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Hizballah, the "Party of God" started to take shape in Lebanon in 1982, as a response to the Israeli invasion. During the first stage of its existence, Hizballah -- deeply influenced by the example of the 1979 Islamic revolution in Iran -- aimed not only at turning back the Israelis but at the creation of an Islamic state in Lebanon (idea that lost much of its importance during the last years). In fact, at the time Hizballah was both a radical Islamist movement and a communal political organization, aiming at representing the Shi'a of Lebanon. This categorization overlooks the fact that, in the course of time, Hizballah has become something much more complex than a purely military and/or terrorist organization. Gradually it had extended its presence in the Lebanese civil society, creating a increasingly extensive network of welfare and educational services. Then, beginning with 1992, Hizballah, going through a crucial political development, started to take part in the elections, repeatedly winning several seats. Since then, Hizballah has progressively lost much of its identity as a community based Islamist party, and has increasingly turned into a modern nationalist mass party, although with its own peculiar features. The aim of this article is that of arriving at a more balanced assessment of Hizballah than the one that is presently dominant in the West. Accordingly it sketches out the historical development of the movement and its (incomplete) transformation from a military organization into a modern political party, actively involved in parliamentary politics. In doing this, the structure of the "Party of God" is analyzed and discussed, in order to explain some of Hizballah's main peculiarities. Finally, a conclusion dwells on two main problems left open by Hizballah's incomplete transformation, namely: (1) the continuing contradiction between Hizballah as terrorist-Islamist organization and Hizballah as a modern political party acting in a democratic setting; and (2) the problems arising from the mixture between religion and politics that continues to inform Hizballah's politics. Adapted from the source document.

Elena Ghika, known by the artistic name of Dora d'Istria, educated and erudite woman, is part of the debate on the female civil and cultural emancipation that took place during the nineteenth century. Ready to defend her rights and those of other women, she proposes as a solution the spread of education.Dora herself argued that the origin of inequality between men and women was not biological in nature but social in nature. So it depended on a cultural tradition that women did not have to educate themselves. All this had caused exclusion from women's politics and allowed the emergence of false opinions about their natural inferiority. Such hostile behavior towards women Dora had noted in traditional structures, the real problem was to free society from the ancient stereotypes about female and male roles.Using historiographical sources, articles and archival documents, the research aims to underline the important role that the Romanian intellectual played in the European scene as a writer and a woman involved in politics. The aim of the work is to reconstruct his thoughts on women through his works and his contacts with intellectuals of the time who appreciated both political and pedagogical thought in her. ; Elena Ghika, conosciuta con il nome d'arte di Dora d'Istria, donna istruita ed erudita, si inserisce nel dibattito sulla emancipazione civile e culturale femminile in atto nel corso del xix secolo. Pronta a difendere i suoi diritti e quelli delle altre donne, propone come soluzione la diffusione dell'istruzione.La stessa Dora, sostenne che l'origine della disuguaglianza tra uomo e donna non era di natura biologica, ma di natura sociale. Quindi dipendeva da una tradizione culturale secondo cui le donne non dovessero istruirsi. Tutto questo aveva causato l'esclusione dalla politica delle donne e consentito l'emergere di false opinioni in merito alla loro inferiorità naturale. Un comportamento così ostile verso le donne Dora lo aveva notato in strutture tradizionali, il vero problema era liberare la società dagli antichi stereotipi riguardanti i ruoli femminili e quelli maschili.Utilizzando fonti storiografiche, articoli e documenti d'archivio, la ricerca è volta a sottolineare l'importante ruolo che l'intellettuale rumena ebbe nel panorama europeo come scrittrice e donna impegnata in politica. L'obiettivo del lavoro è ricostruire il suo pensiero sulle donne attraverso le sue opere e i suoi contatti con gli intellettuali del tempo che apprezzarono in lei il pensiero sia politico che pedagogico.

2011/2012 ; Societies of eastern European countries and among them Albania since more than two decades have overturned the communist regime and have started their path of versatile social, political and economical change. But despite the fact that much time has passed, still many uncertainties remain unanswered regarding the modernization change vector of these societies. In the theoretical framework of classical approaches on modernization, which are embraced by most scholars of transitology, the prospect of these countries was clear, as long as the finality was predetermined – to achieve the Western model of modernity. As result the entire process of change was simply mechanical and consisted only in finding adequate instruments to implement the necessary reforms to achieve this development model. But even if there existed a social compromise in order to passively accept a uni-linear and teleological development philosophy, it dismantle any source of diversity by questioning the modernity per se, it is not only unworthy but above all impossible. Thus starting from this premise, some other researchers oppose this approach by pretending more a plural conceptualization of post-communist modernity than a homogenizing one. Exactly from this critical theoretical coordinate starts my research on post-communist modernity seeking to break free firstly from this paradigm, in order to be able to observe with other lenses Albanian post - communist reality. We're thus looking for a local path to modernization of Albanian society and agents that participate in this social change. Although aware from the starting point, that we cannot find any meaningful features of any local modernity, because the homogenizing and uni-linear paradigm of modernization is perpetuated by all local actors as an undisputable modus operandi, reflected in the society vocation of integration into the European Union. More concretely, the main object of theoretical and empirical analyze in this dissertation becomes the state-society relationship, as it manifests in the best mode the typology of social change that Albanian society is experiencing. Indeed, while the whole society is appealed to participate in the installation of "new order", the opposite is observed- political alienation of society, deterioration of horizontal and vertical trust, low participation, inactive civil society that reduces the relationship state - society in a dysfunctional relationship. The state instead of being valued as the castle that we must build altogether is increasingly seen as a foreign body within the social organism. By analyzing at the empirical and theoretical level historical and actual reasons of these phenomena, we will try to explore better the physiognomy of post-communist modernity in Albania (if such exists) and of participatory agents in the social change process. ; XXV Ciclo ; 1980

[ita] Questa tesi si propone di dibattere il significato e l'applicazione della governance alla luce dei processi di globalizzazione che, soprattutto negli ultimi decenni, hanno cambiato il volto del pianeta. Per poter analizzare questo nuova paradigma, si prendono in esame alcuni fenomeni che caratterizzano, a nostro avviso, la società attuale: prima di tutto quello dell'anarchia nelle relazioni internazionali, e il successivo disordine che continua a generare; il processo della globalizzazione con le sue conseguenze non solo sulle economie ma anche nella società e sugli individui; la "crisi dello Stato" e i nuovi attori che emergono sia "dall'alto che "dal basso" ; infine il funzionamento delle istituzioni internazionale, in primis le Nazioni Unite, a livello globale. Lo scopo è di capire, soprattutto dopo la fase di disorientamento che si è creata dopo la caduta del muro di Berlino nel 1989, se al giorno d'oggi esiste un modello che può porsi come forma nuova di fare politica al fine di generare un "ordine nel disordine", soprattutto alla luce della crisi del sistema democratico tradizionale. Senza dubbio, è innegabile che il mondo e i problemi globali che lo caratterizzano hanno bisogno di un diverso modello che richiede una partecipazione maggiore e promuova nuove forme di intervento nei confronti di queste problematiche globali. Può la governance, tenute presenti tutte le riserve e le ambiguità che suscita la parola e le sue applicazioni, rappresentare questo modello? In che modo può esser migliorato tanto il suo meccanismo come quello di chi (a livello istituzionale) deve farsene portavoce? A queste domande si cerca di dare delle risposte al fine di tenere vivo il dibattito su questioni di importanza e intersse globale: temi che hanno bisogno di un intervento oggi più che mai urgente. ; [eng] This thesis aims to discuss the meaning and application of governance in the light of globalization processes that have changed the face of the planet, especially in recent decades. In order to analyse this new paradigm, we examine some of the phenomena that characterize, in our view, society today: first of all the anarchy in international relations, and the subsequent disorder that continues to generate; the process of globalization and its consequences not only on economies but also on society and individuals; the "crisis of the State" and new actors that emerge "from above" and "from below "; finally how international institutions, and above all United Nations, works at the global level.

Society today asks the school to educate future citizens according to theprinciples of planetary citizenship and democratic coexistence. Therefore,the school is called to question what to do about the educational action tobe activated, in order to make effective the educational offer put in place, inthis case in the field of civic education, active citizenship and civil coexistence.In this sense, civic education through its transversality can be assumedas a model of reference for its peculiar pedagogical system, it can representthe discipline that gives unity and organicity to all educational design, thussubstantiating of new significance the field of education to civil coexistenceand active citizenship, in relation to an emancisocial and democratic educationalpractice. Of course, study and research must substantiate scientificityin the actual realization of what is supposed that in this contribution findsin nuce a first theoretical and practical explicitness that will have to takeshape in subsequent research and experimentation activities. ; La società chiede oggi alla scuola di educare i futuri cittadini secondo i principidella cittadinanza planetaria e della convivenza democratica. Pertanto,la scuola è chiamata a interrogarsi sul da farsi in ordine all'azione educativada attivare, al fine da rendere efficace l'offerta formativa posta in essere, nellafattispecie nell'ambito dell'educazione civica, della cittadinanza attiva e dellaconvivenza civile. In tal senso, l'educazione civica attraverso la sua trasversalitàpuò essere assunta come modello di riferimento, per il suo peculiareimpianto pedagogico può rappresentare la disciplina che dà unità e organicitàa tutta la progettazione didattica, sostanziando così di significanza nuoval'ambito dell'educazione alla convivenza civile e della cittadinanza attiva, inrelazione a una prassi didattica emancipativa e democratica. Ovviamente lostudio e la ricerca devono sostanziare di scientificità la fattiva realizzazionedi quanto supposto che nel presente contributo trova ...

Afghanistan's destiny has never appeared to western public opinion so tragically connected to its past experiences as it is today. The collapse of the Afghan regime that safeguarded Western interests has laid bare its various roles: multiplier of dependence, war factory, impunity guarantor, impassable border. But the West doesn't consist only of institutions and governments: the civil society plays its own role, raises contradictions, and creates opportunities for exchange. ; Afghanistan's destiny has never appeared to western public opinion so tragically connected to its past experiences as it is today. The collapse of the Afghan regime that safeguarded Western interests has laid bare its various roles: multiplier of dependence, war factory, impunity guarantor, impassable border. But the West doesn't consist only of institutions and governments: the civil society plays its own role, raises contradictions, and creates opportunities for exchange.

Starting from a brief de-functionalizing analysis of the info-spectacular society, the essay explores the pervasiveness of the repressive-disciplining forms which are increasingly affecting the behaviors of the individualities in the info-spherical dominion. In particular, the paper focuses on what will be defined the "serializing" and highlights some repetitive-determinant aspects of the video-seriality that are involved in the processes of "over-codification" imposed by the infosphere on the anthropo-sphere. In order to define the serializing will be taken in exam both the possible evolutions of the Gelassenheit and the "dispositiviness" imposed by info-securitarian post- democracies through the hard and soft repressive systems. In this perspective we will postulate that every cybernetic singularity is info-determined by a "code-valuable string" that seems to be capable of maintaining a continuous over-codification of the imaginary and of the human behavior.

The present article addresses the question of the relationship between the Constitution of the State and the freedom of the individual in the light of the recent book by professor Giuseppe Duso Libertà e Costituzione in Hegel, an essay regarding Hegel's political think-ing and particularly on his Philosophy of Right. By trying to sum up Hegel's complex ar-gument about sovereignty and government, this article aims to highlight an historical and theoretical problem: with the end of the Jus Publicum Europaeum something has changed in the conceiving of the relation between State and civil society. It seems nowadays very hard to figure out government without sovereignty because of the difficult to imagine a po-litical functioning within the "totality" brought about by the age of globalization and by the crisis of the national States.

Dottorato di ricerca in Diritto dei mercati: crisi, diritti e regolazione ; La presente ricerca ha ad oggetto la eventuale configurabilità nell'ordinamento giuridico italiano di risarcimenti con funzione anche sanzionatoria e/o deterrente nelle ipotesi in cui la tradizionale funzione compensativa della responsabilità civile rischia di non assicurare un adeguato livello di tutela effettiva alle situazioni giuridiche soggettive lese (illeciti senza danno, microviolazioni, reati bagatellari, danni non patrimoniali). Il tema in esame si inscrive nel dibattito dottrinale e giurisprudenziale concernente la natura mono o polifunzionale dell'istituto aquiliano. Per procedere allo svolgimento di necessarie riflessioni sul punto, si è preliminarmente focalizzata l'attenzione sugli ordinamenti giuridici che per primi hanno concepito rimedi ultracompensativi nell'alveo della responsabilità civile (Paesi di common law capitolo I, parte I), sull'evoluzione registratasi nel tempo con riferimento alle problematiche e agli inconvenienti che hanno occasionato. Altrettanto indispensabile si è rivelata l'indagine sugli argomenti di segno contrario alla configurabilità dei risarcimenti punitivi e/o deterrenti adottati nelle esperienze giuridiche dei principali Paesi di civil law e le aperture, più o meno significative, che si possono riscontrare in tali sistemi giuridici (capitolo I, parte II). Dato atto delle aperture in chiave punitiva del risarcimento presenti in giurisprudenza alla luce del diritto europeo al fine di garantire l'effettività della disciplina sovranazionale, degli orientamenti della Corte di Giustizia e della Corte di Strasburgo rilevanti per il tema in esame, delle problematiche poste dal diritto unionale e convenzionale, nonché dei tentativi di armonizzazione del diritto della responsabilità civile (v. capitolo II), si è ricostruita la evoluzione storica dell'istituto aquiliano – dal diritto romano ad oggi (capitolo III, parte I) – e notato che le regole della responsabilità civile sono state concepite per riparare un "danno" e quindi il deterioramento o la distruzione di un bene sia esso materiale o spirituale - a differenza di altre forme di tutela civile o pubblicistica - con la conseguenza che la introduzione di sanzioni civili punitive e/o deterrenti richiede necessariamente una espressa previsione legislativa (nazionale o europea) e l'osservanza dei principi di prevedibilità e di proporzionalità (tra risarcimento riparatorio-compensativo e risarcimento punitivo e/o deterrente e tra quest'ultimo e la condotta censurata). Di qui l'analisi delle ipotesi tipiche previste all'interno dell'ordinamento giuridico italiano che rispondono a tale finalità sanzionatoria e/o deterrente (capitolo III, parte I e II) e i relativi corollari sostanziali e processuali muovendo, alla luce della disciplina della fattispecie e della conformazione dell'effetto giuridico, dalla necessaria differenziazione tra risarcimenti con funzione anche punitiva e/o deterrente (capitolo III, parte II) e altre obbligazioni pecuniarie non risarcitorie, misure di coercizione indiretta o istituti sui generis riconducibili alla disciplina dell'arricchimento ingiustificato ovvero di altre obbligazioni indennitarie (capitolo III, parte I). Conclusa l'opera di inquadramento giuridico degli istituti implicati nell'attività di ricerca, sono state esaminate le controverse ipotesi di risarcimenti con funzione anche punitiva e/o deterrente e i profili problematici derivanti dal potenziamento della prevenzione e/o sanzione dell'illecito civile esaminando le aperture de jure condito e de jure condendo prospettabili nell'ordinamento giuridico italiano. ; This thesis is focused on punitive damages in Italian private law in the light of main Common law and Civil law perspectives. The latter object, particularly controversial, is widely discussed in doctrine and recent case law incresased interest in the subject manner. Although Italian private law knows different civil sanctions, there are no specific legislative (formal) provisions on "punitive damages". Neverthless some authors underline that traditional compensatory function of tort law (aquilian liability) could not ensure adeguate and effective protection in many problematic situations concerning infringments of rights. For example, mere compensation is not an effective method to deal with personality right infringements; undercompensation situations could take place in mass tort litigations, lucrative breach of contract or calculative torts; moreover, public enforcement does not produce satisfactory results in all situations of wrongdoing. In this sense, punitive damages could improve private enforcement of tort law, deterring and punishing wrongful conducts in society. In order to find out whether this civil remedy is avaible in Italy, it is firstly necessary to understand the meaning of punitive damages, the main characteristics and issues that it has dued in American and English common law (Cap I, par. II). Secondly it is necessary to focus on the reasons for the non-existence of punitive damages in continental Europe, the debate and possible developments in European civil law systems (Cap. I, part. II). The discussion addresses the positions of the European Court of Human Rights, the legislator of the European Union and the Court of Justice of the European Union on punitive damages, the increased attention and need for effective preventive, dissuasive and proportionate sanctions related to European law and the contribute to the enhancement and harmonization of tort law in Europe (PETL and DFCR) with particular reference to this subject matter (Cap. II). The research diffusely focuses on Italian tort law – from ancient Roman law tradiction to nowdays – and the so called multy-functionality conception that – according to some authors and case law – belongs to the system of tort liability. (Cap. III, part I and II). Under this point of view, it is noticed that in Italian tort law, punitive damages are not ontologically inconsistent with the legal system, but a series of fundamental limits have to be observed. In contrast of common law systems, Italian Courts cannot increase the amount of damages pursuing the aims of deterrence and punishment by introducing punitive damages without a typical legislative provision. It is central to ensure the predictability of decisions (cases and condictions in which such award applies and its amount) and punitive damages must comply with the principle of proportionality (among compensatory damages and non compensatory damages and among these one and the wrongful conduct sanctioned or the seriousness of tort). Consequently the research examinates Italian legislative provisions characterized by punishment and/or deterrence in private law. It is important to underline that not all these provisions concern with tort liability. Some special provisions deal with others civil remedies or others civil punitive and/or deterrent sanctions (Cap. III, part I) with relevant corollaries in order to the substantial and processual discipline. In specific cases the amount of damages (or indemnities) is determined having regard to some profiles referred to the wrongdoer (such as seriousness of the offence, the reiteration of the wrong, the enrichment of the wrongdoer, his economic wealth etc.) and, at the same time, to the victim (economic and non economic losses he/she has suffered) (Cap. III, part II). In these hypothesis tort law, specially with regard to immaterial and non economical damages, could have a deterrent and/or punitive function in addition to the traditional compensatory aim. The research, after reviewing the state of art, ends with the possible future developments.

The book presents the proceedings of the conference held in the Aula Magna of the University of Florence on 28 and 29 October 2004. The objective of the conference was to study, through a multidisciplinary approach, the question of government and representation at local, national and European level. Among the central issues addressed during the meeting were models of representation, the links between representation and civil society and the functions of the representative organs. - Il volume raccoglie gli Atti del convegno che si è tenuto presso l'Aula Magna dell'Università degli Studi di Firenze nei giorni 28 e 29 ottobre 2004. Il convegno ha inteso studiare con approccio multidisciplinare la questione del governo e della rappresentanza in un quadro locale, nazionale ed europeo. Temi centrali di riflessione dell'incontro sono stati i modelli di rappresentanza, le connessioni fra rappresentanza e società civile e le funzionalità degli organi rappresentativi.