This article begins with a brief terminological clarification regarding the meaning ofthe term freedom of education and then proceeds to analyze the context of politica1 philosophy, that isthe re1ations that exist between Authority and the common citizen. It follows from this anaIysis that freedomof education is a specia1 guarantee that ensures the survival of freedom in general. Mterwards the author proceeds to study the different approathes which severa! Marxist groups have followed with regard to the question of. education jn Spain, and to carry out a particular anaIysis of the document An . Alternative lor Education. The author's critique of this document is accompanied by that critique which comes from the radical Marxist wing. The main Marxist attitudes with regard. to this topic can be placed within the framework of a global strategy of Gramscian origin which constitutes an attempt to conquer politica1 power by mesns of a war of positions within the boundaries of the mstitutions which make up the civil society. Inthis sense, the school is a particularly favorable meeting-ground. The critique of this strategy gives rise to a new meaning of social freedom and of the defense of a Society which is at least as strong as the State. The author hap~ tobe in favor of the multiplication of social institutions and of the benefits that derive from diversity, and sees this as asure guarantee of freedom for all citizens within society.
Este trabajo revisa críticamente la visión funcionalista del liderazgo. La dimensión de control y eficacia es la característica predominante de esta visión cuantitativa del liderazgo. En cambio, hoy en día las acciones de liderazgo están dirigidas a la inclusión social de la diversidad de la población escolar como la meta más urgente en las políticas y acciones escolares. Así, estas dos visiones de la acción de liderazgo son contradictorias y origen de dilemas importantes: por una parte la visión estatal funcionalista y, por otra, la visión local sustentada en las raíces de la Sociedad Civil. La opción es un nuevo concepto denominado liderazgo social. En este trabajo se señalan sus características: interaccionismo inclusivo, organizaciones horizontales, toma de decisiones democráticas y acciones emocionales orientadas a la mejora del aprendizaje del alumnado. This paper is a critical review of leadership based on functionalist theory. Current literature emphasises a quantitative approach of leadership which main dimension are control and efficacy. But nowadays at primary and secondary school is more important to improve process of inclusion of the population diversity as main goal of schooling. The two visions, that is, State and Administrative approach of leadership and Civil Society development of local leadership are in permanent conflicts, contradictions and dilemmas. The option is a new leadership's concept: social leadership. In this concept I sketch some target actions: partnership interactionist, inclusiveness, flat organizations, democratic decision making and emotional action aimed to improve students' achievement.
SUMMARIUM Cautío iuris libertatis conscientiae multum interest in iuridica ordinatione nationalis et internationalis vitae. PIures sunt eius implicationes constitutionali, civili, administrativo, vindicativo atque internationali iuri. Tutissimum fuit quam primum hoc ius iurisdictione internationali (interventus humanitatis, cognitio condltionata, foedera paucarum gentium, praecepta, etcetera . . ). Hac tutela perpensa, in articulo adstante scripta quae tantum referantur ad novissima tempora studuntur: Declarationis Universalis iurium hominum 1948; Pacti iurium civilium atque politicorum O.N.U. 1966 (art. 18); Proyecti Conventionis Internationalís, aprobationem Generalis Contionis exspectantis (Huius Proyecti elaboratio nunc hic exponitur). Considerantur statim argumenta quibus ius libertatis conscientiae delineatur in Proyecto, et eius nexus cum scriptis supra dictis et conventione Europaea Iurium hominum atque Libertatum fundamentalium 1950. Auctor speciali modo animum attendit, et sic iudicat, ad modum quo in Proyecto aliquae agantur quaestiones graves (relationes mutuae Ecclesiae-rei publicae, limites iuris «in societate democratica», docentia, etc.). Denique consideratur ratio vigilantiae rei publicae munerum, quae constituuntur a Conventione, et tuitionls iuris tuti: testimonia, conciliatio officiaque bona, et fortasse subiectio sententiae Tribunalis Internationalis Iustitiae. Haec opes existimantur in praesenti statu incrementí Communitatis Internationalis atque iuris gentium. --- ABSTRACT The guarantee of freedom of conscience ls of great importance in the juridical regulation of life in intra-State and International Society. Its implications are numerous in the fields of constitutional, civil, administrative, penal and international law. Of aH human rights, this was one of the earliest to become the object of international juridical protection (appeal to humaneness, conditional recognition, minority-treaties, mandates, etc.). Considering this protection, with reference to recent times only, this present work studies the corresponding texts of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948, of the United Nations Agreement for Civil and Political Rights 1966 (art. 18) and of the Project of International Agreement, which is pending approval by the General Assembly, and describes the stages of the latters elaboration. The contents of the Project which outline the right of freedom of Conscience are considered successively and its relationship with the above-mentioned texts and the European Convention of Human Rights and Fundamental Liberties 1950. The author pays special attention to and gives his opinion on the manner in which the Project deals with certain important problems, such as Church-State relations, the limitation of rights «in a democratic society», education, etc. FinaHy a study is made of the mechanism of control of the obiigations of States which is established by the Agreement, and of the protection of garanteed rights reports, conciliation and good offices, and possible submission to the decision of the International Court of Justice, and a judgement is expressed on those means from the point of the actual state of developement of the International Community and from the point of view of the Rights of Peoples.
Summarium Notio sic dicta Status lurlS, orta patrocinio doctrinae de tripartita potestatum separatione (Iegislativae, exsecutivae et iudicialis), pro SUrnrnQ legj$ imperio est; Status scilicet iuris Status qUidem est legi pi ene su• biectus. Haec notio Status necessario fontium hierarchiam ponit. Fons dicitur veluti productionisiuridicae; si autem normae iuridicae effectus fontium iuridicae pro. ductionis intelliguntur, distinguendae sunt fontium pro• ductionis hierarchia (ordo cum sit fontium productionis secundum potestatem qua complectuntur et ordo etiam sit potestatum atque munerum) ac normarum iuridlca• rum formalis hierarehia. Hierarchia fontium, principii legalitatis quod in statu iuris regit postulatio, via est apta ad iuridicam securitatem consequendam ac civium iurium tutelam adversus potestatis exercitationem arbitrariam. In ordinamento Ecclesiae fontium hierarchia non est nec normarum forma'lis hierarchia; quoquo modo orga• norum hierarchia gradu innixa quo in organizatione potitur. Sed ecclesiasticum magisterium uberius est in pe• titionibusa civili societate de iuridica curan da securitate civium ac de tutela iurium fundamentalium per• sonae humanae. Huius doctrinae conscia sunt Principia quae Codicois luris Canoniei recognitionem dirigant, in I Synodo Episcoporum anno 1967 disputata. Ouamobrem necesse est in ordinamentum canonicum fontium hierarchiam indu. cere, ad huius rei partes transitis maximi nominis viris in doctrina canonica. Ouod in 'Ecclesia nec separatio potestatum exsistat huic proposito obex non est quia in eius sinu possibilis distinctio munerum et ea de causa legiferorum orga• norum, exsecutionis et iudicialium. De hoc sensu quidem servanda semper divinae constitutionis Ecclesiae structura et ordinamenti Ecclesiae species. Haec indagatio concluditur plurimis suggestis de iure ¡contiendo super ratione ordinamenti ECclesiae applicandi principii fontium hierarchiae. Fontium hie. rarchia in canonico ordinamentoesset: 1) lex funda. mentalis; 2) Ordinarie leges normativae; 3) Normae pro administratione; 4) Negotia administrativa; 5) Consue. tudo. Ut vero fidem nullam normam inferiorem aliae superioriexcellere opus est fontium hierarchiae iuris• dictionalem vigilantiam etiam introducere. --- Abstract The concept State of Law, which carne into being in the light of the theory of the tripartite separation of powers (legislative,executive and judicial), is equi• valent to sovereignty of the law; that is, State of law is the State which is fully subjected to the law; this idea of State necessarily implies a hierarchy of sources. By -source. one understands a source of legal pro• duction and that the ,Iegall norms are a product of the sources of production; one has to distinguish the hierarchy of the sources of produetion (because there exists a hierarchy of the sources of production according to the power in which they are, and there ls al so a hierarchy of powers and functions) from the formal hierarchy of ,legal norms. The hierarchy of sources, exigence of the principie of legality which prevails in the State of law, is an adequate medium through which legal security and tutelage of the rights of the citizens could be obtained, to confront the arbitrary exercise of power. In the arrangement of the Church there neither exists hierarchy of sources nor formal hierarchy of norms; in any case it is an organie hierarehy based on its importance in the organization. But the teaching of the Church is pregnant with petitions to the civil society to seek the legal security of the citizens and the tutelage of the fundamental rights of the human being; consistent with this doctrine are the PrblcoiP.ia quae Codicis luris Canoniel recognitionem dirigant which were discussed at the firts Synod of Bishops in 1967; this made it necessary to introduce into the ca• nonical set up the hierarchy of sources, a question on which the most reknowned pronouncement has favoura• bly been made concerning canonical doctrine. The existence of the division of powers in the Church is no obstacle to this objective because it is possible to have a distinction of function and, therefore, a distinction of legislative, executive and judicial organs; in this sense, the structure of the divine constitution of the Church and the pecularities of the canonical I3rrangement have always got to be safeguarded. This research ends with numerous suggestions de iure eondendo on the way of applying the principie of the hierarchy of sources to the canonical set up. The hierarchy of sources in thecanonical set up would be: 1) Constitution; 2) Ordinary standard iaws; 3) Norms of the administration; 4) Standard business; 5) Costume. To guarantee that no inferior norm prevails over a superior one it is also necessary to introduce jurisdiccional control of the hierarchy of sources.
In 1964, the government of President João Goulart was overthrown by a military coup. For the first time, the Brazilian soldiers specified that they would not hand over power to another civilian politician, they would be in charge of assuming the task of "modernizing" the country. In the years that followed, military governments emerged in Argentina, Peru, and Bolivia, imbued with the same confidence in their ability to create a modern industrial society. The same happened, to an extent, in Panama. This paper seeks to clarify the model of the political system that the aforementioned military groups intend to develop. To this end, special attention has been devoted to studying their thinking in order to clearly determine their ideology and predict both their eventual future evolution and the possibility of success of this development model. ; En 1964, el Gobierno del presidente João Goulart fue derrocado por un golpe militar. Por primera vez los uniformados brasileños especificaban que no entregarían el poder a otro político civil, serían ellos los encargados de asumir la tarea de "modernizar" el país. En los años siguientes, en Argentina, Perú y Bolivia surgieron gobiernos militares imbuidos de la misma confianza en su capacidad para crear una moderna sociedad industrial. Lo mismo ocurrió en Panamá. En este trabajo se busca clarificar el modelo de sistema político que se proponen desarrollar los grupos militares señalados. Para ello, se ha destinado especial atención al estudio de su pensamiento con el fin de determinar con claridad su ideología y predecir tanto su eventual evolución futura, como la posibilidad de éxito del modelo de desarrollo.
