Telegrams exchanged between Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles and the following people: private citizens, his personal secretary, Soledad González, Governors, Eduardo Vasconcelos, Secretary of the Interior, Senators, Congressmen, Mexican Builders, S.C. de R.L., Commanders of Military Zones, Military staff, the National Chamber of Commerce from the state of Morelos, the President of the Regional League of Peasants in Chihuahua, the Committee of Pro-strikers of EL DICTAMEN the Agrarian Communities from the state of Guerrero, The Pro-Parra Committee, Mayors and the Secretary of Communications and Public Works, Miguel M. Acosta. The aforementioned telegrams concern information about the rice price; replies of acknowledgement to received mail; get-well greetings, report on the shipping of an order to the Chapultepec Factory; information about Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles' health status, thank-you notes for position confirmation, request for hearings, requesting appointments for diverse offices, requests for promotions, support of the tax increase on alcoholic beverages and cigarettes in order to assist victims of natural disasters, congratulatory greetings on being appointed Secretary of Finance, requesting Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles' visit to Tampico to check the damage caused by the hurricane, requests for financial aid to help Mexican constructors S.C. de R.L. report about the victims in Tampico, a request to assist Mr. Rafael Valdez, a request for bonuses, a request for not merging the Telegraph Office with the Mail Office in Veracruz, protests against a congressman in Veracruz, request for help to stay in a job, a request of guaranties to keep the meat price, elections conflict in Chihuahua, expressions of solidarity to the Committee of Pro-Strikers of EL DICTAMEN, a shopping list to Emilia, a request for donations to the School of Medicine, information about the solution of the Agrarian issue in Guerrero, allegations of abuse of authority in Puebla, requests for financial assistance, report about Francisco Parra's win of the nomination to run for governor in Nayarit, issuance of train passes, appreciation notes on foreign assistance to the victims in Tampico, reports on the social peace in Chiapas, thank-you notes for the delivery of a box with Buffalo products, a request to be present in Mexico City, endorsement of the Governor of Tamaulipas. / Telegramas entre el Gral. PEC, particulares, Secretaria Particular Soledad González, Gobernadores, Secretario de Gobernación Lic. Eduardo Vasconcelos, Senadores, Diputados, Constructores Mexicanos S.C. de R.L.; Comandantes de Zona Militar, Militares, Cámara Nacional de Comercio del Estado de Morelos, Presidente de la Liga Regional Campesina en Chihuahua, Comité Pro Huelguistas de EL DICTAMEN, Comunidades Agrarias del Estado de Guerrero, Comité Pro Parra, Presidentes Municipales y Secretario de Comunicaciones y Obras Públicas Miguel M. Acosta, acerca de: informe sobre precio del arroz, respuestas de enterado a mensajes anteriores, deseos de restablecimiento de salud, informe sobre envío de pedido a Fábrica Chapultepec, reporte sobre estado de salud del Gral. PEC, agradecimientos por ratificación en puesto, solicitudes de audiencia, solicitud de nombramiento, solicitudes de ascenso, adhesiones a la medida de aumento de impuestos al alcohol y cigarros para ayuda de damnificados, felicitaciones por nombramiento de Secretario de Hacienda, solicitud de presencia del Gral. PEC en Tampico para la valoración de desastre causado por huracán, solicitud de ayuda a damnificados, solicitud de empleo, informe sobre refaccionamiento a ejidatarios de Sonora, solicitud de ayuda económica para Constructores Mexicanos S.C. de R.L., informe sobre damnificados en Tampico, solicitud de atención al Administrador de Santa Bárbara Sr. Rafael Valdez, solicitud de sobresueldos, solicitud para que no se instale oficina de Telégrafos en el mismo local de Correos, conformación de mesa directiva y comisiones de la Legislatura de Veracruz, protestas contra diputado en Veracruz, solicitud de ayuda para mantener empleo, solicitud de garantías al precio de la carne, conflicto electoral en Chihuahua, muestras de solidaridad al Comité Pro Huelguistas de EL DICTAMEN, lista de compras para Emilia, solicitud de donativos para la Facultad de Medicina, informes sobre resolución de problema agrario en Guerrero, denuncias sobre abusos de autoridad en Puebla, solicitudes de ayuda económica, informe del triunfo de la pre candidatura a la Gubernatura de Nayarit de Francisco Parra, expedición de pases de ferrocarril, agradecimientos por la ayuda extranjera dada a los damnificados de Tampico, informes sobre paz social en Chiapas, agradecimientos por cajas de productos Búfalo, solicitud de presentación en la ciudad de México, adhesiones al Gobernador de Tamaulipas.
�쓽�븰怨�/諛뺤궗 ; [�븳湲�] [�쁺臾�] Leprosy is rather endemic in Korea, where the disease has been feared and disliked by most of the people. In 1948, author, for control of the disease in shorter periods of time, proposed to utilize patients own labor capacity based on the medical aspects, their labor ability and sociological factors. So-called "Campaign for Hope Village Movement" which was launched that year under the leadership of the Korean Leprosy Association was based on author's proposal for "A Classification of Leprosy Patients by Labor Capacity". Thereafter in 1953, clinical use of sulfone derivative, D.D.S. (Diamino-diphenyl sulfone) was begun for the patients in all leprosaria in Korea. In 1958, curability of the disease with D.D.S. was internationally accepted with the recognition at the 7th International Congress of Leprology. In those days, under the Compulsory Segregation Law, leprosy patients in Korea were still forced to reside in leprosaria in spite of the fact that a considerable number of patients were in the state of cure with labor capacity for self-support. These circumstances, scientific and sociological progress in the field, made author devise "A Classification of Leprosy Patients for Their Social Rehabilitation" to let leprosy problem emerge out of the dark shadows of the past. This new classification was derived from "Classification by Labor Capacity" which was proposed in 1948. This new classification was based on clinical, bacteriological, epidemiological and sociological data which were derived from the results of survey by author under the direction of Dr. Joon Lew, Professor of Microbiology Department. Its value and usefulness in the field were discussed in detail in the following chapters. Chapter 1 Epidemiological Studies of Leprosy in 1948 Around 1945, after liberation of Korea from the Japanese administration, many wandering patients became a nationwide problem which demanded an immediate solution. At that time, considerable number of leprosy patients were isolated in several leprosaria; 6,000 patients in So-Rok-Do Leprosarium, 700 in Ae-Yang-Won (Yowsoo), 750 in Ae-Rak-Won(Taegu), and patients more than 600 were in Sang-Ae-Won(Pusan) which was once closed under the Japanese administration. These patients out-numbered the total patients during the Japanese administration. Yet considerable nuber of leprosy patients were wandering all around the country. In epidemiological point of view, certain measures had to be done for these patients. In these days, the Korean Government had not yet been established, budgets were totally inadequate to cope with the problem, and leprosy was considered an incurable disease. As a preliminary step toward the control of the disease, with the assistance of fellow-workers of the Department of Microbiology, author carried out the first extensive survey of leprosy patients to accomplish epidemiological studies of the disease. Materials and Methods Wandering patients were surveyed to outline their exact number and to obtain epidemiological data. In 1948, wandering patients were scattered in 19 places throughout the country. They had their own organizations, in which leaders governed them. Visiting these centers of gathering and having close co-ordination of the leaders, extensive survey was carried out. In the survey of instigutionized patients, those in So-Rok-Do Leprosarium, Ae-Yang-Won (Yowsoo), Ae-Rak-Won (Taegu) and Sang-Ae-Won (Pusan) were chosen for the purpose. Results This survey includes only that information which was verified. For that reason, the totals shown in the survey do not always match other totals, the differences being attributed to the subjects of the survey. (�뀪) Estimation of the total number of the patients in 1948: As the result of the survey wandering patients were 4,387 non-institutionized known patient 5,575 in number, meanwhile isolated cases in leprosaria were 8,350. Author estimated a total number of patients to be approximately 40,000. (�뀫) Other epidemiological studies: (1) Types, age and sex distribution study; Comparative studies were also carried out. (2) Occupation; Comparison was made between leprosaria patients and wandering patients. Occupational change before, at the time of, and after the onset was also discussed. (3) Distribution by provinces; By this study, high and low endemic areas in Korea were disclosed. Changes in addresses before, at the time of, and after the onset were also surveyed. (4) Age of onset; It was found that, among 3,296 cases in this survey, 926 cases (29.7%) in 16 to 20, 809 cases (25.5%) in 11 to 15,516 cases (15.3%) in 21 to 25,331 cases (9.7%) in 26 to 30 and 294 cases (9.3%) were in 6 to 7 years of age in order of frequency. (5) Incubation period; Out of 2,808 patients only 156 cases (81 males and 75 females), those who could definitely remember the contact with other leprosy patients prior to onset were selected. Detatiled analysis of the results was attempted. (6) Seasonal difference in onset; Spring (Feb.�댘Apr.) was the highest with incidence of 456 (32.2%), 387 (27.3%) in autumn (Aug.�댘Oct.) 304 (21.4%) in summer (May�댘July) and 269 (19.0%) in winter (Nov.�댘Jan.). (7) Initial symptoms and sites of onset; Comparative studies were carried out. (8) Religion; Changes in religion before, after and at the time of onset were surveyed. (9) Schooling; Comparative study was made between schooled and non-schooled group in various aspects. (10) Medical care in community at the time and after onset. (11) Various beliefs about the disease; Survey was made regarding their superstition and belidfs on the cause of the disease. (�뀬) Classification of leprosy patients for their labor capacity; Based on the above-mentioned epidemiological data and the sociological circumstances in 1948, the following classification was devised to utilize self-supporting labor capacities of those wandering patients. A total of 2,009 wandering patients were surveyed, analysed and classified into five groups according to thier physical capacity for labor. Group �뀪 : Very light cases; physically capable for heavy labor as normal person were 761 cases (37.8%). Group �뀫 : Those, capable for enduring ordinary labor were 375 cases (18.7%). Group �뀬 : Those, only capable for light labor were 530 cases (26.4%). Group �뀭 : Those, able to do self-care but physically unable for labor at all were 35 cases (1.7%). Group �뀮 : Far-advanced, disfigured or old patients who need someone else for care in daily life were 77 cases (3.9%). Group "N" : Indicates those who pretended to be or thought to be leprosy patients but normal 231 cases (11.5%) belonged to this group. Total of 1,897(94.4%) out of 2,009 cases surveyed had the physical capacities for some kinds of productive labor. This indicated the possibility of utilizing their labor capacities for their economical welfare and self-support of those wandering patients when unused acres of the countryside were allocated for them. Meanwhile they could have properly regulated medical treatment with less budgets. Under the socio-economical circumstances in 1948, author proposed this self-supporting isolation colony system could be a key to proper solution in taking care of those wandering patients. So-called "Campaign for Hope Villages", which was organized and developed all over Korea under the active leadership of the Korean Leprosy Association was entirely baed on the data of this survey. Until June 1950 when the Korean Civil Conflict broke off, "Hope Villages Movement" was able to accomodate approximately 5,000 wandering patients in 16 Hope Villages. Table 1. Classification of 2,009 Wandering Patients by Their Labor Capacity. �봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�뵵�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�뵵�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�뵵�봺�봺�봺�봺 Group �봻 Labor capacity �봻 Number of case �봻 % �����������뵾���������������������������뵮���������뵾�������������������뵾�������� �봻 �봻 N �봻 231 �봻 11.5 �����������뵾���������������������������뵾���������뵾�������������������뵾�������� Labor �봻Heavy labor �봻 I �봻 761 �봻 37.8 �����������뵾���������������������������뵾���������뵾�������������������뵾�������� Group �봻 �봻Subtotal�봻 992 �봻 49.3 �����������뵾���������������������������뵾���������뵾�������������������뵾�������� �봻Mod labor �봻 �뀫 �봻 375 �봻 18.7 �����������뵾���������������������������뵾���������뵾�������������������뵾�������� �봻Light labor �봻 �뀬 �봻 530 �봻 26.4 �����������뵾���������������������������뵶���������뵾�������������������뵾�������� �봻total �봻 1,897 �봻 94.4 �����������뵾���������������������������뵮���������뵾�������������������뵾�������� Non-labor�봻Able for self-care �봻 �뀭 �봻 35 �봻 1.7 �����������뵾���������������������������뵾���������뵾�������������������뵾�������� Group �봻Unable for self-care �봻 �뀮 �봻 77 �봻 3.9 �����������뵾���������������������������뵶���������뵾�������������������뵾�������� �봻Total �봻 112 �봻 5.6 �����������뵶�������������������������������������뵾�������������������뵾�������� Grand total �봻 2,009 �봻 100 �������������������������������������������������뵶�������������������뵶�������� Chapter 2 Epidemiological Studies and a New Classification of Leprosy Patients for Their Social Rehabilitation in 1962. In 1953, administration of D.D.S. (Diamino-diphenyl sulfone) was started to those in all leprosaria and in Hope Villages as a drug of choice, and it actually produced many cured cases as it was recognized at the 7th International Congress of Leprology in 1958. In spite of these facts, considerable number of those cured cases were still in the state of isolation as leprosy patients, though they should had been freed and emerged into normal community as normal person. Their rights as healthy individuals were denied and they were forced to remain in leprosaria consuming considerable amounts of national budgets. This paradoxical condition led author develope a new classification of patients, so-called "New Classification of Leprosy Patients for Their Social Rehabilitation" which was based on the clinical, bacteriological, epidemiological and sociological data acquired. Materials and Methods Total of 19,980 cases in all national and private leprosaria and Hope Villages were surveyed with co-operation of fellow-workers of Department of Microbiology, fellow members of the Korean Leprosy Association and Korean Army military physicians. Filling up the formulated charts through detailed individual physical examination, results were analysed. Standards of Classification Cases were divided into two main groups, one those with positive bacteriological tests, and the other with negative. These two main groups were then subdivided into five classes (�뀪-�뀮) based on labor capacity, general appearance as leprosy patients and other sociological factors. Class �뀪 : Appearance of normal person with normal labor capacity. Class �뀫 : Suspicious appearance of leprosy patient with normal labor capacity. Class �뀬 : Definite appearance of patient but with moderately impaired labor capacity. Class �뀭 : Advanced cases with capacity only for light labor. Class �뀮 : Cases, far-advanced and needing care. Results Survey of 19,980 cases in the year of 1962 by new classification was shown in Table 2. Table 2. Classification of 19,980 Patients for Their Social Rehabilitation �봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�뵵�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺�봺 Bact. �봻 Positive / Negative �뵜�������������������������������������������������������� Institution \ Grade �봻 �뀪 �뀫 �뀬 �뀭 �뀮 �뀪 �뀫 �뀬 �뀭 �뀮 ���������������������뵾�������������������������������������������������������� National Leprosaria �봻 590 1,006 968 835 361 956 880 778 1,228 646 ���������������������뵾�������������������������������������������������������� Private Institutions�봻 625 29 464 412 114 2,690 2,000 1,391 863 263 ���������������������뵾�������������������������������������������������������� Total(%) �봻1,215 1,735 1,432 1,247 475 3,646 2,800 2,169 2,091 909 �봻(6.8) (8.7) (7.2) (6.2) (2.4)(18.2)(14.0)(10.9)(10.5)(4.5 ���������������������뵾�������������������������������������������������������� Grand Total(%) �봻 4,382(22.7) / 1,722(8.6)/ 8,615(43.1) /3,000(15.0) ���������������������뵶�������������������������������������������������������� Through this survey, cured cases, non-infectious to tohers with negative bacteriological tests, were found to be 8,615 cases; 43.11% (Class �뀪, �뀫 and �뀬 with negative smear). Children from leprosy parents were 1,833 cases (9.17%) and non-leprosy cases, 428 (2.14%) respectively. As a conclusion, at least 10,876 cases (54.4%) could either go home to join their families as healthy person or could settle in somewhere else without any possible spread of the disease to normal communities. So-called "Campaign for Resettlement Villages" of Korean Government and of the Korean Leprosy Association was originated from the data of this survey. Chapter 3 Re-classification of leprosy Institutions Based on these data, re-classification of leprosy institutions was proposed. 1. Hospitals for bacteriologically positive cases (Class �뀪, �뀫 and �뀬 of positive patients). 2. Hospitals for disabled cases (bacteriologically positive and negative Class �뀭 and �뀮). 3. Hospitals for corrective surgery cases (bacteriologically negative Class �뀫, �뀬 or Class �뀪). After surgical correction, they are to be sent to Resettlement Villages. 4. Resettlement Villages for bacteriologically negative Class �뀫 and �뀬. 5. Society for bacteriologically negative Class �뀪. The above-mentioned "Campaign for Resettlement Villages" made total of 10,007 cases gather and engage in self-supporting living in 65 Resettlement Villages in Korea. This campaign not only gave leprosy patients self-maintaining and self-supporting life but also reduced the national budgets considerably for the control of the disease. This resettlement projects are to be expanded more in near future and are to have attention of International Congress of Leprology. ; restriction
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This is a special guest post by Kal Munis, a Ph.D. candidate at the University of Virginia. Kal is a lifelong Montanan, and is an alum of both Montana State and the University of Montana. I expect to feature his work often here.
With the 2018 midterm elections just a little over seven months away, candidates have begun to ramp up efforts to distinguish themselves from one another. In addition to the various typical dimensions on which we might expect those aspiring to represent us to stress their unique qualifications—such as prior political experience, policy positions and past accomplishments—there is another conspicuous characteristic upon which political candidates in Montana attempt to out-maneuver one another: successfully conveying that they possess an authentic Montanan identity.
Typically, candidates try to signal to voters that they share with them various attachments to the customs, values, and lived experiences particular to their geographical constituency. They do so in numerous ways including in video advertisements, mailers, press releases, emails, social media postings and other campaign media. It should be noted that these activities don't stop at election day—indeed, many politicians will continue to cultivate their image of place-based authenticity as a component of what political scientists refer to as their "home-style."
Candidates in Montana and elsewhere clearly engage in this behavior cycle after cycle due a belief in the campaign community that it is an effective practice. In a content analysis of all video based advertisements that were paid for by campaigns during the 2012 and 2014 U.S. Senate elections, I found that these types of ads are widespread throughout the country, with the highest level of usage being clustered in Western states such as Montana. Despite their seeming ubiquitousness, it remains unknown whether campaigns' decisions to deploy these appeals are evidence based or the product of folk-wisdom based inertia.
Irrespective of their effectiveness, however, some pundits (and voters—see the comments on this ad) have remarked that excessive hand-wringing over which candidate is the most Montanan borders on xenophobic, particularly when such concerns are tied to place of birth. At the same time, however, it seems widely accepted that the success of many candidates in Montana, particularly Democrats Senator Jon Tester and Governor Steve Bullock (as well as former Governor Brian Schweitzer), has been largely predicated on their ability to connect with voters on the basis of place.
In large part, the mechanism through which this connection has been fostered in Montana, as well as that upon which many campaign appeals based on place identity are made, is the candidate's birthplace. For successful Democratic candidates in Montana, it seems that part of the litmus test has been whether they're a native of the state. For a recent example, look no further than Governor Bullock's successful 2016 reelection bid against then Republican gubernatorial candidate and current U.S. Representative Greg Gianforte. In that race, the Bullock campaign was able to successfully paint Gianforte as an outsider with deep connections to California and New Jersey. So out of touch with Montana was Gianforte, according to Bullock's campaign, that he was willing to try to run roughshod over that which many Montanans hold to be most sacred: public lands. The narrative was simple: Bullock, a native Montanan, respects and maintains Montana values, whereas Gianforte—a Californian multi-millionaire by way of New Jersey—does not. The result, meanwhile, was shocking, as returns revealed that Bullock defeated Gianforte by 4 points, all while Gianforte's co-partisan in the presidential race, Donald Trump, crushed his Democratic foe by a staggering 22 points.
As part of the 2018 midterm elections, Tester will defend his Senate seat and multiple Republicans are competing in their party's primary to challenge him. Currently, most observers regard Matt Rosendale as being the front runner among these challengers. And, if recent advertisements are any indication, it would seem that several left-aligned groups, including the Montana Democratic Party, consider him to be the front-runner as well.
In a recent advertisement, the MTDP makes an overtly place identity charged indictment of "Maryland Matt" Rosendale, namely that he is an outsider who "doesn't share our Montana values." In the ad, the MTDP takes a 'don't just take our word for it' strategy by relying mostly upon statements made by (or on behalf of) prominent Montana Republicans, as well as upon a compilation of footage of Rosendale himself butchering the pronunciation of the state he is running to represent in Washington. The statements (which are attributed variously to current U.S. Senate primary opponent Russ Fagg, former U.S. House primary opponent and current Secretary of State Cory Stapleton, and to a PAC that supported Ryan Zinke in the 2014 Republican primary for the U.S. House of Representatives) all suggest that Rosendale's non-native born status should be viewed as a deficiency in the eyes of voters. Of these statements, Stapleton's makes the case against Rosendale's non-native status most powerfully, stating "we don't need that East Coast value here in Montana, we don't need somebody from the East Coast representing us in Montana, we need a Montanan representing us on the East Coast."
This theme, though in decidedly less antagonistic tone, was on display yet again a few weeks ago in Bozeman at the Republican U.S. Senate candidate forum (not a debate!) put on by the College Republicans at Montana State University. The forum, which featured Rosendale and his three opponents, Troy Downing (a fellow non-native from California), Albert Olszewski, and Russel Fagg, saw all candidates take pains to stress their connections to Montana and demonstrate their embrace of Montana values. Rosendale and Downing (the non-native candidates) did so in decidedly apologetic fashion, with the following statement by Downing being emblematic of the tone: "I've always been a Montanan, it just took me 31 years to get here." Fagg and Olszewski (the native candidates), meanwhile made their born and raised Montanan bonafides front and center from the outset, with Fagg, for example, noting that he "has the Montana roots, the Montana endorsements, (and) the Montana donations."
It was a portion of Fagg's closing statement as well as Rosendale's that followed, however, that really drew my attention. In his last appeal to the crowd in Bozeman that night, Fagg made his case that his native Montana roots would be critical to defeating native Jon Tester in 2018. "I'm a fourth generation Montanan…and (my family) has live and loved Montana since before Montana was a state," he said "[…] and the reason that's important, I appreciate everyone that has moved to Montana because they love Montana, but the Democrats are going to unmercifully beat up two of my opponents because they moved here nine years ago (Downing) and fifteen years ago (Rosendale). It may not be fair, but it's the truth. If you put me on that ticket, that takes that argument away from Senator Tester." Fagg then went on to note that he has to date collected the lion's share of endorsements from prominent Montana Republicans from well-known names such as Marc Racicot and Denny Rehberg (Rosendale, meanwhile, has the support of prominent national Republicans such U.S. Senators Rand Paul and Mike Lee) before passing the mic to Rosendale.
Fagg's point was brought into stark relief just moments later when Rosendale mispronounced "Montana" so badly that even I, a social scientist who studies the role of place-based identities in politics, couldn't help but to find it grating. In my defense, it was the contrast of Rosendale's mispronunciation and Fagg's ominous message regarding the importance of Montana roots in eyes of Montana voters that made the moment so powerful. And, apparently I wasn't the only one to notice—the MTDP released the "Maryland Matt" ad just a few days later and appeared to indirectly reference the forum in a short blurb accompanying the ad's posting.
Do voters care about where candidates were born? To begin to investigate this question, I draw upon data from three different surveys that I have fielded (one in Autumn 2015, one in Spring 2017, and another in early fall 2017) utilizing Mechanical Turk samples. All respondents in these surveys reside in the United States. Within each survey, I included a question asking whether and how important respondents thought it was that candidates running for Congress in their state had been born there. In the most recent two surveys, an additional question was asked regarding whether respondents felt that candidates born in their state were more likely to understand the values and needs of people in their state.
Table 1: How important do you think it is for candidates running for Congress
in your state to have been born in your state?
Fall 2015
Spring 2017
Fall 2017
Extremely Important
25
(5%)
200
(11%)
130
(11%)
Very Important
117
(25%)
368
(20%)
255
(22%)
Moderately Important
136
(29%)
496
(28%)
300
(26%)
Slightly Important
87
(18%)
320
(18%)
232
(18%)
Not at all important
111
(23%)
423
(23%)
229
(23%)
N
476
1,807
1,146
Results for the first question are remarkably stable across all three samples, as can be seen in Table 1. In the most recent sample, one third of respondents indicated that they felt candidate place of birth to be highly important (including both the "extremely important" and "highly important" categories). A little over a quarter of respondents indicated candidate place of birth to be moderately important. Meanwhile, a minority of respondents (41%) indicated that candidate place of birth is only slightly important or not important at all to them.
Table 1: In general, do you think that candidates born in your state are better
at understanding the values and needs of people in your state?
Spring 2017
Fall 2017
Yes
853
(47%)
554
(48%)
No
287
(16%)
144
(13%)
Unsure
667
(37%)
450
(39%)
N
1,807
1,146
As for respondents' perceptions regarding whether native born candidates are more likely to better understand the values and needs of their constituency, a large plurality in both samples (an average of 47.5%) indicated that they felt this was the case, with a small minority (an average of 14%) of respondents saying this wasn't likely to be the case. A large number of respondents in both samples indicated that they were unsure regarding this question (38%). These results are presented in Table 2.
To further explore responses to these questions, I use various methods (including ANOVA, OLS, and logistic regression) to model the relationship between responses to these questions and respondents' partisanship.[1] First, I estimate the association between how important respondents rated candidate birthplace and respondents' partisanship while controlling for the influence of other background characteristics. Results show that, on average, the place of birth of political candidates is significantly more important to Republicans (by about 25%) than it is for Democrats even after controlling for the influence of respondents' level of educational attainment, gender, self-reported recent voting history, and whether the respondent lived in a rural area. Moreover, further analysis reveals that Republicans' average importance rating of candidate place of birth is significantly higher than that of independents as well, though Democrats and independents do not differ significantly from one another in this respect. Finally, I model the association between partisanship and perceptions of whether being born in state imparts upon candidates a special constituency related knowledge (all while again controlling for a number of other related factors). Results indicate that Republicans are 4.5 times more likely on average to indicate that candidates born in their state typically better understand the values and problems associated with that state.
Taken together, these results suggest that many Americans see candidate place of birth as being an important attribute of political candidates. More specifically, a majority of people in my sample indicated that it is at least moderately important that candidates be born in the state that they seek to represent in Congress, with a full third indicating that they feel it is highly important. Moreover, a plurality of respondents indicated that they believe that candidates born in the state they are running in are more likely to understand the needs and values of their constituency. Results also indicate a significant association between these considerations and partisanship, with Republicans endorsing both to a greater extent than non-Republicans on average. All of this is especially noteworthy considering that these results are derived from a sample comprising survey respondents from all across the United States. And, in terms of demographic characteristics, the sample skews slightly younger, more liberal, and more educated than the American population as a whole—as well as Montana. So, if anything, I would expect the patterns and statistical associations described above to increase in magnitude if the sample were one perfectly representative of Montana.
Finally, in relating all of this back to Montana politics, the results presented here seem to lend some credence to Republican candidate Russ Fagg's (as well as many others) warning to Republican primary voters that (in)congruence between where candidates are born and the district they hope to represent is important to voters—and, at least in this sample, especially amongst self-identified Republicans. And, since Tester will almost certainly have to win over a considerable percentage of voters who recently voted for our Republican president, these results suggest that one fruitful path for him to do so would be to continue to appeal to voters on the basis of shared Montana values and identity (as Bullock did in his successful 2016 reelection bid). Whether and to what degree he is able to do so could very well be moderated by whether a native-born Republican, such as Fagg or Olszewski, is at the top of the Republican ticket.
B. Kal Munis is, amongst other things, a 6th generation Montana native and alumnus of both Montana State University and the University of Montana. He is currently a PhD candidate in the Woodrow Wilson Department of Politics at the University of Virginia. You can follow him on Twitter @KalMunis.
[1] If you want more specifics on the data and my analyses, please send me an email or leave a comment below.
Issue 21.3 of the Review for Religious, 1962. ; International Congress on Vocations In the spring of 1960 His Eminence, Valerio Cardinal Valeri, Prefect of the Sacred Congregation of Religious, announced that there would be an international congress in Rome of the two hundred most famous vocation spe-cialists of the world from December 10-16, 1961. From the discussions and resolutions of such competent men would be formulated a program which subsequently would be put into effect by the Pontifical Organization for Religious Vocations. A year was spent in selecting the speakers and partici-pants and arranging topics for discussion. Then in Au-gust, Father Godfrey Poage, C.P., Director of the Reli-gious Vocation Clubs in America and Delegate of the Conference of Major Superiors, was summoned to Rome to undertake the directorship of the Congress. The Domus Mariae, a beautiful new convention center in west suburban Rome, was chosen as the site of the Congress, and contracts were let for building the displays and exhibitions. Twenty-six nations through their Con-ferences of Major Superiors agreed to demonstrate their materials and techniques used in the promotion of voca-tions. Also the most prominent publishers of vocational materials were invited to participate. The two companies in America so honored were George Pflaum Inc., of Day-ton, Ohio, publishers of the Catholic Messengers and the Paulist Press of New York City, publishers of the zldult Education Program for Vocations. As arrangements progressed, His Eminence, Cardinal Valeri, decided to increase the number of participants in order to extend the effectiveness of this great meeting. Invitations, therefore, were sent to all superiors general in the world as well as to seven hundred and sixty-one selected fathers and brothers provincial. All Conferences of Major Superiors, likewise, were asked to send delegates. 4- 4- 4- on Vocatlo~ VOLUME 21, 1962 Congress REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS Specialists in sociology, psychology, pastoral theology, and allied subjects were invited from the principal universi-ties of the world. National directors of youth groups and vocation associations were also welcomed. Thus.during the days of the Congress there were in attendance 7 cardinals, 't2 bishops, 18 abbots, 179 supe-riors general, and 1'~89 delegates and auditors from '[1 nations, making it the largest gathering of authorities in the history of the Church to study one specific problem; namely, the recruitment of more priests, brothers, and sisters. One month prior to the Congress all religious com-munities in the world and all dioceses with vocation office:; were asked to make a spiritual contribution. Over one' million Masses were.offered for this intention, as well as innumerable prayers, sacrifices, and good works from both religious and faithful. Five special Masses were prepared by the Sacred Con-gregation of Rites and released just before the Congress for insertion in the Roman Missal. They are: 1) For the Seeking and Fostering of Religious Voca-tions; 2) For the Seeking of Ecclesiastical Vocations; 3) For the Preserving of Vocations; 4) For the Day of Profession Of Religious Men; 5) For the Day of Profession of Religious Women.1 The solemn opening of the Congress took place on Sunday evening, December 10, 1961, at the Basilica of St. Mary Major. His Eminence, Valerio Cardinal Valeri, offered the special Vocation Mass, assisted by officials of the Sacred Congregation of Religious. Since thousands of posters had been distributed throughout the city ask-ing the laity to participate with prayers and attendance at Mass, the Basilica was filled to overflowing for the func-tion and sermon. As the prelates, superiors, delegates, and specialists ar-rived at Doraus Mariae on Monday morning, December 11, they were directed by a corps of professional ushers to registration desks, identified by position, tagged, given lapel flags of their various nations, programs, and copies of the addresses in the language of their preference. An-nouncements were made in six languages, seating was in order of ecclesiastical dignity, and multi-lingual tran:;la-tors were on hand for discussion periods. All sessions be-gan and concluded promptly at the designated times, .and the addresses of the principal speakers were carried by Vatican Radio. In his opening address Cardinal Valeri pointed out that a generation ago Europe furnished eighty-five per cent of 1 C~opies of these Masses may be obtained from local church good stores or from the Vatican Polyglot Press, Vatican City. the foreign mission personnel. Now European dioceses and communities are not able to maintain their own in-stitutions, much less send out missionaries. "To find ways and means of remedying this situation," he explained, "all present have been invited to discuss the problems involved and suggest a program for the PontificaiOi~gani-zation for Religious Vocations to promote." The first speaker was Dr. Francis Houtart, Director of the Brussels Center for Social Research. He pointed out that while there is a slight increase in the numbers of priests and religious being currently recruited and trained, it is not sufficient to keep pace with the progres-sive growth of the world's population. The annual birth-rate of the world is now forty-seven million---or approxi-mately the total population of Ita!y or Great Britain. Of this number the Catholics are able to reach or influence only eighteen per cent. In the discussion that followed, Father James Forrestal of England, author of a number of statistical studies on priestly and religious vocations, gave the 'percentiles of priests and religious in various parts of the world. In the past year, for example, there were 4,238 priests ordained in the world. Exactly fifty per cent of that number were in America (2,119) and just slightly over half of all the priests ordained in the American Continent were in the United States (1,149). Reports were then made by delegates of all the nations represented. Particular attention was given to the reports of the South American delegates, where Mexico has 4,663 Catholics for each priest; Central America has 6,332 for each priest; and South America, 4,461. To obtain the desired ratio of priests to people, which is one priest per 800 souls; there is an immediate need" for 130,000 priestsl In the afternoon the address was given by Father God-frey Poage, C.P., on the subject "Recruiting and Re-cruiters of Religious Vocations." He explained not only all the means that have been used in the different coun-tries by various recruiters to obtain prospects, but also how to develop new techniques---how to "brainstorm" for more effective recruiting procedures. This was the first time a major address was ever delivered by a Vatican Official before a Roman Congress in English. Afterwards the superiors and delegates present expressed their ap-preciation of the American method with a standing ova-tion. The discussion was led by Father Bertrand de Margerie, S.J., Secretary of the Conference of Major Superiors of Brazil. He pointed out that two great handicaps of the recruiters in South America are ignorance and prejudice. These can be overcome only by proper advertising and public relations. Some of the more conservative delegates ÷ ÷ ÷ Congress on Vocations VOLUME 21, 1962 felt there was no place for "Madison Avenue" techniques in winning souls for Christ and a very spirited debate ensued. The Italians were confident that they would carry the vote at the end, but were dismayed to find they had only the delegates of their own country,. Malta, the North Countries (Norway, Sweden, Denmark), Spain, and South Africa on their side. On Tuesday morning Father Raymond Izard, Director of the Vocation Center of Paris, spoke on "Pastoral Prac-tice and Religious Vocations." He explained the role of the diocesan priest in fostering vocations and the respon-sibility the pastor has in developing the various religious apostolates. He then explained the French system, where direction of vocations is under the guidance of the repre-sentatives of the Bishops' Conference, while the work of the office is shared mutually with representatives of the Conferences of Major Superiors. In the discussion, directed by His Excellency, Joseph Carraro, Bishop of Verona, emphasis was put on how to achieve greater collaboration between diocesan and re. ligious recruiters. The Archdiocese of Chicago, repre-sented by Father ~]ohn Kennelly, the Archdiocesan Voca-tion Director, was singled out as one of several in the world deserving special praise for being areas in which religious recruiters, as coadjutors of the diocesan clergy, work for the common good of all vocations. In the afternoon began a series of theological discus-sions, which was like a dress-rehearsal for the ecumenic~ll council in that the foremost theologians of the world joined in debate with one another, bishops, major su-periors, and cardinals. On Saturday morning, December 16, at nine o'clock all participants in the Congress assembled in the Hall of Benediction at the Vatican to hear a special allocution by His Holiness, Pope John XXIII, on the subject of religious vocations. The text of the allocution is given elsewhere in this issue of the REviEw. The final session of the Congress was devoted to the business of the Vocation Office and to resolutions which will be implemented by the Pontifical Organization for Vocations in the coming year. Congress on Vocations REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS JOHN XXIII Religious Vocations Beloved sonsl Today's meeting1 and the pleasure it evokes in Our heart dispenses with any introduction. Let Us say only this--and We think it sufficient to prove the intensity of Our interest--from the very beginning Our prayers have followed the preparation and realization of this First In-ternational Congress on Religious Vocations. It now gives Us great pleasure to thank the Sacred Con-gregation of Religious and especially you, Cardinal Valeri, for wanting to undertake such an enormous em terprise, a work which the competence of many experts has brought to a successful conclusion. Sublimity o[ the Religious Vocation This Congress has accentuated a very delicate and urgent problem; namely, the increasing of vocations to the states of perfection in the world today. The simple merition of this theme of the Congress conjures up many images in which there are reasons for profound joy and hope, and at the same time reasons for apprehension and uncertainty. On the one hand We see the different reli-gious families being constantly renewed with young as-pirants because of the fascinating attraction of their in-numerable forms of ordered life. On the other hand, We see the obstacles which the spirit of the world raises against producing vocations-~obstacles of the ever-recur-ring attractions of the threefold concupiscences (1 Jn 2:16) which are diametrically opposed to the vows of re-ligious perfection. Suffice it to refer to the lax mentality which today makes use of the press, radio and television, to defile even the sanctuary of the home. This state of affairs, however, is not something new. It is only more noticed today because of its diffusion and gravity. Moreover, it poses new problems and difficulties for the director of souls and for those who are concerned with recruiting, directing, and safeguarding vocations. ~The following is an English translation of the allocution deliv-ered on December 16, 1961 to those attending the First International Congress on Vocations to the State of Perfection. 4. Religious Vocations VOLUME 21, 1962 179 ÷ ÷ ÷ John XXIII REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS Accordingly, We salute with special praise and en-couragement this important undertaking of the Sacred Congregation of Religious. This problem of religious and priestly vocations is the daily worry of the Holy Father; it is ~he intention of his prayer, and the ardent aspiration' of his soul. This is the intention for which We offer the fourth joyful mystery of Our Rosary as We contemplate Mary giying the Eternal Priest of the New Law to the heavenly Father. As We said in the beginning of October: "It is beautiful to see in that mystery our highest hopes regarding the priesthood perennially fulfilled: young students in seminaries, religious houses, missionary col-leges, whose expansion, despite difl~cuhies and obstacles in the present day, is a consoling sight, evoking exclama-tions of admiration and joy" (L'Osservatore Romano, Oct. I, 1961, p. 2). Regarding the training of vocations to the religious and priestly, life, We have already offered paternal sug-gestions in Our discourse to the rectors of major and minor seminaries of Italy on July 29 of this year. We con-sidered at that time the great respon.sibility of this work. We treated the spiritual formation of the young seminar-ians for the priestly and religious life as well as their in-tellectual training (AAS, v. 53 [1961], pp. 559-65). Today, therefore, We wish rather to emphasize the beauty of the vocation to the priestly and religious state. Moreover, the religious congregations of women repre-sented here widen the scope of this meeting. There are countless numbers who through their example show a life hidden with Christ in God (Col 3:3), a life of abnega-tion, of zealous service, of following the dictates of God's will. They offer to the world, which is scarcely able to appreciate it, the living example of perfect virginity o~! heart and supreme generosity. This evokes a joyous re-sponse from so many good daughters of cities and towns, who, coming mostly from Catholic Vocation Clubs, are attracted by these ideals and wish to follow them in live~ lived solely for God and neighbor. Many Forms of Total Consecration o[ Self to God Such is the wonder of a vocation that We anxiously and confidently praise those wholesome and virtuous Christian families in which flower the new generation, "the new olive plants" (Ps 127:3) of tomorrow. Particularly do We praise the young men and women who are more aware of the needs for the expansion of the Kingdom of God and are consequently thinking of their own perfec-tion and the salvation of souls. We remind them that the voice of Christ resounds continuously throughout the world, gently persuading those habituated to prayer, apostolic service, and sacrifice to become hunters of souls. Jesus calls invitingly: "If you wish to.be perfect, go,. sell what you have and give to the poor, and you will have treasure in heaven, and come, follow Me" (Mr 19:21). This is losing oneself in order to find; it is a giving to Him Who is able to reserve for us in eternal life a hun-dredfold more than we now give on. earth of our energies, talents, and abilities. The innumerable religious families which exercise their apostolate throughout the world give to youth a most complete ideal for which they can well live and die. In these families the Church offers many modes of conse-cration to God, ranging from the ancient monastic orders to the most active modern congregations, all of which in one way or another prolong in time some particular as-pect of Christ's mission. To joifi one of these groups, when called, means to find again His life and imitate it for the spread of the Gospel (Mk 8:35). Sometimes contemplative communities are misunderstood and do not seem to contribute to the apos-tolate. But as Our predecessor, Pope Pius XI, explained: "Much more is contributed to the growth and develop-ment of the Church by contemplative groups than by those who perform the actual labors, for it is they who call down from heaven the vivifying graces to irrigate the plowed fields of the other apostolic workers" (Bull Um-bratilera, AAS v. 16 [1924], p. 389). The fields of religious perfection are almost limitless, since the impulse for the apostolate derives its motivation from the constant seeking after God alone, from fidelity to His grace, and from continual efforts for greater in-terior recollection. Now the fields are ripe for the harvest, needing apostolic hands and helping hands. There is the missionary apostolate which needs many vocations in order to meet the increased contingencies of spreading the gospel throughout the world. Then there is the care of souls in parishes of our large cities where so many re-ligious families are already working with great success. There is also the very speEialized work of the moral and intellectual instruction of youths whose parents with a confidence that will not go unrewarded entrust them to religious men and women. Moreover, there are the in-numerable forms of charity and works of mercy in which so many orders and congregations distinguish themselves, all perpetuating on earth the charity of our Lord, of whom it is written, "He went about doing good and healing all" (Acts 10:38). New Horizons Ior the Harvest o[ Christ These tremendous needs for more workers for the harvest oblige all of us to study and do our utmost that from our modern society, as in the days of the famous ÷ ÷ Religious Vocations VOLUME 21, 1962 ]8] 4. ]elm REV;EW FOR REL;G~OUS 182 founders and reformers, great numbers of youths will respond to our Lord's invitation. New horizons are open-ing in the very near future during the celebration of the ecumenical council. Moreove.r, history teaches that there is always a period of extraordinary spiritual fecundity after an ecumenical council, for the Holy Spirit evokes generous vocations and gives to the Church the right and necessary men. This promise of faith and hope stirs Our heart with a divine yearning. Continue, therefore, your combined efforts to encour-age reIigious vocations by every means, presenting to the youths the beauty and attraction of your life in ways that are more appealing. Make use of the extraordinary means which the press, the radio, and television offer for spread-ing these great ideas. Moreover, remember it is necessary. to work together with order and mutual respect, having always in mind the greater welfare of the universal Church in which there is room for all. Study how. to dis-tribute both priests and religious to those places which have the most need, overcoming understandable preoc-cupations. In a word, exert every effort to increase voca-tions everywhere. The activity which will commence at the Sacred Con-gregation of Religious and in each of your institutes at the conclusion of this Congress will be multiple and de-manding. But We shall be with you in spirit, in blessing, and in prayer. 0 Jesus, send laborers into Your fields, which are await-ing holy apostles, saintly priests, heroic missionaries, gentle and indefatigible sistersl Enkindle in the hearts of young men and women the spark of a vocation. Grant that Christian families may desire to be distinguished by giving to Your Church cooperators in the work of to-morrowl Anxiety [or the People o] the Congo Beloved sons and daughtersl Since We are speaking under very opportune circum-stances in that you represent all the countries of the world; let Us, your Father, share with you a deep sorrow, as if to garner encouragement and renewed confidence from the common sharing of this sorrow. The considerations which We have made have opened. before your eyes promising horizons for a fruitful apos, tolate and generous, charitable service in all countries without distinction, even beyond those barriers where Christianity is not acknowledged. News reports which reach the Holy Father are not all joyful. You know what has been happening for the past fifteen months and especially the past few days in the Congo. In the act of reaping from the tree of political in- dependence those hoped-for fruits of prosperity, prestige, and works of peace, the earth of that blessed country is now bathed in bloodl The people, and especially the youth, are suffering so acutely that the outlook for the future is most uncertain. Having daily contact with the Blood of Christ ~in' the mystery of the Eucharist, We cannot remain unmoved at the sight of so much suffering, such ruin of the moral and social order. The consequences produced by this state of affairs greatly distress Us. Even as you understand my words, beloved sons and daughters, so We are certain that others cannot do other-wise than understand them, wherever Our sad message may reach. The affliction caused by this evil oppresses Our soul. Therefore We turn beseechingly to those who can and ought to intervene, so that with disinterested counsel, ob-jective information, and an appreciation of rights, they may cooperate in reestablishing peace in that country and bring about peaceful and serene days for all. This is the fervent prayer, which We raise to the om-nipotent God through the intercession of Our heavenly Mother. We would like to see all here present and all those of good heart and soul, who would like to be united with Us, to join in this prayer. These paternal desires are accompanied with a special Apostolic Blessing, first to you, Cardinal Prefect, and your collaborators in the Sacred Congregation; for the of-ficials of the Pontifical Work for Religious Vocations; for all here present; for all your religious institutes; and for your own families; and, finally, in the spirit of good-will, to all youths in seminaries and houses of formation, who are preparing to consecrate themselves totally to God, to the Church, and to the service of their fellowmen. Religious gocatiom VOLUME 21, 1962 ]83 GODFREY POAGE, C.P. Recruiting Religious Vocations ÷ ÷ ÷ God[rey Poage, C.P., is the Director of the Religious Voca-tions Clubs in America. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 184 For1 the past eight hundred years Dante Alighieri has brightened men's mind~ and stirred their hearts with the profound and wholesome message of his Divine Comedy. In this great poem the Italian master tells how he was per-suaded to undertake a long journey, first of purgation. then purification., and finally union. His guide the most important part of the way was the incomparable Beatrice, and the closer he approached to Divine Union, the brighter and more beautiful became the face of his guide. Somehow this journey is analogous to the work of re-cruiting religious vocations. We, like Beatrice, are called upon to lead others on a difficult way. First we must take our proteges through a period of purgation and trial-- then we must develop in them habits of virtue and purify them for a new life. Finally, we must bring them to the th~:eshold of the seminary or novitiate and there say, as Beatrice did to Dante, "Turn now and look, for here is found Paradisel" First Step: Setting Objectives To succeed in such important work, we must have clear-cut objectives and practical means of attaining them. To help us the Holy See has outlined the principles and norms that must be followed. The experience of prudent and capable recruiters has shown the practical applica-tion of these directives. If only we combine the two with prayer, success will follow. In the General Statutes accompanying the apostolic constitution of Pope Pius XII, Sedes Sapientiae, we are told that three things are needed to increase vocations: 1) Fervent. prayer to the Lord of the harvest that ]-Ie send laborers into His harvest (Mt 9:38); 1 This is the text of an address delivered to the First International Congress on Vocations to the State of Perfection. 2) the resplendent example of religious sanctity; 3) the ardent and perpetual exercise of apostolic zeal. (Art 23, ¶ l) Through prayer we win for the youths the grace of a vocation and the generosity to respond. Through advertising and .various promotidnal"tech-niques, we acquaint youths and their parents with the na-ture of our life. Seeing our happiness and the good we are accomplishing, they are forced to the speculative judg-ment: "The priesthood or religious life is goodY' But before anyone can make the practical judgment-- "The priesthood or religious life is good for mel"--it is necessary that he see the intrinsic good of the religious state. This good is not immediately evident in itself, so the will must be induced by some force outside itself to make the choice. Helping a youth to make this practical "judgment is the most important work of the recruiter. Sometimes we hear it said that every priest or religious is a recruiter ex officio. The pastor in his pulpit is a re-cruiter. So is the brother in the classroom, the nurse at the patient's bedside, or the missionary in foreign lands. The truth of these statements depends on what we mean by recruiting. The ability to recruit--to inspire and direct youths-- is not something every priest or religious has instinctively. It is a skill that is developed--something a person is trained to use expertly. It is based on knowledge; knowl-edge of how God calls an individual to His service; knowlo edge of how the Church calls a person to the religious life or priesthood; and knowledge of human nature. All this, however, is matter for other sessions of the Congress. Here we are confining ourselves to techniques and pro-cedures in recruitment. Second Step: Contacting Suitable Youths Once our objectives are determined, we then proceed to the most effective means of contacting suitable youths. Recently a report, entitled "Methods of Recruiting," was published by Father Leonard P. Stocker, O.M.I., at the Catholic University of America. It was a compilation of one hundred replies from seminaries and novitiates re-garding the methods they had used to obtain their pres-ent enrollments. Here, in summary, are his findings: Techniques Groups Using Literature: Pamphlets, folders, etc .8.1 Visits to elementary schools .6.5 Visits to high schools .5.6 Magazine advertisements .43 Response from "Vocation Sundays" . .43 Publicity in diocesan papers .35 Faculty preaching on vocations .30 ÷ ÷ + Recruiting VOLUME 21, 1962 ÷ ÷ Godfrey Poage, C.P. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS ]86 Other paid publicity programs .30 Visits to ho,nes of likely candidates .30 Vocation exhibits . 29 Posters . 26 "Open-House" days at the seminary for prospects . 18 Vocation retreats . 11 Vocation movies . . 9 Vocation correspondence courses for prospects . : . 6 Missions . 4 Seminary bulletin or newspaper .3 Picnics at the seminary for altar boy groups . 2 Vocation talk by bishop at confirmation . 1 Ordination held in home parish . 1 Essay" contest . l By studying how other seminaries and novitiates have obtained candidates we learn what has been done. Some of the techniques we can use; other ideas we can develop. But our vocation work should be more than a simple imi-tation of others. Each one of us should contribute some-thing new to the vocation movement. There should be some way of utilizing the wisdom and experience of all our members, that more effective means of meeting our vocation problems might be found. More El~ective Recruiting One of the great secrets of progress in science and dustry has been the fact that scientists and manufacturers have joined in associations of creative research. The~ have studied not only the how and why of things, but they have also exerted a conscious creative effort to discover new lacts, arrive at new combinations, and find new ap-plications. Our problem as recruiters is not the improvement things, but the improvement of personal relations. We want to obtain better response from youths, greater co-operation from parents, and a deeper understanding the religious life in the laity. But how can this be achieved? Only by prayerful reflection and diligent exer-cise of our God-given facultiesl When we exercise our memories and imaginations in prayerful meditation, the gift of understanding--under the excitation of grace--becomes operative. We see things in a different light; we go deeper into the problem. Some spiritual writers call these insights and inspirations the "lights of prayer." This same method should be used in tackling our voca-tion problems. After prayer to the Holy Spirit for better understanding, we must set about exercising our natural faculties. First of all, we should read as much on the subject as possible. We should fill our memories with the facts and statistics of vocational research. We should study re-cruiters' reports and analyze their surveys. We should visit exhibits to observe the techniques and procedures that have been found most successful by prudent and learned recruiters in various areas. Then in association with our fellow recruiters .we should give our imagination priority over judgment and let it roam around our objectives. We might even mal~e a conscious effort to think up the most unique ways of in-spiring and motivating youths .towards our own state of life. At this point we are simply trying to separate imagi-nation from judgment. With most of us there is a strong tendency, as a result of education and experience, to think judicially rather than creatively. In consequence, we tend to impede the fluency of ideas by applying our critical judgment too soon. On the other hand, if only we defer judgment, we can think up far more alternatives from which later to choose. In his book, Applied Imagination, Alex F. Osborn, President of the Creative Education Foundation in Amer-ica, warns: It is most important to guard against being both critical and creative at one and the same time. Inevitably, if we let our judgment intrude prematurely, we tend to abort ideas which could prove to be the most valuable of all. Therefore, we should consciously defer evaluation until a later period. Thus we can think up more and better ideas. Then later we can screen and weigh these ideas more judiciously. This in no way belittles the value of judgment, for imagination-without-judgment is even more deplorable than judgment-without-imagination. The warning is sim-ply that we use both faculties., but one at a time. This technique has come to be known in America as "Organized Ideation," or more popularly, "Brainstorm Sessions." The system is aptly named, for those who par-ticipate in such a session use their brains to storm a prob-lem, with each participant audaciously attacking the same objective. "Brainstorming" ]or Vocations At a Vocation Institute for the Franciscan recruiters of the United States, held at San Juan Bautista, Califor-nia, in 1958, this "brainstorming" technique was used. Six of the recruiters present were selected as a core'group, and a seventh was chosen as recorder or secretary. This latter religious stood at a large, portable blackboard which had been set off to the side. The conference began very informally--the core group at a table in front, the others sitting in a semicircle. The host provincial began with a prayer. Since I had been asked to serve as moderator of this group, I reminded the participants that, if they tried to get hot and cold water out of the same faucet at the same + + + Recruiting VOLUME 21, 1962 ÷ ÷ Godf!'cy Poage, C.P. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS ]88 time, they would get only tepid water. "If you try to criti-cize and create simultaneously," I said, "you don't turn out enough cold criticisms or enough hot ideas. You are simply lukewarm. Accordingly, I ask you today to stick to ideas. Tomorrow you will do .the criticizing. Conse-quently, if I hear a belittling or derogatory remark, I will ring this bell before me. Whoever is speak.ing will thereby be reminded either to thinl~ up or shut Earlier in the day we had considered the contribution that motivational analysts can make to our understand. ing of why people think and act the way they do. We had attempted to explore the new science of psychodynamics, known popularly as the "depth approach." Could the insights gleaned from psychiatry and the social sciences, we asked ourselves, give clues to some the problems facing the modern recruiter? How, for ex-ample, with the complexity of orders and congregations in the Church can we account for a young man having a strong preference for one particular group of religious, though he may never have met one of them in person? Why do some good Catholics praise a parent who lets a son go of[ to the brotherhood and in the next breath com-ment: "That boy certainly doesn't love his homel" The use of mass psychoanalysis to guide campaigns persuasion, we know, has become the basis of a multi-million dollar industry. Professional persuaders have seized upon psychological techniques in their groping for more ef[ective ways to sell .us their wares--whether prod-ucts, ideas, attitudes, candidates, goals, or states of mind. The recruiters present were'well-primed and ready to go. A time limit from five to eight minutes was set for each subject. The secretary was instructed to write down on the blackboard all the ideas suggested. The list was to be reportorial, rather than stenographic. This was a good provision, for at times the ideas tumbled out so fast that even a short-hand expert would have given up. The first problem considered was the finding of a "key-factor" for Franciscan advertising. In five minutes the core group suggested fifteen themes, ranging from the glorification of the "capuche" to a description of their "soup-kitchens for the poor." In the eight minutes devoted to the problem of how they might get more boys interested in their community, forty-one proposals were given. They ran the gamut from publicizing the "flying friars" to "Franciscan firsts--like Christmas cribs and credit-unions." Since one ef[ective strategy of merchandisers is to have personages of indisputably high status invite others to join them in the use of some product or service, I next risked the panel to name all the prominent national and international ~gures who would willingly give an en. dorsement to the Franciscan way of life. In three minutes they tallied eighteen names. When we took up the problem of how to get more lay brothers, we first admitted that domestic work and clean-ing of monasteries, which is the principal employment of these men, is not an appealing work for modern°youth. It implies servility, meniality, and drudgery. Accordingly, how could the propaganda for the brotherhood bring out a sense of worth and esteem? In five minutes eighteen new approaches were sug. gested. None of them were in direct praise of housekeep-ing, but indirectly they brought out how essential the lay brother is to the life and work of the Order. He is "God's marine in the fox-hole of the cloister," the "hands and feet of Christ," and so forth. Evaluation o[ the Session In just a little over an hour this "Brainstorm Session" covered ten different problems and produced one hun-dred and seventy-eight new ideas. The provincial then recessed the meeting with a prayer of thanksgiving. Later each recruiter present was given a mimeographed copy of all the ideas mentioned, each listed under its proper heading. He was asked to study the suggestions, discuss them with others, add or subtract as he wished. The next day we met for an evaluation of the ideas produced. After the opening prayer, the secretary read off each proposal under its proper heading. All the recruiters now participated: Some suggestions they dismissed with a laugh. Others they tore to shreds and then tried to sal-vage. Some ideas they combined and came up with hy-brids. It was a most interesting discussion and the older and wiser heads seemed to dominate. Constantly we heard re-marks like: "That was tried once before . " "Let's not overlook the effect such a thing will have on other groups," and so on. In the end, the fathers were asked to vote on which suggestion they considered the best in each category. After the merciless screening and discussion that had been given every good proposal, one idea invariably domi-nated. When the votes were tallied, it was found that most of the fathers wanted to put this idea into effect. Thus they gained an unanimity of judgment and a more imaginative approach to their recruitment. Third Step: Conditioning Prospects During the first six months of this year through various recruiting programs, an estimated twenty-six thousand Catholic boys in the United States signed vocation "in-terest- cards" or wrote to a religious seminary or novitiate Recruiting VOLUME 21, 1%2 189 ÷ ÷ Go~ey ~.P. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS for further information. Of this number just a little over two thousand eventually made application and entered upon their religious training last September. Why were there so many who did not even try the life? As all re-cruiters know, it was due principally to a loss of enthusi-asm. At first the youths were most interested. Then they found out what was expected of them and their enthusi-asm waned. If you had asked these young men why they gave up, they would have replied: "I didn't know it was so hard," or "It wasn't what I expected." Perhaps if we had given more of these promising youths a proper conditioning, greater numbers would have signed up. Many of them needed to be prepared for the life. They needed to be initiated into what would be expected of them in a seminary or novitiate. This conditioning, however, is something very few re-cruiters can handle personally. Besides the fact that those recruiters who are not priests are unable to hear con-, fessions or undertake personal spiritual direction of pros-pects, there is the matter of time and distance. A good recruiter is rarely found at home, waiting for youths to come calling. He is out visiting schools and homes where they are to be found. This often means weeks "on the road." Spiritual direction to be effective must extend over several months prior to the youth's acceptance into a seminary or novitiate and it must be continued with a measure of regularity. Practically the only one capable of giving this time and attention is the youth's pastor or some zealous priest stationed in the area. Recruiters who recognize the importance of this spirit-ual direction invariably refer their prospects to one 0f these priests. They urge the youth to go regularly to this director for confession and counsel. At their Vocational Congress, held at De La Salle Nor-mal in Lafayette, Louisiana, the Christian Brothers drafted a "Recruiter's Rule," which has since become the standard practice for the recruiters in their five Provinces of the United 'States. In this "Rule" they insist that each boy applying to their community have his own spiritual director. The brothers also drafted a plan of spiritual formation which each of their teachers is required to follow. It con-sists of five points: 1) Mental Prayer: After giving the youth instruction in how to make mental" prayer, urge him to devote at least ten minutes to it daily in ~hurch. 2) Spiritual Reading: Recommend reading of the Cos- pels, the Imitation o[ Christ, the Life of Christ, biog-raphies of the saints, and so forth. 3) Examination o[ Conscience: Have the youth make this examination daily and stress the importance of con-trition. 4) Virtue o[ Religion: Inculcate it by daily Mass and Communion, rosary, visits, aspirations, and all other forms of consciously acknowledging God's supremacy. 5) Virtue o[ Generosity: Urge the young man to cultivate it in school and at home, by. pointing out. how he can give himself for others. Vocation Clubs One of the best systems for achieving these purposes is the Vocation Club. It not only strengthens the interest of younger prospects, but also dispels the ignorance and overcomes the timidity of older boys. Through its activi-ties suitable youths are given a systematic indoctrination on all aspects of the priesthood and religious life as well as the regular motivation needed to develop habits of piety and devotion. At every meeting of the club there is some new instruc-tion on what a religious vocation is and how the members can best respond to God's call. Talks are given; round-table discussions are held; and vocational films are shown. On special occasions there are trips to religious institutes in the area, where the youths observe at first-hand the life and work of the religious. At the regular meetings, moreover, there is ample op-portunity not only for group encouragement to more fre-quent prayer and faithful reception of the sacraments but also for private counseling and regular spiritual direction. Thus, as habits of virtue are developed in the youth, he is gradually disposed to' the supreme act of religion; namely, giving himself completely to God. At present in the United States there are affiliated with our National Office for Vocational Clubs over six hun-dred elementary school units and approximately three hundred and seventy secondary school groups-~having a combined membership of approximately thirty-eight thousand boys. There is an even greater number of girls enrolled in similar clubs conducted by sisters. Handbooks on both groups can be obtained at the booth exhibiting American materials. Final Step: Developing a Sense of Vocation During this period of preparation or formation all re-cruiters agree that the youth should be encouraged to go weekly to the spiritual director for confession. Then every two or three weeks there should be a spiritual conference. ÷ ÷ ÷ Recruiting VOLUME 21, 1962 ]9] 4. 4" 4" God,roy Poage, C.P. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS During these conferences the director should treat of the love of God, the necessity of sacrifice, purity of intention, the nature of temptation, devotion to the Blessed Mother, the indwelling of the Holy Spirit, and the like. Life in the seminary or novitiate should also be ex-plained. Special emphasis should be given to the possible problems of homesickness, dryness at prayer, fear of studies, and difficulties with companiqns. At the same time the director should try to deepen the youth's aware-ness of the uniqueness of his vocation and elicit a great willingness to make any sacrifice to follow it. During this time, too, the youth should be encquraged to disclose any doubts or fears. The director might ask: "Who put this idea of a vocation in your mind? Where did it come from? Did it come from the devil? Nol Do you think the devil wants you to be a leader in Christ's army? Of course not! The inspiration, then, must be from God, and if He has chosen you, He doesn't demand anything beyond your strength. He simply offers you an invitation. You can accept or reject. What will it be?" It is particularly important that the spiritual director develop in these youths a sense of vocation. Each one should think: "If God is really calling me, then I should prepare myself immediately so as not to lose time in giv-ing Christ the benefit of my capacities, my faculties, my love. I am going to continue in this conviction, until my spiritual director or a religious superior in Christ's name tells me that I have no vocation." Once a boy has reached this degree of conviction, problems of a different nature arise. Sometimes the pros.- pect will say, "I never had any worry about purity until now. Just when I want to do something worthwhile and enter religious life, I start getting all kinds of temptations. I never realized I was so weak until now." This should be a cue to the spiritual director to bring in a thorough explanation of' the reason for temptation. Many youths have the erroneous notion that the moment they put on a cassock or habit, they will become immune to any rebellion of the flesh. The director, therefore, should point out to them that when the devil sees one erl-tering religion he only renews his assaults the more fiercely. Mortification and prayer, however, will quickly rout him. The director s.hould constantly emphasize that what-ever comes, it is but a test of one's love for God. It is a test of one's trust. It is a test of one's absolute abandon-ment to God's holy will. Many of us would have given up the struggle years ago, if we had not been schooled from the very beginning to ask ourselves, "What am I here for? Is it not for God? I expect to suffer like Christ. The more I can take for Him, the more generously I can give in return." With these same thoughts our prospects should now be prepared for the seminary or novitiate, lest they become disheartened later when trials and temptations beset them. Making the Decision ¯ To the inevitable and final question of youths, "Do you advise me to enter?" most experienced recruiters think it best to say, "You must make the decision. It is yourself and your will that you are offering to Christ." Others would go a little further and say, "I give my approval to your decision to enter. You have shown a love of Christ, a desire to please Him and live for Him, a gpirit of sacrifice, of humility, docility, and obedience. Why not offer yourself to Christ saying, 'Here I am, if you can use me'? Trust Him to give you the right answer through your superiors, His representatives. Even if you should leave, your doubts will be settled for all time. You will have gained immensely by the spiritual training and Christ will bless you always for having offered yourself." Most recruiters never have to go this far. Long before they reach this point, they notice that the love for God in the genuine prospect has reached such an intensity that the response is almost instantaneous. There is a generosity that wants to sweep away all obstacles, a willingness that brooks no rival and needs no apology or defense. It is something hard to define, and yet you can see it filling the heart of the youth with an eager desire to do that which is so dit~icult to human nature. It prompts such a one to give up heroically all that the world offers that the divine life within the soul might be brought to a greater perfection. This phenomenon almost defies description. For lack of a better explanation, I can say only that it is like a "light in their eyes." It is something found in every generous prospect for the seminary or novitiate. Our responsibility in all this is very clear. We must encourage, nourish, and protect, this manifestation of grace. For once we have said, "This boy has a vocation," then we mean that we have seen in such an individual an act of devotion in a degree which is superlative. We have found a soul in whom there are strong, firm habits of vir-tue, and that soul now shows a prompt,, eager willto serve God. Like Beatrice with Dante, we must be both guide and guardian to such a favored youth, leading him on to the threshold of the seminary or novitiate. That, in a word, is the role of the recruiter and the purpose of our recruit-ing procedures. ÷ ÷ ÷ Recruiting VOLUME 21, 1962 195 BROTHER JOHN JOSEPH, C.F.X. Challenging Youth to Follow Christ ÷ ÷ + Brother John Jo-seph, C.F.X., is the general counsellor and the general vo-cation director of the Xaverian broth-ers. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS Therex is a joyful ring in the word challenge that evokes a responsive echo in noble hearts. This response would almost appear to be a natural reaction of the human heart, for we note it even in the very young. Watching them at play you see how eagerly they respond and "follow the leader" in whatever dangerous exploit he may devise to challenge their bravery. This reaction is equally dis-cernible in the growing youth when he engages in ath-letic competition or similar activities. The recent example in the United States of the call for youth to join the Peace Corps furnishes another proof of the eagerness of young people to respond to a challenge When the purposes are clearly set forth. Likewise, a brief glance down the page of history reveals how responsive men can be when they have found a leader in whom they believe, a cause they really value, or an emergency that brooks no hesitation. Consider the legions of Alexander,, Hannibal, Caesar, or Napoleon, or any other great leader and you will see how men accept a challenge with utter disregard for personal sacrifice. Note, too, the power of men of ideas. Men like Plato and. Aristotle, Mohammed and Marx, have left their imprint on the countless indi-viduals whom they have challenged. In each case we find a forceful man with. a special message which he has suc-ceeded in getting others to spread. Now in our case we find the ingredients for the most attractive and inspiring challenge in the world's history. For the Leader who brings His challenging ideas is no passing general or philosopher but the Son of God made man. And the message which He has brought, the Gospel which He asks men to spread abroad contains the greatest doctrine and the happiest news of all ages. Its purpose is the eternal happiness of all men. But this purpose will be ~ This is the text oI an address delivered to the First International Congress on Vocations to the State of Perfection, achieved only in the measure that the challenge of Christ is accepted and His gospel made known. This achievement demands that men and women be fully prepared to do more for God than Communists or other misguided per-sons are prepared to do for the spread of their causes. With this in mind we ~ish, first, to stress the character-istics which are essential, we believe, both for the re-cruiter and the one who is recruited. Secondly, we wish to explain one proven method of actually reaching our young people. Then, in the discussion to follow, the dele-gates may tell us of other methods equally effective. The method of which I speak is the result, no~ of the study and thought of any one person or congregation, but rather of the efforts and experiences of many different communities over a period of years. The various congre-gations of teaching brothers in the United States, using an adaptation of the general program, have made aston-ishing progress during the past ten years. From the year 1950 to 1960 every community of brothers in the United States has shown a remarkable growth, ranging from twenty-four and two-tenths percent to an almost incredi-ble ninety and three-tenths percent. As a result of this expansion they have established additional provinces and houses of training, opened many new schools, and now find themselves poised for another period of growth which is expected to outstrip that of the last decade. This is the type of progress that is desired and needed everywhere, but it can be achieved only by planning and hard work. Recruits are obtained only by recruiters and the best recruiters for the religious life are certainly those who have themselves lived that life best and found it to be all or even more than they had anticipated. Now since the primary purpose of the religious life is not some activity like teaching, nursing, preaching, or the like, but rather the perfection of the individual religious, those men and women will be the best recruiters who have best lived the religious life. This explains why some of the saints found it so easy to attract the youth with whom they came in contact. Great souls like St. Francis of Assisi, St. Ignatius of Loyola, St. Theresa, and Mother Cabrini drew numei'ous young people to the religious state, because the very fire of their own love for God made this state seem desirable. The Blessed Brother Benilde left hundreds of religious to carry on his work after his .death, all his former pupils. Don Bosco, too, was a tremendously suc-cessful recruiter, attracting hundreds of previously neg-lected children to the holiness of the priestly or religious state. We can conclude, therefore, that the better we follow the example of the saints, the more successful we shall be in helping to fill our monasteries and convents. ÷ ÷ Challenging Youth VOLUME 21~ 1962 195 + + 4. Brother John Joseph, C.F.X. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 196 If we wish to attract idealistic youths to Christ we must let the love of Christ shine out through our own eyes. As one successful moderator of boys in New York City wrote me: "The religious himself must personify Christ to the students. Modern psychology reveals how much youth needs a model, a hero. It is easier for a boy to see Christ as a model, if he sees Christ in the religious. To do this the religious must be Christ, not just a spokesman for Him." And if he is an Alter Christus he will be kindly, polite, and understanding, demonstrating without hesita-tion a personal interest in each individual, allowing Christ to appeal through his mediation. Again, a successful recruiter must be the very epitome of enthusiasm. He is, in a way, a salesman, and he will make very few sales if he doesn't believe in his product. His own happiness and satisfaction with the kind of life he is presenting to others must be at the bottom of hi,,; appeal. And this-must be based upon his personal faith in Christ and the divine cause. His basic contentment must never appear dimmed by the minor happenings of a par-ticular day, by a temporary indisposition, a disappoint-ment over some failure, or the dissatisfaction with his current superior. While his feet are on the earth, his head must be above the clouds where the source 6f his enthusiasm never changes. Finally, the man who appears before a group of modern youngsters or who must pass the more severe test of giving personal interviews, must be representative of the kind of person our young people would like to imitate. Surely a poorly dressed salesman for wearing apparel would ap-pear ridiculous. Likewise, a recruiter of future clergymen, educational leaders, missionaries, or nurses must, by his professional appearance and speech, make these callings and the noble religious state itself appear in all their in-nate dignity, as states of life attractive to youth and their parents. But no matter how holy, understanding, enthusiastic, and professional the recruiter may be, success will largely depend upon the qualities he finds or develops in the potential candidates he contacts. I need not enumerate the usual qualities of mind and body required for ac-ceptance. But before considering how to challenge our youth, I must stress the fact that the success of any re-cruiter depends in equal measure on the extent to which the potential recruits are blessed with a love for Christ, solid faith, and a willingness to make sacrifices to prove their love. To begin with, why should anyone give up all pros-pects of success in life, the chance of a happy marriage and family? The only possible answer is that such a one has perceived a greater good. He has realized that Jesus Christ is God and worth following no matter what natu-ral attractions must be sacrificed. This demands faith. Of course, every Catholic has received this theological gift, but unless it is nurtured and strengthened by the solid food of doctrine, it won't support one in a time of crisis, such as when making a choice of one's vocation. This faith must be fed on catechetical instruction, good read-ing, and prayerful thinking on such topics as God's great-ness and goodness, the happiness of others who have served Him, the vanity of earthly achievements, and the like. If our youths have a strong faith, their souls are pre-pared for the encouraging words of the recruiter~ who must never stress the secondary aims of his particular con-gregation to the neglect of the primary purpose of all chosen souls, which is to see God, their end. However, believing is in itself only the basic ingredient of vocation. For it is love that will give the unction and desire to follow where faith points the way. Love removes the thorns from the rose. The lover considers no pain un-bearable, nor any sacrifice too great, if only he can please his beloved. In fact, the more he can suffer for the beloved the greater is his joy that he is privileged to prove his love. And in this fact lies the answer to our principal question: How can we challenge modern youth to follow Christ? The answer lies in the development in youth of a fer-vent love for Christ. But they don't see Christ as they see others whom they love. They discern Him only with the eyes of faith. Accordingly the teacher must introduce them to the love of Christ. Leading them to the Sacred Heart is the prelude to their falling in love with Him. By this, I mean, of course, the strengthening of their life of prayer while encouraging the frequent reception of the sacraments. If a young person prays well, receives Christ frequently in Communion, and visits Him often in. the Blessed Sacrament, thus becoming closely attached to Him, then he is certainly better disposed to make the sac-rifice of self required in the priesthood or the religious life. Finally, youth must face the test of generosity. Many will fail the test as did the young man of the Gospel who loved Christ but would_not give up his wealth to follow Him. Others, however, will appreciate the truth in the old adage: "It is more blessed to give than to receive." They will admit that sacrifice hurts, yet they will take up the cross and follow Christ. For this, though, they must be prepared. They must come to realize that the real challenge of any worthwhile activity lies in the sacrifices that must be endured. Once a youth has really understood how to look up smilingly, though tearfully, to a crucified Christ and to see through His broken Body the Godhead, 4- 4- Challenging Youth VOLUME 21, 1962 197 4" 4. Brother ~ohn Joseph, ~.X. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 198 then will he understand that his wiser choice is not the limited love of creatures, but the all-embracing eternal love. Having now indicated some of the fundamental traits of recruiters and prospective candidates that are essential for a successful contact between the two, we will devote our attention to a concrete program which can be organ-ized within the framework of a religious congregation, particularly if its secondary purpose is teaching. Such a program is already functioning in various organizations within the Church, each adapting the means to its own purpose and traditions. The program brings best results when well coordinated and designed to include every member of the congregation, for the more who are pray-ing, planning, and working, the greater will be the de-gree of success. Accordingly we will consider the pro-gram on the general, provincial, local, and classroom levels, since each level has its own director and particular duties suitable to that level and since the cooperation of each level with those both above and below it is very im-portant. General Level The general vocation director is usually also a coun-sellor or assistant to the superior general with whom he lives at the generalate of the congregation. Thus he is in a good position to see the strong and weak spots in the recruiting programs in each province as well as in the mission fields or vice-provinces. Through correspondence, bulletins, and personal visits, he keeps informed concern.- ing methods and progress throughout the congregation. and in turn keeps the superior general informed. Some of the activities by which he assists the recruiters in the provinces and in the various schools are the following: First, he studies the trends, problems, and methods be-ing used by others, in order to pass along to the provinces any ideas which they may use in the light of their own program. There are three principal ways by which he can maintain an alertness to developing ideas: a) by reading widely in this field, gradually building up a useful file of written materials, reports, propaganda releases, and programs of various other congregations~ as well as a shelf of books on the theology and method: ology of vocation work; b) by consultation with other religious on the gener-alate level in order to compare notes and adapt the proven ideas of others. It can also be useful to study the methods of other organizations to see how they do their enlisting of members; and c) by attendance at vocation conferences, meetings, and exhibitions on the national and international level, since it is especially here that others with similar interests are found and where current problems and trends are re-ported on. Secondly, the general vocation director, through his correspondence and personal c6ntacts with the recruiting leaders in the various provinces of his own congregation, is in a position to pass. on ideas from one province to an-other and so to furnish information on programs which have met with success elsewhere within the community. Thirdly, he is able, either directly in correspondence with provincials or with the province vocation director to offer suggestions for strengthening the program of in-dividual schools. For he receives twice a year a vocation report from each house. These reports are made out in triplicate with a copy being retained in the community itself and two copies being sent to the provincial who, in turn, forwards to the generalate one copy of each report. The chief aim of this report is to ascertain that an active program is carried out in every school of the congregation. This report gives detailed information on the spiritual activities in each school that have as their end the win-ning of God's blessing on the recruiting program, as also on the promotional efforts being used, statistics on the number of students being interviewed, the likely pros-pects, and the number of vocations already obtained for various seminaries or novitiates. Fourthly, the general vocation director can also serve as a publicity director for the congregation as a whole, being aware that the better his community is known the more inquiries will be received from interested persons, and the more candidates will normally apply. This ac-tivity could include the distribution of literature in places where the congregation has no other contacts; spreading knowledge of the institute through the use of slides, pic-tures, or magazine articles; encouraging the preparation within the provinces of articles, pamphlets, pertinent leaflets, book marks, calendars, and the like. This kind of activity can be multiplied according to the policy of the superior general and the time available to the di-rector. However, in my opinion the principal contribution of a vocation director at the general level, is to encourage, Encourage, ENCOURAGEI The work of gathering young people for our novitiates in this day and age is frequently most discouraging, and this work must, in the last analysis, be done on the local and classroom levels. Many a religious teacher does the daily work of instruct-ing, interviewing, and otherwise promoting vocations only to find that at the end of the school year he has not obtained a single candidate from his class. Now if he feels all alone in this discouraging effort, he may easily let up ÷ ÷ ÷ Challenging Youth VOLUME 21~ 1962 199 4. 4, 4. Brother lohn ]oseph, C.F.X. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 200 on his efforts the following year. However, if he knows that he is not alone, but senses that' he is being encour-aged, prayed for, and supported by his brethren and su-periors, then he is less inclined to slacken his efforts. The general vocation director, conscious of the fact that any such slackening of effort tends to lead to the failure of the whole program, must be always optimistic and cheer-ful, ever encouraging the.teachers to keep trying, always suggesting new approaches. The office of general vocation director is still rather new in the developing program of modern vocation re-cruiting but unless there is an officer on the generalate staff to help organize and encourage a congregation-wide program of increasing membership, there is less likelihood that the community will keep pace with the ever-increas-ing demands for personnel that all of us find confronting us today. So important a part of the growth of an insti-tute deserves special consideration by the highest authori-ties of the Order. Provincial Level It is, however, on the level of the separate provinces that most programs of recruitment begin. It is here that methods will begin to vary according to the traditions and religious background of the region in which the houses are situated. Here it is, too, that the representative of the recruiting organization first comes into direct con-tact with the prospects themselves. Though policies and programs may differ, the general aim will always be the same; namely, to lead young men and women to know and to love Christ so that they may be alert to the call which He may deign to give them. So let us here outline a few general steps which have been found useful at this level. The provincial vocation director works according to the instructions of his particular provincial. He may be a member of the council, though in many congregations he is not. In any case it is important that he work .closely with his superior and with the other programs of the separate schools. And it is essential that he have adequate time to carry out a well-planned program. He has a full-. time job and should not be encumbered with other du-ties to the extent of causing the work of recruiting to suffer in the province. For the task of obtaining new postulants cannot be left to chance. Nor to a program of prayer alone. The Lord does, indeed, bid us to pray the Lord to send required laborers into His vineyard, but He uses men to further His purposes and seldom extends His invitation by a direct apparition or heavenly voice. In this matter we can learn from successful organiza-tions in the world. The army and navy, all business firms, every political group or social club has its clearly defined method of obtaining new members. A personnel depart-ment is set up, equipped to supply in[ormation, present the attractive features of membership, as well as to ex-amine and select potentially useful members. Frankly, this is what the office of the provincial vocati0ndirector is also designed to do. This religious must attract poten-tial candidates and then select members for the congre-gation from among those who apply. Though policies vary, and it is a healthy sign that they do, some of the usual activities o[ this office are the following: l) He assists the provincial and the local superiors in the selection o~ at least one vocation director for each of the schools in the province. It is chiefly through their cooperation that the director will carry out the program of the province. 2) He trains, advises, and guides these recruiters. An annual gathering of them all for at least a few days is a usual and useful practice. 3) He sees to the composition and actual preparation of a variety of pamphlets, leaflets, posters, and other ma-terials for distribution to the schools. 4) He publishes a regular (usual!y monthly) bulletin to keep all the religious interested in the programs, poli-cies, and results of the same. G) He visits every school at least two or three times dur-ing the school year, checks on the program of the local directors and the teachers, speaks in the classes or at school assemblies, interviews students who have been recommended to him by the local director, by a teacher, or who present themselves to him following an invitation to do so during his talks to the students; gives a confer-ence each year to every community so that the members will be constantly aware of the needs and aims of the program; develops a library of slides and sometimes of moving pictures to help him in clarifying the mode of life lived in the training schools anal religious communi-ties; and also addresses groups of parents, alumni, or other adult groups among whose members he wishes to arouse interest in vocations. 6) He plans and places advertisements through which Catholic magazines and newspapers may carry informa-tion about the congregation to potential candidates who could not otherwise be reached. 7) He sponsors such events in the schools as essay or poster contests on a province-wide competitive basis, as also vocation exhibitions, prayer campaigns, mission crusades, and other activities which serve to arouse inter-est in the work and needs of the Church. 8) He helps to develop both at the provincial house and in all the communities Small libraries of selected ÷ ,,I-÷ Challenging Youth VOLUME 21, 1962 201 + + ÷ Brother John Joseph, C.F.X. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 202 books and pamphlets concerning religious vocations, oc-casionally preparing an up-to-date bibliography of these publications. 9) He attends conferences and conventions dealing with the problems of vocation recruiting, and maintains contact with other provincial directors. 10) He organizes week-end retreats for students who are interested in vocations so they can prayerfully con-sider this matter in a quiet atmosphere. He may also ar-range for interested students to spend a few days at the training centers of the province. For the good recruiter believes firmly with Canon Jacques Leclercq that "It is the orders which insist most strongly on the supernatural aspect of vocations which receive the most recruits" (The Religious Vocation, p. 85). 11) He represents the provincial in interviewing all candidates, having them fill out all the required forms and then make formal application to the provincial upon whom it usually rests to accept or reject the prospect. 12) He may arrange for special tests of the potential postulants since these tests~ if given prudently, often sup-ply useful information. 13) He visits the homes of the applicants if informa-tion on the family background is needed or if parental opposition makes avisit necessary. 14) He may accompany the new class of aspirants or postulants to the juniorate or novitiate, in order to help them through the period of adjustment to the new en-vironment. He occasionally visits them, especially on the days of the reception of the habit or the taking of vows. 15) Finally, he keeps the general vocation director and, through him, the superior general informed about the progress of recruiting in the province. These numer-ous activities give us an idea of the tremendous impor-tance of the post of provincial vocation director for the successful carrying out of the program of recruitment in the congregation. Local Level We now come to the task of the local vocation director. Here we are getting closer in our systematic approach to reach, inform, and guide youth{For we are now consider-ing the school itself, where the boy and girl are actuallv found. Right here, and not at the provincialate or gen-eralate, are the vocations in person. Accordingly, here it is that the challenge to follow Christ the King must ring out the dearest. The chief responsibility for this lies with that religious who, working closely with the superior and other authorities of the school, encourages and directs the individual teadbers who are in the last analysis the real recruiters. All depends npon the latter just as in a battle the general, captains, and lieutenants depend on the non-commissioned soldier in the ranks. However, let us first consider the essential part of the one who must organize the program in the whole school. His chief du-ties include the following: 1) He must be well-informed on all matters" concern-ing the history of the congregation, its founder and pio-neers, its provinces, numbers, and missions. 2) He must have a pleasant office, well-equipped for interviewing prospects, containing supplies of literature, needed forms, suitable files, and so forth, 3) He must have the school program of recruiting or-ganized, supplying teachers with definite outlines of such program, and checking its success. 4) He should arrange to speak in each class, invite students to visit his office, supply information needed, and aim by a program of education and inspiration to develop the latent vocations in the school. 5) He can sponsor a vocation club for the more thor-ough cultivating of potential vocations, and can encour-age such groups as the Sodality of Our Lady, the various Third Orders, the Legion of Mary, and the Catholic Students' Mission Crusade, since these deepen the spirit-ual life of the students while offering them an outlet for their zeal. 6) He arranges for publicity' for the congregation in local and school publications, featuring activities such as profession, ordination, or jubilees. 7) He does the preliminary work of interviewing defi-nite prospects so that they will be ready to meet the pro-vincial director when he visits the school, In cases where the student is interested in the diocesan priesthood or in a congregation other than that of the counsellor, the con-tact can be made for him and every assistance given him to accomplish his aim. 8) He may find opportunities for seeking out vocations beyond the limits of the school, through talks in other schools or colleges, or to parochial groups of young people who do not attend the Catholic schools. 9). Finally, the local vocation director is the keym~n in the community for all matters pertaining to recruiting although he must avoid the pitfall of believing that it is .his exclusive right to foster vocations in the school. He assists the superior in filling out the required vocation re-ports, if such are a part of the system. He aids the teach-ers by supplying them with needed materials and fresh ideas. He takes a special interest in candidates who have been accepted so as to encourage them to live .closer to Christ through a definite program of prayer, reading, and frequentation of the sacraments. Thus does the local director, if he is efficient, zealous, and capable of winning + + + Challenging Youth VOLUME 21~ 1962 ÷ ÷ B~oth~ John ]o~eph, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 204 the backing of the teachers, do much toward ensuring a successful program. Classroom Level Now we come to speak about the teachers themselves. Nobody is in a better position to challenge youth than the teacher who, day by day, appears before them. If he is truly zealous for the welfare of the Church, he can do much toward planting the seed of vocation in these youthful hearts. His is the actual contact with the future priest, brother, and sister. The success of the program will fail or succeed as he does. Cognizant, then, that there before him sits the future religious of the Church, the teacher must unhesitatingly challenge the very best that is in the hearts and souls of his students. Some suggestions for teachers, then, are in order: 1) The teacher must prepare the soil for religious vo-cations by encouraging attention at prayer and regular attendance at the sacraments. 2) He should stress Christ's love for us and teach youth to reciprocate that love. 3) He should go into detail in explaining the problems of the Church, both at home and in the mission fields; suggesting the part his students can play in solving them. He should dwell upon the loftiness of working for God. 4) In his religion lessons he should not neglect to dis~ cuss the great truths of life that have led so many persons to dedicate their lives to God. Consideration should be given to the fleeting quality of earthly .possessions and pleasures, the dangers of the world, and man's responsi-bility to his Creator. Thus the teacher causes his students to think seriously about life. 5) He should talk to his class occasionally about the religious life, its various apostolates, missionary activities, and lofty purpose. He will find the students interested in the life of the founder and history of the order. He can explain the special privileges and obligations of the priesthood, the difference between a priest and the vari-ous kinds of brothers, the meaning of the vows, the dif-ference between the secular and religio.us clergy, and be-tween the active and contemplative life. These are all interesting topics. 6) The teacher, while keeping all things in perspective, should also point out the joys, benefits, and rewards of the priestly and religious states. 7) He should be pleasant at all times, drawing youth by his kindness. His cheerful, friendly manner shoul~ also be noted in his relations with his fellow religious. For nothing repels youth more than a sour, unfair teacher. 8) He must try to win their confidence that he may intuence their wills and help them to combat the ob-stacles which everywhere oppose vocations. 9) The teacher need not hesitate to suggest, in a pru-dent way, to a particular student that he prayedully con-sider whether he has a vocation. This personal, in.dividual approach is a potent one as success[ul recruiters' know. Personal interviews are more effective than group talks. 10) The teacher should cooperate with the lodal direc-tor in all programs, contests, outings, retreats, or other activities sponsored in the school. The real success of all these depends largely upon him. 11) Finally, the teacher should constantly pray that God may bless his efforts. Such a program, it well organized and put into prac-tice, adapted and modified to the needs and limitations of the area, will certainly carry to the youths o[ today the great challenge of this mid-twentieth century. It will also arouse many of them to give themselves to the service of Christ, our King. To effect such programs we religious must likewise hear and answer the challenge. We must be great-souled in the service o[ a Church that is proud to proclaim itself Catho-lic, seeking as it does to spread the message of Christ to all men in all parts of the world. To be worthy of this service we need a broad outlook, for in such a service the small-minded religious is a contradiction. It is the Church as a whole that is important. Believing this, let us all take a keen interest in filling the seminaries of our dio-ceses, while the same zeal will lead us also to encourage vocations to the religious congregations, which carry on so great a part of the burden of the Church. Our brothers and sisters must realize the privilege that is theirs to lead young men to the sacred priesthood, while the. clergy must recognize the importance of a tremendously en-larged army of well-trained religiou~ [or the advance-ment o[ the educational and charitable systems of the universal Church. Working together under Christ and His Vicar, we can indeed meet the challenge to bring the world to the Sacred Heartl ÷ ÷ ÷ Challenging Youth VOLIJMI: 21~ 205 RENI~ CARPENTIER, S.J. Priestly Vocation and Religious Vocation ÷ ÷ gen~ Carpentier, S.J., is a member of the faculty of Col-l~ ge Saint-Albert, 95, Chauss~e de Mont-Saint-Jean, Eegenhoven - Lou-vain, Belgium. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 206 What is the Will oI the Holy Spirit? The juxtaposition1 of these two terms demands that a comparison of the two be undertaken. As the words indi-cate, an abstract comparison of the content of these two vocations is not in question. Between the priesthood and the state of evangelical perfection the difference is evi-dent: The ministerial priesthood implies sacramental character, strictly divine powers, a sacred responsibility for. the service of the people of God, and the highest, kind of dignity. The state of perfection signifies nothing of the kind. The theoretical comparison, it seems, poses no prob-lem. But it is an altogether different matter when voca-tion to the priesthood and vocation to the religious life are placed face to face in the concrete. In both cases a way of life is chosen. In today's Church these two ways of life appear to young Christians as two ways of consecrating oneself entirely to the Kingdom of God. Necessarily, then, these two ways of life are being com-pared and the comparison brings up a complex problem. Each of these two vocations is fixed within a system of laws and institutions which form a unit; yet both can be chosen at the. same time. In practicE, the two ways of life meet and overlap. It remains true, nevertheless, that or-dinarily priestly vocation means the life of the diocesan priest; and religious vocation means the r~ligious insti-tute with or without the priesthood. The question is then asked--and it is this question which I wish to answer: How is one to explain objectively to young Christians, for example, the meaning Of the two vocations? "Objectively," that is, what does G6d and what does the. Church ask and expect of each? And how is this to be explained without arbitrarily doing an injustice to one or the other, without a This is the text of an address delivered tO the First International Congress on Vocations to the State of Perfection. The translation was made by John E. Becker, S.J. glorifying one at the expense of the other? In short, how is this to be expressed according to the desires of the Holy Spirit in order to cooperate with Him and not to obstruct His action? Exterior Aspect ol the Two Vocations It is necessary, I believe, to distinguish from this objec-tive or essential aspect of the comparison another aspect which I may term exterior; by this I mean what a young person of today, confronted with the great institutions of the Church, can see from the outside before he has en-tered them. This aspect must be of equal interest to us if we wish to know how to enlighten a young candidate and how to develop public action in the Church in favor of vocations, Certainly, the objective value is of greatest interest to us; it is the only one which is true in itself. Whether I am a priest or a religious, what am I really called to? Since this is the most important aspect, it is what should govern the exterior aspect. Nevertheless, the two vocations are mysterious. The young person, the adolescent, and even the adult who approaches the priesthood or the religious state without having lived either of them has not yet fully understood them. What they see are the most superficial differences. For example, a diocesan priest may live with his mother; the religious is fully enfolded in a powerful family. These features are true but nonessential. The priestly or religious ideal appears to the young man in this priest or that religious he has been close to or whose life he has read. I certainly do not wish to speak here of those strictly individual points of view which characterize voca-tions in the concrete; but there will always be an exterior picture of the two vocations which is more or less pro-found, more or less complete. Still, it must not falsify the objective meaning. We seek here the reality of a vocation, its deep and objective meaning, and also its true exterior meaning, the true supernatural psychology of the call which is addressed to Christian people. Recent Discussion The question of the two vocations was very vividly high-lighted thirty or forty years ago. The reason was a most holy and necessary one, an evident appeal of the Lord for the sanctification of diocesan priests. Some of these accord-ing to Cardinal Mercier object: "We are not religious." But are you not, comes the rejoinder, of a quite superior and more demanding "ordbr," "the order of St. Peter," or "the order of Christ," whose priests you are? Here, then, is posed the question of the religious vocation and the vocation to the diocesan priesthood. The matter is complicated by another factor, that of Priest and Religious ,4. Ren~ ¢a~pentier, $.1. REVIEW FOR REL;GIOUS 208 belonging to a diocese. The priest seeks to discover more intimate links with his bishop; but does not the religious priest, and especially the exempt religious, live at the fringe of the influence of the diocesan bishop, "at the fringe of the hierarchy," as it is sometimes expressed? Why does the religious live in this way, on the fringe? Is it not through concern for his own salvation? .If he withdraws from the world, is it not to concern himself with his own salvation? But in that case is not the diocesan priest who from morning to night is focused on the salvation of others actually living out to a greater degree the life of charity, the state of perfection? The vocation to the diocesan priesthood is then not only the vocation with the greatest obligation to perfection, but it is the call to an authentic "diocesan perfection," and even to true evangelical perfection, that is, fraternal charity. And this seems to give the lie to the name and the institution of the s0-called "state of perfection.". On the other hand, this conclusion seems to contradict the facts; for, practically .speaking and because of his state of life, the Church imposes a greater obligation to perfection on the religious. And do not the greater part of religious men and women vow their whole life to the heroic service of the neighbor? And finally, is not the religious fully joined to the Church by a vow of obedience which is frequently directed to the bishop of Rome? Holiness and Fisibility Carried on in this way, the discussions recalled that the question of the two vocations has had a long history. At root, it would seem to derive from the very nature of the Kingdom of God here on earth; that is, unless I am mi.~;- taken, from its twofold essential values, holiness and visi-bility: holiness under the free impulse of the Spirit which gives life to the Church; visibility which makes of the Kingdom of God an institution perfectly adapted to the Spirit. Holiness is the aim; it is the call of all who are baptized and especially of all priests. It is for this, her end, that the Church institutes the states of perfection. On the other hand, visibility, the visible and organiza-tional Church, is the way for all men. An admirable gift from on high, visibility implies the sacramental transmis-sion of holiness, the liturgy of adoration, the soverei~ society of the Church, the sacred jurisdiction that governs the people of God in Christ's name, and finally also, at the very heart of this visible Church, the official institu-tion of the community of perfection. Sanctity and visibility are strictly associated. Concretely they make up but one thing: the Body of Christ which is the Church. Nevertheless, religious life seems centered on sanctity, perfection to be acquired. The vocation to the priesthood is more concerned with the visible aspect, for it must assure the validity bf the Eucharistic cult, the efficaciousness of the sacraments, the solidity of doctrine, the prudent direction of the people of God. The two voca-tions, like the two functions they must fulfill~ are dif-ferent. Nevertheless, the religious life, a public state, is of the highest interest to the visibleGhurch and leads very frequently toward the priesthood; the priesthood, for its part, can have no other aim than the sanctification of the world; and it therefore aims first at the sanctification of the priest and often at his belonging to the state of per-fection. Duality-Unity Here we are at the heart of our problem. Between the two.vocations there is an evident, profound difference and at the same time an intimate connection. It is as if the two values of the. Church, inseparable but necessarily distinct, should appear here with maximum emphasis: spiritual power and institutional power. This distinction between two realities mutually inte-grated, this otherness-oneness of two sets of values which seek one another out and will always do so, this is the point of this paper. We will clarify it first by means of the sacred history of the Church; then we will venture into its theology; finally we would like to deduce some practical attitudes for.success in the sacred task common to all priests and all religious of cultivating the vocations by means of which the Church and humanity survive. First we must take a very brief look at the historical evolution of the two vocations and at their mutual unity-in- tension. In doing this we will distinguish three stages for each of which only a few characteristics will be pro-posed. The Primitive Community The first stage to be considered is that of the primitive community extending throughout the first two centuries up to the time when, in the third century, persecution became intermittent and the separation of the monks occurred as an ecclesiastical event. During this period there was as yet no problem with the two vocations. It is evident that they existed; but the people of God had not yet felt the need to divide itself into distinct com-munities; indeed, the persecutions would have prevented it. It is true that at the call of the apostles the Christians of the first centuries spontaneously answered by adopting a communal and fraternal way of life in which the spirit 0f what would later be called "the counsels" reigned. So it was that in their eyes earthly goods, their own prop- + 4. 4. Priest and Religious VOLUME 21. 1962 209 ÷ ÷ ÷ Ren~ Carpentie~, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 210 erty, are in a certain way destined by charity for the use of all. Catechetical instruction in the first centuries re-peats this principle without creating any problem. Within the community, each one applied it freely. Some kept their goods to support their family. Others, sometimes a large group, the ascetics, and those who practiced celi-bacy, followed Christ more literally. They gave their goods to the poor of the community and lived on the re-sources of all. There were also virgins who definitively renounced marriage and lived in their families. These men and women had a special place in the Church but were not separated out. They were charged with the dis. tribution of the alms of the community and with other works of charity. Perhaps also they may frequently have been deacons and deaconesses. In this fraternal community the priests were very close to the faithful. At the beginning they were virtuous men upon whom the founding Apostle had imposed hands and who could thenceforward consecrate the Eucharist. If the community grew in number, there arose among the priests and bishops one bishop who inherited the author-ity of the Apostle. Soon, it seems, it was from among the ascetics, the celibates, the voluntarily poor that these priests were chosen. Today, the parish of the simple faith-ful is separate from the communities of perfection, and a double catechesis has been formed; one is centered on the counsels while the other often no longer considers them, It is quite a'task to represent ourselves as a community in which the preaching of the counsels in words and deeds is always present, as a community in which there is only one catechesis and where the same spirit is shared by all: those who own as well as those who have given away what they own; those who profess virginity and those who live holy married lives in the Lord. This apostolic cate-chesis demands an extended treatment. The "'Apostolic Life" and the Monks The end of this first period, between 250 and 350, is marked by the separation of the monks. After the new study of the Vita Antonii published by Father Bouyer in 1950, historians have almost reached agreement on the meaning of this event in the history of the Church. The whole Church of that time saw in this new life a return to the ancient "apostolic life" which was no longer truly practiced in the numerous communities of the period. It is a noteworthy historical fact that these "fugitives" separated themselves from their communities. In modern times, we would say that "they exempted themselves from jurisdiction." Were they then criticized and condemned? On the contrary, everyone admired them. Although some bishops in Egypt and even in Rome had to be convinced by the enthusiasm of Athanasius, they fully recognized this more vigorous "apostolic life." Let it be noted, then, that the apostolic life became more specialized and in-stitutionalized in order that it might continue to exist. But it remained at bottom the same thing, and the whole Church bore witness to this. Everyone recognized it by the same name as the primitive apostolic life which had been taught to all during the first two centuries and which had never ceased to exist. This event, then, places the two vocations face to face, but once more without any practical problem arising. There were evidently priests among the "hermits" or "Chris(ians of the desert," whether these lived near their former community or whether they banded together to form a new community. The Problem o] the Two Vocations In the second period we group the whole of the Middle Ages up to the Council of Trent. The two vocations are distinct from here on, and the problem concerning them promptly arises. It is a long story with many detours over which I need not delay this audience. I would only like to propose a general conclusion. As soon as they are sepa-rated, we see the two vocations seek one another out. From the side of the priesthood, it seems, two convergent inspirations are followed. One is represented by St. Augustine. If the great bishop did not ordain any prie.sts except those who were deter-mined to live a common life with him in a "clerical mon-astery" without personal possessions and evidently celi-bate, this was, he declared, a simple return to the apostolic life as it was lived in primitive times. It was by this primi-tive teaching that he justified common life even in its institutionalized form. Imitated from the beginning by neighboring bishops, this ideal passed on to a line of clerics, the canons, who will defend it throughout the Middle Ages. The other inspiration began, according to the testi-mony of St. Ambrose, with St. Eusebius of Vercelli who was the first "to make monks of those who were clerics," although he was subsequently imitated by a large num-ber of the bishops of Italy. He required that his clergy adopt the monastic life. Although this antedated by a half century the common life of St. Augustine, this com-mon life fonnd its motivating force in an already evolved understanding of monasticism. Henceforth monasticism spread magnificently, helped especially by the highly in-fluential work of Athanasius, Vita Antonii, which ap-peared around 357. The nuance which subtly distinguishes the two inspira-tions should be noted. For Augustine the return to the + ÷ + Priest and Religious VOLUME 21, 1962 211 ÷ ÷ ÷ Ren~ Carpentie~, S.I. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 212 beginnings seems a "duty" upon which he vigorously in-sists. On the other hand, imitation of monks cannot ap-pear as anything other than a counsel, though Eusebius made a diocesan institution of it. It is because of the presence of this double orientation of mind that we are able to understand the directives of Gregory the Great to the monks sent to England (they were to establish a clergT of the "apostolic life"); and it would also seem to explain the totally monastic character which the English church kept for a long time. But it is especially to the influence of the evangelical ideal that we must attribute the law of virginity imposed on priests of the Latin Church from the time of Pope Siricius in 386. For if poverty introduces one to the evangelical life and if obedience is its culmination in its institutionalized form of monastic life, it is still vi~- ginity, espousal to Christ, which is its central value. The two vocations seek each other out. I confine my considera-tions here to the Latin Church; for the Greek Church, reference can be made to the words of Plus XI and Piu~ XII on the honor in which virginity is held in it. I need not further emphasize this theme. The efforts of local councils and of the popes to draw the clergy to a common life are well known. The immediate reason is evidently to safeguard chastity; the basis, neverthele~;, is found in the apostolic life. As for detachment from riches, the two vocations also coincide in this. With the great reformer of the clergy, St. Peter Damian, and Pope Nicholas II, the two just missed being identified forever, since the Pope almost decided to impose common life on all priests as seven centuries before the popes and the councils had prescribed celibacy for them. This projected obligatory common life is the historical climax of the Church's effort to unite the two vocations. But the rural parish was clearly more necessary. Priests living alone had been accepted for a long time without criticism by the time the Council of Trent wrote the in-stitution of the secular clergy into law and placed the accent on the creation of common seminaries for the formation of all priests. The Three Canonical States Then the third period began, the one in which we live; it prepared the way for the Code with its three "states of persons." On this canonical classification (which is often very confusedly understood) were based the various docu-ments of Plus XII which clarified and, it may be said, re-solved recent controversy. In presenting the teaching of Pius XII, I begin the second part of this address: the comparative theology of the priestly and religious vocations. Without attempting to give this theology in all its details, I will take as a framework the three following divisions: the teaching of Pius XII; the two vocations and their relationships; fi-nally, the main elements of a theological synthesis. Teaching of Pius XII on the Two Vocations Pius XII had frequent ofcasion to compare' the two vocations, particularly with respect to religious clerics. But he also stated the excellence and the contemporary value of the vocation of lay religious (for example, that of the teaching brother) existing along with the priestly vocation. (See his Letter of March 31, 1954, to Cardinal Valerio Valeri.) Since these congregations of teaching brothers could today, without the difficulties of former times, become clerical congregations, the Pope, .by de-claring them fully approved, implicitly affirmed the proper value of the religious vocation in itself. What then in brief was his teaching on the two vocations? 1) The priestly vocation and the vocation to the state of perfection are different. The state of life of a diocesan priest cannot be called a state of perfection. For the priest as such is not held to the effective practice of the three evangelical counsels as is the state of perfection ~(Dis-course, December 8, 1950). 2) The priestly vocation is distinguished from that of the simple baptized faithful by reason of the divine hier-archical constitution of the Church. The vocation of the religious is another matter. Its significance is not related to the distinction between priests and laity. It can be a call of priests as well as of laity. Its significance is that it "relates strictly to the proper end of the .Church, which is to conduct men to sanctity" (Discourse,~ December 8, 1950). It is the state of life which publicly professes to aim at evangelical perfection; that is, the common prac-tice of the counsels by the three vows of obedience, chas-tity, and poverty (Provida Mater of February 2, 1947). 3) There is another sign that the religious vocation is different from the vocation to the priesthood. The priest-hood and its exercise are of exactly the same value in the two clergies. The priesthood, then, is distinct from the state of perfection. There is certainly a sharing of apostolic labor between the two clergies, but the Church freely de-c: ides about this sharing according to time and place. In the same way, dependence upon a bishop is perfectly realized in the religious priest, even if he is "exempt" (Dis-course, December 8, 1950). Finally, we must conclude that properly speaking the two vocations are not comparable. The religious life has no other meaning than the effective practice of the three counsels in a recognized state of life in order to aim at evangelical perfection. The priestly vocation as such does not have this significance. 4. 4' 4" Priest and Religious VOLUME 21, 196~ 213 ÷ Ren~ Carpentier, $.1. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 214 Mutual Attraction o] the Two Vocations Nevertheless, this difference does not hinder the mutual attraction of the two vocations. As Plus XH added: "Nothing prevents the diocesan p.riest from adopting the three counsels, either privately or in a state of perfection" (Discourse, December 8, 1950). As is.evident, in the pre-ceding outline of th6 problem there was never any ques-tion of absolutely excluding the priest, from evangelical perfection as the Church teaches it in the states of per-fection. There was question only of keeping [or each vo-cation its own significance. On the other hand, when in Menti Nostrae the Pope described the "active charity" that is demanded of every priest by reason of his priest-hood, he presented it by means of the three characteris-tics of the states of perfection: humility and obedience, chastity, disinterestedness and poverty. For reasons of per-fection and of edification, he recalled to priests the counsel of the common life (c. 134), although in the Code this does not seem even to imply an invitation to live in the insti-tutional community of goods of the Middle Ages. And in his encyclical on the centenary of the Cur~ of Ars, His Holiness Pope John XXIII spoke in the same way. The teaching in Cardinal Suhard's pastoral letter (The Priest in the Modern World), though obviously of much less universal importance, was also the same. Especially in-teresting is the testimony of. Cardinal Mercier which is sometimes appealed to as a justification for a different spirituality for the diocesan priest. In the statutes of the society of priestly perfection which he founded, he pro-posed to his priests the three vows of religion; and he passed the last twelve years of his life trying to obtain from Plus XI recognition of these vows as public with-out, nevertheless, detaching priests from their diocese and. tl~eir bishop. Without this public status, he wrote, dio-cesan priests would be unable to fulfill their priestly vo-cation; and this is why he hoped for its extension to the universal Church. This last point, however, goes beyond the position o.~ the popes and need not be held. As Pius XII insisted, "the state of perfection" is not necessary. What we do hold is a conclusion fully conformed to the teaching of history: The two vocations are different and yet they cannot re-main strangers to one another. Monks as a group and the majority of male institutes today are clerical insti-tutes (and many even, since the time of the canons regular and the Dominicans, have become religious in order to become priests). Likewise, every diocesan priest, by reason of his priestly vocation, is oriented by his own pastors toward evangelical perfection, toward its spirit. To em-ploy the expressions of Pius XII, "nothing will be lacking to his practice of evangelical perfection if he wishes to adopt, even privately, the vows of the three counsels" (Discourse, December 9, 1957). Theology o] the "Duality-Unity" o[ the Two Voca-tions , In view of this teaching, I would now like to attempt a theological comparison of the two vocations. Naturally, it will be only a brief exposition, and I ask the indulgence of the theologians who hear me. As.I have already indi-cated, I think that the mystery of these two vocations re-flects in itself the unsuspected depths of the principal treasures of the Kingdom of God. This requires an ex-tensive treatment; but here we can give only a few indi-cations. The Priestly Vocation First of all, the priestly vocation appears from the be-ginning as fully independent of the vocation to the state of evangelical perfection; and so it has remained in spite of the efforts made from the beginning 0f the Middle Ages by bishops, popes, and saints to join it indissolubly to the institutionalized apostolic life of religious. In this distinction between the two vocations, which always for-bids calling the priestly life as such "a state of perfec-tion," is hidden, unless I am mistaken, a subtle teaching of the greatest importance. It is this: The powers of the priest are strictly divine. As Plus XII wrote in Mediator Dei, "The power which is entrusted to the priest is in no way human, since it is entirely from above and comes down from God." Since this is the case, it would be ex-tremely dangerous for the priest or the faithful to confuse the exercise of these powers with the exercise of personal holiness, the reception of these powers in the sacrament of orders with the reception of a personal sanctifying grace proportioned to these powers. The priest would risk considering himself as a sanctifying power, whereas in reality he is but a channel for such. And the faithful would risk stopping short at the minister as at a screen which masked Christ from them. A central principle of the Kingdom would be thereby compromised, the prin-ciple of the ministry as a transparent medium. From this would follow an easily made conclusion that has already torn the Church: Because of the weakness and the un-worthiness of the minister, the divinity of his powers would be rejected. Thig transparency of the minister (that is, the doc-trinal affirmation, on the one hand, of the validity of his powers independently of his sanctity and, on the other hand, his personal duty of complete humility, of abso-lute disinterestedness) was demanded by Christ, especially 4. 4. 4- Priest and Religious VOLUME 21~ 1962 ÷ Ren~ Carp~ati~r, SJ. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 216 at the moment of the first priestly ordination, as the proper mark of the evangelical priest: "I am," He said, "in the midst of you. as one who serves." "The kings of the' gentiles" lord it over them. But not so among you." You must have nothing in common with the egoism of the powerful of.this world. You must be the servants (Jn 13:14.16; Lk 22:25-27). It is with this same intent that theology teaches the instrumental causality of the minister of the sacraments. As Plus XII expressed it in Mediator Dei, priests are made into instruments of the divinity by which heavenly and supernatural life is communicated to the Mystical Body of Christ. My priestly vocation, then, is for others, not for re.y-self. This is a difficult requirement which ought to be well understood. Certainly it gives no dispensation from the duty of personal sanctification. Quite the contrary. If "Christ is a priest," wrote Pius XII again in Mediator Dei, "it is for us, not for Himself. In the same way is He a victim~ for us." In giving to His priests an active partici-pation in His priesthood, Christ does not have primarily in view their own enrichment by exceptional gifts. "The priestly ministry," writes Father de Lubac, "is not a kind of super-baptism which constitutes a class of super- Christians." The priest communicates to the members of Christ the marvelous deeds of Christ. He imitates Christ's unselfish act of love. Certainly if he desires it, he will receive in abundance the personal graces to love as a priest ought to love; but these graces are to intensify in him his own baptism, his privileges as an adopted child. Along with all his brothers, he remains a humble adopted child, even though he wields the true powers of the only Son. "There is, then, in the Church," writes Father Con-gar, "a double participation in the priesthood of Christ, one along the lines of the relationship of life-giving, of pure and simple communion, which Christ has with Hi:; Body; the other according to the relation of power which He exercises upon His Body as a means of communion." The first sanctifies all the faithful, and the priest is first of all one of the faithful. It unites them to the Father in Christ. It is from this participation in Christ's priesthood that the state of perfection takes its development. The second participation entrusts to those ordained for the ministry to others the powers and the sacramental means of sanctification. This explains the refusal of the priesthood by Francis of Assisi and the flight from the episcopal o~fice of so many eminent saints. Knowing that others of their time could be priests and bishops, they affirmed in this way the radical difference there is between spiritual, moral imi- tation of Christ and the priesthood which does not per-tain to the order of sanctification-to-be-acquired. Finally, let us give one more sign of this otherness. If the priestly character is indelible and will forever mark those who have received it, the exercise of the priesthood will have but one time: It will' disappear when' ~l~e ~E~ple of God are fully assembled in the life to come. On the contrary, it is then that communion with the Father and communion between brothers will be fully established, and these are the very exercise of the vocation to perfec-tion, especially to the state of perfection. The Religious Vocation We have just established the otherness of these two vocations from the point of view of the priestly vocation. No less specified is the proper mission of the vocation to the religious state. If the priestly life ought first of all to bring down the divine gifts upon the people of God through the sacraments, the religious vocation under-takes to give to these gifts of God the Church's public and fullest response. This response is the building up here below of the Kingdom of Heaven. The response is evi-dently personal, but it is even more social. The personal imitation of Christ by profession, the program given by our Mother the Church to her states of perfection can only be the Gospel adapted by love; that is, the counsels of Jesus and the following of Christ. But even more is it a social response. The Kingdom is the Mystical Body of Christ. To love Christ is to build up His Body to unite His members in a community of charity and in a definitive liturgy of adoration for the glory of the Father. Since the Church is herself a public reality, the state of perfection, when consecrated by public vows, brings into being a fully developed cell of Christ. It recreates here be-low a truly social order based on mutuaI love and on a return to the living God, a social order which constitutes a permanent appeal addressed to disunited men that they find their brotherhood again. "That he might gather into one the children who were scattered abroad, (Ps 11:52). This is a mission of the highest importance, since by it alone does the Church fully succeed in bringing about a visible evangelical community, the new order of God's children. It is clearly a mission, one that is altogether different from that of the priestly vocation and that can-not, properly speaking, be compared with it. But it is essential to the realization of the Church here below; without it the priest would not preach in full the social order of the gospel since he would have no example of it to point out. + .+ + Priest and Religious VOLUME 21, 1962 ÷ ÷ Rend Carpentier, $.J. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS Correlation oI the Two Vocations This public mission, which is both individual and so-cial, explains to us as a consequence how the two voca-tions are different. But it is this same public and social value which demonstrates their intimate and necessary connection. We will now consider the mutual relation that exists between the two. The priestly vocation, a service of love of the Mystical Body, is totally oriented toward the Christian people. It has no concern but to bring to being, to nourish, to teach the Mystical Body on earth, and to guide it to eternal life. But the state of perfection is nothing else (I speak of its professed program) than the most perfect public community within the Mystical Body. Moreover, it is the Church herself who, recognizing her own mystery, or-ganizes the religious community. The priest is the man of the Church, the servant of the Church. He is, then, above all the servant of religious life. It is his most excel-lent creation. Another consideration is the following. The priest is the man of the Mass. He lives but to offer Christ to the Father and to place at the disposition of the children of God the Eucharistic sacrifice where they can consecrate themselves in Christ. But the religious life consecrates it-self entirely by the three public vows which cover the whole of existence. It responds fully, then, to the appeal of the priest. It does not exist except as an echo of the voice of the priest which, in turn, is but the instrument of the voice of Christ. Everyday the priest is the immedi-ate witness of the Eucharistic consecration of Christ. But it is in religious life that this offering of consecration is accepted and fulfilled as a state and a program of life. There it is that Christ the Victim can make Himself vis-ible. It follows that the two vocations, arising from two dis-tinct missions, unceasingly tend to resemble one another. To all that we have seen of history and theological re-flection, we add what is suggested by the spiritual as-pirations of the two vocations. On the one hand, the religious vocation aspires to the complete realization of the Mass which the priest cele-brates within the heart of the community. At the moment when religious life culminates at perpetual profession, it fulfills the most complete act of the priesthood of the Church and of the faithful, the definitive offering of the whole life~ Its model, then, is the .sacrifice of Christ and the Mass which represents it. On the other hand, the priest centers his spirituality around the Mass. He will find no more perfect mirror of it than the one which exists at the heart of the Church, the public state of per- fection. There it is that he may contemplate the ideal of his own aspirations for sanctity. In order to understand this well, we must return to a capital truth. The priest is only an instrument of the ministry. He preaches perfection, but he does .oqtsr.eate it. He does not invent the evangelical program; he'is its servant. He does not produce grace, he is the humble channel of the grace of Christ. As does everyone of the faithful, as does every man, he. contemplates perfection not in himself but there where it shines; that is, in the Church, the great sign lifted up before the nations, and, above all, as Pius XII has said, in that chosen portion of the Church where, under the assiduous leadership of the priesthood, the way of life of Christ is fully adopted (Plus XII, Discourse to Superiors General, February 11, 1958, and previously in his Letter to Cardinal Micara of November II, 1950). "Imitate what you handle." What the priest handles is the Eucharistic Body, and it is the Mystical Body; for both are but one. It is only right to speak of the "fatherhood" of the priest. In actuality, however, he only holds the place of the Father, as he fills the role of Jesus. Passing through his humble hands, the splendor of the Father shines forth in the way of life of Christ, which the Church, having the Son as her Spouse, teaches to her states of perfection. Frequent Union of the Two Vocations Accordingly, the priestly vocation has always sought to unite itself with the religious vocation. This historical movement of the Church can only come from the Holy Spirit. That is the source of the vocation of the canons regular, of the Dominicans, of the very numerous insti-tutes of religious clerics. A different case, but one which demonstrates nevertheless the same mutual integration of the two vocations, is that of the monk-priest. Since he seeks the perfect public consecration of himself and of his community, it is natural that the monk should, if he can, unite in the same person the divine instrumental power of consecrating and the most complete of the Church's responses to the divine consecration; that is, the public state of perfection. It might be asked if the monk does not re-orient to himself the priesthood that he receives. But it would be wrong to consider the matter in this way. What the monk seeks is not an egocentric perfection which would no longer be Christian. More than anyone, he with his brothers brings to reality the Mystical Body; and it is in the Church, in the perfect community of charity and adoration, that he finds his sanctification. When he celebrates Mass, as does every priest, he offers the Church; he builds up the Kingdom of 4. 4. 4. Priest and Religious VOLUME 21~ 1962 219 + + ÷ Ren~ Ca~pentier, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS 220 ,God and, first of all, that perfect kingdom which is con-stituted by the monastic community. The priesthood is not necessary to him; but if the Church gives it to him, it is to achieve a greater integration within herself of the person of the monk, his community, and the divine official praise which this community celebrates and carries on in the world. Clarifications When the resemblance between the two vocations, priestly and religious, is spoken of, what is considered is the essential matter of evangelical perfection, and not the difference in the observance of details which are so considerable from institute to institute. In his discourse to the Second General Congress of the States of Perfection (December 7, 1957), Pius XII pointed up this "essential" matter of perfection; it is the imitation of Christ defini-tively embraced in the great counsels that sums up all the other matters. If, to make an impossible supposition, the priest sought to create for himself an ideal of holiness of another kind than that of the baptised, he would put himself, so to speak, outside the Church, the Body of holiness; he would be ambitioning something else in his plan of holiness than to be as perfectly as possible the adopted child of the Father in Christ. He would be boldly directing his as-pirations towards a life conformed to his divine powers; that is, he would seem to be making his spiritual lift.' equal to that of the only-begotten Son Himself. No priest has ever thought of such a thing. By reason of the sacer-dotal character he is instrumentally a man of God, but his whole mission makes him a man among men. Cer-tainly, he reveres in himself with full humility the mys-terious efficacy of Christ, as do also the faithful; but not for an instant does he or the faithful confuse the lowly man with the transcendence of that God who works through him as through an intermediary. "It is, then, quite true," wrote Father de Lubac, "that the institution of the priesthood and the sacrament of orders did not create within the Church two degrees of attachment to Christ, as it were, two kinds of Christians. This is a fun-damental truth of our faith. All are united in the same essential dignity, the dignity of Christians, a marvelous renewal of the dignity of man, which has been so mag-nificently sung by the great Pope St. Leo." Against the similarity of the two vocations a difficulty might still be raised. Does not the religious withdraw from the world, and ought not the diocesan priest root himself in the world? In order to follow the vocation of a diocesan priest, is. it not fitting to place the accent on that which is peculiar to it as opposed to the religious state? By this means it would be ~reed of an imitation which would paralyze it; left to its own initiative in enter-ing into the mass of men, it would be free to communicate to all men those things which are necessary here below. There is a general problem here, that of action and contemplation, of renouncement ~ihd of use. It is a prob-lem which exceeds the limits of this article. Recent popes have spoken of this problem, especially to priests. In his heart, Pius XII declared, the priest should be an entire stranger to the world, one who wishes to live for the Lord only and to serve Him perfectly (Discourse to Superiors General, February 11, 1958; see also the third part of the Discourse of December 8, 1950). In this difficulty as formulated, we confine ourselves to noting a mistake which would be a grave danger for religious vocations if it were not corrected. In the truest sense of the word, the religious, even the most contemplative, does not abandon "the world." He-builds it up into its full reality if it is true that the evangelical order of brotherhood is the ex-ample given by Christ to disunited human society so that it might find peace and life. During the Middle Ages the monks literally created a new people, western civiliza-tion (see Pius XII's encyclical F.ulgens Radiatur on St. Benedict, March 21, 1947). Even today, does not the re-ligious life devote itself to all human sciences, to all the services of the health of souls and of bodies, to all the forms of education of children, adolescents, young adults, and adults. It remains true, nevertheless, and this is what it proclaims by its very existence, that "he who would save his life will lose it" (Mt 16:25) and "What does it profit a man, if he gain the whole world, but suffers the loss of his own soul?" (Mt 16:26). No ConIusion of the Two Vocations Finally, if the two vocations necessarily tend to resem-ble one another in their efforts at sanctification, they should by no means be confused in the Church of today. On the contrary, it may be believed that their differentia-tion, completed by canon law, enriches the Church. For the religious state, the correct independence of local juris-diction assured it by ecclesiastical law is a life or death condition. The very nature of the evangelical society, as the often sad history of the Church demonstrates, requires that it be able to live according to its own principles if it is to give the services which the Holy Spirit and the Church entrust to it. And on the other hand, the Church has too much respect for the liberty and the differences of her children, and too great a need for priests, not to leave to those of her elect who desire it the choice of their own means of sanctification and not to impose any more 4. 4. + Priest and Religious VOLUME 21, 1962 221 ,4" Ren~ Cavpentier, S.$. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS than what in her own view she has judged to be indis-pensable. Synthesis A summary of this theological evidence in a single synthesis is long overdue. To formulate it, I will draw upon a very recent little work of His Excellency, Msgr. DeSmedt, Bishop of Bruges, entitled The Priesthood oI the Faithlul. I have found it very illuminating. The bishop's intent is to explain the priestly vocation to his flock. He considers he can do no better than first of all to develop before their eyes the broad perspective of the priesthood of the faithful. The end of the Church is holi-ness. The Church is accordingly, a Body of holiness, hence a priesthood of the faithful. This is the major and basic principle which gi,~es proper value to all ecclesiasti-cal realities, above all to the two fundamental vocations which are at the center of the Church. In the priesthood of the faithful, all--the simply bap-tized, priests, bishops, the pope himself---are united to offer themselves and to join themselves to Christ so as to be efficaciously offered by His all powerful adoration and to be finally gathered together by Christ into a single people of brotherhood in communion with the Blessed Trinity. In this Body of holiness the mission of the states of perfection easily takes its proper place. It is the vocation of the states of perfection to respond fully, under the guidance of the Church, to the appeal of the baptismal dignity. It is for them to make concrete the people of God, fraternally united and consecrated to the Father by the vows of the three counsels. In this way they are at the service of their brothers, all Christians and all men, to win them and orient them to brotherly consecration in Christ. Among the states of perfection, the religious state is at the heart of the visible Church; it is com-missioned by her and closely linked with her to be the public w!tness of the social order of the gospel, the witness of the community of love and of worship in the midst of men. Secular institutes and all the baptized and con-firmed, priests included, who in actual fact or in spirit practice evangelical perfection in mutual charity and the faithful adoration of the Lord, also witness to this true life, at least in a personal way, each one according to his position and according to the innumerable adaptations which the apostolic approach to men require. It is with respect to the priesthood of the faithful that the diocesan priesthood is situated with full clarity. Es-sentially, it is its servant. Consecrated by Christ, it dis-tributes to the people the word and the bread in His name and in His place. It directs the people to eternal life. It has its powers and its commission. It is the object of the veneration of lay persons who absorb its presence, its help, its teaching, its edification. This is what Bishop DeSmedt shows in the second part of his work. But by this very fact the priest centers his life on his flock as its pastor, dn the *family of God asr its father. Above all, he is pastor and father for the states of perfec-tion. He must count on them above all to assure the spread of the apostolic life in the world. He is always, then, the central figure of the state of perfection even if he is not charged directly with its care. That is to say, he makes it known, he reveals it to the world, since it is he who must reveal the Church as a brotherhood conse-crated to God and since it is he who must reveal the full gospel. Objective Dil~erence of the Two Vocations Thus the objective difference which we were to find between
Approximately, 2.3 billion people connect to the internet in today's world, with increasingly anonymous contacts. The largest users percentage are digital natives, that means, human beings who grew up in the middle of the network society. We refer to children and adolescents, which has caused the pedophile of the last century to transfer his field of action to a field that presents immeasurable difficulties identifying and neutralizing the problem. The digital Minotaur lurks, its voracity does not stop, it associates in international networks, it uses technology to circumvent controls. It contacts children under various disguises, prepares them to satisfy its sexual desires in a terrifying ritual of emotional manipulation that generally ends in blackmail of the minor and subsequent sexual abuse. Grooming, in many current legislations, presents serious deficiencies regarding its typification. In this work we present a study from the coordinates of systemic normativism, presenting some ideas to go deeper into the discussion and contribute to the fight against these criminals. ; Se estima que 2300 millones de personas se conectan a internet en el mundo actual, y sus contactos son cada vez más anónimos. El mayor porcentaje de los usuarios son los nativos digitales, esto es, seres humanos que crecieron en medio de la sociedad de la red. Nos referimos a niños y adolescentes, lo cual ha provocado que el pederasta del siglo pasado traslade su campo de acción a un terreno que presenta inconmensurables dificultades para identificarlo y neutralizarlo. El minotauro digital acecha, su voracidad no se frena, se asocia en redes internacionales, usa la tecnología para burlar controles. Contacta niños bajo diversos disfraces, los prepara para que satisfagan sus deseos sexuales en un pavoroso ritual de manipulación emocional que concluye generalmente en el chantaje al menor y a su posterior abuso sexual. El grooming, en muchas legislaciones actuales, presenta serias deficiencias en cuanto a su tipificación. En este trabajo presentamos un estudio desde las coordenadas del funcionalismo normativo sistémico, más concretamente desde el derecho penal del enemigo, exponiendo algunas ideas para profundizar el debate y aportar a la materialización de una campaña real de neutralización contra estos auténticos focos de peligro. Se objetará que nuestra posición entiende al pederasta como Carl Schmitt lo hacía respecto de un determinado grupo racial, lo cual, como lo demostraremos con amplia literatura, es absolutamente falso, pues el enemigo para Jakobs es un delincuente que se aparta macabra y duraderamente del derecho y es absolutamente indiferente su estatura o cualquier otra cuestión física. Se criticará que esta posición está basada en prejuicios, pero ¿es acaso posible encontrar un ordenamiento penal en el mundo que se fundamente exclusivamente en juicios? La respuesta es que no, esto no es factible, y se entiende con un ejemplo muy sencillo: nadie discute que en Italia existen diversas organizaciones criminales, no es una sola mafia sino varias empresas delictivas, unas más violentas que otras, unas con más ramificaciones con bandas albanesas o españolas que otras. ¿Es esto un prejuicio? Sus hechos, las investigaciones, las evidencias encontradas nos dicen que no, que la peligrosidad de todas estas bandas no se discute, pero hay algunas, como la Ndrangheta, que reviste una especial amenaza a la configuración de una sociedad pacífica. En algún momento también existían prejuicios sobre las Brigadas Rojas, el eta o las farc y luego, al reflejarse como amenazas de incalculables proyecciones delictivas, se terminó normando las conductas de su complejo espectro criminal con otra velocidad, lo cual está, desde nuestro enfoque, absolutamente justificado.
Sustainable development is at the top of the policy agenda in city and transport planning but is often criticized when it is implemented. The critique comes from people who argues that measures to improve environmental quality often leads to social injustice. For a measure to be sustainable, it needs to also include social sustainability, and thus reduce such skewed distribution. In this thesis, I examine if, and in that case to what extent, social sustainability is included and operationalized among planners and politicians within the transport sector in Oslo. In Oslo's municipal plan social sustainability is highlighted as an important factor for city development. The plan also emphasizes the development of a sustainable transport system and points out that the sector will have large changes in the future. The goal of this thesis is to shed light on what planners and politicians emphasize when using the term sustainable transport, and how social sustainability is included. Qualitative semi-structured interviews are conducted with ten key informants from different parts of the transport sector. The results show that climate and environment is often what planners and politicians first and foremost associate with sustainability, and that not everyone is well known with the term social sustainability. Despite this, all planners and politicians include different social factors in different degrees in their use of the term sustainable transport. The findings are discussed in light of the social sustainability research literature. The most prominent social aspects among planners and politicians in the transport sector is accessibility, equity, social cohesion and participation. The thesis shows that by providing sufficient and equitable access to public transport, the transport sector facilitates the opportunity for individuals and societies to satisfy their needs. ; Bærekraftig utvikling står høyt på den politiske agendaen i by- og transportplanlegging, men blir ofte kritisert når tiltak iverksettes. Det kommer imidlertid ofte kritikk fra grupper som mener at tiltakene som tar sikte på klima og miljø i mange tilfeller er sosialt urettferdige. For at et tiltak skal være bærekraftig må det også være sosialt bærekraftig, og skal derfor også minimere en slik skjevfordeling. I denne oppgaven ser jeg på om, og i så fall hvordan, sosial bærekraft er inkludert og operasjonalisert blant planleggere og politikere innenfor transportsektoren i Oslo. I Oslos kommuneplan er sosial bærekraft fremhevet som en viktig faktor for byens utvikling. Planen legger i tillegg stor vekt på utviklingen av et bærekraftig transportsystem, og det blir understreket at denne sektoren vil få store endringer fremover. Målet med oppgaven er å belyse hva planleggere og politikere vektlegger i deres bruk av begrepet et bærekraftig transportsystem, og på hvilken måte sosial bærekraft er inkludert. Kvalitative semi-strukturerte intervjuer er gjort med ti relevante aktører fra diverse deler av transportsektoren. Resultatene viser at klima og miljø ofte er det både planleggere og politikere først og fremst forbinder med bærekraft, og ikke alle er like godt kjent med begrepet sosial bærekraft. Til tross for dette, inkluderer alle planleggere og politikere forskjellige sosiale faktorer i forskjellige gradi deres bruk av begrepet bærekraftig transport. Funnene blir diskutert i lys av forskningslitteraturen på begrepet sosial bærekraft. De sosiale aspektene som vektlegges mest blant planleggere og politikere i transportsektoren er tilgjengelighet, rettferdighet, sosialt samhold og medvirkning. Oppgaven viser at ved å sørge for at alle har tilstrekkelig tilgang på kollektiv transport, legger transportsektoren til rette legge for at både individuelle og samfunnsmessige behov blir tilfredsstilt. ; M-IES
Children's social emotional development is the child's achievement in adjusting to his environment and understanding his feelings when interacting with others. This emotional social development can develop one of which is through learning activities in schools where children learn various things and interact with many people, especially peers. There are three indicators of the achievement of social emotional development in early childhood, namely self-awareness, a sense of responsibility for oneself and others, and prosocial behavior. In this article, the author describe the social emotional development of children aged 5-6 years during distance learning at Raudhatul Athfal in Cipedes District, Tasikmalaya City. The research method used in this research is descriptive quantitative using a survey across sectional research desain, namely data collection is carried out at one time. Keywords: early childhood; social emotional; distance learning. References Age, J. G., & Hamzanwadi, U. (2020). Perilaku Sosial Emosional Anak Usia Dini. Jurnal Golden Age, 4(01), 181–190. https://doi.org/10.29408/jga.v4i01.2233. Al Amin, M. N. K. (2020). Menakar Nilai Kemanfaatan dari Penangguhan Walimat Al- 'Ursy Di Masa Darurat COVID-19 Melalui Sadd Adz-Dzari'ah. Ulumuddin: Jurnal Ilmu-ilmu Keislaman, 10(1), 27–38. Davies, P. D. O. (2002). Multi-drug resistant tuberculosis. CPD Infection, 3(1), 9–12. Desmita. (2013). Psikologi Perkembangan. PT. Remaja Rosdakarya. Dewi, AR., Mayasarokh, M., Gustiana, E. (2020). Perilaku Sosial Emosional Anak Usia Dini. 04 (1). 181-190. Eliningsih, E. (2021). Peningkatan Kemampuan Guru Dalam Manajemen Pengelolaan Kelas Di Masa Pandemi Covid-19 Melalui Supervisi Klinis Pengawas Di SDN 15 Perawang. Nuansa Akademik: Jurnal Pembangunan Masyarakat, 6(1), 25–36. Hidayat, F., Hidayat, I., Ghofur, A., & Santoso, F. S. (2021). Penanganan Kesehatan Pasien Reaktif COVID-19 Melalui Terapi Zikir Dan Lingkungan Wawasan Pengalaman Subyektif. Ulumuddin : Jurnal Ilmu-ilmu Keislaman, 11(1), 1–12. Ifadah, Y. K. (2019). Upaya Guru dalam Meningkatkan Perkembangan Sosial Emosional Anak Usia Dini di TK Dharma Wanita Desa Totokan Kecamatan Mlarak Kabupaten Ponorogo. Institut Agama Islam Negeri Ponorogo. Ifadah, Y. K. (2019). Upaya Guru dalam Meningkatkan Perkembangan Sosial Emosional Anak Usia Dini di TK Dharma Wanita Desa Totokan Kecamatan Mlarak Kabupaten Ponorogo. Institut Agama Islam Negeri Ponorogo. Khaironi, M. (2018). Perkembangan Anak Usia Dini. 3 (1). 1-12. Lestari, R. H., & Alam, S. K. (2019). Analisis Keterlibatan Ayah dalam Mengembangkan Perkembangan Sosial Emosional Anak Usia Dini. 3(Juni), 1–8. Mastoah, I., & MS, Z. (2020). Kendala Orang Tua Dalam Mendampingi Anak Belajar Pada Masa Covid 19 Di Kota Serang. As-Sibyan: Jurnal Pendidikan Anak Usia Dini, 5(2), 121–128. Nurhasanah, N. (2020). Pengaruh Pembelajaran Jarak Jauh Terhadap Keterampilan Sosial Anak Usia 5-6 Tahun. In Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia (Vol. 68, Nomor 1). Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia. Pandoman, A. (2020). Analisis Quietus Politik Terhadap Upaya Pemerintah Menangani Wabah Covid-19 Pasca Deklarasi Public Health Emergency Of International Concern (PHEIC). Ulumuddin: Jurnal Ilmu-ilmu Keislaman, 10(1), 1–12. Peraturan Menteri Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Republik Indonesia Nomor 137 Tahun 2014 tentang Standar Nasional Pendidikan Anak Usia Dini. Sujiono, Y. N. (2016). Konsep Dasar Pendidikan Anak Usia Dini. PT. Indeks. Sujiono, YN. (2016). Konsep Dasar Pendidikan Anak Usia Dini. Jakarta: PT. Indeks. Surat Edaran Menteri Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Nomor 15 Tahun 2020 Tentang Pedoman Penyelenggaraan Belajar dari Rumah dalam Masa Darurat Penyebaran Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19). Surat Edaran Nomor 4 Tahun 2020 Tentang Pelaksanaan Kebijakan Pendidikan dalam Masa Darurat Penyebaran Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19). Surur, A. M., & Nadhirin, A. U. (2020). Manajemen Waktu Pembelajaran Daring Di Masa Pandemi Covid-19 Pada TK Dharma Wanita 1 Baleturi. As-Sibyan: Jurnal Pendidikan Anak Usia Dini, 5(2). Yusuf, S. (2011). Psikologi Perkembangan Anak & Remaja. PT. Remaja Rosdakarya.
The rise of global policies, guarantors of a democratic education, materialized in a model of inclusive school for everyone is not yet a tangible reality. Their education policies that are in place do not contribute to it's cause. From this problem arises the purpose to study such professional education policies, in order to develop a consistent attitude, among professionals, with the acceptance of the otherness and it's correspondent education requirements. The design followed for this study is quantitative, transversal, non-experimental, descriptive and correlational, making use of two standard and confirmed questioners, given to 712 university graduates, which data underwent different analysis: percentage, central tendency, dispersion, differentials and correlational. It is shown the correct attitude to deal with people with disabilities, as well as, the need to implement strategies to effectively attend to this groups in the academic context, after establishing differences between groups and the scarce consistency of individuals, which prevent us from talking about consolidated patterns. ; La asunción de políticas globalizadas garantes de la democratización de enseñanzas materializadas en el modelo de escuela inclusiva para todos no es todavía una realidad palpable. Sus políticas formativas afanadas en tal empresa tampoco consiguen contribuir a su causa. De tal problema surge el propósito del estudio de tales políticas de formación de profesionales para el desarrollo actitudinal acorde a las premisas de aceptación de la otredad y su atención educativa correspondiente. Se sigue un diseño cuantitativo transversal no-experimental, descriptivo y relacional, valiéndose de dos cuestionarios estandarizados y validados, suministrados a 712 estudiantes universitarios, cuyos datos se sometieron a análisis porcentuales, tendencia central, dispersión, diferenciales y correlaciónales. Se infiere la adecuada actitud para tratar con personas con diversidad funcional y la necesaria dotación de estrategias para hacer efectiva la atención en el contexto académico, luego de establecer diferencias entre colectivos y escasez de consistencia individuales, lo que impide hablar de patrones consolidados. ; 对于所有人来说,在全纳学校模型中的教育物化及其民主化过程中的全球化保证政策仍不清晰明朗。其繁重的政策也未达到对此局面改善的目的。针对此问题,面向专业培训的政策研究应运而生。通过研究,期望在接受他者和相应教育关注的前提下获得态度上的发展。该研究遵循定量、非实验、描述性、关系模型性的横截面研究设计,通过两个有效的标准化问卷收集来自712名大学生的数据。在对这些数据进行百分率、集中趋势、离散程度、差异及相关性分析后,推断出哪些是对待残疾人的适宜态度,同时推测出在教学中使关注度更为有效的计策。最后研究也明确出了不同群体间的差异、个人一致性的缺少等一系列阻止模型固定的因素。
This thesis comprises four empirical essays on environmental and development economics. In the first chapter, we examine to what extent individual and contextual level factors influence individuals to contribute financially to prevent environmental pollution. We find that rich people, individuals with higher education, as well as those who possess post-materialist values are more likely to be concerned about environmental pollution. We also observe the country in which individuals live matter in their willingness to contribute. More precisely, we find democracy and government stability reduce individuals' intention to donate to prevent environmental damage mainly in developed countries. The second chapter deals with the relation between economic growth and environmental degradation by focusing on the issue of whether the inverted U-shaped relation exist. The study discloses no evidence for the U-shaped relation. However, the empirical result points toward a non-linear relationship between environmental degradation and economic growth, that is, emissions tend to rise rapidly in the early stages with economic growth, and then emissions continue to increase but a lower rate in the later stages. The third chapter investigates the long-run as well as the causal relationship between energy consumption and economic growth in a group of Sub-Saharan Africa. The result discovers the existence of a long-run equilibrium relationship between clean energy consumption and economic growth. Furthermore, the short-run and the long-run dynamics indicate unidirectional Granger causality running from clean energy consumption to economic growth without any feedback effects. The last chapter of this thesis concerns with convergence of emissions across Canadian provinces. The study determines convergence clubs better characterizes Canadian's emissions. In other words, we detect the existence of segmentation in emissions across Canadian provinces. ; Cette thèse comporte quatre essais et porte sur les questions fondamentales sur la relation entre l'environnement et le développement économique. Le premier chapitre cherche à identifier les déterminants individuels et contextuels qui affectent la volonté de contribuer des gens à la lutte contre la pollution environnementale. Nos résultats révèlent que les individus riches, les personnes éduquées ainsi que les personnes possédant des valeurs post-matérialistes sont plus susceptibles d'être préoccupées par la pollution environnementale. On remarque que la caractéristique du pays de ces individus affecte leur volonté à contribuer. Ainsi, dans les pays à forte démocratie avec une forte stabilité gouvernementale, les individus sont réticents à faire des dons pour prévenir les dommages environnementaux. Le deuxième chapitre examine la relation entre la croissance économique et la dégradation de l'environnement en s'interrogeant sur la relation U inversée de Kuznets. Nos résultats empiriques ne révèlent aucune preuve de ladite relation. Cependant, nous notons l'existence d'une relation non linéaire entre la croissance économique et la dégradation de l'environnement. Les émissions ont tendance à augmenter un rythme plus rapide dans les premiers stades de la croissance économique puis dans les dernière étapes, cette hausse persiste mais à un rythme plus lent. Le troisième chapitre étudie la relation de causalité de long terme entre la consommation d'énergie propre et la croissance économique dans un groupe de pays de l'Afrique subsaharienne. Le résultat révèle l'existence d'une relation d'équilibre à long terme entre la consommation d'énergie propre et la croissance économique. En outre, la dynamique de court terme et de long terme indiquent une relation de causalité à la Granger unidirectionnelle de la consommation d'énergie propre vers la croissance économique sans aucun effet rétroactif. Le dernier chapitre de cette thèse cherche à investiguer sur la convergence des émissions de gaz entre les provinces canadiennes. L'étude montre que les émissions de gaz des provinces canadiennes sont caractérisées des convergences de clubs. En d'autres termes, on détecte l'existence d'une segmentation des émissions entre les provinces canadiennes.
En doscientos años como repúblicas independientes Chile y la Argentina emprendieron guerras contra todos sus vecinos pero jamás entre ellas. Sin embargo, en la navidad de 1978 la controversia sobre los límites del canal Beagle estuvo cerca de enfrentar a ambos países en el campo de batalla. Gracias a la oportuna mediación del Papa Juan Pablo II y al posterior retorno de la democracia en la Argentina, el diferendo logró resolverse pacíficamente con la firma de un acuerdo que contó con un abrumador apoyo de la población argentina, expresado a través del plebiscito de 1984. El presente artículo propone analizar los sentidos en torno al acuerdo y la consulta que circularon por las páginas del Río Negro, el diario más influyente de la Norpatagonia argentina. Para ello, incorporando herramientas teóricas del análisis del discurso, hemos relevado noticias, editoriales y notas de opinión publicadas en las secciones en las que el diario abordó información internacional, nacional y regional. Este trabajo permite demostrar que en el diario prevalecieron los discursos favorables al acuerdo por sobre aquellos que proponían una lectura negativa sobre el mismo. El diario presentó a los primeros como expresión del nuevo clima democrático que la sociedad argentina comenzaba a vivir. ; In their 200 years as independent nations, both Chile and Argentina fought wars against all their neighbors, except each other. However, on the Christmas of 1978, controversy over the limits of the Beagle Channel almost made them face one other on the battlefield. It was thanks to the timely mediation of Pope John Paul II and Argentina's later return to democracy that the conflict was pacifically resolved, through an agreement overwhelmingly supported by the Argentinian people, who expressed their approval in the 1984 referendum. The present article aims to analyze the meanings surrounding the agreement and the referendum, expressed in the Rio Negro, the most influential journal of the Argentinian northern Patagonia. In order to achieve it, theoretical tools of discourse analysis are used to study the news, editorials and opinion columns published in the sections in which the newspaper dealt with international, national and regional information. The article shows that in the journal, the positive discourses about the agreement predominated over the negative ones. The former were presented as a manifestation of the new democratic climate experienced by the Argentinian society. ; Em duzentos anos como repúblicas independentes o Chile e a Argentina empreenderam guerras contra todos sus vizinhos, mas nunca entre elas. Contudo, o Natal de 1978 a controvérsia sobre os limites do canal Beagle esteve cerca de fazer enfrentar a ambos os países no campo de batalha. Graças à oportuna mediação do Papa João Paulo II e ao posterior retorno da democracia à Argentina, a discrepância conseguiu ser resolvida pacificamente com a assinatura de um acordo que contou com um esmagador apoio da população argentina, representado através do plebiscito de 1984. O presente artigo propõe analisar os sentimentos em torno ao acordo e a consulta que circularam pelas páginas do Río Negro, o diário mais influente do norte da patagônia argentina. Para isto, incorporando ferramentas da Análise do Discurso, comparamos notícias, editoriais e notas de opinião publicadas nas seções em que o diário abordou informação nacional e regional. Este trabalho permite demostrar que no diário prevaleceram os discursos favoráveis ao acordo acima daqueles que propuseram uma leitura negativa sobre o mesmo. O diário apresentou os primeiros como expressão do novo clima democrático que a sociedade argentina começava a viver.
In their 200 years as independent nations, both Chile and Argentina fought wars against all their neighbors, except each other. However, on the Christmas of 1978, controversy over the limits of the Beagle Channel almost made them face one other on the battlefield. It was thanks to the timely mediation of Pope John Paul II and Argentina's later return to democracy that the conflict was pacifically resolved, through an agreement overwhelmingly supported by the Argentinian people, who expressed their approval in the 1984 referendum. The present article aims to analyze the meanings surrounding the agreement and the referendum, expressed in the Rio Negro, the most influential journal of the Argentinian northern Patagonia. In order to achieve it, theoretical tools of discourse analysis are used to study the news, editorials and opinion columns published in the sections in which the newspaper dealt with international, national and regional information. The article shows that in the journal, the positive discourses about the agreement predominated over the negative ones. The former were presented as a manifestation of the new democratic climate experienced by the Argentinian society. ; En doscientos años como repúblicas independientes Chile y la Argentina emprendieron guerras contra todos sus vecinos pero jamás entre ellas. Sin embargo, en la navidad de 1978 la controversia sobre los límites del canal Beagle estuvo cerca de enfrentar a ambos países en el campo de batalla. Gracias a la oportuna mediación del Papa Juan Pablo II y al posterior retorno de la democracia en la Argentina, el diferendo logró resolverse pacíficamente con la firma de un acuerdo que contó con un abrumador apoyo de la población argentina, expresado a través del plebiscito de 1984. El presente artículo propone analizar los sentidos en torno al acuerdo y la consulta que circularon por las páginas del Río Negro, el diario más influyente de la Norpatagonia argentina. Para ello, incorporando herramientas teóricas del análisis del discurso, hemos relevado noticias, editoriales y notas de opinión publicadas en las secciones en las que el diario abordó información internacional, nacional y regional. Este trabajo permite demostrar que en el diario prevalecieron los discursos favorables al acuerdo por sobre aquellos que proponían una lectura negativa sobre el mismo. El diario presentó a los primeros como expresión del nuevo clima democrático que la sociedad argentina comenzaba a vivir. ; Em duzentos anos como repúblicas independentes o Chile e a Argentina empreenderam guerras contra todos sus vizinhos, mas nunca entre elas. Contudo, o Natal de 1978 a controvérsia sobre os limites do canal Beagle esteve cerca de fazer enfrentar a ambos os países no campo de batalha. Graças à oportuna mediação do Papa João Paulo II e ao posterior retorno da democracia à Argentina, a discrepância conseguiu ser resolvida pacificamente com a assinatura de um acordo que contou com um esmagador apoio da população argentina, representado através do plebiscito de 1984. O presente artigo propõe analisar os sentimentos em torno ao acordo e a consulta que circularam pelas páginas do Río Negro, o diário mais influente do norte da patagônia argentina. Para isto, incorporando ferramentas da Análise do Discurso, comparamos notícias, editoriais e notas de opinião publicadas nas seções em que o diário abordou informação nacional e regional. Este trabalho permite demostrar que no diário prevaleceram os discursos favoráveis ao acordo acima daqueles que propuseram uma leitura negativa sobre o mesmo. O diário apresentou os primeiros como expressão do novo clima democrático que a sociedade argentina começava a viver.
This article deals with the social, economic and political factors which determined the emigration of poor peasants and low skilled laborers from Madeira, to Curaçao and why they made this choice. A first and massive wave took place in the period of the 1920s until the 1950s and the workers came on a contract for the oil industry. The Portuguese island of Madeira, experienced serious economic problems and social disparities in those days. This was also the period in which the authoritarian Portuguese government controlled the migration of its people. The labor migration for the oil industry came to an end in the 1950s but the Madeirean immigration continued thereafter, because the need of labor for certain specific areas and jobs for which almost no local laborer wanted to apply, such as in agriculture in Curaçao, was an important factor. But it was, on one hand, also the result of persisting social and political problems in the homeland, conscription for the army in wartime and little perspective for individual progress. On the other hand the pull factors after the oil period were considered strong enough to maintain a considerable attraction to Curaçao. ; Este artículo trata sobre los factores sociales, económicos y políticos que propiciaron la emigración de campesinos pobres y de trabajadores poco diestros de Madeira a Curazao, y por qué tomaron esta decisión. Una primera y masiva ola tuvo lugar en el periodo de los años 20 hasta los años 50 con trabajadores que iban contratados por la industria petrolera. La isla portuguesa de Madeira experimentó serios problemas económicos y disparidades sociales durante este tiempo. Este también fue el periodo en el cual el autoritario gobierno portugués controlaba la migración de su gente. La migración de trabajadores para la industria petrolera terminó en los 50 pero la inmigración continuó después por la necesidad de trabajo en ciertas áreas específicas y trabajos para los cuales los trabajadores locales no querían solicitar, como la agricultura en Curazao, fue un factor importante. Pero también fue en parte el resultado de los persistentes problemas sociales y políticos en el país, el reclutamiento del ejército en época de guerra y la falta de perspectiva para el progreso individual. De otra parte, los factores de atracción luego del periodo petrolero eran considerados lo suficientemente fuertes para mantener una atracción considerable hacia Curazao. ; Cet article analyse les facteurs socio-économiques et politiques qui ont provoqué l'émigration de paysans et de travailleurs peu doués de Madeira à Curaçao, pour lesquelles ils ont pris cette décision. La première vague d'immigration massive de travailleurs embauchés par l'industrie pétrolière s'est déroulée durant les années 1920 jusque dans les années 1950. Durant cette période, l'île portugaise de Madeira a subi de sérieux problèmes économiques et sociaux. Le gouvernement portugais a pris une série de mesure afin de contrôler l'immigration de ses ressortissants. L'immigration de travailleurs embauchés par l'industrie pétrolière a pris fin durant les années 1950. Cependant, cette immigration a continué et est devenue un facteur important, à cause de certains emplois dans des secteurs spécifiques, tels que l'agriculture à Curaçao, où les travailleurs locaux ne voulaient pas travailler. Cette immigration est aussi due aux problèmes sociaux - politiques qui ont persisté dans le pays, les recrutements réalisés par l'armé durant la guerre et le manque de perspective d'avenir. De plus, même après la période pétrolière, Curaçao a continué à être considérée comme un territoire attractif.
[Abstract] In 2014, Basuki Cahaya Purnama was inaugurated as the Governor of Jakarta after Joko Widodo became the president of Republic of Indonesia. The Tionghoans in Indonesia again paved their way to the domestic politics area actively with a view to retaining the rights and development of the Tionghoan society. Nonetheless, parties founded by the Tionghoans had stagnation with no progress in politics while the main mode for the Tionghoans' political participation in the future is depicted. The first half part of this article will focus the change of the Tionghoans' political participation in the Post-Soeharto Era so as to depict the main political participation mode. As the result, the article suggests that political participation gives Tionghoans an opportunity to acquire identity from the local society. After more Tionghoans' join the political field, the interaction between them and the local people will pave the way to further the identity to another level. Keywords: Indonesian-Tionghoa, political participation, identity, Post-Soeharto Era [中文摘要] 2014年印尼出現歷史上首位民選華人省長-鍾萬學,不僅象徵印尼華人之參政邁向新里程碑,激勵更多華人投入當地政治事務,亦有助於提昇當地華人地位並維繫其發展與權利。然而回顧後蘇哈托時期印尼華人的參政過程,華人政黨已漸式微,取而代之的是華人代表主流政黨參與議會或地方選舉;而透過民主體制之參政途徑,華人社會除了得以凝聚族群自我認同,亦有爭取當地社會認同之契機,進而實現多元主義國家之遠程目標。 是故,本文將透過國內外針對後蘇哈托時期印尼華人參政之研究與文獻,以及當前華人參政之事實,分析其主要參政模式,進而說明印尼華人參政之重要性,不單只為維繫華人社會之生存與發展;相對地,本文認為,參政是為爭取當地社會對於華人之認同的契機與途徑。儘管目前印尼華人仍須積極耕耘當地政治領域,然而以參政為切入點,不僅得以探察當地社會對於華人之認同,當華人參政之勢漸盛,亦能向內凝聚自我認同,向外達到雙方其他層面之認同,最後推展至與印尼社會團結共處之互動模式。 關鍵字:印尼華人、華人參政、族群認同、後蘇哈托時期
Cultural values and their impact on people's attitudes and behavior have long been a place for debate. Globalization, migration and expatriation have contributed to the conflict caused by the interaction among multiple cultural identities, particularly when it comes to organizations with diverse workforce. Specifically, France is a unique case that provides a historically and culturally rich, yet very ambiguous context for studying this topic. The dominant culture in France emphasizes on egalitarianism and secularism. However, a great part of the population has adopted distinct cultural values with regard to their religious beliefs. Moreover, the perception about 'equal opportunities' provided by the society varies considerably across the cultures. The topic is specifically important at workplace, where individuals with diverse and sometimes divergent beliefs take part in collective activities. The objective of this dissertation is to discover the mechanisms by which cultural attributes predict work ethic and productivity- first, through their interaction with religious beliefs; and second through the implicit theories about the societal structure. The findings reveal that religious thoughts positively influence work ethic and level effort when a culture of religiosity is prominent and negatively when the laïc culture is salient. Furthermore, this research sheds light to the different perceptions about equal opportunities in the society. The meritocratic attitudes are directly influenced by the extent to which people perceive the social structure to be malleable vs. fixed. Across three essays, this dissertation addresses a particularly important issue as faced by employers and policy makers, specifically in France. It provides a compelling understanding about a number of antecedents of work ethic and work behavior; namely, the cultural and religious values, perceptions about malleability of the social structure, and mindsets. ; Les valeurs culturelles et leur impact sur les attitudes et les comportements ont longtemps été un objet de débat. La mondialisation, la migration et l'expatriation ont contribué au conflit provoqué par l'interaction entre les multiples identités culturelles, en particulier lorsqu'il s'agit d'organisations constituées de personnel diversifié. La France est un cas singulier, offrant un contexte historique et culturel particulièrement intéressant pour l'étude de ce sujet. En effet, la culture dominante en France prône l'égalitarisme et la laïcité. Parallèlement, une grande partie de la population française a adopté des valeurs culturelles issues de ses croyances religieuses. De plus, les perceptions au sujet de «l'égalité des chances» offerte par la société varient considérablement selon les cultures. Cette question est particulièrement importante dans un environnement de travail où les individus ayant des croyances diverses et complexes participent à des activités collectives. L'objectif de cette thèse est de découvrir les mécanismes par lesquels les attributs culturels déterminent une éthique de travail - premièrement, à travers leur interaction avec les croyances religieuses; et deuxièmement, à travers les croyances implicites sur la structure de la société. Les résultats révèlent que les pensées religieuses influencent positivement l'éthique de travail et le niveau de l'effort quand une culture de la religiosité est proéminente et négativement lorsque la culture laïque est saillante. Par ailleurs, cette recherche éclaircit les différentes perceptions de l'égalité des chances dans la société. Les attitudes méritocratiques sont directement influencées par la façon dont les gens distinguent la structure sociale : selon qu'elle soit perçue comme rigide ou malléable. Sur trois essais, cette thèse soulève une problématique particulièrement importante à laquelle font face les employeurs et les décideurs politiques, en particulier en France. Elle fournit une explication quant à l'impact des valeurs culturelles et religieuses, des perceptions sur la malléabilité de la structure sociale, et des mentalités, sur la prévision de l'éthique de travail et la motivation.
香港在主流革命史學的敘述中一般被認為是推動辛亥革命的「搖籃」,但在革命黨人之外的社會大眾,對「革命」究竟有怎樣的取態?《香港華字日報》是這段時期香港銷量最大的華文報紙,仔細考察該報創辦的歷史及其1909-1913年的政治取態,可見該報是華商陳氏家族的一份現代產業,並無黨派認同,報紙內容與宗旨也頗具現代傳媒的新聞專業主義色彩,強調「中立」而較少傳統「文人論政」情懷。 ; 本文選取1909-1913年的《香港華字日報》,剖析這五年的報紙中與「革命」相關的內容細節,認為這份報紙對「革命」並非積極推動,取態反而偏於保守,並順應時勢而調整:辛亥前報紙展現的「革命」介於傳統和現代之間,既是「犯上作亂」的傳統造反,又是謀求民族獨立、政治改良的現代革命;而辛亥之後,報紙不滿意革命黨建立的地方政府,轉而支持中央而強烈反對革命黨的「二次革命」。這樣的取態既反映了部份以往未得到充分審視的社會輿論,也與報紙自身的立場及處境有關。 ; Hong Kong is understood as the "birthplace" of the 1911 Revolution in mainstream studies of the Chinese Revolution. But besides the revolutionaries, how did ordinary people understand "revolution"? Wah Tsz Yat Po was the most widely circulated Chinese language newspaper in Hong Kong during the period concerned. The thesis is an in-depth study of the newspaper's founding history and its political stance during 1909-1913. It is found that the newspaper was a modernised property owned by the Chan family in Hong Kong. It did not have political affiliations. Its content and objectives showed the newspaper's emphasis on journalistic professionalism that was similar to that held by modern day mass media, preferring "neutrality" over the tradition of providing political comments. ; The thesis closely examines the content of Wah Tsz Yat Po that was related to revolution during 1909-1913. It proposes that the newspaper did not play an active role in promoting revolution. Its stance was rather conservative instead and changed in accordance with political developments. Before the revolution of 1911, the newspaper regarded "revolution" as something between tradition and modernity. It was understood as a "rebellion against the authorities" in the traditional sense and also as a way to attain national independence and political reform in the modern sense. After 1911, the newspaper was against the local government set up by the revolutionists. It then turned its support to Yuan's central government and took a strong oppositional stance towards "the Second Revolution" initiated by Sun's revolutionary party. Its stance not ...
