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[Background]: The chaperone ClpB, a bacterial protein, is a conformational antigen-mimetic of α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH) implicated in body weight regulation in mice. We here investigated the potential associations of gut bacterial ClpB-like gene function with obesity status and gut microbiota in humans. ; [Results]: Gut microbiota ClpB KEGG function was negatively associated with body mass index, waist circumference, and total fat mass (DEXA). The relative abundance (RA) of several phyla and families directly associated with ClpB was decreased in subjects with obesity. Specifically, the RA of Rikenellaceae, Clostridiaceae and not assigned Firmicutes were lower in subjects with obesity and positively associated with gut bacterial ClpB-like gene function (not assigned Firmicutes (r = 0.405, FDR = 2.93 × 10−2), Rikenellaceae (r = 0.217, FDR = 0.031), and Clostridiaceae (r = 0.239, FDR = 0.017)). The gut bacterial ClpB-like gene function was also linked to specific plasma metabolites (hippuric acid and 3-indolepropionic acid) and fecal lupeol. The α-MSH-like epitope similar to that of Escherichia coli ClpB was also identified in some sequences of those bacterial families. After fecal transplantation from humans to mice, the families that more contributed to ClpB-like gene function in humans were also associated with ClpB-like gene function in mice after adjusting for the donor's body mass index (not assigned Firmicutes (r = 0.621, p = 0.003), Prevotellaceae (r = 0.725, p = 4.1 × 10−7), Rikenellaceae (r = 0.702, p = 3.9 × 10−4), and Ruminococcaceae (r = 0.526, p = 0.014)). Clostridiaceae (r = − 0.445, p = 0.038) and Prevotellaceae RA (r = − 0.479, p = 0.024) and were also negatively associated with weight gain in mice. The absolute abundance (AA) of Prevotellaceae in mice was also positively associated with the gut bacterial ClpB-like gene function in mice. DESeq2 identified species of Prevotellaceae, both negatively associated with mice' weight gain and positively with gut bacterial ClpB-like gene function. ; [Conclusions]: In summary, gut bacterial ClpB-like gene function is associated with obesity status, a specific gut microbiota composition and a plasma metabolomics profile in humans that could be partially transplanted to mice. ; This work was partially supported by research grants FIS (PI15/01934) from the Instituto de Salud Carlos III from Spain, SAF2015-65878-R from Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness, Prometeo/2018/A/133 from Generalitat Valenciana, Spain and also by Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional (FEDER) funds, European Commission (FP7, NeuroPain #2013-602891), the Catalan Government (AGAUR, #SGR2017-669, ICREA Academia Award 2015), the Instituto de Salud Carlos III (RTA, #RD16/0017/0020), and the European Regional Development Fund (No. 01.2.2-LMT-K-718-02-0014). María Arnoriaga-Rodríguez is funded by Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Río Hortega (CP19/00190). Jordi Mayneris-Perxachs is funded by Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Miguel Servet (CP18/00009). The project has also been 65% cofinanced by the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) through the Interreg V-A Spain-France-Andorra programme (POCTEFA 2014-2020). POCTEFA aims to reinforce the economic and social integration of the French–Spanish–Andorran border. Its support is focused on developing economic, social and environmental cross-border activities through joint strategies favouring sustainable territorial development. ; Peer reviewed

Background The chaperone ClpB, a bacterial protein, is a conformational antigen-mimetic of α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH) implicated in body weight regulation in mice. We here investigated the potential associations of gut bacterial ClpB-like gene function with obesity status and gut microbiota in humans. Results Gut microbiota ClpB KEGG function was negatively associated with body mass index, waist circumference, and total fat mass (DEXA). The relative abundance (RA) of several phyla and families directly associated with ClpB was decreased in subjects with obesity. Specifically, the RA of Rikenellaceae, Clostridiaceae and not assigned Firmicutes were lower in subjects with obesity and positively associated with gut bacterial ClpB-like gene function (not assigned Firmicutes (r = 0.405, FDR = 2.93 × 10−2), Rikenellaceae (r = 0.217, FDR = 0.031), and Clostridiaceae (r = 0.239, FDR = 0.017)). The gut bacterial ClpB-like gene function was also linked to specific plasma metabolites (hippuric acid and 3-indolepropionic acid) and fecal lupeol. The α-MSH-like epitope similar to that of Escherichia coli ClpB was also identified in some sequences of those bacterial families. After fecal transplantation from humans to mice, the families that more contributed to ClpB-like gene function in humans were also associated with ClpB-like gene function in mice after adjusting for the donor's body mass index (not assigned Firmicutes (r = 0.621, p = 0.003), Prevotellaceae (r = 0.725, p = 4.1 × 10−7), Rikenellaceae (r = 0.702, p = 3.9 × 10−4), and Ruminococcaceae (r = 0.526, p = 0.014)). Clostridiaceae (r = − 0.445, p = 0.038) and Prevotellaceae RA (r = − 0.479, p = 0.024) and were also negatively associated with weight gain in mice. The absolute abundance (AA) of Prevotellaceae in mice was also positively associated with the gut bacterial ClpB-like gene function in mice. DESeq2 identified species of Prevotellaceae, both negatively associated with mice' weight gain and positively with gut bacterial ClpB-like gene function. Conclusions In summary, gut bacterial ClpB-like gene function is associated with obesity status, a specific gut microbiota composition and a plasma metabolomics profile in humans that could be partially transplanted to mice. ; This work was partially supported by research grants FIS (PI15/01934) from the Instituto de Salud Carlos III from Spain, SAF2015-65878-R from Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness, Prometeo/2018/A/133 from Generalitat Valenciana, Spain and also by Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional (FEDER) funds, European Commission (FP7, NeuroPain #2013-602891), the Catalan Government (AGAUR, #SGR2017-669, ICREA Academia Award 2015), the Instituto de Salud Carlos III (RTA, #RD16/0017/0020), and the European Regional Development Fund (No. 01.2.2-LMT-K-718-02-0014). María Arnoriaga-Rodríguez is funded by Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Río Hortega (CP19/00190). Jordi Mayneris-Perxachs is funded by Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Miguel Servet (CP18/00009). The project has also been 65% cofinanced by the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) through the Interreg V-A Spain-France-Andorra programme (POCTEFA 2014-2020). POCTEFA aims to reinforce the economic and social integration of the French–Spanish–Andorran border. Its support is focused on developing economic, social and environmental cross-border activities through joint strategies favouring sustainable territorial development.

Background: The chaperone ClpB, a bacterial protein, is a conformational antigen-mimetic of α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH) implicated in body weight regulation in mice. We here investigated the potential associations of gut bacterial ClpB-like gene function with obesity status and gut microbiota in humans. Results: Gut microbiota ClpB KEGG function was negatively associated with body mass index, waist circumference, and total fat mass (DEXA). The relative abundance (RA) of several phyla and families directly associated with ClpB was decreased in subjects with obesity. Specifically, the RA of Rikenellaceae, Clostridiaceae and not assigned Firmicutes were lower in subjects with obesity and positively associated with gut bacterial ClpB-like gene function (not assigned Firmicutes (r = 0.405, FDR = 2.93 × 10-2), Rikenellaceae (r = 0.217, FDR = 0.031), and Clostridiaceae (r = 0.239, FDR = 0.017)). The gut bacterial ClpB-like gene function was also linked to specific plasma metabolites (hippuric acid and 3-indolepropionic acid) and fecal lupeol. The α-MSH-like epitope similar to that of Escherichia coli ClpB was also identified in some sequences of those bacterial families. After fecal transplantation from humans to mice, the families that more contributed to ClpB-like gene function in humans were also associated with ClpB-like gene function in mice after adjusting for the donor's body mass index (not assigned Firmicutes (r = 0.621, p = 0.003), Prevotellaceae (r = 0.725, p = 4.1 × 10-7), Rikenellaceae (r = 0.702, p = 3.9 × 10-4), and Ruminococcaceae (r = 0.526, p = 0.014)). Clostridiaceae (r = - 0.445, p = 0.038) and Prevotellaceae RA (r = - 0.479, p = 0.024) and were also negatively associated with weight gain in mice. The absolute abundance (AA) of Prevotellaceae in mice was also positively associated with the gut bacterial ClpB-like gene function in mice. DESeq2 identified species of Prevotellaceae, both negatively associated with mice' weight gain and positively with gut bacterial ClpB-like gene function. Conclusions: In summary, gut bacterial ClpB-like gene function is associated with obesity status, a specific gut microbiota composition and a plasma metabolomics profile in humans that could be partially transplanted to mice. Video Abstract. ; This work was partially supported by research grants FIS (PI15/01934) from the Instituto de Salud Carlos III from Spain, SAF2015-65878-R from Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness, Prometeo/2018/A/133 from Generalitat Valenciana, Spain and also by Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional (FEDER) funds, European Commission (FP7, NeuroPain #2013-602891), the Catalan Government (AGAUR, #SGR2017-669, ICREA Academia Award 2015), the Instituto de Salud Carlos III (RTA, #RD16/0017/0020), and the European Regional Development Fund (No. 01.2.2-LMT-K-718-02-0014). María Arnoriaga-Rodríguez is funded by Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Río Hortega (CP19/00190). Jordi Mayneris-Perxachs is funded by Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Miguel Servet (CP18/00009). The project has also been 65% cofinanced by the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) through the Interreg V-A Spain-France-Andorra programme (POCTEFA 2014-2020). POCTEFA aims to reinforce the economic and social integration of the French–Spanish–Andorran border. Its support is focused on developing economic, social and environmental cross-border activities through joint strategies favouring sustainable territorial development.

Presents an overview of Australia's weight problem. How is body weight measured? What are the health risks and costs? General advice offered on how to achieve and maintain healthy weight. Also includes: worksheets and activities, fast facts, glossary, web links, index

Obesity is a growing public health concern associated with poor health outcomes, increased healthcare costs, and decreased human productivity. Women are inordinately impacted by obesity. The insidious nature of weight gain and the numerous factors (e.g., environmental, psychological, and socioeconomic) that contribute to obesity make it a complex problem to address. While government healthcare policies and initiatives focus on treating obesity to prevent secondary chronic conditions, few robust public efforts are dedicated to the prevention of obesity in adults. Some employers have responded to the need for obesity prevention with an increase in employer-sponsored weight management programs, yet program success has been inconsistent. While comprehensive individualized programs are among the most effective programs, they are also the costliest to implement across populations. Understanding body weight and weight management from the perspective of population subsets may facilitate more affordable, tailored approaches to designing effective weight management programs to prevent obesity. However, there is little information available about overweight working women's perspectives of body weight and weight management. The purpose of this qualitative descriptive study, guided by Pender's health promotion model, was to examine overweight working women's perceptions and experiences with body weight and weight management. Eleven overweight working women aged 18 years or older who had attempted weight loss volunteered for individual, semi-structured interviews. The interview data were analyzed using deductive content analysis to answer six research questions (RQs): RQ1: How do overweight, working women describe body weight? RQ2: What are overweight, working women's experiences of weight management? RQ3 What factors contribute to weight gain according to overweight, working women? RQ4 What factors promote weight maintenance and loss in overweight, working women? RQ5: What weight maintenance and loss methods are preferred by ...

Precise age‐specific average body weight estimates are necessary for deterministic risk assessments, and an accurate body weight distribution is equally important in probabilistic risk assessments. Age‐specific body weight distributions for U.S. residents are estimated using NHANES (National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey) data collected in four surveys over the last 24 years. The weighted mean and standard deviation of natural log‐transformed body weights are computed for single‐year age groups and population age‐specific weight patterns further described using piece‐wise polynomial spline functions and nonparametric age‐smoothed trend lines. These functions are used to compare distributional changes in age‐specific body weight in the United States from the first NHANES survey in 1976–1980 to the most recent in 1999–2002. Analysis demonstrates that age‐ and sex‐specific average body weight changes over this time period are not uniform. Use of these functions to compute body weight distributions for selected child‐age categories is demonstrated.

Introduction: Obesity and its related comorbidities such as insulin dysregulation (ID), laminitis and hperlipaemia are increasing health issues in equines. In human medicine obesity is linked with a systemic inflammation deriving from adipose tissue (AT). Especially abdominal AT produces inflammatory cytokines and is therefore a risk factor for metabolic diseases in humans. However, in equines systemic inflammation linked to obesity is still controversial. Changes in lipid metabolism with increasing obesity are not well documented in equines. Aim of the study: The aim of the present study was to evaluate the following hypotheses: (1) ID develops with the long-term intake of a hypercaloric diet and alters lipid metabolism. (2) In the development of obesity macrophages are infiltrating AT and amounts of inflammatory cytokines in AT increase. These alterations are more pronounced in the subcutaneous (sc) AT depots compared to abdominal AT depots. Additionally, the amount of markers of lipid transport are influenced by BW gain in AT. (3) Ponies are more prone to produce inflammatory markers in AT, which may explain the higher predisposition for metabolic alterations. Materials and Methods: 19 healthy and normal weight geldings were included in this study (age at the start of the study: 8 ± 3 years): 10 Shetland ponies and 9 Warmblood horses. Over a period of two years equines received 200% of their maintenance energy requirements of metabolizable energy. 60% of the energy was provided by hay and 40% by a compound feed. Monthly energy requirements were calculated according to the increasing BW and rations were adjusted accordingly. During hypercaloric diet body weight (BW), body condition score (BCS) and cresty neck score (CNS) were assessed weekly. Before and after one and two year(s) of hypercaloric diet a combined glucose insulin test (CGIT) was performed and blood and AT samples (abdominal AT: retroperitoneal, mesocolon descendens; sc AT: nuchal crest, lateral to the tail head) were taken. AT samples were taken under general anesthesia 3-5 days after CGIT and 15 hours after a low-dose endotoxin infusion. Glucose was analysed in natrium fluoride plasma. Serum amyloid A (SAA), insulin, non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) and triglycerides were measured in serum. Levels of inflammatory parameters (CD68, IL-1β, IL-6, TNFα) and markers of lipid metabolism (FABP4, LPL) were analyzed in AT samples by RT-qPCR. The project was approved by the Ethics Committee for Animal Rights Protection of the Leipzig District Government (No. TVV 32/15). Data were analysed for normal distribution by Shapiro-Wilks test. Statistical tests were applicated accordingly. Results: Ponies and horses showed a significant increase in BW (24%), BCS and CNS with hypercaloric diet. Two years of hypercaloric diet induced ID in 3 out of 19 equines (two horses, one pony). Two of these equines additionally developed laminitis (one horse, one pony) during the second year of hypercaloric diet. Basal serum NEFA concentrations increased in ponies by 290% but not in horses with BW gain. Laminitic equines showed an altered development of serum NEFA levels during CGIT with a delayed rise at the end of CGIT. The BW gain had no impact on SAA concentration of ponies and horses. CD68 mRNA levels increased in several AT depots of both breed types with BW gain. IL-1β, IL-6 and TNFα showed similar or decreased mRNA levels after BW gain compared to basal measurements in all AT. CD68 mRNA level were higher in abdominal AT compared to sc AT at the end of the study. However, IL-1β, IL-6 and TNFα mRNA levels were higher in sc AT. LPL and FABP4 mRNA levels were higher or similar after BW gain. Higher levels of LPL and FABP4 mRNA were detected in sc AT depots compared to abdominal AT. Breed related differences were seen but were not consistent. Conclusions: A BW gain of 24% over two years does not necessarily lead to ID in horses or ponies. However, laminitis might be correlated with changes of NEFA curve during a CGIT. Equine obesity is linked with macrophage infiltration of AT that is more pronounced in abdominal AT depots in equines. However, infiltrating macrophages are not linked with a systemic inflammation.:1 Introduction 1 2 Literature review 3 2.1 Obesity in equines 3 2.1.1 Objective measurements of obesity 3 2.1.1.1 Body condition score 3 2.1.1.2 Cresty neck score 4 2.1.1.3 Morphometric measurements 4 2.2 Insulin dysregulation 4 2.2.1 Laboratory diagnosis 5 2.2.1.1 Basal measurements 6 2.2.1.2 Dynamic testing 7 2.2.1.2.1 Oral tests.7 2.2.1.2.2 Intravenous tests.7 2.3 Obesity related inflammation 9 2.3.1 Interleukin-1β 9 2.3.2 Interleukin-6 10 2.3.3 Tumor necrosis factor α 11 2.4 White adipose tissue 13 2.4.1 Structure and Cell types 13 2.4.2 Adipokines 13 2.4.3 Changes with obesity 13 2.4.4 Depot differences 14 2.5 Lipid metabolism 14 2.5.1 Non-esterified fatty acids 15 2.5.2 Triglycerides 16 2.5.3 Lipoprotein lipase 16 2.5.4 Fatty acid binding protein 4 16 3 Published articles 17 3.1 Effects of body weight gain on insulin and lipid metabolism in equines 17 3.2 The influence of equine body weight gain on inflammatory cytokine expressions of adipose tissue in response to endotoxin challenge 27 4 Discussion 45 4.1 Insulin and glucose metabolism 45 4.2 Lipid metabolism 45 4.2.1 Serum NEFA and TG concentrations 45 4.2.2 Adipose tissue mRNA levels of lipid metabolism marker 46 4.3 Adipose tissue inflammation parameters 47 4.3.1 Effect of body weight gain 47 4.3.2 Adipose tissue depot effect 48 4.3.3 Breed effect in obese equines 48 4.4 Laminitic equines 49 4.5 Conclusion 50 5 Zusammenfassung 51 6 Summary 53 7 References 55 8 Appendix 65 8.1 Presentations as part of this thesis 65 8.2 Co-authorship 66 8.3 Original data 67 ; Einleitung: Zunehmend leiden Pferde an Adipositas und deren Folgeerkrankungen wie Insulindysregulation (ID), Hufrehe, aber auch Hyperlipidämien. Bei adipösen Menschen wird ein chronischer Entzündungszustand beobachtet, wobei Entzündungsparameter hauptsächlich im Fettgewebe (FG) produziert werden. Durch die erhöhte Produktion von Entzündungs-parametern im abdominalen FG ist besonders dieses Fettdepot mit einem erhöhten Risiko für metabolische Krankheiten verbunden. Der Zusammenhang von Adipositas und einem systemischen Entzündungszustand wird bei Pferden aktuell noch kontrovers diskutiert. Studien zu den Veränderungen des Lipidmetabolismus im Verlaufe einer zunehmenden Gewichtszunahme liegen bislang bei Equiden nicht vor. Ziel der Studie: Die Studie diente dazu folgende Hypothesen zu untersuchen: (1) ID entwickelt sich mit der Langzeitfütterung einer hyperkalorischen Ration und beeinflusst den Lipidmetabolismus. (2) Durch die Gewichtszunahme kommt es zu einer Infiltration von Makrophagen und zu einem Anstieg von Entzündungsparametern im FG. Marker für den Lipidtransport im FG werden durch eine Körpergewichtszunahme beeinflusst. (3) Ponys produzieren mehr Entzündungs-parameter im FG und zeigen einen veränderten Lipidmetabolismus im Vergleich zu Pferden. Material und Methoden:19 gesunde, normalgewichtige Wallache (Alter zu Beginn der Studie: 8 ± 3 Jahre) wurden für diese Studie genutzt: 10 Shetlandponys und 9 Warmblutpferde. Diese Tiere erhielten über 2 Jahre 200% ihres Erhaltungsbedarfs an umsetzbarer Energie. 60% der Energie wurden durch Heu und 40% durch ein Ergänzungsfutter gedeckt. Monatlich wurde der Energiebedarf an das aktuelle Körpergewicht angepasst. Wöchentlich wurde das Körper-gewicht, der Body Condition Score (BCS) und der Cresty Neck Score (CNS) erfasst. Zu Beginn der Studie, nach einem und nach zwei Jahren der hyperkalorischen Fütterung wurde ein kombinierter Glukose-Insulin-Test (CGIT) sowie Blut- und FG-proben (abdominales FG: retroperitoneal, Mesocolon descendens; subkutanes FG: Nackenkamm und lateral der Schweifrübe) entnommen. Die FG-Probennahme erfolgte unter Allgemeinanästhesie 3-5 Tage nach dem CGIT und 15 Stunden nach einer moderat dosierten Endotoxininfusion. In den Blut-proben vom CGIT wurde Glukose im Natrium-Fluorid Plasma gemessen. Im Serum wurde Amyloid A (SAA), Insulin, freie Fettsäuren and Triglyceride analysiert. Im FG wurden die Level von Entzündungsparametern (CD68, IL-1β, IL-6, TNFα) und Lipidstoffwechselmarker (FABP4, LPL) mittels RT-qPCR analysiert. Der Tierversuch wurde genehmigt durch die Landesdirektion mit Sitz in Leipzig (TVV 32/15). Die Daten wuden mittels des Shapiro-Wilks Tests auf Normalverteilung getestet und die entsprechenden Tests wurden angewandt. Ergebnisse: Durch die hyperkalorische Ration haben Ponys und Pferde 24% ihres Körper-gewichts zugnommen. BCS und CNS sind währen der Studie angestiegen. Die Gewichts-zunahme hat in 3 von 19 Tieren eine ID ausgelöst (zwei Pferde, ein Pony). Zwei dieser Tiere (ein Pferd, ein Pony) entwickelten zusätzlich eine Hufrehe im zweiten Jahr der Studie. Basale freie Fettsäuren sind mit der Körpergewichtszunahme bei den Ponys angestiegen (290%), während sie bei den Pferden unverändert geblieben sind. Die freie Fettsäuren Kurve währen des CGITs war bei den Tieren mit Hufrehe durch einen verzögerten Anstieg am Ende des Tests im Vergleich zu den gesunden Tieren gekennzeichnet. Die SAA Konzentration blieben durch die Körper-gewichtszunahme unverändert. Bei beiden Rassen kam es mit der Körper-gewichtszunahme zu einem Anstieg des CD68 mRNA Levels in verschiedenen FG Depots. IL-1β, IL-6 und TNFα zeigten nach der Körpergewichtszunahme niedrigere oder unveränderte mRNA Level im Vergleich zu Basalwerten. Im Depotvergleich nach zweijähriger Körper-gewichtszunahme zeigte CD68 höhere mRNA Level in den abdominalen FG Depots ver-glichen mit beiden subkutanen FG Depots. IL-1β, IL-6 und TNFα hingegen wiesen zu diesem Zeitpunkt höhere mRNA-Expressionen in den subkutanen FG Depots auf. LPL und FABP4 mRNA Level stiegen an oder blieben unverändert im im Verlauf der Studie. Am Ende der Studie waren die mRNA Level von LPL und FABP4 in subkutanen FG Depots höher ver-glichen mit den abdominalen FG Depots. Eindeutige Rasseunterschiede konnten nicht charakterisiert werden. Schlussfolgerungen: Eine Gewichtszunahme von 24% der Körpermasse führte nicht bei allen Tieren zu einer ID. Jedoch erscheint das Auftreten einer Hufrehe von Veränderungen der freien Fettsäuren während des CGITs begleitet zu sein. Die Entwicklung der Adipositas war mit einer Makrophageninfiltration in das abdominale FG verbunden, allerdings war die Makrophageninfiltration nicht mit einem systemischen Entzündungsstatus assoziiert.:1 Introduction 1 2 Literature review 3 2.1 Obesity in equines 3 2.1.1 Objective measurements of obesity 3 2.1.1.1 Body condition score 3 2.1.1.2 Cresty neck score 4 2.1.1.3 Morphometric measurements 4 2.2 Insulin dysregulation 4 2.2.1 Laboratory diagnosis 5 2.2.1.1 Basal measurements 6 2.2.1.2 Dynamic testing 7 2.2.1.2.1 Oral tests.7 2.2.1.2.2 Intravenous tests.7 2.3 Obesity related inflammation 9 2.3.1 Interleukin-1β 9 2.3.2 Interleukin-6 10 2.3.3 Tumor necrosis factor α 11 2.4 White adipose tissue 13 2.4.1 Structure and Cell types 13 2.4.2 Adipokines 13 2.4.3 Changes with obesity 13 2.4.4 Depot differences 14 2.5 Lipid metabolism 14 2.5.1 Non-esterified fatty acids 15 2.5.2 Triglycerides 16 2.5.3 Lipoprotein lipase 16 2.5.4 Fatty acid binding protein 4 16 3 Published articles 17 3.1 Effects of body weight gain on insulin and lipid metabolism in equines 17 3.2 The influence of equine body weight gain on inflammatory cytokine expressions of adipose tissue in response to endotoxin challenge 27 4 Discussion 45 4.1 Insulin and glucose metabolism 45 4.2 Lipid metabolism 45 4.2.1 Serum NEFA and TG concentrations 45 4.2.2 Adipose tissue mRNA levels of lipid metabolism marker 46 4.3 Adipose tissue inflammation parameters 47 4.3.1 Effect of body weight gain 47 4.3.2 Adipose tissue depot effect 48 4.3.3 Breed effect in obese equines 48 4.4 Laminitic equines 49 4.5 Conclusion 50 5 Zusammenfassung 51 6 Summary 53 7 References 55 8 Appendix 65 8.1 Presentations as part of this thesis 65 8.2 Co-authorship 66 8.3 Original data 67

AbstractWe explore the effects of occasional smoking on body mass index (BMI) in comparison to non‐smoking and daily smoking in adults age 18–50. Data are compiled from the 2005–2008 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System. Though smaller than that of daily smoking, occasional smoking is found to have a negative and substantial effect on body weight. Differences in the effect of occasional smoking on body weight across BMI categories are small. Unlike daily smoking, the effects of occasional smoking on BMI are larger for females, exceeding 50% of the effects of daily smoking on BMI. These large effects constitute a threat as occasional smoking might be seen by females as an effective weight control strategy that carries lower health risks than daily smoking. Strategies to reduce smoking should then emphasize the proportional health risks of occasional smoking.