As the twentieth century comes to a close, ethics is returning to the public sector reform agenda. Just as it was at the turn of this century the current focus is on the administrative branch of government. Then, as now, scandals involving elected officials prompted the reform initiatives. However, today there is far less consensus on the most appropriate elements of the reform agenda, perhaps reflecting a century of less than successful ethically-driven reforms.
This paper provides a broad overview of five perspectives on the public service ethics agenda, incorporating a current debate which may well emerge as the initial reform agenda of the new millennium. Perspectives explored include the politics/administration dichotomy, the New Public Administration's emphasis on individual responsibility in the context of strong organizational values and norms, the ethical risks of public entrepreneurship, and the recent emergence of spiritualism as a guide to public ethical decision-making. The authors conclude that we are entering a new era of public ethics where performance and morality will be accorded equal priority. They argue that public entrepreneurship is increasingly essential to meet the public's demands for government that works better and costs less. Most public officials will need on-the-job training and/or ethics courses in schools of public policy and administration to competently assess the ethical risks and dangers that a particular policy innovation may encompass.
As editors of the special issue, we try to summarize here the historiographic trends of the field. We argue that the field of research is accommodating the diversity of the institutional, social and political developments. But there is no narrative in sight which can explain the psychiatry of the 20th century, comparable to the authoritative coherence achieved for the 19th century. In contrast, the efforts to extend these narratives to the 20th century are largely missing the most impressive transformation of psychiatric treatment — and self-definition.
The dissolution and succession of federal states in the 20th century was heavily influenced by international legislation. If we view it from a methodological perspective, we can see that the dissolution of the Turkish Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy was regulated by the peace treaties ending the First World War. The matter was different with the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia, because the Vienna agreements of international law provided legal measures. The Vienna Convention of 1978 concerns the succession and settlements of pastagreements. The Vienna Convention of 1983 deals with the succession of property and debt. In case of the breakup of a union (integration) it must remain a primary rule that the parties involved must reach an agreement on the distribution of property (archives) and debt. The pertaining Vienna agreement of 1983 has not yet come into force, and it is unlikely that it will in the foreseeable future. Despite the fact that the agreement is left to the parties, it would be desirable to regulate the process with legal means as well. In it, however, economic indicators must have an important role to play which we can see in the presented 20th century examples. On the other hand, political decisions are also present in the distribution of property and debt, in many cases at the expense of economic means. The regulation of the matter would be a common task, because it would prevent the uncertain outcomes of a series of forced decisions and agreements generating disputes just as we can witness their unregulation even today.
The dissolution and succession of federal states in the 20th century was heavily influenced by international legislation. If we view it from a methodological perspective, we can see that the dissolution of the Turkish Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy was regulated by the peace treaties ending the First World War. The matter was different with the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia, because the Vienna agreements of international law provided legal measures. The Vienna Convention of 1978 concerns the succession and settlements of pastagreements. The Vienna Convention of 1983 deals with the succession of property and debt. In case of the breakup of a union (integration) it must remain a primary rule that the parties involved must reach an agreement on the distribution of property (archives) and debt. The pertaining Vienna agreement of 1983 has not yet come into force, and it is unlikely that it will in the foreseeable future. Despite the fact that the agreement is left to the parties, it would be desirable to regulate the process with legal means as well. In it, however, economic indicators must have an important role to play which we can see in the presented 20th century examples. On the other hand, political decisions are also present in the distribution of property and debt, in many cases at the expense of economic means. The regulation of the matter would be a common task, because it would prevent the uncertain outcomes of a series of forced decisions and agreements generating disputes just as we can witness their unregulation even today. ; 139 ; 148
The aim of this monograph is to reveal the complex development of 20th-century Norwegian environmental philosophies from a comparative perspective by outlining not only the role of the similar philosophical premises they derive from, but also how the differences in the chosen strategies affected the changes in the Norwegian environmental politics. That is why one of the main objectives is to analyze the origin and the elaboration of some concepts and ideas which contribute to clarifying the multi-sidedness of the topic by going beyond the well-known theory of the founder of deep ecology, namely, the one of the Norwegian philosopher, mountaineer and environmental activist Arne Næss. ; Non peer reviewed
The dictatorships of the Southern Cone implemented egregious neoliberal states in the late 20th century; the military regimes resorted to practices of torture, disappearance, and death to eliminate the political opposition. Drawing from Michel Foucault's definition of biopolitics which establishes that modernity places the biological at the center of the political realm, I analyze how the new modalities of power excluded political activists, women, indigenous, and the indigent. Through the dissertation I demonstrate that the dictatorships and post-dictatorships were both guided by the same principles of biopolitics. An important element in the development of biopolitics was the deployment of sexuality; therefore I explore the relationship of patriarchy and authoritarianism in an effort to find forms of resistance. I develop my analysis through the works of Damiela Eltit, Luisa Valenzuela, Marco Bechis, Alonso Cueto, and Claudia Llosa; their representations trespass the boundaries of normative behaviors providing new forms of subjectivity.
Conferência proferida no âmbito International Perspectives in the History of Nursing Conference. London 14 – 16 September 2010 ; Aim of the Study: to contextualize nursing transitions in the second half of the 20th century, in the dimensions: context, curricula and actors. Purpose: As far as nursing education is concerned, in the Portuguese case for many years we can not talk about the existence of a discipline of nursing. The construction of the discipline seems to have happened between the process of the nurses' professionalization and the social construction of the curriculum, essentially since the 50's of the 20th century. Methodology: The historic method allowed formulating connections between ideas, events, institutions and people in the past enlightening the socio-historic discourse throughout this period. The stories of life assumed a particular effect, connecting them to the formation of trajectories to understand the mechanisms and processes used by participants in managing the situations they were in, with the resource of the ethno-biographic interview. The Unique Case Study, with qualitative characteristics, allowed us to know individual, organizational, social and political phenomena. Findings: We have analized the data under three dimensions - Contexts, Curricula and Actors – along the decades from year 50' to the beginning of XXI Century. About Contexts , until 1965 the School for Nurses was within the hospital, and without autonomy. After the national evaluation of the state of the schools of nursing about their pedagogic conditions to teach, recommended by WHO in 1963, the Schools started , in 1965, a process of autonomy with the creation of the first Nursing School, independent of hospitals – School of Education and Management in Nursing. One of the most important fact occurred in 1988 with the Integration of Nursing in Higher Education, and the conversion of the schools in Higher Nursing Schools, in 1989. From Curricula, a dimension we can emphasize is that in 1947 were established two levels of nursing education. The Introduction of the contents "medical nursing techniques" and "chirurgic nursing techniques" in 1952, can be considered as the emergence of nursing as a discipline, because of the official participation of nurses in the education of pairs, and the beginning of conceptualization of nursing care. Because of this in 1964, occurred a Curricula reformation. The Discipline of Nursing (with biomedical orientation) structuring the education, among biomedical disciplines and inclusion of social and human sciences. In the year of 1967 we assist the beginning of the education on Investigation. After The Carnation revolution, many things have changed and we have assisted one of the most important transitions, the unification of pre-graduate education (1975). The integration in higher education with bachelor degree (1988) and with Degree in 1999, are also considered two important transitions. Considering the Actors in this transitional analysis, in 1947 the State has begun to control of the legal exercise of nursing and with the conditions promoted by the transitions in contexts and curricula, after 1965 we assisted a very important evolution and social recognition, with responsibility of education and the Direction of the Schools by nurses and the promotion of similar access conditions as required for other courses in higher education. Since 1975 we have in Portugal a unique Professional – Nurse, a transition that contributed to the Regulation of the Professional Exercise of Nursing, in 1996. In 1998, the Portuguese State as regulated the possibility to the Establishment of the Nurses Order. Conclusions: Contexts - Nursing Higher Schools are autonomous organizations, in different scenarios of the higher education network: Not integrated Schools; Schools integrated in Polytechnics Institutes and schools integrated in Universities, but all of them in the polytechnic subsystem. Curricula - From the unique curriculum to curricular diversity, the conception and curricular development occurs from Nursing, discipline and profession, along the three cycles of Bologna studies . Actors - The qualifications for the skills that enhance to deal with the complexity in health suggest the debate on nursing education about professionalism and multidisciplinarity. The professionalization process is going on, but we still assist to a lack of social and professional identity.
The task of this paper discusses the role of Marx in 20th Century and culture today. An analysis of contemporary political economy Studies works that with the new global crisis of capitalism, a new interest in Karl Marx's works has emerged. Karl Marx—German philosopher, economist, and revolutionary—believed a just world could be achieved only through the evolution of humanity from a capitalist to a socialist economy and society. The new world economic crisis that started is the most obvious reason for the return of the interest in Marx. The paper argues that Marx's Both a scholar and a political activist, Marx addressed a wide range of political as well as social issues, and is known for, among other things, his analysis of history. The interpretations of his theories, particularly those on political economy, have in the course of history generated decades of debate, inspired revolutions and cast him as both devil and deity in political and academic circles.
In the early twentieth century, Parliament debated whether to abolish imprisonment for debt. Parliament's Select Committee on Debtors (Imprisonment) of 1909 heard testimony from witnesses and issued a report recommending the continuation of imprisonment for debt. This testimony and report make for fascinating history. Although imprisonment is not part of contemporary debates about debt collection and personal insolvency (consumer bankruptcy) law, the competing views expressed in Parliament over a century ago about consumer debtors and those who lend to them will be recognizable to anyone familiar with contemporary debates on either side of the Atlantic.
The professional career of Adam Orsic went through many ups and downs and odd detours. He began his professional life in Nis, as an assistant in the Museum to whose foundation he contributed, and during the World War II he focused upon his studies and the archaeological projects in Austria, with the aid of Oswald Menghin. The unstable political circumstances in the Balkans at the time, and the personal and professional decisions Orsic made, led to his long career in Brazil. During the four decades of devoted work, Orsic took part in numerous archaeological projects throughout Europe and South America, and his pioneering work in Brazil is still the subject of discussion in the archaeological community. The results of the work of Orsic in Yugoslavia have been largely ignored and finally forgotten. The paper presents an attempt to point to the importance of the research of Adam Orsic and the relevance of his results for the generations of archaeologists.
There is no denying the fact that Indian cinema has always followed print and the written works by the major authors of different ages of literature. Later, Cinema emerged as a potent medium of expression of literary works and also of cross-cultural parleys and a platform for evocative discussions pertaining to hegemonies and politics. The present paper studies astonishing similarities and comparison between the Indian film Haider directed by Vishal Bhardwaj and Hamlet written by Shakespeare. The movie is an intriguing film on revenge, love and about the Kashmir Valley. The paper also encapsulates and comments upon the ability of the cinema to render the human experiences in a unique way through its technocratic quotient and imagistic jugglery which enthralls the audience like literature.
The long history of state unity and archaeology's strong dependence on the state explain how archaeological practice became institutionalized in Spain. The intellectual currents that marked Spanish archaeology's development – antiquarianism, Enlightenment interest in human antiquity, the definition of national identity – are analogous to those in other European countries: foreign models always were influential. Largely due to traditional, institutionalized links to German and French archaeology, cultural historical positivism was the only theoretical and methodological framework until the 1970s. Since then, due to British, US, Latin American and Italian influence, Marxist, functionalist, and structuralist approaches have developed. The advent of democracy, the decentralization of state institutions, and improvements in the standard of living and in education have favored this pluralism. Spanish archaeology shares with the rest of the world the task of meeting present-day social needs without diluting its commitment to understanding the past. ; Peer reviewed
Background In the decades following the discovery of the bacillus causing typhoid, in 1880, understanding of the disease formerly known as enteric fever was transformed, offering new possibilities for prevention. Gradually, measures that aimed to prevent infection from human carriers were developed, as were inoculations designed to confer immunity against typhoid and paratyphoid fevers. These were initially introduced in European armies that were regularly ravaged by typhoid, especially garrisons stationed in the colonies. This article reviews the research undertaken in the armed forces and the measures that they implemented in the years up to and during the First World War. Methods The article is based on an analytical review of scientific literature from the early 19th century, focusing on the United Kingdom, Germany, and France. Results The armies of the United Kingdom, Germany, and France undertook important work on the transmission of typhoid in the years between 1890 and 1918. Many preventive measures were introduced to deal with the spread of typhoid but these varied between the 3 countries, depending largely on their political traditions. Inoculation was particularly successful in preventing typhoid and greatly reduced the number of casualties from this disease during the First World War. Despite this, it proved difficult to prevent paratyphoid infection, and debates continued over which vaccines to use and whether or not immunization should be voluntary. Conclusions By the end of the First World War, the value of inoculation in preventing the spread of typhoid had been proven. Its successful implementation demonstrates the importance of vaccination as a public health intervention during times of conflict and social upheaval.
Abstract Malaria has been part of Peruvian life since at least the 1500s. While Peru gave the world quinine, one of the first treatments for malaria, its history is pockmarked with endemic malaria and occasional epidemics. In this review, major increases in Peruvian malaria incidence over the past hundred years are described, as well as the human factors that have facilitated these events, and concerted private and governmental efforts to control malaria. Political support for malaria control has varied and unexpected events like vector and parasite resistance have adversely impacted morbidity and mortality. Though the ready availability of novel insecticides like DDT and efficacious medications reduced malaria to very low levels for a decade after the post eradication era, malaria reemerged as an important modern day challenge to Peruvian public health. Its reemergence sparked collaboration between domestic and international partners towards the elimination of malaria in Peru.
