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China's emerging nationwide social credit system is aimed at collecting and analyzing data on enterprises and individuals in order to assess the economic and social consequences of their activities, civic qualities, responsibility, and financial reliability. The preventive digital system for regulating public life looks like a continuation of China's social experiments in the second half of the 20th century. However, this time social engineering uses technical means that were previously unknown and devoid of the shortcomings of subjective assessment and application under the conditions of given parameters. Digitalization, therefore, has offered another tool for assessing social behavior — an additional control system based on strict mathematical principles and, importantly, in contrast to legal ones, operating in real time. In its regulatory function, it is comparable to moral norms, morality.

Since independence in 1991, Kazakhstan has had the aim to increase the quality of its higher education. The system has a strong Soviet educational legacy. By constantly reforming its educational system, Kazakhstan has attempted to become a part of both the European and the American systems. The credit system employed at Kazakhstani universities is unique. It evolved from a time when graduates of the Soviet educational system were required to prove their qualifications and degrees by calculating or converting their learning hours into international grading systems. It took a long journey before Kazakhstan introduced its own credit system model, preserving the country's political, ideological, economic, social and cultural background.

Discusses an estimated $518 billion in bad or non-performing loans (NPLs), mostly held by the four main state banks, due to poor banking practices, an inefficient bankruptcy system, and government interference, and failure of asset management companies, which purchase bad loans at face value in exchange for 10-year bonds, to collect NPLs; China.

The Chinese Social Credit System (SCS), the first nationwide digitally implemented social rating system, aims to enhance trustworthiness within Chinese society and serves as a critical example of digital transformation of society. It is further designed to improve moral behavior, financial reliability, and social control. The implementation of the SCS is based on a large scale of personal information collection, processing, evaluation, and disclosure, which raises serious privacy concerns. This chapter briefly introduces the SCS before delving into the privacy issues raised by the SCS's two branches: the government-run SCS and the commercial branch. We discuss three major privacy concerns. First, personal information disclosed via the SCS blacklists and redlists is a considerable challenge to privacy and even security. Second, the SCS framework further facilitates personal data flows from the private sector to the government. Third, although the Chinese legal environment for privacy protection is evolving, enforcement is lacking. Finally, we shed light on using SCS data for research.