menti dei cittadini ad essa soggetti. Si fa tutto questo con la speranza di circoscrive il "cattivo luogo", che dovrebbe spaventare non solo nella finzione. ; [eng] Antiutopía y Control. La distopía en el mundo contemporáneo y actual is a doctoral thesis that offers an historical, sociological and psychological analysis of the social, political and cultural control, implemented by various forms of government, from dictatorships to democracies, to submit their citizens. Focusing on the 20th and 21th century, the research moves from an unusual literary and cinematographic point of view, the dystopian one. Dark and disillusioned opposite of optimistic utopia, dystopia is a genre that describes the worst of all possible worlds and tells about heavily manipulated, desperate and repressed people. The present work is divided into three main parts. In the first, it traces the history of utopia and dystopia, discovering the recurring and most distinctive themes and focusing on the political sub-genre (Orwell's 1984, Huxley's Brave New World, Bradbury's Fahrenheit 451, etc.). Completed this analysis, the thesis studies more closely the dystopian dynamics in historical, sociological and psychological processes. In the second part, the thesis investigates totalitarian and authoritarian powers, because they embody the idea of dystopia tragically better than any other political system. In the third part, the focus is on democratic societies, with their tendency to control populations through persuasive techniques as panem et circenses. For both groups, the research examines specific issues. It analyzes the agents and the reasons of physical and psychological violence, as well as the use of culture, religion, education and information as tools of repression and conditioning, with particular emphasis on the role of propaganda and mass media. It studies the representation of the enemy in time of peace and war, and the need for its existence to maintain a more stable control over the citizens. It also evaluates the psycho-physical response of the population to the use of constraint and persuasion. It tries to understand how authority can influence, change, or worse, destroy the bodies and the minds of citizens subjected to it. The aim of Antiutopía y Control is to delineate the "bad place" in history and remember readers that dystopia should scare not only in fiction.