The classical model of philosophy has shaped ideas about its nature and aims that were laid in ancient metaphysics, but have been substantially amended by civilizational change. Socialcultural background of philosophy became trends that began to emerge in late medieval culture has particularly flourished there during modern times. Sphere of existence is important for the development of any spiritual phenomenon. For metaphysics it is the idea of humanity, acting as a kind of cultural protest against the domination of religion. This caused criticism of the medieval way of life and thinking. The idea of human revival based on spirit of antiquity has grounded. Disclaimer theological philosophy medieval variant type is as opposed to free philosophizing, coupled with poetry and literature, University dogmatic philosophy. There were a «rediscovery» of Plato, Aristotle reinterpretation. Philosophers explored a problem of human emotions and relationships, considering the person as a whole being, which is inherent in the mind, which cannot be considered without bodily desires and emotions. Change of the values awakened activity of the human person, led its transformation settings concerning himself and the surrounding world. Thus objectively obtained expression and ideological embodiment of civilization in a need of a new type of man - to a much greater extent compared to medieval activity, initiative, freedom, rationality, responsibility. Under the influence of such attitudes changes within religion gradually took place. Through the efforts of thinkers like Luther, Calvin, Munzer there were laid ideas of the Reformation that go far beyond its borders, gaining general cultural nature. The Church was increasingly losing control over everyday human existence. Gradually standards of a free, relaxed life became conventional; requirements of the body, «earthly» spirit demands fulfilling played a huge role. Thought and Culture of the Renaissance reflects the image of real life. In these circumstances, some religious institutions in the sixteenth century tried to revive and sustain the traditional symbols humble, «pure», ascetic life. But it could not curb the rapid process of reappraisal. Rationalist tendency, based on the elements of the ancient perception of the world and man's role in it, influenced religion. Reformation caused profound changes in the spiritual and religious region, the political landscape of Europe and in the economic and social structures. Protestantism that arose in the social sphere leads to the formation of a new ethics that justifies the work in any form of business and that becomes part of the general moral values. This problem is clearly explained in the writings of W. Sombart and M. Weber. ; Класична модель філософії сформувалася під впливом тих уявлень про її сутність і завдання, що були закладені ще в античній метафізиці, але які були істотно доповнені цивілізаційними змінами. Соціокультурним тлом розвитку філософії виступили тенденції, які стали виникати в культурі вже пізнього середньовіччя і особливо розквітли в ній у період Нового часу. Важливе значення для розвитку будь-якого духовного явища має середовище, сфера існування. Для метафізики це ідеї гуманізму, які виступають як своєрідний культурний протест проти панування релігії. Результатом цього стає критика середньовічного способу життя й мислення. Обґрунтовується ідея відродження людини на основі духу античності. Відмова від теологічного варіанта філософії середньовічного типу здійснюється як протиставлення вільного філософування, поєднаного з поезією й літературою, університетській догматичній філософії. Відбувається «перевідкриття» Платона, переосмислюються ідеї Арістотеля. Філософи досліджують проблему людських почуттів і взаємин, розглядаючи людину як цілісну істоту, якій властивий розум, котра не може жити поза тілесними бажаннями й афектами. Зміна ціннісних акцентів розбудила активність людської особистості, обумовила перетворення її установок стосовно самої себе й оточуючого світу. Тим самим об'єктивно отримала вираження ідейно-світоглядного втілення потреба цивілізації в людині нового типу – із значно більшою, порівняно із середньовіччям, мірою активності, ініціативи, свободи, розсудливості, відповідальності. Під впливом таких настроїв поступово відбуваються зміни усередині самої релігії. Зусиллями таких мислителів, як Лютер, Кальвін, Мюнцер закладаються ідеї реформації церкви, які виходять далеко за її межі, здобуваючи загальнокультурний характер. Церква починає все більше втрачати контроль над повсякденним існуванням людей. Поступово стверджувалися і все ширше розповсюджувалися норми вільного, розкутого життя; потребам, задоволенням тіла, насолодам «земного» духу відводилася величезна роль. Думка й культура епохи Відродження відображала зміни реального способу життя людей. У цих умовах деякі релігійні інституції в XVІ столітті намагалися оживити й витримати традиційні символи скромного, «чистого», аскетичного життя. Але ці заходи не могли стримати стрімкого процесу переоцінки цінностей. ; Класична модель філософії сформувалася під впливом тих уявлень про її сутність і завдання, що були закладені ще в античній метафізиці, але які були істотно доповнені цивілізаційними змінами. Соціокультурним тлом розвитку філософії виступили тенденції, які стали виникати в культурі вже пізнього середньовіччя і особливо розквітли в ній у період Нового часу. Важливе значення для розвитку будь-якого духовного явища має середовище, сфера існування. Для метафізики це ідеї гуманізму, які виступають як своєрідний культурний протест проти панування релігії. Результатом цього стає критика середньовічного способу життя й мислення. Обґрунтовується ідея відродження людини на основі духу античності. Відмова від теологічного варіанта філософії середньовічного типу здійснюється як протиставлення вільного філософування, поєднаного з поезією й літературою, університетській догматичній філософії. Відбувається «перевідкриття» Платона, переосмислюються ідеї Арістотеля. Філософи досліджують проблему людських почуттів і взаємин, розглядаючи людину як цілісну істоту, якій властивий розум, котра не може жити поза тілесними бажаннями й афектами. Зміна ціннісних акцентів розбудила активність людської особистості, обумовила перетворення її установок стосовно самої себе й оточуючого світу. Тим самим об'єктивно отримала вираження ідейно-світоглядного втілення потреба цивілізації в людині нового типу – із значно більшою, порівняно із середньовіччям, мірою активності, ініціативи, свободи, розсудливості, відповідальності. Під впливом таких настроїв поступово відбуваються зміни усередині самої релігії. Зусиллями таких мислителів, як Лютер, Кальвін, Мюнцер закладаються ідеї реформації церкви, які виходять далеко за її межі, здобуваючи загальнокультурний характер. Церква починає все більше втрачати контроль над повсякденним існуванням людей. Поступово стверджувалися і все ширше розповсюджувалися норми вільного, розкутого життя; потребам, задоволенням тіла, насолодам «земного» духу відводилася величезна роль. Думка й культура епохи Відродження відображала зміни реального способу життя людей. У цих умовах деякі релігійні інституції в XVІ столітті намагалися оживити й витримати традиційні символи скромного, «чистого», аскетичного життя. Але ці заходи не могли стримати стрімкого процесу переоцінки цінностей.
THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY The Literary Journal of Pennsylvania College Entered at the Postofice at Gettysburg as second-class matter VOL. X GETTYSBURG, PA., OCTOBER, 1901 No. 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS Nature's Chain, . 137 The Survival of the Fittest, . . . .138 Man Was Not Made to Mourn, . . . 143 Some Important Deductions from a Comparative Study of My-thologies, . . . . . . 147 The Thunder Storm, . 1SS Editorial, . . 157 Resolutions of Respect, . . . . 158 Oration: The Character of Our Early American Forefathers, . 159 James Russell Eowell, . 165 Exchanges, . . . . . 170 NATURE'S CHAIN [From the "Essay on Man"] Look 'round our world; behold the chain of love Combining- all below and all above, See plastic nature working- to this end, The single atoms each to other tend, Attract, attracted to, the next in place, Formed and impelled its neighbor to embrace. See matter next, with various life endued, Press to one center still, the general good. See dying vegetables life sustain, See life dissolving, vegetate again; All forms that perish other forms supply (By turns we catch the vital breath, and die); Eike bubbles on the sea of matter borne, They rise, they break, and to that sea return. Nothing is foreign; parts relate to whole; One all-extending, all-preserving Soul Connects each being, greatest with the least; Made beast in aid of man, and man of beast; All served, all serving; nothing stands alone ; The chain holds on, and where it ends, unknown. —POPE. ^•jataut HHOMIHIHHBBHHHmBIBH 138 77/^ GETTYSBURG MERCURY THE SURVIVAL OF TME FITTEST D. C. BURNITE, '01 [dies Prize Essay—First Prize] "Ivives of great men all remind us We can make our lives sublime." —Longfellow. TV/fANKIND is like the face of a mountainous country. As we -*■'*■ view the human landscape, here and there, like peaks which rise above the plain and rear their snow-crowned heads among the clouds, appear, in bold contrast to the ordinary level of their fel-lows, the mighty men whose lives are the pages of history. And as we contemplate these epoch makers, there wells up in us, and quite naturally, too, a strong spirit of emulation. We admire them and would be like them. Of course, not every one of us can be a Napoleon, or a Wash-ington, or a Franklin, or a Grant; but each has abundant chances of becoming a less conspicuous, but yet quite prominent, feature in the plane of humanity. And it is the existence of such chances that prompts the youth of today to ask himself and others how best to pursue success. Geologists tell us that peaks owe their existence to their dur-able qualities. The surrounding material, by the action of aqueous erosion, has been carried away, leaving these tall projections which have been able to resist for ages the frictional action of water. Upon this same principle rests the success of the "makers of his-tory." Certain things in their make-up have enabled them to stand firm against the attrition of such circumstances as have swept their less sturdy fellows into the "realm of innocuous des-uetude." Their success is the result of the operation of the prin-ciple of the survival of the fittest. Ever since the world began, the principles and causes which have resulted in such changes as have been mentioned have al-ways been the same, and are the same, as those in operation to-day. And this is true of human affairs; so that the young man must realize that the same principles and causes which determined the success of great men, still operate. Ere he can resist the downward pressure of the busy, indifferent world about him, and, as Greely says, "bulge out over the top, where he is sure to be seen," it is necessary that he follows the same plan to secure suc-cess as that which has enabled others before him to become emi- THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 139 nent. Just as they have survived innumerable discouragements and scaled the heights of fame because they have made themselves the fittest, so must the youth, in order to reach a high place, develop in himself those things which will render him, too, fit to combat opposing forces. And what are the elements of that fitness which has led to the success of men? Rvery person expects to be or do something, some day; that is, all have purposes. Yet most of these are more or less vague. But what we who would get on in the world must have, are defi-nite purposes. A race without a fixed goal is nothing. Without a definite end to strive for, life is a mere "struggle for existence," and existence is all we get. But life is more than this. The fu-ture holds out many prizes to each of us, to be won only by those who decide definitely for what prize they shall strive. The trav-eller must know, if not to what distance he desires to go, at least what is the bearing of the course he wants to pursue, or he may travel in a circle. If we want to move from our present positions, we must have purposes which, though they are not necessarily limited in extent, yet in direction must be definite. Napoleon, at the very outstart of his brilliant career, aimed at the rulership of the French nation. Lincoln had a definite intention, formed early in life, to do good to others. And how signally he suc-ceeded when he liberated those millions of sufferers! And to rise as these men did, we too must adopt this important element of their fitness,—a definiteness of purpose. Besides the fact that great men have had definite intentions, we observe that they all show elements of fitness in the characters they possessed. All the truly great—and we mean by truly great, not a Nero or Lord Byron, but those whom the good admire,— have been men of high morality. And the more elevated their moral traits, the more we admire them. High moral qualities are a part of the equipment which has bsought them, and will bring us, success. As a possessor of such characteristics, "Old Abe" stands pre-eminent,— a veritable personification of honesty; an honesty which did not allow him to support the unjust, though legal, side of a question; an honesty which made him lose in purse, but gain in esteem, till as a result of this quality he attained a world-wide re-spect, which will last as long as man and memory exist. Lincoln's is real fame, and the young man can do nothing better than adopt 140 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY \ I in his character the prime element which brought renown to "Honest Old Abe." True courtesy is a moral quality, based upon thoughtfulness and consideration for others. Men must be gentlemen, if they want to make progress. Great men are not always polished models ot etiquette, but courtesy has always been a mark of their fitness to occupy the positions at which they have aimed. ' 'Jeffersonian simplicity" did not hinder the third President from reaching the place to which he was helped by Jeffersonian courtesy. Eet us avoid error, and imitate in ourselves this essential quality of fit-ness to advance. Impure and intemperate habits invariably destroy all chances of complete success. Neither Burns nor Poe have secured all the glory which steadier lives would have brought. Irregular habits undermine and weaken all the qualities of body, mind, and spirit, and under their influence complete triumph is impossible. Better adopt the kind of habits which rendered long and useful the lives of Greely, Bismarck, and Gladstone. Their temperate lives are models from which men may safely mould their conduct and there-by place themselves among the fittest to survive. Morality is admirable, but when heightened by the influence of Christian principles, it becomes sublime. Men like Luther and Washington, who have worked under the rule of Christianity, stand at the very summit of human esteem. Elijah Morse once said: "Young man, a good character; yes, and a clean, religious life, are the foundation stones for success." But the moral and religious traits we have spoken of are not all that bring success. It is true that they are the "foundation stones," but upon these there has always been built a structure of other materials, which have made their possessors able to sur-vive opposing forces. The extremely pious are not always re-membered, but those whomwe admire most and shall never for-get have linked their piety, as we should do, with other things essential to render them fittest to endure. L,et us speak also of these. Josh Billings says- "Energy is what wins. Many men fail to reach the mark because the powder in them is not proportional to the bullet." Men must have "vim," or they fail to remove what to them seem insurmountable obstacles. The Alps were no barrier to the vigor of Bonaparte. Neither must the young man THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 141 of to-day lack this same sort of energy. It will enable him to sur-vive in the conflict with whatever comes between him and victory. The life of the man who would "fight it out on this line, if it takes all summer," testifies that the aspirant must try to imitate that in Grant which, in vulgar parlance, we call' 'sticktoitiveness.'' He must have a spirit of assiduity. Pluck cannot get along with-out Plod. Those who have become eminent have done so because they have hung to their purpose till triumph has crowned their persistence. Sir Isaac Newton, although met by what would seem to most men an impassable barrier, worked on for thirteen years before he was able to give the world the correct theory of gravity. The pursuit of success is up-hill work and a halt on the slope is fatal. Not one of the world's great men would have been able to survive the friction of ever-appearing hindrances, without this quality of persistency. Neither can any others who lack it hope to appear among the fittest. "Eternal vigilance is the price of success." It was on this principle that Mark Twain worked while becoming famous as a Mississippi River pilot, and later, while rising to his present lit-erary status. He himself testifies to the importance of this trait, when he gives this advice: "I say, young man, put all your eggs in one basket, and then watch that basket \" We must "Stop, look and listen !" for the multifarious dangers we are liable to en-counter. It was the "Father of the New York Tribune" who turned failure into success by following the principle he himself puts forth in these words: "Do the very best you can where you are!" Concentration and thoroughness have marked the lives of those we desire to emulate. We have all made a practice of doing one thing at a time, and doing that well. It was John Wanamaker who once wheeled the delivery barrow of a dry-goods firm through the streets of Philadelphia; and he did it well, too. Concentrated effort in one direction led him finally to make for us an excellent Post-Master-General. And we also can follow his plan and rise. Close attention to little things enabled Watt to notice and use the principle he saw in the movement of his mother's tea-kettle as the means whereby his steam-engine could be impelled. It is of little things the big are made. Nothing we see or experience is too small to receive attention. Andrew Carnegie knows all the details of his immense business,—none too small to be important \ i ■ I i 142 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY to him. Nor must the youth who would succeed act differently from those whose fitness to rise included attention to little things. The best recommendation for the importance of a good educa-tion comes from those who have never had this advantage. Lin-coln's life-long regret was that he had not had a college education, and it limited his powers in many directions. However, self-taught men like he was have managed to climb the steep and reach the level of greatness without it. But just as one member of the body becomes stronger when its mate is injured, so such men, in the absence of higher education, have developed a substitute in the shape of great common sense. This we must have, or our fit-ness to survive the impositions of more shrewd men is impaired All these principles, and many, many others under which great men have worked, we must adopt if we want to aim at true great-ness. However, all cannot reach the topmost places. But an honest attempt to make the conditions in our lives conform to those manifested in the lives of successful men, will, at least, en-able us to rise far above mediocrity. Just as mountain peaks are formed of material most suitable to stand the wear and tear of ages, so must we young men be made of such stuff as will help us to throw off, without injury, those things which would keep us down, and rise till we attract the no-tice and elicit the worthy commendation of our fellows. Yet, let us not forget that the principle of the survival of the fittest extends farther than we have mentioned. For, away back, twenty centuries ago, there appeared a Great Man, a Model such as we find nowhere among the thousands of earthly great. He is the fittest and His survival is everlasting. Would we survive all the ills of this life, would we be classed among the truly fit, would we attain to higher praise than men can give,—heavenly praise ? Ifso, let us emulate him, the Model of all models, the Ideal! Then can we be like Him and join Him in the eternal survival of the fittest. "How void of reason are our hopes and fears 1 What in the conduct of our life appears So well designed, so luckily begun, But when we have our wish, we wish undone." DRYDHN. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 143 MAN WAS NOT MADE TO MOURN J. B. BAKER, '01 [Gies Prize Essay—Second Prize] OOBERT BURNS is the author of a varied and numerous array A * of beautiful poems. As a song writer he is the world's greatest. As rusticity's artist he ranks well with Shakespeare. His heart was great and his genius commensurate, winging its way to loftiest heights and recognizing the meanest things. He has been called the most directly inspired of all the poets. While the fame of other immortals rests upon the matured product of a life study, his finds its basis in the product of an hour. He goes out into the couutr)', disturbs a field mouse and ad-dresses it on the spot in quaint poetic style. A limping hare, a bank of flowers, a winding brook, a chilly blast, a neighbor's weal, a neighbor's woe, all appealed to his sensitive nature and won immediate response in verse. Such an one, however great he be, is in danger. Second thoughts, even in a Shakespeare, are preferable and it is neither a reflection upon the author nor a mark of conceit upon anyone to deferentially differ from him in a passing thought or hastily written verse. Burns said, "Man was made to Mourn.'.' The poem is sub-lime in its pathos but false, we believe, in sentiment. It shows the leaden sky but not the bow of promise. To study the end to which man was made we must ask time to turn backward in her flight for a moment or two and bring up the past. Oliver Wendell Holmes said we ought to begin a man's biog-raphy one hundred years before he is born. We would begin with generic man already when the idea of his creation was first formulated in the Divine Mind, for the idea of creation and the object of existence must have been coeval. They are concomitant notions and of a twin birth. What then was the mood of that pregnant mind at the event-ful date ? That question answered and our query is practically solved, for created things invariably bear the marks of their Creator. The readers of the world know the character and object of a literary production of a known author, before they open the book. They would not expect the sweet placid flow of an Irving from I I 144 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY the rough and rugged Cooper. Nor would they hope to hear the strains of Whittier coming from Virgil's lyre. Neither could have produced the works of the other. Their gems, in prose and song, were merely the externalization of their own minds and they could not have written otherwise because they could not have externalized that which had not already had an anterior internal existence. Precisely so, in our crude, fragmentary, symbolic fashion must we conceive of the Alpha of all reality. We are wooed to believe that everything in this central universe bears marks of kinship with Him, and particularly do we believe it to be true of man. We are like Him. Is He glad or is He sad? Does He mourn? That is the question upon the solution of which depends the pur-posed end of man's existence. To attempt an answer to a question like that, however, involv-ing as it does, eons of time and a Being unfathomable, might ap-pear a bit presumptuous, but a little reflection will prove the con-trary. We cannot escape it. The question abides with us through every period of our rational life. It presses upon us as atmos-pheric air upon our frames. It fills the human mind as star dust fills the sky. We must think of God, but without attributes that is impossible. What then are the qualities discoverable in his na-ture to give us an antecedent probability that man was made to mourn? Those qualities discoverable by us and those recognized by ages before us are wisdom, power and goodness and these in an unlimited degree. The gradual unfolding of orderly arrangement, hitherto unknown, reveals the wisdom. The spangled robe of night reveals the power. While the goodness, as for it, it shines from His very nature as light from the noon-day sun. How One possessed at once of Omniscience, Omnipotence and Infinite Benevolence could ever be sad and in mourning is beyond the grasp of human reason. Mourning implies regret at something that has happened and surely nothing could grieve Him who had the ability and fore-sight to avert the offending cause. Mourning is incompatible with the idea of Divinity as held by the majority of men to-day. But some are disposed to call these qualities into question. Not a few thinkers of eminent ability and indubitable integrity find themselves unable to predicate them of Him. I | El l SOME IMPORTANT DEDUCTIONS FROM A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF MYTHOLOGIES C M. A. STINE, '01 [Gies Prize Essay—Third Prize] THE meaning of the word mythology is, literally, a treatise of *■ myths, or a writing composed of a number of fables. The term is applicable to the writings descriptive of ancient systems of religious beliefs, their various deities, and the attributes and the relations of these deities. Just as the child peoples the world about it with fairies both good and evil in their intentions toward human beings, so in a somewhat similar manner, the early races personified the phenom-ena of nature and sought to render intelligible the workings of nature thrust upon them for explanation, and which were to them otherwise inexplicable. Out of these explanations arose the vast bodies of legends descriptive of the various deities, their origin, adventures, attributes and relations. These personifications of nature with their body of attendant prerogatives arose from two principal causes: the necessity of pro-viding a cause for an observed effect, and the necessity of supply-ing a want felt in every human soul. Every human soul feels the need of a deity upon which to rest its faith and to whom it may look for aid. Whether the production is evolved by the human soul without a divine revelation does not concern us at present. To arrive at some explanation of the nature of the world, and the operation of those natural laws otherwise unintelligible, as well as of his own genesis, man invented the host of gods and demi-gods. The higher attributes ascribed to the divinities—their more purely spiritual qualities, arose out of man's need. Man is con- 148 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY scious of those forces which we call good and evil. He realizes the constant antagonism between the two, and the ethical super-iority of the former. He feels that according to his sense of jus-tice good should be rewarded and evil punished; yet his experience teaches him that such is not always the case. Hence there arises a feeling of the need of some force which may be supernatural, and which will reconcile the apparent contradictions, and fill the hiatus which is felt to exist. Thus there is the necessity of a god and a future existence. The study of ancient mythology with a comparison of the dif-ferent systems, serves a number of purposes. We gain a knowl-edge of the varying degrees of complexity of the different systems of belief, the height of their spiritual conceptions, and their degree of knowledge of the true God—that is their relation to Monothe-ism, the resemblance of the different creeds in the attributes as-cribed to the different divinities, and the similarity in their names. First. We may judge of the character and location of the people—whether agricultural, pastoral, commercial, peaceful or warlike, inland or maritime; and as to the climatic conditions, and natural features of the territory occupied. Secondly. We may judge as to the degree of civilization at-tained. An enumeration of what is included in the term civil-ization may be in place. By civilization we mean the knowledge of the arts and sciences, mechanical and political; also the degree of purity of religious conception. Upon the true or erroneous ideas of God depends man's treatment of his fellow-man, his real-ization of the principles of universal brotherhood, and divine fatherhood, and all the altruistic impulses. There is certainly but little civilization where these latter are lacking, and upon the extent of the realization and adoption of these principles depends the greater or less degree of excellence to which a civilization may lay claim. Thirdly. A comparison of these systems affords a means whereby the knowledge of the common origin of various branches of the human family may be gained. In our consideration of ancient mythology, the chief form of belief to which we wish to devote our attention is that held by the Indo-Germanic family. The systems of mythology which we shall briefly study, are those of the Greeks, latins, Norse and THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 149 Old Germans, Hindoos and Egyptians, as affording the best illus-tration of the principles enumerated. The system of mythology held and constructed by the Greeks is the one of which the most complete knowledge is attainable, excepting perhaps that of the Latins. But the resemblance be-tween these two is close, and the Greek may be taken as typical. Upon these, therefore, we shall base our conclusions. A study of Greek mythology reveals the following as to the character of the people, their location, and the climatic conditions of the territory occupied. The Greeks were an imaginative people, judging from the vast collection of myths relating to their deities, their doings among men. Every tree, blade of grass, fountain, streamlet and river; every breeze that blew and every raging storm, had its own particular presiding spirit. Gods, demigods, nymphs, satyrs, dryads and hamadryads are multiplied without number. The stories of the gods based upon nature, are given a vast body of detail, and an amount of local coloring which displays the workings of a national imagination of great activity and scope. The race seems also to have been somewhat mercurial in tem-perament. All of the earlier races are susceptible to changes in the seasons, and to the alternations of day and night, but the Greeks were particularly so. The approach of spring was heralded with the most extravagant rejoicings and sacrifices to various gods, especially to Dionysos. From the character of the deities worshiped they must have been a people engaged in pastoral, agricultural and commercial pursuits. We arrive at this conclusion because the people wor-shiped deities who were presumed to have the care of shepherds and their flocks, of farmers and their harvests, and of sailors. Some of the gods are themselves shepherds. Apollo is so repre-sented, although his flock is made up of the clouds in the fields of ether. Demeter is the goddess of the harvests. Hermes is the guardian of the sailor. The Greeks were extremely careful to preserve the favor of their gods, and maintained their sanctity to the last of their na-tional existence. They are extremely afraid of offending their deities, and must have been an exceedingly pious people. But all their piety did little for their morals. In all their business trans-actions we have evidence that they were a lying and a tricky I ; 'f. 150 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY i people. Hermes, the god of liars, the protector of the knave, was greatly venerated. From what we have already said we would infer that the land of the Greeks was suitable for the pasturing of flocks and for the cultivation of the vine. Wewouldalso infer thatit was contiguous to the ocean. It must also have been alandsubject to the change of the seasons, for we have already seen that the festivals com-memorating the change of times and seasons, formed a part of his worship. That he made much of physical excellence is evident from the fact that he prayed often to a god whose chiefprerogativewasthe care of the athlete. Mythology and history are heartily agreed upon this point. He was evidently highly intellectual and capable of abstract thought; for he worshiped a goddess who was the personification of mind and intellectuality. Her attributes are those of mind and she is above the physical desires and passions that enslave. From this recounting of the physical enviroment and the in-tellectual attainment of the Greek we can readily determine the degree of civilization attained. We admit right here that myth-ology is not our only source of information, but we do maintain that we can determine the degree of civilization from the mythol-ogy of the people. Because the Greek engaged in commerce he came in contact with other nations, and thus acquired a knowledge of their arts and sciences. The Greek had his organized household, and was far in ad-vance of the wandering tribe; but not one of his deities is repre-sented as presiding over domestic life. The L,atins with their Lares and Penates, seem to come much nearer to the conception of our modern home. The number of muses presiding over the various forms of lit-erary composition, and the completeness of attributes, together with the veneration in which they were held, indicate literature to have been one of the chief pursuits of the people. The high degree of excellence attained in this respect confirms our position. The degree of his intellectuality is evinced in his conception of the goddess Athene. Then, too, if there had been no artists and sculptors there would have been no deities to inspire that class of men. The same may be said of government and the deities that preside over magistrates. ta THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 151 The worship of a deity supposed to aid in the right government of a state, and to have the oversight of the fulfillment of the ends of justice presupposes a well organized system of government. All this is indicative of the degree of civilization of a people. But all these things are the mere externalities, the polish of civilization rather than the vital principle. Civilization of the heart, that is purity of life and worship, are the fundamental prin-ciples of civilization, and these are attained or not attained accord-ing to the character of the conception of the one true God. It is uncertain in how far the Greek attained to the idea of one God. Very high attributes and lofty conceptions were had by the Greeks, of divinity. This is plainly shown by attributes assigned to their different divinites. In a few cases Zeus is represented as exercis-ing a sort of supreme power over the other gods, which somewhat approaches the conception of the Bible of God and the angels as ministering spirits. As already stated, the Greek was pious in the extreme. His life was one of constant anxiety lest he offend, voluntary or involuntary, some one ofhis numerous deities. The names he applies to his deities are not those which would be ap-plied by a loving creature to a gracious Creator. In Aeschylus we find the words: "Zeus, wherever thou art, by whatever name it please thee to be named, I call on thee and pray." The Greeks made a constant effort to flatter and propitiate the gods, who were regarded as enemies of human happiness. Prob-ably the only god whom the Greeks truly loved was Dionysos. He was thought to rejoice in the happiness of men, and to his worship, in the festivals, the Greek surrendered himself with de-light. He was probably the only deity whom they worshipped from motives of affection rather than fear. Whilst many of the stories related of the various deities are incompatible with our conception of God; it must nevertheless be remembered that many of these stories are mere allegories created to typify and explain analogous happenings in nature. Thus they lose their revolting character. For a long time this was remem-bered by the worshipper himself, but it is feared that in later national history the Greek often gave himself up to excesses under the impression of divine sanction. Whilst many of the stories of the deities are revolting, many are very beautiful, and come close to the Christian conception of right conduct. Therefore there must i 152 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 1 i have existed a high ethical conception in the souls of many. But these conceptions are, after all, the exception and not the rule. The Greek's conception of life was largely fatalistic. Ananka, Necessity, loomed as a vast incontrovertible force from whose decrees there could be no escape. When a crime of any sort was committed the Erynys dogged the unhappy perpetrator with an awful insistence, and at some time, sooner or later, the crime was avenged. The conception of the hereafter as imagined by the Greek was gloom}' in the extreme. The spirit of the ordinary mortal passed at death to a domain of dimmest twilight, to the land of Hades. Here the shadow of the body lived an existence surrounded by in-tangible spectres, in the gloom of the mighty underworld. Only the souls of heroes and those semi-divine beings who were espe-cially, favored of the gods attained the happiness of the sunlit Elysian fields. The soul of the criminal passed to a region beneath Hades, to Tartaros, a place of torment and woe. The immortality of the soul held no joy to the mind of the Greek. His mythology gives us no reason to believe that he had the slightest conception of a hereafter portrayed in the bible. This affords us a complete understanding of the Greek mind. Polished in intellect, beautiful in body, in many ways possessing a refined nature, yet in this one essential the civilization of the Greek fell short. Self-sacrifice and unselfish devotion, whilst here and there in his mythology dimly hinted at, yet to the mass of the nation unknown, never animated the every-day life of the Greek. Thus in this cursory glance at the Greek nature we have pointed out the application of the first two principles enunciated at the beginning of this paper; but these same principles are equally well illustrated in the mythology of other peoples. Whilst our knowledge of the Norse and old German Mythol-ogies is much less complete, since the people were not literary, and preserved their traditions largely in memory and not in books, yet this mythology upon examination, is found to yield the same results as the Grecian. The conception of the god Odin for in-stance, shows the same conformity and coloring which that of the Greek Zeus exhibits. We cannot in this article enter into a de-tailed description of the mythology of the Latins, the Norse and old German, the Hindoo and the Egyptian, yet they all equally THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 153 well serve to show the condition of the peoples who originated them. Let us now pass to the third fact, namely, that by a considera-tion of the mythologies of the peoples a knowledge of their common origin is obtained. No student of mythology will deny that in all the religious beliefs of the different nations there is a certain similarity. The Aztec system with the great god at the head and with its crowd of lesser deities, the North American Indians' conception of the Great Spirit with the host of lesser deities, in common with the nations of the Indo-Germanic family, had a degree of resemblance in the wider facts of their mythologies. The consideration of the conceptions of belief and worship of all the peoples and nations we have studied drives us to the conclusion that these peoples had a common origin. Let us glance at a few of the more marked resemblances which appear. Odin of the Norse, Zeus of the Greeks, Jupiter of the Latins, and Atmer of the Hin-doo- Brahmin systems are all alike personifications of the life-giv-ing properties of the air of heaven. The Egyptian system seems to be much farther advanced at the period with which our record begins, than the other systems enumerated. In fact it had reached a more metaphysical development. Consequently there is greater difficulty in the comparison of the Egyptian conception with the others, but in this system we notice the same overlapping of the attributes of one deity with those of another, and in some degree, an identity of attributes. Zeus is the father of the muses and Odin is the father of Saga, the goddess of poetry. Thor or Donar, another Norse divinity, is the god of thunder. As the god of thunder he resembles Zeus, and as the thunder bolts of Zeus were forged by the smith-god Hephaestus, who dwelt below ground, so the hammer of Thor was forged by the dwarves (Zwerge), or black elves who dwelt within the earth. Thor and Odin are identified with one another much the same as Vishnu and Indra in the Hindoo system. Thor and Vishnu go on foot to the councils of the gods. Vishnu is represented as traversing heaven in three strides. The Norse god, Tyr, is a personification of the brightness of the heavens. He is also named Zui and Saxuot. Here there appears a striking resemblance in names. Zui is iden-tical with the root meaning to shine. Sanscrit, Dyaus, the Greek Zeus, the Latin, Deus. Among the Vedic gods, Dyaus is the god of the shining heavens in the same way as Zeus of the Greeks. 154 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY Dyaus-pater is the same as Jupiter, the dy being displaced by the J in the L,atin. Indra, of the Hindoos, who hurls the thunder-bolts, and is "the cloud compeller," corresponds in these func-tions with Zeus and Thor. His beard of lightning is the red beard of Thor. The goddess Ushas is the goddess of dawn among the Vedic deities. She corresponds to the Greek Eos. We notice the striking similarity between the two words, indicating deriva-tion from a common root. Thus we might go on multiplying in-stances and giving examples of this similarity. The attributes of the Egyptian deities are to a large extent interchangeable with those of the Greeks and the Norse. The Egyptian conceptions are arrived at by the same personifications of the powers of nature, and in their attributes represent the same mingling of the mater-ial with the spiritual, as do the Grecian, I,atin, Norse and Hindoo. They all represent the occurrences of nature under similar anal-ogies of deeds performed by the divinities. Their names have similar physical meanings. For in the resemblance thus illus-trated and existing to a much greater degree than we can stop to point out, we derived unquestionable proof of identity in the origin of these peoples. It is probable from the very close simil-arity of the I^atin and the Greek systems, that these two nations were less widely separated after the first division than were the other nations, or else that the separation of these two branches took place at some time after the original body had divided and migrated to different points of the compass. From this hasty glance at a few of the ancient systems ot mythology and a review of a number of their points ofresemblance, we obtain an idea of the vast importance which this study may assume. In conclusion we must remark what is palpable to every stu-dent of mythology, that the Christian religion could never have been evolved out of these systems. In its sweet simplicity, its purity and truth, it over-reaches all others in their utmost stretch. Of a truth there is no god but God, and no revelation but the bible. There is a majesty in simplicity which is far above the quaint-ness of wit.—Pope. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 155 THE THUNDER STORM C. W. WEISER, '01 [Gies Prize Essay—Honorable Mention] Upon a sultry August noon The scorching sun came beating down, And all was wrapt in smoky haze Swelt'ring 'neath the withering rays. Above the rugged mountain brink Arose a cloud as black as ink; Dark and motionless it loomed, As if the peak itself were doomed To bear the threat'ning, murky mass, Towering o'er the narrow pass. Then arose a sullen roar, A sudden rush and down it bore Along its path, As tho' in wrath It meant to take, To bend, or break; Destruction carry, Doom, or harry. Now on its course, In mutterings hoarse, It came with rumble Loud, and grumble. A peal, a mutter, A flash and flutter, And on it swept with dire confusion, And in its wake in swift profusion Came other clouds as swift, now dark, Then livid with old Vulcan's spark. Thro' the whirling and the roar Now the rain began to pour In torrents loud upon the roof, And the pine-tree tops aloof, Dashing 'gainst the shanty walls In a way that most appalls, Beating loudly oh the pane Were the dashing drops of rain. Flash of lightning Heavens bright'ning, Peals of thunder Fill with wonder. Crash ! we hear the loud report, Crash ! returns the dread retort. Heavens lighten, splinters flying 156 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY From the mighty trees outlying ! Crash ! Flash ! Flash ! Crash I Rumble ! Roar! Crash ! Flash ! Hurling death and doom, destruction— Crash ! Flash ! in loud convulsion— Upon the forest, peaks disheveled, Rain-tossed, sighing, lowly leveled; Filling all with consternation At this freak of old creation. Flash !—growing dimmer its existence. Crash !—a pealing now in distance. Rumble, rumble, roar and rumble, Mutterings dull and muffled grumble; Rumble, rumble, rumble, roar, Down the dell, the mountains o'er. Gently now the rain is pattering, On the roof and windows clattering, While below the brook is gushing, Muddy wild and roaring, rushing. Clouds are flying, sky is clearing, The storm has passed, and sun appearing Smiles upon the world again Thro' the crystal drops of rain. i A populous solitude of bees and birds, And fairy-form'd and many colored things, Who worship him with notes more sweet than words, And innocently open their glad wings. Fearless and full of life, the gushing springs And fall of lofty fountains, and the bend Of stirring branches, and the bud which brings The swiftest thought of beauty, here extend, Mingling and made by love unto one mighty end. —BYRON. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY Entered at the Postoffice at Gettysburg as second-class matter Voi,. X GETTYSBURG, PA., OCTOBER, 1901 No. 5 E. C. RUBY, '02, Editor-in- Chief R. ST. CLAIR POFFENBARGER,' 02, Business Manager J. F. NEWMAN, '02, Exchange Editor Assistant Editors Miss ANNIE M. SWARTZ, '02 A. B. RICHARD, '02 Advisory Board PROF. J. A. HIMES, A. M., LIT. D. PROF. G. D. STAHLEY, M. D. PROF. J. W. RICHARD, D. D. Assistant Business Manager CURTIS E. COOK, '03 Published eacli month, from October to June inclusive, by the joint literary societies of Pennsylvania (Gettysburg) College. Subscription price, One Dollar a year in advance; single copies Fifteen Cents. Notice to discontinue sending the MERCURY to any address must be accompanied by all arrearages. Students, Professors, and Alumni are cordially invited to contribute. All subscriptions and business matter should be addressed to the Business Manager. Articles for publication should be addressed to the Editor. Address THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY, GETTYSBURG, PA. EDITORIAL '"pHIS issue of the MERCURY is made up largely of essaj's which *■ were in the Gies Prize Contest last year. Had it not been for this supply the editor might have had considerable difficulty in finding enough material for this number. We are looking for-ward to the future of our literary publication with a great deal of hope and firmly believe that our hope can be realized. We cer-tainly have among our fellow-students many who possess consid-erable literary talent, and others who desire the opportunity for development in the literary field. To such we would suggest that they should not neglect the opportunity which the MERCURY ex-tends to them. We shall be glad to have all who are interested in literary work place into our hands any manuscripts for publi-cation. We shall carefully examine them and always exercise 158 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY I i our best judgment in the selections we make for presentation to the public. Fellow-students, it will depend largely upon the in-terest which you take in this work whether our hopes for the suc-cess of the MERCURY shall be realized or not. Let us not forget that this is a matter which pertains to the institution and not to any particular individual. By doing our duty towards this pub-lication we are making it a true index of the work that is being done in the literary departments ot our Alma Mater. RESOLUTIONS OP RESPECT CLASS VV7HEREAS, God in his divine wisdom has seen fit to sum- " mon from our midst to his eternal home one whom we most highly esteemed as a classmate and companion, Theodore Frank McAllister, Therefore, at a meeting of the class of '03, Pennsylvania Col-lege, September 7th, 1901, be it unanimously Resolved, That by this untimely visitation of Divine Providence we have lost one of the most worthy members of the class, one whose Christian character was such as to call forth universal ad-miration, whose amiable disposition gained the friendship of all whom he met, whose abilities as a student pointed to a most use-ful career; and also Resolved, That though we be saddened by this bereavement in the midst of our collegiate course, we humbly submit to the will of Him, who knoweth and doeth better than we, believing that our loss is his gain; and also Resolved, That by his death, by its great effect upon us, we have been led to a greater seriousness in the work of life; and also Resolved, That we extend to the family in its bereavement our sincere sympathy, and pray that God and Saviour, who has borne our griefs and carried our sorrows, to comfort them in their afflic-tion, and also Resolved, That a copy of these resolutions be sent to the sorrow-ing family, and to the college journals and town papers. DAVID S. WEIMER, ROSE E. PLANK, EDWARD B. HAY. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY Y. M. C. A. 159 WHEREAS, it has pleased Almighty God in his all-wise provi-dence to remove from our association our friend and faithful co-worker, T. Frank McAllister, be it Resolved, That in his death the association has lost a member whose manly virtue and consistent Christian life were a help and inspiration to all, and be it Resolved, That the college has lost a faithful student and an en-thusiastic man in all college affairs, one who lived for the better-ment of his fellows and was happiest when promoting their wel-fare, and be it Resolved, That these resolutions be published in the town and college papers. WILBUR H. FLECK, FRANK DAYMAN, F. GARMAN MASTERS, Committee. nMHMWMHIWiill^HflUllil IHl|i|IMBillililll|H|IH 1v t jj 1 111 J GQgj ORATION: THE CHARACTER OP OUR EARLY AMERICAN FOREFATHERS P. H. R. MULLEN, '01 "PAR from me and my friends be such frigid philosophy as may ■*• conduct us indifferent, and unmoved, over any ground which has been dignified by wisdom, bravery or virtue. That man is little to be admired whose patriotism would not gain force on the plain of Marathon, or whose piety would not grow warmer among the ruins of Ionia." These noble words from the pen of Dr. Johnson express a sen-timent that ought to find a response in the heart of every Ameri-can citizen. We cannot visit the spots forever hallowed by the valorous deeds of enduring worth, wrought by the makers of our early history, without a sense of gratitude and profound reverence. To dwell upon such a theme without a thrill of emotion, would augur a spirit undeserving of the great legacy bequeathed to us by those venerable personages of the past. If the Greek could boast of an illustrious ancestry we can boast more; if the Roman could linger at the forum to hear the orators lavish their loftiest flights of eloquence upon the rising glory of the "eternal city," we may declare with great emphasis that its ■ 160 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY splendor grows dim before the rising sun of our national glory, as the moon pales with the advancing day. No other nation has had such a beginning. The early history of every other great nation has a vague outline that marks its transition from lawlessness and barbarism to civilization, but America, comparatively speaking, sprung into being full grown, as "Athena from the brow of Zeus." We are alone among the nations of the earth in having such colossal founders. We need only mention the Pilgrim Fathers, and there is suggested a host of associations. At what a critical period in the world's history did they appear! They shattered the power of a dominant ecclesiasticism and gave to the world re-ligious freedom. We see them committing themselves in a frail bark to a "cruel, crawling sea," uncertain whether they should not all begin their long sleep, and fill a "wandering grave" beneath its restless bil-lows, before they should set foot on American soil. But, guided by their adored Jehovah, through the trackless waters, they at length disembark upon a rock on a desolate shore, and we hear their com-mingled prayers of gratitude break the monotonous voice of the sea. From this rock they go forth to sow the seeds of a mighty nation. We hear the blows of their axes against the primeval forest, ringing out on the frosty air like the pealing of liberty bells. In the light of their burning villages we see a band of savages danc-ing in taunting glee. With unabated zeal they resurrect another village from the ashes. From a miserly soil is forced, by untiring energy, a comfortable livelihood, and the "wilderness blossoms as the rose." A noted statesman has fittingly said: "We shall not stand unmoved on the shore of Plymouth while the sea con-tinues to wash it, nor will our brethren in future time forget the place of the nation's establishment till their river shall cease to flow by it. No vigor of youth, no maturity of age will lead the nation to forget the spots where its infancy was cradled and de-fended." The years of our nation's infancy were truly the most "sad and sublime'' in history. We have dwelt at some length upon the achievements of the Pilgrim Fathers because their deeds are the best interpreters of their character. It is a noteworthy fact, much to the credit of the Pilgrims, that they were the first colonists with sufficient "staying power" THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY 161 to establish a permanent colony in North America. Repeated efforts had been made in Mexico and in Florida, by the Spaniards, but those colonists had as often retreated in the face of unexpected difficulties, without accomplishing anything except the squander-ing of the resources of the borne government. France, likewise, had been unsuccessful for several reasons, chiefly because of the temper of her colonists. Several companies of English colonists also had attempted to take up land in the New World, but had repeatedly failed. It remained for the Pilgrims to be the honored founders of our great Republic, and their final success is fraught with great significance. They were constituted of ' 'sterner stuff'' than their predecessors and had an unchangeable purpose to prod their spirits in the presence of discouragement. To them physical pain was decidedly preferable to spiritual bondage, and they suffered on, unflinchingly, uncomplainingly, to the bitter end. "Religious Liberty" were the two words emblazoned upon the banner of the Pilgrims, and many times were those words des-tined to be written in blood before that banner was to be free from assault. They had, however, one harbor to which they repaired in every time of storm, one fortress in time of danger, one harbinger of hope in time of gloom, one source of truth amid the duplicity of oppressive and corrupt governors—the Bible, from which they received iron into their blood. This book was the Pilgrim's hope, his song, his prayer, his guide. The Old Testament, with its honor roll of immortal heroes, furnished the Pilgrims an ideal for their conduct in persecution and trial. The New Testament was the eternal pledge of final victory, an unfailing reward, an un-fading crown. The Puritans were characterized by a total lack of effeminacy. Their character was sturdy and masculine. No amusements were tolerated that had a tendency to destroy the severity and intensity of life. Severely religious, strict to a degree of intolerance, sternly resolute, stubbornly persistent, implicitly obedient to the dictates of conscience, the Puritans exhibit a massiveness and rugged grandeur of character that has never been surpassed. They were men of unblemished integrity, as distinguished for private pur-ity as for public virtue.'' We have never contemplated a group of men whose faults were so few, whose virtues so many, whose honor was so stainless, whose characters were so untarnished, as Stationery, Blank Books, Amateur Pho-tographic Supplies, Etc., Etc. BALTIMORE ST. R. fi. GULP PAPER HANGER, Second Square, York Street. COLLEGE EMBLEMS. EMIL ZOTHE, ENGRAVER. DESIGNER AND MANUFACTURING JEWELER. 19 S. NINTH ST. PHILADELPHIA SPECIALTIES: Masonic Marks, Society- Badges, College Buttons, Pins, Scarf Pins, Stick Pins and Athletic Prizes. All Goods ordered through A. N. Beau. A. G Miller Job Printer Students' Trade Solicited Best of Work Guaranteed Meneely Bell Co. TROY, N. Y. MANUFACTURERS OF SUPERIOR BELLS The 2000 pound bell now ringing-in the tower of Pennsylvania Col-lege was manufactured at this foundry. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. The Pleased Customer Is not a stranger in our establish-ment— he's right at home, you'll see him -when you call. We have the materials to please fastidious men. Jf. D. LIPPY, Merchant Tailor 39 Chambersburg- St., Gettysburg, Pa. L Try My Choice Line of , High-Grade Chocolates ¥¥ at 40c per lb. Always fresh at CHAS. H. McCLEARY Carlisle St., Opposite W. M. R. R. ^ Also Foreign and Domestic Fruits p Always on Hand. L. D. Miller, GROCER Confectioner and Fruiterer. Ice Cream and Oysters in Season. 19 Main St. GETTYSBURG City Hotel Main St. Gettysburg. Free 'Bus to and from all Trains Thirty seconds' walk from either depot Dinner with drive over field with four or more, $1.35 Rates $1.50 to $2.00 per day John E. Hughes, Prop. Capitol Cits Cafe Cor. Fourth and Market Sts. HARRISBURG, PA. First-Class Rooms Furnished. Special Rates to Private Parties. Open Day and Nig-ht. European Plan. Lunch of All Kinds to Order at the Restaurant. ALDINQER'S CAPITOL CITY CAFE. POPULAR PRICES F. Mark Bream, Dealer in Fancy and Staple Groceries Telephone 29 Carlisle St., QETTYSBURQ, PA. .Photographer. No. 3 Main St., GETTYSBURG, PENNA. Our new effects in Portraiture are equal to photos made anywhere, and at any price. - J PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS Manufacturers of High Grade Fraternity Emblems Fraternity Jewelry Fraternity Novelties Fraternity Stationery Fraternity Invitations Fraternity Announcements Fraternity Programs . Special Designs on Application. 140-142 Woodward Avenue DETROIT, MICH. Send for Catalogue and Price List MOTEL GETTYSBURG LIVERY GETTYSBURG, PA. LOING & HOLTZWORTM, Proprietors Apply at Office in the Motel for First-Class Guides and Teams THE BATTLEFIELD A SPECIALTY Qhe Bolton Market Square Ibarttsbura, ff>a. Large and Convenient Sample Rooms. Passenger and Baggage Elevator. Electric Cars to and from Depot. Electric Light and Steam Heat. J. M. & M. S. BUTTERWORTH, Proprietors Special Rates for Commer-cial Men "EZ 1ST IMMER CUT ET WAS ZU WISSEIN." These are the words of Goethe, the great German poet, and are as true in our day as when uttered. In these times of defective vision it is good to know something- about eyes. A great deal has been learned about the value of glasses and their application since Goethe lived. Spectacle wearers have increased by thousands, while at the same time, persons losing their eyesight have been greatly diminished. If your eyes trouble you in any way let me tell you the cause. Examination free and prices reasonable. We grind all our own lenses and fit the best lenses (no matter what anyone else has charged you) for $2.50 per pair and as cheap as SO cents per pair, or duplicate a broken lens if we have one-half or more of the old one, at a reasonable charge, returning same day received. .E. L. EGOLf. 807 and 809 INorth Third Street, MARRISBURG, PA. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. II ^entpol }4otel, ELIAS FISSEL, Prop. (Formerly of Globe Hotel) Baltimore Street, Gettysburg, Pa. Two doors from Court House. MODERN IMPROVEMENTS. Steam Heat, Electric Light and Call Bells all through the House. Closets and Bath Rooms on Every Floor. Sefton & Flem-ming's Livery is connected with this Hotel. Good Teams and Competent Guides for the Battlefield. Charges Moderate, Satisfaction Guaranteed. Rates $1.50 Per Day. GET A SKATE ON And send all your Soiled Linen to the Gettysburg Steam Laundry R. R. LONG, Prop. Horace Partridge & Co., BOSTON, MASS. Fine Athletic Goods Headquarters for Foot Ball, Gym-nasium, Fencing and Track Supplies. Send for Illustrated Catalog-. 84 and 86 Franklin Street R.W. LENKER, Agent at Penna. College. JOHN M. MINNIGH, Confectionery, lee, .andlee Gream:o>^j Oysters Stewed and Fried. No. 17 BALTIMORE ST. The Leading Barber >Sf)op (Successor to C. C. Sefton) Having thoroughly remodeled the place is now ready to accommodate the public Barber Supplies a Specialty. .Baltimore Street. GETT*I5§IIIU}, PA. ESTABLISHED 1876 PENROSE MYERS, Watchmaker and Jeweler Gettysburg Souvenir Spoons, Col-lege Souvenir Spoons. NO. lO BALTIMORE ST., GETTYSBURG, PENNA. L. 1\. ALLEAVAH Manufacturers* Agent and Jobber of Hardware, Oils, Paints and Queensware. GETTYSBURG, PA. The Only Jobbing House in Adams County.
¨The actions taken by the Armed Forces are not a mere overthrow of a government but rather the final closing of a historical cycle and the opening of a new one in which respect for human rights is not only borne out by the rule of law and of international declarations, but is also the result of our profound and Christian belief in the preeminent dignity of man as a fundamental value.¨ (…) ¨It will be the objectives of the Armed Forces to restore the validity of the values of Christian morality, of national tradition and of the dignity to be an Argentinean; (…) a final solution to subversion in order to firmly found a reorganized Argentina on the values of Western and Christian civilization by eradicating, once and for all, the vices which afflict the nation. This immense task will require trust and sacrifice but has only one beneficiary the Argentinean people¨ (1). With these words the military junta addressed the Argentines after taking over the government through a coup d'état the 24th of March 1976. Already in this first official communication it is possible to find the strong messianic discourse where the armed forces were fulfilling their holy mission to protect the Christian-national identity of the country.For the first time in the history of Argentina catholic-nationalism, as a nationalist ideology, had an absolute control of the State and was backed by the entrepreneurship and by important sectors of the middle class.(2) The military junta, leaded by Jorge Rafael Videla, was the perfect embodiment of a permanent alliance between religion and fatherland. The armed forces were compelled, being the institution that gave birth to the nation, to fulfill a decisive role in the "holy mission" to morally regenerate the country. This would have allowed Argentina, and therefore all of the Western-Christian civilization, to not just vanquish communism but, also, all of its roots like liberalism, democracy and agnosticism. The military, alongside the Argentinean Catholic Church and its supporters, were convinced that the final battle of the "third world war" was taking place in Argentina. Generals Ramon Camps and Menéndez would even call the "Argentinean theater of operations" as third world war, where they thought the international subversive movements were playing a pivotal role (3). This extremely eschatological feeling was completely different from other similar Cold War scenarios in other developing countries. In Argentina the "final showdown against international communism" syndrome was exacerbated by this alliance between the sword and the cross that would fight communism in order to make a "healthy" society possible, which would lead the way to the regeneration of the "atheist infected" western world. This expectation was the pillar of messianic spirit that justified the extermination plan.But the Proceso de Reorganización Nacional (National Reorganization Process), as the military junta denominated the period that begun with the coup d'état, was more than an extermination plan; it aimed at a total "restoration" of society. The speech given by Lieutenant Jorge Eduardo Goleri at a book burning gathering in Córdoba in April 1976 clearly shows what the Junta was aiming for: "God's will requires that the military preserves the natural order manifest in the Western and Christian civilization to which Argentina is integral, but the East had organized a massive international conspiracy to subvert that civilization by restructuring society in accordance with the seditious and atheistic doctrine of communism. We are facing the imminent doom of our way of being Christian under the assault of subversion"(4).The Junta regarded itself as the creative agent of historical destiny(5). In their eschatological mindset they were analogous to the Messiah. They saw themselves as the mythological/biblical Hero that defended the most sacred/holy interests and appeared when a series of afflictions required his abilities of salvation. The Hero needed a nemesis in order to act and what better foe than international communism. But the latter was constructed in a Manichean, epical and apocalyptical manner. The myth of the Hero was opposite to the myth of a "Metaphysical Enemy". The former would engage in a Mythological/Holy War against an invisible but encompassing "Evil". Violent acts from left-wing guerrilla groups, which the Junta labeled as terrorism, perfectly ascribed that ontological description. Communism, with its terrorist offspring, was foreign, atheist and ideological. The military, then, had to combat it not just in the streets or countryside; but in the people's minds, and souls, as well. Guerrilla fighters were just the armed side; the roots of communism, meaning of terrorism and anti-Catholicism, were to be found in individuals that had ideas contrary to the Juntas' weltanschauung. They were ideas that opposed the catholic foundations of the nation and the society that it embodied.The Junta's adversary was an essentially ideological foe as General Videla stated to a British journalist: "A terrorist (read communist or atheist) is not just someone with a gun or a bomb, but also someone who spreads ideas which are contrary to Western and Christian civilization" and he continued, "…Subversion is all action that seeks the alteration or the destruction of the people's moral criteria and form of life, with the end of seizing power and imposing a new form based upon a different scale of values"(6). The guerrilla was not the most dangerous enemy; because in military terms it was already defeated before the Junta took power. The nemeses were communism, liberalism and democracy, ideologies that advocated an "Anti-Christian Revolution" that subverted the catholic foundations of the country(7). Accordingly, the subversive was guilty of the most serious crime against the Augustinian concept of "Common Good". In this latter sense, the battle against that invisible, but spiritual, Evil was a conflict inside each one of us. Like Massera said: "…the Third World War is not only fought in battlefields but, more importantly, in the believer's soul" (8). This Holy War mobilized the Junta as a "warrior-savior", as a modern crusader fighting for God and freedom from foreign atheist ideologies. This, in part, self-perceived holy mission strengthened the Junta's self-image as Christ's vicar, as crusading defender of Christianity and its Natural Order from the "pagan agents and antinational beings of the Antichrist"(9). Not surprisingly, the military profession was defined by Monsignor Bonamín as a profession of religiosity. Consequently, it is no wander that before the armed forces toppled Isabel Peron's government, they asked for the Catholic Church benediction the night before the coup(10). The Argentinean Catholic Church was as deeply as it could possibly be involved in this crusade. The Crusade's sanctification by the ChurchAfter Videla and Massera were blessed by the heads of the Argentinean Episcopate the night before the coup, Parana's Archbishop and military Bishop Adolfo Tortolo announced that the Catholic Church would positively cooperate with the new government (11). The Church was actively supporting and legitimizing the imminent armed forces' putsch. This probably did not surprise the future Junta's leaders. In December 1975, just three months before the coup d'état, Tortolo had called for the military to inaugurate a "purification process" and his subordinate Bonamín had stated, during the mass in front of future Junta leader General Viola, that Christ wanted the armed forces to be beyond their function in the future (12). The vicars of Christ on Earth were actually telling the military what were their Lord's orders. This symbiosis between the sword and the cross continued even after the first accusations of human rights violations against the Junta. On October 1976, Tortolo declared that he did not know of any evidence that proved that human rights were being violated or abused. In 1977 he went even further by affirming that the Church thought that the armed forces were acting accordingly to the special demands of the present juncture; meaning that the military was fulfilling its duty (13). The same with Bonamín's declarations regarding the role of the armed forces: "…it was written, it was in God's plan that Argentina did not have to lose its greatness and it was saved by its natural custodian: the army"; "…Providence has given the army the duty to govern, from the Presidency to the intervention in a trade union"; and finally "…the anti-guerrilla fight is a battle for the Republic of Argentina, for its integrity, but also for its altars (…) This fight is a fight in morality's defense, of men's dignity, ultimately a fight in God's defense (…) That is why I ask for the divine protection in this dirty war to which we are committed to." (14)The vast majority of the Argentinean Catholic Church favored and strongly supported the military junta's government and repression. Only four of the eighty-four clerical members of the Argentinean Episcopate publicly denounced the regime's repression (15). However, the Church was not just backing the Junta because it legitimized its sacred duty to defend the fatherland or because it identified itself in the Junta's messianic mission; but because Church also had to deal with its own internal enemies. The Argentinean Catholic Church was, perhaps, the most conservative Latin-American national Church. It was strongly in disagreement with the three most important progressive movements inside the Catholic Church: the Second Vatican Council, the Third World Priesthood Movement and the Latin-American Episcopal Council of Medellin. The Theological Liberation Movement that spread through Latin America during the 60s and 70s was extremely popular among young Argentineans. Several priests identified themselves with the Movement and tried to bring change to the Argentinean Church through their communal and pastoral actions among poor sectors. Additionally, several Montoneros' members were former catholic school's students that had radicalized, in part, because of their experience with the Theological Liberation Movement. The Catholic Church, then, supported, or did not protest too much against, the "internal cleansing" done by the military; like the killing of Father Mujica, Angelleli and four Palotines clerics among other cases (16).Lastly, the Catholic Church was involved in a much sinister way with the Junta's actions. The heads of the Argentinean Church knew about the repressive methods being used by the security and armed forces and chose not to condemn them. They considered them as necessary sacrifices for the Common Good. Nevertheless, several clerics went further by assisting and taking an active part in the implementation of torture and other repressive mechanisms used by the Junta. More than two hundred prelates participated in four different ways: offering confession/absolution to the victims before being executed or thrown into the sea; assisting the torturers by playing the "good cop" role; being themselves the torturers; and, by confessing and spiritually assisting the torturers and other victimizers (17). The priest Christian von Wernich is, maybe, one of the best examples of the fusion between the cross and the sword. Not only he assisted the torturers in their tasks, he even was involved in the kidnapping and torture of several desaparecidos and in the infiltration of exiled groups in New York (18). He, among others like Archbishop Plaza, Fathers Astigueta, Castillo and Perlanda López that also assisted torture sessions, justified the repressive methods, not considering them sins, by legitimizing their, and the military, behavior under the Augustinian and De Vitorian doctrines of "just war". The support of the Catholic Church for the fight against subversion and its blessing was a pivotal element in the implementation of the plan of extermination and its suppressive mechanisms. The repressive methods, chosen by the Junta, were not void themselves of a messianic and divine nature. Divine and Redemptory Violence The three main types of violent acts that reflected the Junta's Messianic crusade, which were an integral part of their repressive methods, were: torture, thevictim's throwing into the sea and the appropriation of the victims' children by families deemed proper by the military. These violent means, chosen by the perpetrators to perpetually annihilate the ideas that were subverting the Argentinean Catholic traditions, were constructed under the discourse of "love" in two different ways: firstly, the kind of love upheld by Thomas Aquinas where the authority could legitimately kill evil-doers when the formers were motivated by charity. The crusading Junta envisaged that the repressive methods it used had a transcendental value. That type of violence was constructive rather than destructive, insofar as it was able to eradicate evil in order to create good (19). Love was considered the reason for an act of violence, for a punishment that redeemed the sinner, disregarding whether the latter survived the penitence. General Ramón Camps, commenting of how the detention centers perfected the victims through torture, said: "It is love that prioritizes and legitimates the actions of soldiers. The use of force to put an end to violence does not imply hate since it is nothing other than the difficult search for the restoration of love. In the war we are fighting, love of social body that we want to protect is what comes first in all of our actions" (20). Massera and Videla also referred to the dictatorship's repression as an "act of love" or "work that began with love"(21). All these statements reflected how the just war's discourse of Christian charity was in their minds by giving love a pivotal place.Secondly, there was another, and more complex, kind of love in the Junta's Christian-inspired crusade, which contrasted with the former metaphysical type and appeared exclusively in the torture tables of the detention centers, and should be labeled as sexual love. The torture sessions were filled of sexual symbolisms and discourse. The eroticism present in the torments was the exteriorization of the torturer's sexual -religiously repressed- desires into the body -the sexual surrogate totem- of the tortured. Consequently, the act of torture symbolized the act of sex(22). Like Jacobo Timerman perfectly put it, the Junta's violence was the emotional and erotic expression of a militarized nation (23).An expression orchestrated by the use of the picana. The latter was the preferred torture instrument used by the torturers for many reasons. Historically, it was first used by the nationalists during Uriburu's dictatorship and it was extremely effective in administering the desired amount of pain. However, symbolically, thepicana represented, better than other torments, the rawest manifestation of the Junta's conception of power related to "love's twofold sense". Considering torture as a Christian act of love, the picana was the necessary instrument to get a confession from the torturer that would eventually get him redemption. But thepicana had to fill a "void space". According to the perpetrators the victims were atheists (then they were not Argentines), which meant that in order to get any kind of absolution they had to, somehow, recognize and accept the Word of Christ. The Word would fill the empty victims; but first the picana would have to fill them with the will to "repent" and "convert". Once the tortured had received several electric shocks, they would receive and recite the Word by being ordered by the torturers to deliver Catholic prayers (24). Through these confessions the Junta's self perceived role of being the vicars of Christ on Earth was realized every time. They had defeated the atheist enemy but, employing Christian charity, they also had won the battle for the subversives' souls. Redemption was offered to anyone, even the irrecoverable cases. Even if their bodies were deprived of life their souls were saved. One of the ways that the ones not redeemed during confession were granted spiritual salvation was by the purifying power of water. By throwing them into the sea alive they were bestowing them a new, or first, "baptism" (25). It was the perpetrators' holy mission to redeem the victims' souls in life or in death. The picana, when considering torture as a sexual act, was also a phallic symbol. The torturer would make use of the picana-phallus to inflict pain and, at the same time, through the victim's screams and spasms satisfy his own repressed sexual desires. The perpetrator would systematically use the picana-phallus in the erogenous parts of the body. The body of the tortured would then transform into the sexual object of the repressor's desires. A sinful object that had to be purified with repent or conversion but only after the torturer's sexual desire had been satisfied (26). Symbols of divine violence can be found in other examples of torture sessions during the Junta's dictatorship. The torturers would yell at the captives, and would also made them say, "Viva Cristo Rey" and would make them thank God for another day by make them recite prayers before sleep. The picana was sometimes referred as "giving holy communion" as well as water-boarding was named "baptism". Among the many names that the torture chambers were given by the perpetrators there were: "the confessionary" and "the altar" (27). The latter clearly reflects the idea of sacrifice embedded in the repressors' minds. Regarding the victims' religious creeds the torturers would make a distinction between the recoverable and irrecoverable cases. Among the former ones there would be victims that had a catholic background because they had gone to catholic schools or because they knew how to recite prayers (28). Nevertheless, being catholic was not synonym of survival. The irrecoverable Catholics would only have their souls saved, but not their lives. Amid the desaparecidos there were an important proportion of Jews. About 1% of the Argentine population was of Jewish origin, but 20% of desaparecidos shared the same religious background (29). The Junta believed in an international communist conspiracy that, like the Nazis before, was leaded by the Jewry. Being Jewish meant being a Bolshevik. Additionally, the Junta's Messianic trope further propelled the kidnapping and execution of the community that, according to them, was responsible for Christ's crucifixion (30). Lastly, the appropriation of the desaparecidos children by the military was, perhaps, the most sinister of the Messianic-inspired repressive acts done by the military., The kidnapped pregnant women that gave birth in captivity, after being tortured regardless of their condition, were deprived of their children. The newborns were appropriated by families that would rise according to Catholic tradition. Motivated by Christian charity and its doctrine, these children would avoid the atheism, Judaism or wrongly conceived Catholicism that their parents would have offered them. These newborns were, according to the Junta, truly "innocent" and deserved to have the chance to live a proper life in genuine catholic families. Concluding RemarksThe Messianic ideology during the dictatorship was present not only in the Junta's ideology, but also in its discourse and repressive methods. Even if not everything that happened during the military regime can be explained through the catholic-nationalist ideology, the latter provides the essential motivation for the government. It is difficult to imagine that the magnitude, and chosen methods, of the repression would have been the same without the Messianic trope. By comparing the level of Argentinean repression to other military regimes of the Southern Cone in the same period, the distinction is remarkable. Not only the repressive mechanisms used by the Argentinean dictatorship were distinct, and more sadist and cruel, than the Chilean, Uruguayan and Brazilian cases, but the amount of Argentina's desaparecidos dwarfs those cases.Additionally, the Argentinean Catholic Church was the only one to completely back the regime and its repressive methods. In Chile, for example, the heads of the Church were divided in supporting Pinochet. Ultimately, the majority of the Church would condemn the Chilean regime. Regarding the political leadership, there are no religious discourses that serve as justification for the regimes in the other Southern Cone's dictatorships. The military juntas of those countries never legitimized their governments or their respective coup d'états in God's will or the salvation of Christian-Western civilization. National security and the fear of communism were their justification. Even if the regimes were ideologically justified, these were never of a religious nature like in the Argentinean case. It is probably the catholic-nationalist ideology, matured in the 30s, augmented by the international communist conspiracy typical of the Cold War that prompted the Junta in Argentina to completely wipeout what they perceived as atheist and foreign elements in society. Without a Messianic military that was ready to fight a crusade in order to restore order to the nation and without the blessing and active support from the Church, the repression would not have had the size and the horror that it had. The armed forces were fighting what they thought was the last crusade of the 20th century against the atheist forces of communism. The "Third World War" was already happening to them. Winning it was more than strategic, it was a holy mission. (1) Excerpts from a radio announcement made by the Junta after taking control of the State. Cited in Loveman, David and Davies, M. Thomas; The Politics of Antipolitics: The Military in Latin America; University of Nebraska Press; Lincoln; 1978; pp. 177. (2) See Novaro, Marcos and Palermo, Vicente; La Dictadura Militar; Paidos; Buenos Aires; 2003. (3) See Clarin, June the 26th 1976. Cited in Novaro, Marcos and Palermo, Vicente; La Dictadura Militar; Paidos; Buenos Aires; 2003; pp. 93. (4) Cited in Frontalini, Daniel and Caiati, Maria C.; El mito de la guerra sucia; CELS; Buenos Aires; 1984; pp. 90. Note how the East is viewed as the geopolitical source of "evil" similar to the Nazis' fear of the East. (5) See Graziano, Frank; Divine Violence. Spectacle, Psychosexuality, & Radical Christianity in the Argentine "Dirty War"; Westview Press; Boulder; 1992; pp. 120.(6) See CONADEP; Nunca Más; Eudeba; Buenos Aires; 1984; pp. 342. (7) See Castro Castillo, Marcial; Fuerzas armadas: Ética y represión; Nuevo Orden; Buenos Aires; 1979; pp.120. (8) Massera, Emilio; El país que queremos; FEPA; Buenos Aires; 1981; pp. 44. This concept of an internal and spiritual struggle is common to all religious fanatic ideologies. For example the original significance of Jihad was that of the soul's struggle against temptation. The concept would later evolve to holy war. (9) As subversives were defined by Ramon Agosti. Cited in Verbitsky, Horacio; La última batalla de la tercera guerra mundial; Legasa; Buenos Aires; 1984; pp.16. (10) La Nación, March the 25th 1976; cited in Mignone, Emilio; Iglesia y Dictadura; Colihue; Buenos Aires; 1986; pp.25. (11) See Mignone, Emilio; Iglesia y Dictadura; Colihue; Buenos Aires; 1986; pp.25. Additionally, Tortolo was Videla's private confessor. (12) Ibid; pp. 25(13) Ibid; pp. 26-28. (14) Ibid; pp. 30-31. (15) See Novaro, Marcos and Palermo, Vicente; La Dictadura Militar; Paidos; Buenos Aires; 2003; pp. 99 (16) Ibid; pp. 97(17) See Mignone, Emilio; Iglesia y Dictadura; Colihue; Buenos Aires; 1986; and CONADEP;Nunca Más; Eudeba; Buenos Aires; 1984; pp. 342-360. (18) See Mignone, Emilio; Iglesia y Dictadura; Colihue; Buenos Aires; 1986pp.179-188. (19) Graziano, Frank; Divine Violence. Spectacle, Psychosexuality, & Radical Christianity in the Argentine "Dirty War"; Westview Press; Boulder; 1992; pp.152(20) See Camps, Ramón; Caso Timerman: punto final; Tribuna Abierta; Buenos Aires; 1982; pp. 21. (21) CONADEP; Nunca Más; Eudeba; Buenos Aires; 1984; pp. 348. Additionaly, it is interesting to notice how Carl Schimitt's political theology theory is translated into the Junta's discourse. In this sense, the Junta's actions would be a Schimittian case of politics not being able to be dettached from religion. This, in turn, would contradict several secularization theories. See, Schimitt, Carl, Political Theology: Four Chapters on the Concept of Sovereignity, Chicago Univertisty Press, Chica, 2006.(22) Interestingly, Saint Augustine described copulation in such a dreadful way that it seemed like an act of torture. See Foucault, Michel; Historia de la Sexualidad: Vol. 1, La voluntada del saber; Siglo XXI; Buenos Aires; 2008; pp. 37. (23) See Timerman Jacobo; Preso sin nombre, celda sin número; De la Flor; Buenos Aires; 2002; pp. 17. (24) See CONADEP; Nunca Más; Eudeba; Buenos Aires; 1984; pp. 347-360; and Graziano, Frank; Divine Violence. Spectacle, Psychosexuality, & Radical Christianity in the Argentine "Dirty War"; Westview Press; Boulder; 1992; pp. 166. (25) It is rather interesting to note that throwing victims alive into the sea or rivers was a common killing method used by other strongly catholic Messianic inspired authoritarian regimes or groups. The falangistas would throw communists, anarchists and socialists (and whoever they thought was not catholic enough) to the rivers during the Spanish Civil War. The Algerian French and later the OAS would throw FLN suspects to the Mediterranean during the Algerian War of Independence. Even in Argentina, during the 1930s, the nationalists were talking about pushing the communists into the sea. A more detailed research should be conducted on this issue. Probably the Spanish Inquisition's torture methods, involving boiled water or a pool where the suspected heretics would drown, clearly influenced all of these cases into using natural sources of water to purify their sacred lands from the nonbelievers. (26) For more on torture as a sexual act and the picana as phallus see Graziano, Frank; Divine Violence. Spectacle, Psychosexuality, & Radical Christianity in the Argentine "Dirty War"; Westview Press; Boulder; 1992; pp. 158-190. (27) CONADEP; Nunca Más; Eudeba; Buenos Aires; 1984; pp. 26-50. (28) Many tortured victims remember how the torturers were clearly surprised to see the formers wearing crosses after making them take out their clothes. In some of these cases the torturers would say to the victims that their life would be saved because they were Christians but had lost their way and it would be the repressors' task to show them the right path. (29) See Novaro, Marcos and Palermo, Vicente; La Dictadura Militar; Paidos; Buenos Aires; 2003; pp. 115. (30) During the trial of torturer known as Jorge "El Tigre" Acosta a witness remembered him saying, after killing a captive while torturing him, that he was happy that he had died because he was going to be freed but he did not want a Jew to walk freely in Argentina; all Jews were guilty because they had killed Christ. See Diario Perfil; "Juicio al Tigre Acosta por el asesinato de Hugo Tarnopolsky"; May the 12th 2007. *Estudiante de Doctorado, New School for Social Research, New YorkMaestría en Estudios Internacionales, Universidad Torcuato Di Tella, Buenos AiresÁrea de Especialización: Procesos de formación del Estado moderno, sociología de la guerra, terrorismo, genocidio, conflictos étnicos, nacionalismos y minorías.E-mail: guere469@newschool.edu
Anadolu, bin yıllar boyunca birçok medeniyete ev sahipliği yapmış, birçok kültürü, birçok dili bünyesinde barındırmış, prehistorik dönemlerden günümüze insanlara yurt olmuş toprak parçasıdır. XIX. yüzyılın başlarından itibaren Batılı arkeologların ilgisini çeken bu topraklar, XX. yüzyılın ortaları ile Sualtı Arkeologlarının ilgisini çekmeye başlamıştır. Özellikle sualtı araştırmaları Anadolu'nun güney ve batı kıyılarında yoğunlaşmıştır. Marmara Denizi'nde Marmara Adası etrafında, Küçükçekmece Gölü'nde sualtı araştırmaları yapılırken, Güney Marmara kıyılarında sadece 2008 yılında Kyzikos (Erdek)'te sualtı çalışmaları gerçekleştirilmiştir. Marmara Denizi, özellikle günümüzden 7100 yıl önce Ege ve Karadeniz ile birleşmesinden sonra önemini arttırmıştır. Bu tarihten sonra, Karadeniz'in kuzeyindeki medeniyetler ile Akdeniz medeniyetleri arasında bir köprü vazifesi görmüştür. Neolitik dönemden itibaren çevresinde yaşam izleri tespit edilen Marmara Denizi, özellikle kolonizasyon hareketlerinden sonra bir çok kente ev sahipliği yapmıştır. Çanakkale Boğazı üzerinden Marmara Denizi'ne giren Akdeniz medeniyetleri Marmara Denizi kıyılarında koloni kentleri kurmuşlardır. Marmara Denizi'nin güney kıyıları uzun yıllar araştırmacıların dikkatini çekmeyi beklemiştir. Anadolu topraklarının diğer bölümleri ile karşılaştırıldığında, Güney Marmara kıyılarının ne kadar boşlandığı daha net anlaşılmaktadır. Bu sebep ile, bu çalışmanın alanı olarak Güney Marmara bölgesinin antik limanları seçilmiştir. Güney Marmara kıyılarında dört farklı ilin (Çanakkale, Balıkesir, Bursa, Yalova) sınırları mevcuttur. Bakanlık her çalışma döneminde bir il için çalışma izni vermektedir. Bir dönemde bir ilin kıyı şeridinin araştırılması imkansız olduğu için çalışmamız yalnızca Bursa il sınırları içerisindeki antik limanlar ile sınırlandırılmıştır. Marmara Denizi'ndeki 135 kilometrelik Bursa kıyılarının yanı sıra İznik ve Uluabat göllerinin kıyıları da taranmıştır. Çalışmalarımıza başlamadan önce tüm antik kaynaklar, geç dönem seyyahları ve modern araştırmacılardan bölge ile ilgili bilgiler derlenmiştir. Strabon, Herodotos, Pseudo-Skylaks, Apollonius Rhodius, Xenephon, Yaşlı Plinius, Dio Chysostum, Claudius Ptolemy, Stephanos Byzantinos, Pomponius Mela ve Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus gibi bölge hakkında bilgi veren antik yazarlar incelenmiştir. Ayrıca, Seyyid Muradi, İbn Battuta, Polonya'lı Simeon, Evliya Çelebi, Jean Thevenot, Richard Pockocke ve Charles Texier gibi seyyahların bölge limanları ve liman kentleri üzerlerine yazdığı bilgiler toplanmış ve araştırmalar esnasında yol gösterici olarak göz önünde tutulmuştur. Tüm bu kaynaklarda, özellikle kıyı kentleri ve liman yapıları üzerinde durulmuştur. Özellikle deniz ticaretinin başladığı dönemlerden itibaren, antik limanlar kent bölünmesi içinde en önemli noktalar konumuna gelmişlerdir. Ticaretin kentte başladığı ilk yer olmaları nedeni ile yaşamın direkt içinde olmuşlardır. Limanlar, gemilerin barınmalarına, yük alıp boşaltmalarına, yolcu indirip bindirmelerine yarayan doğal veya yapay sığınaklardır. Kente gelen tüccarların ilk ve son gördükleri yer limanlardır. Fakat, bu kadar önemli bir konumda olmalarına rağmen, araştırmacılar tarafından hak ettiği önemi yıllar boyunca görmemişlerdir. Bugüne kadar Anadolu kıyılarında limanlar üzerine yapılan çalışmaların sayısı bunu göstermektedir. Çalışma konumuz olan Bursa ili kıyılarında bugüne kadar yapılmış bir çalışma bulunmamaktadır. İnsan elinden çıkmış olan bilinen en eski su taşıtı M.Ö. 6000 yıllarına tarihlenirken, bilinen en eski liman yapısı M.Ö. 3000'lere tarihlenmektedir. İnsanoğlunun artan ihtiyaçları doğrultusunda kullandıkları su taşıtlarının ebatlarının büyümesi neticesinde yerleşimlerde deniz taşıtlarını koruyacak güvenli alanlara ihtiyaç doğmuştur. Gemilerin karaya çekilemeyecek boyuta gelmelerinden ve sualtında inşa fırsatı veren hidrolik çimentonun kullanılması ile liman yapıları karşımıza çıkmaya başlamıştır. Limanlar, kentlerin kuruldukları yerlere göre farklı şekillerde inşa edilmişlerdir. Bulundukları yere göre ve işlevlerine göre limanları iki ayrı başlık altında gruplamak mümkündür. Bulundukları yere göre, Deniz Limanları ve Tatlı Su Limanları olarak adlandırılmışlardır. Deniz Limanları ise yine kendi içinde, kıyı şeridinin farklılık göstermesi nedeni ile doğal veya yapay limanlar olarak ikiye ayrılırlar. Göl, nehir gibi tatlı suların kıyı şeritlerinin düz olması nedeniyle bilinen tüm tatlı su limanları yapaydır. Bir limanın yapay veya doğal liman olmasını belirleyen faktör liman havzasının inşa şeklidir. Doğal limanlar, koylarda inşa edildiği için liman olarak koyun su havzası kullanılmıştır. Yapay limanlarda ise, su havzası dalgakıran veya mendirekler yardımı ile yapılmaktadır. Ayrıca antik limanlar fonksiyonlarına göre askeri limanlar, ticari limanlar ve özel limanlar olarak üç başlık altında toplamak mümkündür. Dünya üzerindeki liman araştırmaları XX. yüzyılın başlarında başlamıştır. Anadolu kıyılarında ilk araştırmalar ise 1960'dan sonra başlamaktadır. Anadolu kıyılarında bugüne kadar Phaselis, Limantepe, Myndos, Kyzikos ve Küçükçekmece göllerinde gerçekleştirilmiştir. Fakat son 20 yıl içerisinde üniversitelerde yüksek lisans ve doktora seviyelerinde liman araştırmalarının yapılması gelecek için umut vaat edicidir. Bursa kıyıları, Anadolu toprakları gibi birçok medeniyete ev sahipliği yapmıştır. Antik kaynaklardan bildiğimiz kadarı ile bölgede oturan en eski medeniye Bebrklerdir. Bölgede genel olarak yaşayan halk Trak kökenli halklardır. Mysialılar, Frigyalılar ve Bithynialılar arasında bölgede bir hakimiyet savaşı söz konusudur. Kimi zaman Bursa kıyı şeridi Mysialıların kontrolüne geçerken, kimi zaman Bithynialılar kontrolünde olmuştur. Kimi antik kaynağa göre Kios (Gemlik) Mysia kenti iken, kimine göre Phygia, kimine göre ise Bithynia topraklarındadır. Persler M.Ö. 547 yılında Lidya Krallığı'nı yok edince bölgeye hakim olmuşlardır. Perslerin tüm Anadolu'da uzun yıllar hakimiyetlerinden söz etmek mümkündür. Fakat, M.Ö. V. yüzyılın ortasından sonra Bursa kıyıları da dahil olmak üzere, Marmara Denizi'nin güney kıyılarında Yunanlıların hakim olduğu bilinmektedir. Büyük İskender'in M.Ö. 333 yılında Anadolu'ya girmesi ile Perslerin Anadolu'daki hakimiyetleri yok olmuştur. İskender, Bithynia üzerine saldırı yapsa da, burası ile fazla ilgilenmeyerek Anadolu içlerine yürüyüşüne devam etmiştir. M.Ö. 202 yılına kadar Bursa ilindeki Kios, Myrleia gibi önemli yerleşimler bu dönemde kent devletleri statüsünde gözükmektedir. M.Ö. 202 yılında Prusias tarafından yeniden inşa edilen şehirler Bithynia Krallığı hakimiyetine girmişlerdir. M.Ö. 75/74 yılında Bithynia toprakları miras yolu ile Roma İmparatorluğu'na devredilmiştir. Bu dönemde Mithradates ile Pompeius arasında bölge için önemli mücadeleler olmuştur. Bursa kıyılarında kısa bir süre Mithradates'in egemenliği söz konusu olsa da, M.Ö. 63 yılından sonra ise Roma İmparatorluğu hakimiyetindedir. M.S. 395 yılında Roma İmparatorluğu'nun ikiye bölünmesinden sonra Bursa ili kıyılarındaki yerleşimlerde Doğu Roma İmparatorluğu hakimiyetine girmişlerdir. Uzun yıllar Bizans (Doğu Roma) İmparatorluğu hakimiyetinde kalan kıyı şeridi yerleşimleri, M.S. 1320'den sonra Osmanlı İmparatorluğu hakimiyetine girmişlerdir. Kolonizasyon hareketleri sonrası Marmara Denizi'nde ticari bir hareketlilik söz konusu olmuştur. Çanakkale Boğazı üzerinden Marmara Denizi'ne giren halklar yeni koloni kentleri kurmuşlardır. Bu kurulan kentler ve siyasi olaylar hakkındaki bilgiler deniz ticaret rotalarını çizmemize yardımcı olmuştur. Antik dönemde denizciler istedikleri zaman sefer yapamıyorlardı. M.S. IV. yüzyılın sonlarında yaşamış olan antik yazar Vagetius denizcilerin sefer takvimi hakkında bilgi vermektedir. Vagetius'a göre Antik Dönem denizciliği için meteoroloji ve hakim rüzgarlar oldukça önemlidir. Gemilerin sefer yapmalarına uygun belirli tarihler mevcuttur. Denizin şiddeti ve durumu tüm yıl sefer yapılmasına imkan sağlamamaktadır. 27 Mayıs'tan 14 Eylül'e kadar sefer yapmak güvenli iken, bu tarihten itibaren yaklaşık 11 Kasım tarihlerine kadar sefer için hava şartları ve denizler şüpheli ve tehlikelidir. 11 Kasım'dan 10 Mart'a kadar ise denizlerin tamamen sefere uygun olmadığından bahsetmektedir. Denizciler, uygun hava şartları için sefer mevsimini beklemek zorundaydılar. M.S. XVII. yüzyılda da Vagetius'un verdiği tarihler sefer için geçerliliğini korumaktadır. 1775-1776 yılındaki Seyir Defteri'nde Osmanlı gemilerinin Nisan – Kasım ayları arasında sefer yaptığı anlaşılmaktadır. Vagetius'un bahsettiği tarihlerden günümüze yaklaşık 1500 yıl geçmesine ve gelişen gemi teknolojilerine rağmen, Marmara Denizi'nde Mudanya – İstanbul seferini yapan gemiler hava şartları nedeni ile en çok Kasım - Mart aylarında iptal edilmektedir. M.S. IV. yüzyıl ile M.Ö. VII. yüzyıl arasında coğrafyada ve iklim kuşaklarında çok fazla değişiklik olmadığına göre, Vagetius'un vermiş olduğu dönemlerin VII. yüzyıldan itibaren geçerli olduğunu düşünmek yanlış olmayacaktır. Antik kaynaklara göre, kurulan ilk koloni kentleri Marmara Denizi'nin güney kıyılarında kurulmuştur. M.Ö. 756 yılında Kyzikos, M.Ö. 709 yılında Parion, M.Ö. 712 yılında Astacus, Marmara Denizi'ndeki koloni kentlerinin ilk öncüleridir. Kios'un kuruluşu ise M.Ö. 627 yılına tarihlenmektedir. Marmara Denizi'nin kuzey kıyılarında yer alan, Chalkedon M.Ö. 685'te, Selymbria M.Ö. 668'den önce, Byzantium M.Ö. 668'te, Perinthos M.Ö. 602'de, Thracia Chersonesus (Gelibolu) M.Ö. 561'de kolonileştirilmişlerdir. Marmara Denizi'ndeki kolonizasyon hareketlerine baktığımızda Çanakkale Boğazı'ndan Marmara Denizi'ne girildikten sonra en erken koloni kentlerinin Marmara'nın güney kıyılarında kurulduğu görülmüştür. Bu da güney kıyılarında bir ticaretin olduğunu kabul etmemize nedendir. M.Ö. V. yüzyılda dönemin önemli deniz gücü Atina liderliğinde, Perslere karşı ortak mücadele etmek amacı ile Delos Birliği kurulmuştur. Birliğin ilk işi Çanakkale Boğazı'nı ve Marmara kıyılarını Perslerden temizlemek olmuştur. M.Ö. V. Yüzyıldaki deniz ticareti ile ilgili elimizdeki en önemli arkeolojik verilerin başında Atina Vergi Listeleri gelmektedir. Bu listelerde Attika-Delos Deniz Birliği'ne vergi veren kentler ve vergi oranları gözükmektedir. Buna göre Marmara Denizi kıyısında vergi veren birçok kentin adı ile karşılaşmaktayız. Bu kentlerden bazılarının vergi oranları da gözükmektedir. Bu listelere göre, Marmara Denizi'nin güney kıyılarında kurulmuş olan Parion 1 talent, Procennesos 3 talent, Kyzikos 9 talent, Kios 1000 drahmi, Astacus 1 talent 300 drahmi vergi verir iken, kuzey kıyılarındaki Perinthos 10 talent, Selymbria 6 talent, Byzantium 15 talent, Chalcedon 7 talent vergi vermektedir. Vergi oranlarının şehirlerin ekonomik durumu ile doğru orantılı olduğu düşünülürse, M.Ö. V. yüzyılda kuzey kıyılardaki kentlerin güney kıyılarındaki kentlerden daha zengin olduğunu ortaya koymaktadır. Bu gelişmiş ekonomi bize dönemin deniz ticaret rotalarını da vermektedir. Marmara Denizi'nin ticaret rotaları M.Ö. VIII. yüzyıl içerisinde güney kıyılarında daha aktif iken, M.Ö. V. yüzyıl ile birlikte ana ticaret rotası kuzey kıyılarına kaymıştır. Bu dönemde, Marmara Denizi'nin hakimiyeti tamamen Perslerin elinde gözükmektedir. Bu dönem Persler ile Yunanlıların büyük mücadeleleri vardır. Marmara Denizi'nin bir Pers gölü haline gelmesi nedeni ile Pers satraplığına bağlı tüm kıyılarda özgürce bir dolaşımdan söz etmek olasıdır. M.Ö. V. yüzyılın ortasından sonra Marmara Denizi de dahil olmak üzere Ege Denizi kıyılarında Attika Delos Deniz Birliği'nin etkisi gözükmektedir. Fakat Anadolu'daki Pers varlığı Marmara Denizi'ndeki ticaret yollarını güney kıyılarından uzak tutmuş olmalıdır. M.Ö. IV. yüzyılın sonlarında özellikle Kios'un bastırdığı altın sikkeleri kentin ekonomisinin iyiliğine işaret etmektedir. Bu da, Bursa ili topraklarındaki kentlerinde bu dönemde ticaret yolları üzerinde bulunduğunu göstermektedir. Roma Dönemi'nde tüm Marmara Denizi kıyıları Roma İmparatorluğu güvencesi altına alınmıştır. Kuzeyde Perinthos, bölgenin en önemli limanı ve Via Egnatia yolunun başlangıç noktasıdır. Ayrıca kent, Roma ordularının geçiş istasyonu ve toplanma noktası olarak oldukça önemli bir konumda bulunmaktadır. Roma dönemi kentlerine ve bölgedeki siyasi olaylara göz attığımızda Marmara'nın güney kıyıları çok daha problemlidir. Özellikle Mitridates VI'nın Bithynia kıyılarında Romalılara üstünlük kurması ve Nikaia (İznik), Mryleia (Mudanya) ve Kios (Gemlik) gibi kıyı kentlerini ele geçirmesi nedeni ile bu bölge Romalılar için ticarete elverişsiz duruma gelmiştir. M.Ö. 74 yılında Bithynia topaklarının vasiyet yolu ile Roma İmparatorluğuna bağlanmış ve M.Ö. I. yüzyılın ikinci yarısında Apameia, "Colonia Iulia Concordia Apamea" ismi ile bir Roma kolonisi olmuştur. Güney kıyıları da güvenlik altına alındıktan sonra tüm Marmara Denizi kıyıları ticarete elverişli duruma gelmiş olmalıdır. Perinthos'ta bulunan ve M.S. III. Yüzyıla tarihlenen bir yazıt Roma döneminde Perinthos ile Apameia'nın iyi ilişkiler içinde olduğunu, hatta Perinthos'ta "Apameia'yı Sevenler Cemiyeti" olduğunu göstermektedir. Bu dönemde bütün Marmara Denizi sınırları içerisinde bir ticaretin olduğu görülmektedir. Ayrıca Romalıların Marmara Denizi'nin iki yanında birer koloni kurması ve bu kolonilerin irtibatta olmaları bir tesadüf olmamalıdır. Perinthos'un Via Egnatia ile Roma ve Trakya kentlerine bağlandığı gibi, Colonia Iulia Concordia Apameia'nın da Anadolu içleri ile Prusa üzerinden bağlantısı vardır. Tüm bu veriler ışığında, M.Ö. 6000'lerde insanoğlu Marmara Denizi'ni besin sağlama amacı ile kullanmaya başlamıştır. M.Ö. VIII. yüzyıl ile birlikte Marmara Denizi deniz ticaretinde ismini duyurmuştur. Arkaik, Klasik, Helenistik, Roma, Bizans ve Osmanlı dönemleri boyunca siyasi etkiler nedeni ile farklı deniz rotaları oluşmuştur. Her dönemde, değişen deniz rotaları kentlerin gelişmelerini etkilemiştir. Marmara Denizi deniz rotası üzerindeki kentler, gelişmeye sürekli devam etmiştir. Perinthos Antik Kenti ile Via Egnatia örneğinde olduğu gibi, limanlar bir yol ağı ile iç bölgelere ulaşıma sahip olmalıdırlar. Bu nedenle bölgede yol ağları üzerine de bir çalışma gerçekleştirilmiştir. Liman kentleri ile iç bölgeleri bağlayan yollar tespit edilmeye çalışılmıştır. Antik kaynaklardan bildiğimiz Prusa – Apameia bağlantısına ait arkeolojik bir veri ile karşılaşılmamıştır. Fakat yazıtlar ışığında Nicaea'dan Kios'a ulaşan bir yolun varlığı bilinmektedir. Bursa ili kıyıları kıyı yapısı, kayaç ve toprak yapısı ile antik kentlerin konumları karşılaştırılmıştır. Bu karşılaştırma sonucunda kıyı şeridi, kayaç ve toprak yapısı ile antik kentlerin konumları arasında bir bağlantı bulunamamıştır. Tarım toprakları haritası incelendiğinde ise, tüm önemli antik kentlerin (Myrleia, Kios, Daskyleion ad Mare) günümüzde zeytin dikim alanlarında kurulduğu ve verimli topraklara sahip olduğu anlaşılmıştır. Plakia Antik Kenti'nin konumu bazı antik kaynaklar tarafından verilse de, yeri hakkında soru işaretleri mevcuttur. Kent hakkında bilinenler, Rhyndakos Nehri'nin batısında, Pelasg kolonisi ve kıyı yerleşmesi olmasıdır. Yaptığımız araştırmalar esnasında, Kurşunlu/Karacabey'de sualtında oldukça tahrip edilmiş dalgakıran yapısı ile karşılaşılmıştır. Araştırma sahamızın başladığı alandan itibaren Rhyndakos Nehri'ne kadar tespit edilen tek liman kalıntısı burasıdır. Liman'ın üst kısmında bulunan manastır ve mimari parçalar bölgenin tarihini çok daha eskiye götürmektedir. Tespit ettiğimiz limanın, erken dönemlerde Plakia halkı tarafından kullanılan bir liman, Geç Antik Çağ'da ise Manastır Limanı olarak görev yaptığı düşünülmektedir. Burasının kesin olarak Plakia Antik Kenti'ne ait bir liman demek için en azından yazıtlar ile desteklenmesi gerekmektedir. Bu nedenle, bölgede başka bir liman kalıntısı bulunmamasından dolayı burasını Plakia Antik Kenti'nin limanı olarak tanımlamak uygun görülmüştür. Liman, iki dalgakıran yardımı oluşturulmuş, yapay deniz limanıdır. Dalgakıranlar iri düzensiz taşların yığılması ile meydana getirilmiştir. Daskyleion ad Mare ile Eşkel Limanı eşleştirilmesi XX. yüzyılın başlarında yapılmıştır. Bu nedenle, kentin limanını aramaya yönelik çalışmalar yapılmıştır. Eski fotoğraflardan kentin limanı tespit edilmiş, modern yapılaşmanın dalgakıran ve liman üzerindeki tahribatı belgelenmiştir. Kentin bir tek limanı olduğu ve bunun da koyun içinde inşa edildiği anlaşılmıştır. Dalgakıranı iri, düzensiz taşların yığması ile meydana getirilmiştir. Ketendere'nin gerek konumu, gerekse buluntuları nedeni ile bir kent olarak algılanmaması gerektiği anlaşılmıştır. Ketendere deresinin batı kısmında iri düzensiz taşların yığılması ile meydana getirilmiş bir dalgakıran yapısı tespit edilmiştir. Antik limanlar ve tatlı su kaynaklarının bağlantısı göz önüne alınarak burasının çok küçük deniz taşıtları için kullanıldığı ve Caesarea Germanica kentine ait olması gerektiği görüşü bildirilmiştir. Kapanca Limanı'nda yapılan çalışmalarda 2 adet dalgakıran yapısı tespit edilmiştir. Bu dalgakıranların, iri düzensiz taşların yığılması işe meydana getirildiği anlaşılmıştır. Yüzyıllardır yeri tartışma konusu olan Caesarea Germanica Antik Kenti ile Kapanca Limanı'nın ortak yönleri gösterilerek, burasının Caesarea Germanica olması gerektiği ifade edilmiştir. Trilye kıyılarında yapılan araştırmalar neticesinde ne yazık ki antik döneme tarihleyebileceğimiz hiç bir liman yapısı ile karşılaşılmamıştır. Trilye kıyı şeridindeki modern yapılaşma ve liman tahribatın en büyük sorumlularıdır. Trilye'de yapılmış olan çalışmalar incelendiğinde, burasının bir yerleşim yerinden çok bir kült olanı olarak algılanması gerektiği anlaşılmıştır. Mudanya sınırlarında yaptığımız araştırmalar daha önceden yeri tespit edilmiş olan akropol çevresinde yoğunlaştırılmıştır. Roma Dönemi'nden itibaren Bursa için çok önemli bir liman şehri olan Mudanya'da kıyı şeridinde antik döneme tarihlenebilecek herhangi bir liman kalıntısı tespit edilememiştir. Eşkel, Trilye gibi Mudanya kıyı şeridinin de yoğun olarak doldurulduğu ve yapılaşmaya gidildiği anlaşılmıştır. 1860'lı yıllarda kıyı şeridinde sözü edilen dalgakıran yapılarının bu yapılaşma nedeni yok olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Mudanya – Gemlik arasındaki araştırmalar neticesinde Sırakayalar Mevkii'nde liman yapısı tespit edilmiştir. Dalgakıranlar iri düzensiz taşların dizilmesi ile meydana gelmiştir. Limanın fonksiyonunu anlamak için çevrede yaptığımız araştırmalarda limanın yamaçlarındaki tepe üzerinde yol yapımı ve taş ocağı nedeni ile yoğun tahribatın olduğu gözlenmiştir. Hangi kente ait olduğunu tespit etmek için yaptığımız araştırmalarda, ismi bilinen fakat yeri hakkında soru işaretleri olan Bryllion Antik Kenti ile ortak noktaları tespit edilmiştir. Bu limanın yaklaşık olarak üç kilometre iç kısmında bulunan Gündoğdu'da bulunan antik kent ile bağlantısının olduğu anlaşılmıştır. Bazı bilimadamlarının Paladari olarak isimlendirdiği kentin erken dönemleri hakkında hiçbir bilgi yoktur. Antik yazarlardan bölgede olması muhtemel kentler araştırılmış ve eşlenen tek yerleşim ile filolojik eşleştirilme yapılmaya çalışılmıştır. Tüm veriler göz önünde tutulduğunda Gündoğdu'daki antik kentin Bryllion, limanın arkasındaki tepe üzerinde de Bryllion'un epineonu olan Tereia'nın bulunması gerektiği düşünülmüştür. Bu nedenle kayıp kent Bryllion ile Gündoğdu yakınındaki Çiftekayalar'ın aynı yer olduğu ifade edilmiştir. Özellikle M.S. X. yüzyıldan sonra bölge için önemli bir gemi üretim merkezi olarak bilinen Gemlik'te yapılan araştırmalar neticesinde antik döneme tarihlenebilecek herhangi bir liman veya tersane yapısı ile karşılaşılmamıştır. Kıyı şeridinin tamamen dolduğu ve yeniden yapılaşmanın olduğu anlaşılmıştır. İznik Gölü'nde yapılan araştırmalar esnasında dört farklı noktada iskele kazıkları tespit edilmiştir. Bu kazıkların yerleri ile, bölgede yerleri tahmin edilen antik kentler karşılaştırıldığında birebir örtüşme söz konusudur. Ahşapların tatlı sularda binyıllar boyunca bozulmadan kalabildiği bilinmektedir. Bodrum, Myndos, Antalya, Plakia, Eşkel, Gemlik örneklerinden de bildiğimiz gibi limanların olduğu yerler binyıllar boyunca aynı işlevde yaşamlarını sürdürmüşlerdir. Bu durum göllerde de söz konusu olmalıdır. İznik kenti çevresinde yaptığımız araştırmalarda dalgakıran benzeri bir yapı ile karşılaşılmamıştır. Kentin göl kısmında yoğun dolgu bulunmaktadır. Göl Kapı önünde tespit edilen kazıklar muhtemelen antik kentin iskelesini işaret ediyor olmalıdır. Yüzyıllar boyunca aynı mevki, eskiyen ahşapların yenilenmesi ile kullanılmış olmalıdır. Uluabat Gölü'nde yaptığımız çalışmaların sonuçları İznik Gölü'nde yaptığımız çalışmaların sonuçları ile benzerlik göstermektedir. Her iki gölde de dalgakıran veya mendirek yapısına rastlanmamıştır. Gölyazı (Apollonia ad Rhydakos)'ta yaptığımız çalışmalar neticesinde insitu şeklinde bulunan bağlama taşı limanın tam yerini bize göstermektedir. Bağlama taşı gölden yaklaşık 16 metre içeride bulunmaktadır. Aradan geçen yol ile, olması muhtemel kalıntılar tahrip edilmiştir. Antik kaynaklardan Miletopolitis Gölü kıyısında kurulduğunu bildiğimiz Miletopolis kenti günümüzde tamamen karasal bir alandadır. En yakın göl Uluabat Gölü olup, arasındaki mesafe kuş uçuşu 20 kilometredir. Strabon'un bahsettiği gölü bulmak için çevre topografyası ve coğrafyası üzerine yapılan araştırmalar ile kuruyan gölün sınırları tespit edilmiştir. Müze Müdürlüğü'nün yaptırdığı kazılar neticesinde ortaya çıkan yapılar ve topografya ışığında limanın nerede olması gerektiği açıklanmıştır. Rhyndakos Nehri'nin Uluabat Gölü ve Marmara Denizi arasında kalan kısımdaki çalışmalarda herhangi bir liman yapısı bulunamamıştır. Buradaki çalışmalarda orta boyda balıkçı teknelerinin bile günümüzde bu nehirde yolculuk ettiği ve kıyıda herhangi bir liman yapısına gereksinim duymadan demirleyebildiği anlaşılmıştır. Bu alandaki çalışmalara, herhangi bir buluntu olmaması nedeni ile ayrı bir başlık açılmamıştır. Kıyı şeridindeki ve göllerdeki çalışmalar göstermiştir ki, Bursa il sınırlarında tespit edilen tüm deniz limanlarında dalgakıranlar iri, düzensiz taşlar yardımı inşa edilmiştir. Tatlı sularda ise, herhangi bir dalgakıran yapısı ile karşılaşılmamaktadır. Tatlı sularda liman için ekstra yapılaşma gerekmemektedir. 135 kilometrelik kıyı şeridinde üç adet dalgakıran yapısı tespit edilmiştir. Eşkel, Trilye, Mudanya, ve Gemlik gibi halen yaşamın sürdüğü yerleşim yerlerinde limanların tahrip ve yok edildiği anlaşılmıştır. Kıyı şeridinin düz olması nedeni ile doğal liman hiç yoktur. Tespit edilen limanların hepsi yapay deniz limanıdır. M.Ö. VII. yüzyıldan itibaren deniz ticaretinde aktif olan Marmara Denizi kıyılarındaki limanları tarihlemek için yeterli veri mevcut değildir. Dalgakıranların yapım şeklinden tarihleme yapılamamaktadır. Fakat buluntular ışığında; Plakia Antik Kenti M.Ö. IV. yüzyıl; Daskyleion ad Mare M.Ö. IV. yüzyıl; Caesarea Germanica M.S. I. yüzyıl; Apameia/Myrleia M.Ö. IV. yüzyıl; Bryllion ve Kios M.Ö. V. yüzyıl'a tarihlendirilmektedirler. Plakia – Daskyleion ad Mare arasındaki mesafe 33 kilometre; Daskyleion ad Mare – Caesarea Germanica arası 5 km; Caesarea Germanica – Apamia/Myrleia arası 14 km; Apameia/Myrleia – Bryllion arası 9 km ve Bryllion – arası 17 kilometredir. Aralarındaki mesafeler bakımından bir ortaklık gözükmemektedir. Bu nedenle, bölgede liman kentleri kurulurken aralarındaki mesafeden çok coğrafya şartlarına dikkat edilmiştir. ; From prehistoric times to modern times, Anatolia has been home to many civilizations. It has hosted many cultures and many different languages have been spoken on this very piece of land. Since the 19th century, these lands attracted the attention of western archaeologists. Then, in the middle of the 20th century, it started to attract the attention of underwater archaeologists. Underwater research is particularly concentrated on the south and west coasts of Anatolia. While underwater research has been carried out around Marmara Island, at the lake of Küçükçekmece at the Marmara Sea, the only underwater research carried out in 2008 happened at Kyzikos (Erdek) at the south coasts of Marmara Sea. Around 7,100 years ago, after the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea connected, the importance of the Marmara Sea increased. After this period, it had officiated as a bridge between the civilization of the Northern Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea. With the Neolithic Period, signs of life started to be detected around Marmara Sea and then with the colonization movements, the area hosted many cities. Mediterranean civilizations entering the Marmara Sea through the Dardanelles started to establish colonial cities at the coasts of Marmara. The south coasts of the Marmara Sea waited to attract the attention of researchers for long years. This can be seen clearly when, compared with the other parts of the Anatolian lands, the Marmara coasts were neglected. For this reason, the southern Marmara region's harbors were chosen as the area of this research. Four different provinces (Çanakkale, Balıkesir, Bursa, Yalova) had borders at the coasts of the Marmara Sea. The Turkish Ministry is providing a working permission for each province, at each period. As it was impossible to investigate the coastline of a province at a period, the research was limited to ancient harbors with the border of Bursa Province. Apart from the 135m areas at the coastline of Marmara Sea, the coasts of İznik and Uluabat lakes were also investigated. Information about the area was gathered from ancient resources, late antique travelers and modern research. The writing of the ancient authors, who gave information about the harbors of the region and harbor cities (including Strabo, Herodotus, Pseudo-Skylaks, Apollonius Rhodius, Xenophon, Pliny the Elder, Dio Chrysostom, Claudius Ptolemy, Stephanos Byzantinos, Pomponius Mela and Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus) were examined. Moreover, writing of the travelers such as Seyyid Muradi, İbn Battuta, Polish Simeon, Evliya Çelebi, Jean Thevenot, Richard Pockocke and Charles Texier were collected and considered as an adviser during the research. In all these resources, particular emphasis was laid on coastal cities and harbor structures. Since the period when maritime trade began, harbors become the most important points in the segmentation of the cities. Because they are the places where trade originated in the city, they were directly integrated into daily life. Harbors are natural or artificial places where the ships find shelter, load and unload goods, and board and drop off passengers. The first and last thing that a merchant coming to the city saw was the harbor. However, despite being in such an important position, they have not received enough attention from researchers over the years. The number of studies on the harbors of Anatolian coasts demonstrates that thus far. At the Bursa Province coastline, no research was held until today. The earliest sea-faring vessel made by humans dates back to 6000 BC, and the earliest harbor structure dates back to 3000 BC. According to the growing needs of people, water vessels also grew in size, and people needed places to protect these vessels. As a result of the size of the vessels becoming too big to be pulled to the coast easily, as well as the invention of hydrophilic cement allowing constructions underwater, harbors structures were constructed. Harbors were constructed in different ways depending on where they were found in the city. It is possible to divide harbors in two groups, according to the places where harbors were constructed and their respective functions. According to location, harbors are divided into sea harbors and freshwater harbors. Because of the diversity of coastline, sea harbors can be further categorized into natural and artificial harbors. Because lake and river coastlines are flat, all the freshwaters harbors are artificial. The main factor that determines whether the harbor is artificial or natural is the construction form of harbor's basin. Because natural harbors were constructed at bays, the natural basin of the bay would be used to form the harbor. Artificial harbors are constructed with the support of water basins, breakwaters and moles. Additionally, ancient harbors are divided even further, according to their functions: military harbors, trade harbors and private harbors. Harbor research around the world started in the 20th century AD. ; Bursa Metropolitan Municipality
The article identifies the features of intercultural communication in the context of European regulations. Based on an analytical review of scientific research of European and domestic scientists, the authors have identified the essence of the concept of "intercultural communication" in the European educational space and European documents in particular; clarification of the difference between the concepts of intercultural and cultural communication. The set of theoretical methods made it possible to identify the leading trends in European policy in the field of intercultural communication, ways to implement the main tasks and provisions of such policy and outline its main priorities and difficulties in modern socio-political conditions characterized by instability and uncertainty.It is established that intercultural communication in the European scientific and educational dimension is understood as a way of cooperation and cultural exchange, which provides for the establishment of understanding between representatives of different countries, nationalities, religions, etc.The priority goals of intercultural communication according to the provisions of European documents in this direction are: to foster intercultural understanding, tolerance, mutual respect and ethics of global citizenship and shared responsibility; development of intercultural empathy and education, training of representatives of different nations, ethnic groups and peoples to consider, analyze and solve problems related to cultural differences; to cultivate in the representatives of different states intercultural attitudes, including the manifestation of tolerance, respect, curiosity and receptivity to other cultures; to ensure the acquisition by representatives of different cultures and states of cultural knowledge, both general and specific to a particular culture, paying special attention to contextual and subtextual cultural elements; to recognize the natural and cultural diversity of the world, to recognize that all cultures and civilizations can contribute to sustainable development and are its decisive factors.Analysis of the functioning of various structural organizations of the EU revealed that their professional and social activities are directed in two directions: conceptual (dissemination of information on new laws and regulations of the European Union in the field of intercultural communication), which ensures the implementation of the value component of intercultural communication; functional (organization of various cultural events, events aimed at cooperation between representatives of different nations, ethnic groups, social strata, etc.), which ensures the implementation of basic tasks by means of direct communication and various forms of intercultural communication (festivals, creative weeks, days of European culture in education and public cultural institutions, thematic exhibitions in museums, various choreographic and theatrical performances for children and adults, etc.).It is determined that the most relevant trends in the development of European educational policy in the field of intercultural communication are: the establishment of broad communication and partnership in various spheres of life, especially - education, culture, politics and economics; expansion of public interaction and partnership for peace with the countries of the Eastern region; search for permanent means of influencing public opinion on the rule of human rights and freedoms in relation to the will, cultural affiliation, recognition and acceptance of intercultural diversity; establishing cooperation between the Ministries of Culture, Education and Science, the Ministries of Foreign Affairs; development of the existing network of cultural, public and public organizations for the dissemination of knowledge and competencies in intercultural communication; further financial assistance and encouragement of exchange between scientific circles and practices in the field of international cultural relations.Among the barriers to the implementation of intercultural communication, the authors distinguish: creating and maintaining a comfortable psychological atmosphere for each representative of different cultures; ensuring tolerant interaction and cooperation; optimal organization of group cooperation and ensuring the implementation of the principle of diversity. ; У статті визначено особливості забезпечення міжкультурної комунікації в контексті європейських нормативно-правових документів. На основі аналітичного огляду наукових досліджень європейських та вітчизнянихвчених авторами визначено сутність поняття «міжкультурна комунікація» у європейському освітньому просторі та європейських документах зокрема; здійснено уточнення щодо різниці між поняттями міжкультурна такультурна комунікація. Комплекс теоретичних методів уможливив визначення провідних тенденції розвитку європейської політики у сфері міжкультурної комунікації, шляхи імплементації основних завдань таположень такої політики та окресли-ти її основні пріоритети і труднощі реалізації в сучасних суспільно-політичних умовах, що характеризуються нестабільністю та невизначеністю.Встановлено, що під міжкультурною комунікацією в європейському науково-освітньому вимірі прийнято розуміти такий спосіб спікування та культурного обміну, який забезпечує налагодження порозуміння міжпредстав-никами різних країн, національностей, релігій тощо. Пріоритетними цілями міжкультурної комунікації за положеннямиєвропейських документів у цьому напрямі є: виховувати міжкультурне взаємо-розуміння, толерантність, взаємоповагу та етику глобального громадянства та спільної відповідальності; розвиток міжкультурної емпатії та освіченості, навчання представників різних націй, етнічних груп та народів розглядати, аналізувати та вирішувати проблеми, пов'язаних з культурними відмінностя-ми; виховувати у представників різних держав міжкультурні установки, що включають прояв толерантності, поваги,допитливості та сприйнятливості до інших культур; забезпечувати набуття представниками різних культур та держав культурних знань, як загальних, так і специфічних для певної культури, приділяючи особливу увагу контекстуальним та підконтекстним культурним елементам; визнати природне та культурне різноманіття світу, визнати, що всі культури тацивілізації можуть сприяти сталому розвитку та є його вирішальними чинниками.Аналіз функціонування різних структурних організації ЄС дозволив, установити, що їхня професійна та суспільна діяльність спрямована два напрямки: концептуальний (розповсюдження інформації щодо нових законівта положень Європейського Союзу в сфері міжкультурної комунікації), що забезпе-чує реалізацію ціннісної складової міжкультурної комунікації; функціональний (організація різноманітних культурних заходів, заходівспрямованих на коопе-рацію між представниками різних націй, етнічних груп,соціальних прошарків тощо), що забезпечує імплементацію основних завдань засобами безпосередньої комунікації та різних форм організації міжкультурної комунікації (фестивалі, творчі тижні, дні європейськоїкультури в освітніх та громадських закладах культури, тематичні виставки в музеях, різні хореографічні та театральні постановки для дітей та дорослих тощо). Визначено, що найбільш актуальними є такі тенденції розвитку європейської освітньої політики у сфері міжкультурної комунікації як:налагодження широкої комунікації та партнерства у різних сферах життя,насамперед – освіта, культура, політика та економіка; розширення суспільної взаємодії та партнерства в цілях миру з країнами Східного регіону; пошук постійних засобів впливу на суспільну думку щодо верховенства прав тасвобод людини щодо її волевиявлення, культурної приналежності, визнаннята прийняття міжкультурної різноманітності; налагодження співпраці між міністерствами культури, освіти та науки, міністерствами закордонних справ; розвиток існуючої мережі культурних, громадських та публічнихорганізацій для розповсюдження знань та компетентностей у міжкультурнійкомунікації; подальше фінансове сприяння та заохочення обміну між науковими колами та практиками в галузі міжнародних культурних відносин. Серед бар'єрів імплементації міжкультурної комунікації авторивиокремлюють: створення та підтримка комфортної психологічної атмосфери для кожного представника різних культур; забезпечення толерантної взаємодії та кооперації; оптимальна організація групової співпраці та забезпечення реалізації принципу різноманітності.
Introduction. Nowadays, the steadily growing relationship with the People's Republic of China is one of the priority directions of the foreign policy of the Russian Federation. According to the author of the present paper, new opportunities for active constructive interaction between the countries are provided with the One Belt and One Road Initiative (OBOR or BRI) adopted by China for the purpose of combination of efforts of the states for stable development of economy in the Eurasian space and peaceful co-existence of the people on the basis of the principles of openness, inclusivity of different civilizations, tolerance, safety, mutual benefit and training. The aim of the paper is to discuss the status and prospects of the Russian Chinese cooperation in the humanitarian field and search for new narrative for development cooperation. Methodology and research methods. The research was performed with a support on philosophical and general scientific methods: comparative, structurally functional and system types of analysis, synthesis, generalization, and forecasting.Results and scientific novelty. The Russian-Chinese recent cooperation was considered. Special attention was given to education communication strategy as one of the reliable and checked channels of establishment and consolidation of international economic relations. The educational component of humanitarian interaction enables to provide effective tools for adjustment and support for the international dialogue and has an extensive range of opportunities for harmonization of cultural, social and even political standards.It is emphasized that further strengthening of the productive bilateral interaction of the People's Republic of China and the Russian Federation is prevented by its developed model which is under construction and functions mainly at the level of public authorities. In spite of the fact that the relations between two countries are on the rise, the potential of the existing model has become exhausted, and it is therefore necessary to search for other ways of future joint collaborative work. Strengthening of partnership requires the transition to multilateral cooperation with other states and mutual participation of Russia and China in the course of overcoming the social and economic imbalance in the zone of their shared interests – the territory of the revived Silk Road. The third countries located along its southern transit corridor, unlike the states of the northern direction, are characterized by the backwardness of economics, high unemployment rate, lack of the fair system of upward mobility, poverty and ignorance of the population, thus promoting the spread of religious extremism and escalation of international conflicts. The author proposed to involve the humanitarian sphere as the mechanism of the start of transcontinental infrastructure projects in order to normalize the social and economic situation in these regions, to overcome socio-cultural barriers and to achieve integration of economics of various states for the sake of their steady growth and effectivization. The coordinated actions of China, Russia and EU countries for the promotion and maintenance of modern models of education can become a decisive factor to stabilize and implement the One Belt and One Road Initiative in problematic regions. In the author's view, partner States should focus on actions for modernization of national education systems and dissemination of scientific worldview, e.g. in the regions of the Northern Silk Road. Otherwise, the South will remain the centre of regularly military conflicts and terrorism financing, whereas the Russian and Chinese companies will continue to spend considerable personnel and financial resources for the safety of the ongoing joint projects. Practical significance. Materials of the research can be useful as a guide to reconsider the objectives of the Russian-Chinese alliance in the humanitarian sphere and generate new ideas on development and ways of implementation of the international educational programs. ; Введение. Упрочение разносторонних связей с Китайской Народной Республикой – в настоящее время одно из приоритетных направлений внешней политики Российской Федерации. Новые возможности для активного конструктивного взаимодействия между странами, по мнению автора статьи, открывает мегапроект «Один пояс, один путь» («ОПОП»), инициированный Китаем с целью объединения усилий государств для стабильного развития экономики на евразийском пространстве и мирного сосуществования народов на основе принципов открытости, инклюзивности разных цивилизаций, толерантности, безопасности, обоюдной выгоды и обучения. Цель публикации – обсуждение состояния и перспектив российско-китайского сотрудничества в гуманитарной области и поиск его новых форматов. Методология и методы. Исследование выполнялось с опорой на общефилософские и общенаучные методы: сравнительный, структурно-функциональный и системный виды анализа, синтез, обобщение и прогнозирование. Результаты и научная новизна. Рассмотрена специфика российско-китайских контактов последнего времени. Особое внимание уделено коммуникациям в сфере образования – надежным и проверенным каналам установления и консолидации межнациональных экономических связей. Образовательная составляющая гуманитарного взаимодействия способна предоставить действенный инструментарий для налаживания и поддержки международного диалога и располагает обширным спектром возможностей для гармонизации культурных, социальных и даже политических стандартов. Подчеркивается, что дальнейшему наращиванию темпов продуктивного двустороннего взаимодействия КНР и РФ мешает его сложившаяся модель, которая строится и функционирует преимущественно на уровне государственных органов. Несмотря на то, что отношения между двумя странами находятся на подъеме, потенциал существующей модели почти исчерпан – представляется целесообразным поиск иных драйверов совместной деятельности. Для укрепления партнерства важную роль может сыграть переход к многостороннему сотрудничеству с другими государствами и солидарному участию России и Китая в процессе устранения социального и экономического дисбаланса в зоне их общих интересов – на территории возрождаемого Шелкового пути. Расположенные вдоль его южного транзитного коридора третьи страны, в отличие от государств северного направления, характеризуются рядом социально-экономических проблем, которые способствует распространению религиозного экстремизма и обострению межнациональных конфликтов. Чтобы нормализовать социально-экономическую ситуацию в данных регионах, нивелировать социокультурные барьеры и добиться сопряжения экономик различных государств ради их устойчивого роста и повышения эффективности, в качестве механизма запуска трансконтинентальных инфраструктурных проектов предлагается задействовать гуманитарную сферу. Скоординированные действия Китая, России и стран ЕС по продвижению современных моделей образования могут стать решающим фактором стабилизации в проблемных регионах путем реализации инициативы «Один пояс, один путь». С точки зрения автора публикации, государствам-партнерам следует в первую очередь сосредоточиться на мероприятиях по модернизации национальных систем образования и распространению научного мировоззрения, донором которого способны выступить регионы Северного шелкового пути. В противном случае Юг останется очагом регулярно вспыхивающих военных конфликтов и поставщиком террористов, в то время как российские и китайские компании продолжат тратить немалые кадровые и финансовые ресурсы на безопасность осуществляемых совместных проектов. Практическая значимость. Материалы исследования могут быть полезны для переосмысления задач российско-китайского альянса в гуманитарной сфере и формирования новых идей по разработке и способам реализации международных образовательных программ.
Introduction. Nowadays, the steadily growing relationship with the People's Republic of China is one of the priority directions of the foreign policy of the Russian Federation. According to the author of the present paper, new opportunities for active constructive interaction between the countries are provided with the One Belt and One Road Initiative (OBOR or BRI) adopted by China for the purpose of combination of efforts of the states for stable development of economy in the Eurasian space and peaceful co-existence of the people on the basis of the principles of openness, inclusivity of different civilizations, tolerance, safety, mutual benefit and training.The aim of the paper is to discuss the status and prospects of the RussianChinese cooperation in the humanitarian field and search for new narrative for development cooperation.Methodology and research methods. The research was performed with a support on philosophical and general scientific methods: comparative, structurally functional and system types of analysis, synthesis, generalization, and forecasting.Results and scientific novelty. The Russian-Chinese recent cooperation was considered. Special attention was given to education communication strategy as one of the reliable and checked channels of establishment and consolidation of international economic relations. The educational component of humanitarian interaction enables to provide effective tools for adjustment and support for the international dialogue and has an extensive range of opportunities for harmonization of cultural, social and even political standards.It is emphasized that further strengthening of the productive bilateral interaction of the People's Republic of China and the Russian Federation is prevented by its developed model which is under construction and functions mainly at the level of public authorities. In spite of the fact that the relations between two countries are on the rise, the potential of the existing model has become exhausted, and it is therefore necessary to search for other ways of future joint collaborative work. Strengthening of partnership requires the transition to multilateral cooperation with other states and mutual participation of Russia and China in the course of overcoming the social and economic imbalance in the zone of their shared interests – the territory of the revived Silk Road. The third countries located along its southern transit corridor, unlike the states of the northern direction, are characterized by the backwardness of economics, high unemployment rate, lack of the fair system of upward mobility, poverty and ignorance of the population, thus promoting the spread of religious extremism and escalation of international conflicts. The author proposed to involve the humanitarian sphere as the mechanism of the start of transcontinental infrastructure projects in order to normalize the social and economic situation in these regions, to overcome socio-cultural barriers and to achieve integration of economics of various states for the sake of their steady growth and effectivization. The coordinated actions of China, Russia and EU countries for the promotion and maintenance of modern models of education can become a decisive factor to stabilize and implement the One Belt and One Road Initiative in problematic regions. In the author's view, partner States should focus on actions for modernization of national education systems and dissemination of scientific worldview, e.g. in the regions of the Northern Silk Road. Otherwise, the South will remain the centre of regularly military conflicts and terrorism financing, whereas the Russian and Chinese companies will continue to spend considerable personnel and financial resources for the safety of the ongoing joint projects.Practical significance. Materials of the research can be useful as a guide to reconsider the objectives of the Russian-Chinese alliance in the humanitarian sphere and generate new ideas on development and ways of implementation of the international educational programs. ; Введение. Упрочение разносторонних связей с Китайской Народной Республикой – в настоящее время одно из приоритетных направлений внешней политики Российской Федерации. Новые возможности для активного конструктивного взаимодействия между странами, по мнению автора статьи, открывает мегапроект «Один пояс, один путь» («ОПОП»), инициированный Китаем с целью объединения усилий государств для стабильного развития экономики на евразийском пространстве и мирного сосуществования народов на основе принципов открытости, инклюзивности разных цивилизаций, толерантности, безопасности, обоюдной выгоды и обучения.Цель публикации – обсуждение состояния и перспектив российско-китайского сотрудничества в гуманитарной области и поиск его новых форматов.Методология и методы. Исследование выполнялось с опорой на общефилософские и общенаучные методы: сравнительный, структурно-функциональный и системный виды анализа, синтез, обобщение и прогнозирование.Результаты и научная новизна. Рассмотрена специфика российско-китайских контактов последнего времени. Особое внимание уделено коммуникациям в сфере образования – надежным и проверенным каналам установления и консолидации межнациональных экономических связей. Образовательная составляющая гуманитарного взаимодействия способна предоставить действенный инструментарий для налаживания и поддержки международного диалога и располагает обширным спектром возможностей для гармонизации культурных, социальных и даже политических стандартов.Подчеркивается, что дальнейшему наращиванию темпов продуктивного двустороннего взаимодействия КНР и РФ мешает его сложившаяся модель, которая строится и функционирует преимущественно на уровне государственных органов. Несмотря на то, что отношения между двумя странами находятся на подъеме, потенциал существующей модели почти исчерпан – представляется целесообразным поиск иных драйверов совместной деятельности. Для укрепления партнерства важную роль может сыграть переход к многостороннему сотрудничеству с другими государствами и солидарному участию России и Китая в процессе устранения социального и экономического дисбаланса в зоне их общих интересов – на территории возрождаемого Шелкового пути. Расположенные вдоль его южного транзитного коридора третьи страны, в отличие от государств северного направления, характеризуются рядом социально-экономических проблем, которые способствует распространению религиозного экстремизма и обострению межнациональных конфликтов. Чтобы нормализовать социально-экономическую ситуацию в данных регионах, нивелировать социокультурные барьеры и добиться сопряжения экономик различных государств ради их устойчивого роста и повышения эффективности, в качестве механизма запуска трансконтинентальных инфраструктурных проектов предлагается задействовать гуманитарную сферу. Скоординированные действия Китая, России и стран ЕС по продвижению современных моделей образования могут стать решающим фактором стабилизации в проблемных регионах путем реализации инициативы «Один пояс, один путь». С точки зрения автора публикации, государствам-партнерам следует в первую очередь сосредоточиться на мероприятиях по модернизации национальных систем образования и распространению научного мировоззрения, донором которого способны выступить регионы Северного шелкового пути. В противном случае Юг останется очагом регулярно вспыхивающих военных конфликтов и поставщиком террористов, в то время как российские и китайские компании продолжат тратить немалые кадровые и финансовые ресурсы на безопасность осуществляемых совместных проектов.Практическая значимость. Материалы исследования могут быть полезны для переосмысления задач российско-китайского альянса в гуманитарной сфере и формирования новых идей по разработке и способам реализации международных образовательных программ.
From the abstract: Integration and Dis-Integration or Dis-Integration and Integration or Dis-Integration and Re-Integration can be quite a word play. The Dis-Integration of the former Soviet Union (FSU) in the early 1990s marks a serious and unprecedented development in modern history. It was a break-up of the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics into fifteen newly independent states. Hereby, twelve states formed the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), a structure that was to keep some order over the break-up. Three countries – the Baltics – announced their total independence and declared no will to be part of the CIS. A later Integration or Re-Integration within the CIS is being actively discussed and debated up to now. Several theories have evolved on the future of the region. Huntington's thesis predicts the 'Clash of Civilizations'. He argues that the future battle over world politics will be over religious and cultural factors. Huntington predicts a split-up of the world along religious lines. In turn, Duncan rejects religion to be a factor in the current developments of the CIS. He limits Kuzio's idea of a division between the CIS into 'radicals' and 'pragmatists' among the two groups – the 'Westernizers' and 'Slavophiles'. Duncan concludes that there is generally a shift towards pragmatism in the foreign policies of the member states of the FSU. Disillusionment with the West is widespread. Most important factors that make countries tend towards a Westernist' or Eurasianist' course are linked to ethnicity and conflict. The author views the political regime and economic reforms are less important. Other studies focus more on the relationship between Russia and the other CIS countries. Alexandrova's arguments support the trend towards pragmatism. She adds that Moscow gave up the concept of re-integration, which it was convinced of in the first years of transition. Russia's foreign policy from Yeltsin to Putin shifted from Multilateralism to Bilateralism. Russian capital, invested in the near-abroad, is seen as a strong instrument to influence other CIS states and force them to Moscow's security policy. Another -less recent- study on "Integration and Disintegration" from 1997 by authors of Brown University/U.S. and institutes from five newly independent states gives some outlook over the future ten years until 2006. Base for discussion were four rather extreme and abstract scenarios. Researchers and other experts from the region specialising in politics and security were confronted with the scenarios and asked to discuss and express their views on the future of the CIS. Economics did not play a major role in their debates over the tendencies within the region. In my work I will demonstrate that the energy sector, particularly the natural gas sector, plays an essential role in re-integrative tendencies. Logically, the largest successor of the FSU, the Russian Federation, plays a dominant role. As part of my work I will review prices for natural gas in the CIS. Applying the theory of Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) enables me to compare prices internationally. Unfortunately, the data limit allows only a rough comparison. However, it supports trends developed in prior sections of the work. A statistical analysis is not used due to the insufficient data set. The structure of my dissertation is as following: Section 2 summarizes the theoretical framework regarding integration and disintegration, based on findings of the 1997-study by authors of Brown University. In the progress of the dissertation I will illustrate that findings of the latter study are close to reality even today. After explaining the theoretical framework I will outline the hypothesis of my work. At the end of that section I will give an overview of the factors that lead to the disintegration of the Soviet Union. I will then relate the impact on the natural gas sector across the region. It is the outset on which the later work builds on. In Section 3 I will describe the creation of a new CIS market for natural gas on three levels driven by the Russian Federation. Given the fact that the natural gas industries in the CIS are mostly state regulated, shedding light upon the inter-governmental dimension will explain policies and -most importantly- Russia's motivation. What strategies has Moscow developed over the years in terms of controlling this sector? A further look at the inter-company dimension will picture the main players –large corporations- that are producing, transporting and distributing natural gas throughout the region. It will support the tendencies about Russia's role developed in the beginning of the section. That dimension will illustrate the companies' role as the players on the domestic Russian and foreign 'near-abroad' market. The third part of the section will be a basic price analysis, discussing the available data set. Do prices serve to understand evolving market mechanisms and tendencies towards re-integration within the CIS? Section 4 summarizes the findings of my work. I will put together the 'pieces' in Russia's natural gas 'puzzle'. Table of Contents: 1.INTRODUCTION7 1.1Theories7 1.2The Natural Gas Sector8 1.3Countries Covered9 1.4Data9 1.5Methodology10 1.6Plan10 2.ONE THEORY OF INTEGRATION AND DIS-INTEGRATION IN POST-SOVIET COUNTRIES11 2.1Expectations of Experts of the Various Countries12 2.1.1Georgia12 2.1.2Ukraine12 2.1.3Belarus13 2.1.4Turkmenistan14 2.1.5Kazakstan15 2.1.6Russia15 2.2A Cross-Country Picture16 2.3Relevance of the Study Regarding the Natural Gas Market17 2.4Dis-Integration of the Soviet Union and the Natural Gas Market18 3.RE-INTEGRATION OF THE CIS NATURAL GAS MARKET21 3.1Inter-Governmental Dimension21 3.1.1Grouping the Countries21 3.1.2Main CIS – Natural Gas Export Markets23 3.1.2.1Turkmenistan – Iran23 3.1.2.2Russia – South-Eastern Europe and Turkey24 3.1.2.3Russia – Europe25 3.1.2.4Russia – China28 3.1.3The Countries as 'Pieces' in Russia's Natural Gas 'Puzzle'?30 3.2The Inter-Company Dimension31 3.2.1Brief Portraits of the Players32 3.2.1.1Gazprom32 3.2.1.2Itera33 3.2.1.3The Independent Gas Producers35 3.2.1.4The Oil Companies35 3.2.2The Players Acting in the Strategic CIS36 3.2.2.1In Georgia and Turkmenistan to the South and South-West36 3.2.2.2In Turkmenistan and Kazakstan to the South-East and East38 3.2.2.3In Ukraine and Belarus for Access to the West39 3.2.3Restructuring of the Russian Monopoly41 3.2.4Changes with the Reforms42 3.3Prices44 3.3.1Data44 3.3.2Purchasing Power Parity45 3.3.3Russia's Domestic Market47 3.3.3.1A Start to Deregulate Prices48 3.3.3.2Low versus International Prices?51 3.3.4Russia's Export Market to the Near-Abroad53 3.3.4.1Comparison on FSU – Level53 3.3.4.2Comparison with Far-Abroad54 3.3.4.3Comparison with Russia's Domestic Market55 4.CONCLUSION58 5.APPENDIX61 5.1Data61 5.2Literature72
Soziokulturelle Länderkurzanalysen wurden Anfang der 1990er Jahre zum festen Bestandteil der "Länderkonzepte", dem neuen zentralen Managementinstrument der deutschen Entwicklungszusammenarbeit. Die Quintessenz dieses Ansatzes wurde in der Frage zusammengefaßt: Wollen und können die Zielgruppen das, was der Experte als Lösung für Probleme anbietet? Damit wollte man den bis dahin verbreiteten Tendenzen zu isolierten, sektor-spezifischen Lösungsansätzen gegensteuern: der Mensch und sein soziokulturelles Umfeld sollten in den Mittelpunkt rücken, und nicht wie bis dahin, technische und ökonomische Innovationen. Diese hehren Ziel stehen allerdings in Widerspruch zu überholten modernisierungstheoretischen Grundannahmen, die das Denken der Experten nach wie vor prägen. Gemäß den Vorstellungen des BMZ schlägt letztendlich doch wieder der Entwicklungsexperte "moderne Dinge" unseres westlichen "technischen Fortschritts" zur Implementierung vor. Die Hybris der Allwissenheit des Experten, der für jedes Problem eine Lösung parat hat, wird um so mehr zum Problem, je gezielter er sich denjenigen Bedürftigen widmet, denen gemäß den entwicklungspolitischen Leitlinien des BMZ am meisten geholfen werden soll, nämlich den Armen. Die Schwachstelle der gegenwärtigen Entwicklungszusammenarbeit liegt nicht - wie es das Rahmenkonzept suggeriert - darin, daß die Zielgruppen (oder Nehmerländer) die "Errungenschaften" moderner Zivilisation auf Grund soziokultureller Hemmnisse (noch) nicht übernehmen wollen oder können. Die Schwachstelle liegt vielmehr in dem mangelnden Können und Wollen der überwiegenden Mehrheit der entsandten Experten, mit dem Umdenken ernst zu machen, und tatsächlich Projekte (Problemdiagnose, Projektplanung und -Evaluation) in Bezug auf die Hauptzielgruppe deutscher Entwicklungspolitik, die Armen - vorrangig aus der Perspektive dieser Zielgruppe anzugehen. Die Zielgruppe der "afrikanischen Kleinbauern" beispielsweise ist keine homogene Masse, wie auch heute noch viel zu oft "Experten" leichtfertig in Berufung auf angebliche soziokulturelle Traditionen (z. B. die der .konfliktfreien Dorfgemeinschaft") behaupten. Selbst wenn ihre lokalen Führer von den Zielgruppen als legitime Vertreter angesehen werden, heißt das noch lange nicht, daß beispielsweise der Dorfchef auch weiß (oder ausspricht), was arme, Mittel- oder Großbauern in seinem Dorf wollen, geschweige denn, was sie realisieren können. Ein mindestens ebenso wichtiges Qualifikationsmerkmal für den Experten, wie gute Fachkenntnis, sind seine sprachliche und kulturelle Kommunikationsfähigkeit. Dazu ist jedoch in der Regel der bisherige Expertentypus weder von seiner Ausbildung, noch von seinen persönlichen Interessen und Erfahrungen her in der Lage. ; Author's version ; "Are the experts capable of doing what they should do? - Weaknesses of the socio-cultural framework concept of the BMZ": In the early 1990s sociocultural country proximate analyses became an integral part of the "Country concepts", the new strategic management instrument of the German development cooperation. The quintessence of this approach was summarized in the question: Do the target groups want and know how to do what they should do. The aim of this approach was to counteract the previously widespread tendencies towards isolated, sector-specific solutions: the human and its socio-cultural environment should be the focus, and not as hitherto, technical and economic innovations, spread within the framework of a top-down extension approach. However, the objective of the approach is still based on obsolete modernization-theoretical assumptions, which characterize the reasoning of the experts up to date. The hubris of the omniscience of the expert, who has a solution to every problem, becomes the more problematic the more he devotes himself to those in need according to the development policy guidelines of the BMZ, namely the poor. The weak point of current development cooperation is not - as the BMZ-framework suggests - that target groups (or recipient countries) are not able (or do not want) to take over the "achievements" of modern civilization due to socio-cultural barriers. Rather, the weakness lies in the inability and reluctance of the overwhelming majority of seconded experts to be serious about rethinking projects (including problem diagnosis, project planning and evaluation) in relation to the main target group of development policy, the poor, i.e. rethinking the project primarily from the perspective of this target group. The target group of "African peasants", for example, is not a homogenous mass. This false conclusion of experts even today is based on their recklessly claim to be relying on alleged socio-cultural traditions (e.g. those of the "conflict-free village community"). The fact that the target groups consider their ruler as legitimate representatives, that does not mean for example, that the village chief also knows (or pronounces) what poor, middle or big farmers in his village want, let alone what they can realize. At least as important a qualifier for the expert as good skill are his linguistic and cultural communication skills. However, as a rule, the aforementioned type of expert is not in a position to do this either because of his education or because of his personal interests and experience. ; RÉSUMÉ "Les experts sont-ils capables de faire ce qu'ils devraient faire? - Faiblesses du concept de cadre socioculturel du BMZ": Au début des années 1990, les analyses socioculturelles des pays en voie de développement sont devenues partie intégrante des « concepts pays », le nouvel instrument de gestion stratégique de la coopération allemande au développement. La quintessence de cette approche a été résumée dans la question : les groupes cibles, veulent-ils et savent-ils comment faire ce qu'ils devraient faire. L'objectif de cette approche était de contrer les tendances jusqu'alors répandues à des solutions isolées et sectorielles : l'humain et son environnement socioculturel doivent être au centre et non des innovations techniques et économiques, vulgarisées jusqu'ici dans le cadre d'une approche de vulgarisation descendante. Cependant, l'objectif de cette démarche est toujours basé sur des hypothèses théoriques de modernisation obsolètes, qui caractérisent le raisonnement des experts à jour. L'orgueil de l'omniscience de l'expert, qui a une solution à tous les problèmes, devient d'autant plus problématique qu'il se consacre davantage à ceux qui en ont besoin le plus, selon les lignes directrices de la politique de développement du BMZ, à savoir les pauvres. Le point faible de la coopération au développement actuelle n'est pas - comme le suggère le cadre du BMZ - que les groupes cibles (ou les pays bénéficiaires) ne peuvent (ou ne veulent) pas prendre en charge les « réalisations » de la civilisation moderne en raison des barrières socioculturelles. La faiblesse réside plutôt dans l'incapacité et la réticence de l'écrasante majorité des experts détachés à sérieusement repenser les projets (y compris le diagnostic des problèmes, la planification et l'évaluation des projets) par rapport au principal groupe cible de la politique de développement, les pauvres. Le groupe cible des « paysans africains », par exemple, n'est pas une masse homogène. Cette fausse conclusion des experts, même aujourd'hui, est basée sur leur prétention insouciante de s'appuyer sur de prétendues traditions socioculturelles (par exemple celles de la « communauté villageoise sans conflit »). Le fait que les groupes cibles considèrent leur dirigeant comme des représentants légitimes, cela ne signifie pas par exemple, que le chef du village sait aussi (ou prononce) ce que veulent les agriculteurs pauvres, moyens ou grands de son village, sans parler de ce qu'ils peuvent réaliser. Un qualificatif au moins aussi important pour l'expert que ses compétences techniques sont ses compétences en communication linguistique et culturelle. Cependant, en règle générale, le type d'expert susmentionné n'est pas en mesure de le faire, soit en raison de son éducation, soit en raison de ses intérêts personnels et de son expérience.
This paper deals with tracing the origins of Eurocentrism, as well as its consolidation in the form of an Anglo-Saxon ethnocentrism, as the dominant views in the study of International Relations (IR). These approaches have influenced not only the academic discipline but also the very political structure of the international system, ignoring the voices of the peripheral regions outside the European/Anglo-Saxon center. Larry Buzan and Richard Little have thoroughly documented five problems in the study of IR: Eurocentrism, Presentism, Anarchophilia, State-centrism and Ahistoricism. Upon their examination, some scholars have suggested that the geotemporal perspective should be broadened to address the fact that, within our discipline, history has long been viewed as an exogenous, if not superfluous, tool. At best, as Nick Vaugham-Williams argues, it has only served as a quarry from which to extract the facts that have helped shape the theories of the present. If history has been an instrument, used by the dominant ideology to contribute to this Eurocentric paradigm, it is also valid to use it to give voice to all regions of the world, especially those overlooked by the mainstream. Eurocentrism has been deemed a historical epiphenomenon that arose at a time when the great European powers dominated the world almost in its entirety, and that emerged from a very particular point of view around the concepts of modernity that related the birth of the international system with the conditions in which the modern world originated. The theoretical discussion of International Relations, according to Celestino Del Arenal, begins with the first interpretations of international life embodied in classic documents such as Thucydides'Peloponnesian War. However, it will be in the Christian and hegemonic Renaissance of 15th century Europe with its political, philosophical, legal, economic and sociological thought along with the modernization processes, first, and then, the conformation of the current international society when the world scenario opens for the theory of International Relations. Both social reality and theory were conditioned by a civilizing reasoning from the beginning where capitalism and the State were central to the foundation of Westernization. The "founding myth" of the origin of the international system was also conceived as a linear progression of history that moved in successive events and stages until it reached a civilizational apogee. The consolidation as an epistemological paradigm comes from a second historical process: the dominance of the American academy in the study of International Relations at the same time that the hegemony of the United States in world politics was achieved. Stanley Hoffman attributed to the United States the development of the scientific discipline, appropriating it for three causes that came together in the wake of World War II and its rise to world power: an intellectual predisposition based on a realistic academic community, the political context of a democratic government reinforced by sound and critical foundations, and the strength of its institutions, and the "check and balance" system. From this perspective, the discipline suffered a bias towards the political concerns of the United States and the fact of ensuring that the theories available to study these issues were theories that conformed to the American definition of what a social science should be. In addition, we examine the reasons why this ideology is still in force by proposing an all-encompassing alternative that allows the elaboration of "home-made" theories. This document recovers the theory of continuity envisioned by André Gunder Frank, Robert A. Denemark and Barry K. Gills within the hypothesis of the 5,000 year-old international system to propose a humanocentric approach. Such perspective would allow the broadening of our discipline's analytical framework, as suggested by Jacques Derrida, not with the aim of dissolving or destroying it but rather to review the structures on which the discursive elements are based, the way we think, and how we conduct our research. A starting point to enrich this vision is to look into the history of each of the regions of the world trying to find the origins of human interactions and learn from the experience of each one of them in order to answer what truly constitutes the"international". With this comprehensive vision we can rightly build a global and inclusive discipline, improving the dominant conception. The methodology of this article is based on analyzing various documents, focusing particularly on those written outside the traditional European academic center, such as the works of Deniz Kuru, from Turkey, Melody Fonseca, from Puerto Rico, and the opinions of academics from various research centers in Latin America. From this starting point I analyze the differences, similarities and convergences of Eurocentrism and ethnocentrism, then I look at what is considered the consolidation of Eurocentrism into an Anglo-saxon ethnocentric mentality. Consequently, I explore the possibility of a new humanocentrism and propose a new historiography of International Relations in which the historian is able to differentiate between significant and accidental causes. To achieve this, academics must act from their own perspectives, setting aside ideology, any supremacist epistemology, and the conditioned mindset to emancipate their research from these. Therefore, dominant theories such as realism are not the only theoretical framework to understand the history of the international system. Constructivist and Reflexive perspectives that illustrate how other regions contributed to this configuration and of what we know today as the modern civilization should also be taken into account. I conclude that we as researchers must begin to design new forms to collect the historical information coming from all corners of the globe, as Peter Frankopan posits, to deconstruct the IR discipline, expanding regional and inter-regional dialogues, training students to develop a critical eye that can challenge the vision of the mainstream, in order to transform the system towards a better, and more truly global, IR. ; El objetivo en este trabajo es analizar los orígenes del eurocentrismo, así como de su consolidación en la forma de un etnocentrismo anglosajón, como las visiones dominantes en el estudio de Relaciones Internacionales. De igual manera, se revisan las razones por las que esta ideología continúa vigente y por qué estos enfoques han influido no solo en la disciplina académica sino también en la misma estructura política de la sociedad internacional pasando por alto las voces de las regiones periféricas de este centro europeo-anglosajón. Al respecto, en él se hace un análisis introductorio sobre el papel que la Historia ha fungido dentro de la disciplina y la forma en que la corriente principal de esta la ha utilizado, muchas veces, como la cantera desde donde extraer los hechos que han apoyado a conformar las teorías y los paradigmas del presente. La Historia ha sido una herramienta exógena, si no superflua, por mucho tiempo, utilizada por la ideología dominante, que ha contribuido al paradigma eurocentrista. Por lo que en este trabajo se aboga por la ampliación de la perspectiva geotemporal en el análisis y la diversificación de las temáticas en Relaciones Internacionales para darle voz a todas las regiones del mundo. A partir del análisis documental de diversos textos, con especial atención a aquellos escritos fuera del centro académico tradicional europeo, como los trabajos de Deniz Kuru, de Turquía, Melody Fonseca, de Puerto Rico, y las opiniones de académicos de diversos centros de investigación en América Latina, se propone en este artículo reconstruir la disciplina, como lo sugiere Jacques Derrida, no con el objetivo de disolverla o destruirla, sino el de analizar las estructuras sobre las que se basa el elemento discursivo, la manera en la que pensamos, la perspectiva desde donde analizamos. Un punto de partida para enriquecer esta visión es la de buscar en la historia de cada una de las regiones del mundo los orígenes de las interacciones humanas, qué nos puede decir la historia de cada región sobre su propia experiencia internacional para así darnos cuenta que, como Aristóteles lo dijo, el ser humano es por naturaleza, un ser político y que lo internacional está intrínsecamente ligado a la naturaleza humana. Con esta visión humanocentrista, podemos reconstruir acertadamente una disciplina global e inclusiva, sumándola a la concepción dominante y perfeccionándola en unas Relaciones Internacionales con un conocimiento holístico de la sociedad internacional, dando pauta a elaboraciones teóricas "hechas en casa".
This article reconceptualizes the history of the capitalist world-ecology through the enclosure of the Great Frontier. Conceptualizing capitalism as a world-ecology of power, profit and life, the author argues that the underlying source of capitalism's success has been its capacity to "put nature to work" — as cheaply as possible. This Cheap Nature strategy combines capitalization (the logic of capital) with extra-economic appropriation, including the socially-necessary unpaid work of humans. At the core of every great wave of capitalist development has been the Four Cheaps: labor, food, energy, and raw materials. Those Cheap Natures were appropriated — through the dynamics of imperialism and militarized accumulation — through great waves of planetary enclosure, what I call the Great Frontier. These enclosures allowed imperial bourgeoisies to win the worldwide class struggle; to reduce the costs of production and therefore to advance the rate of profit; to resolve the surplus capital problem; and to sustain labor productivity growth. Today, the continuation of these four great bourgeois accomplishments are in question. The climate crisis represents the biospheric contradiction of the worldwide class struggle in the web of life. The enclosure of the atmospheric commons is a pivotal moment in the epochal crisis of capitalism — understood through the dialectic of planetary life and world accumulation. The more that capital and the imperialist forces seek to subordinate the biosphere to the logic of endless accumulation, the more that webs of life find creative and non-linear ways to defy and resist the planetary dictatorship of capital. This dialectic prefigures the Great Implosion. The Great Implosion thesis contends that the dynamics of non-linear change attributed to the climate crisis apply also to capitalism's unfolding epochal crisis. The geohistorical transition now underway is an epochal inversion of capitalism's defining relation with and within the web of life. This is the transition from the web of life as a cost-reducing and productivity-advancing dynamic to a cost-maximizing and productivity-reducing one. Its early signs are now widely grasped as the Great Stagnation. But this is only the beginning; we might call it a signaling crisis. The Great Stagnation signals the first moments of the Great Implosion. The author constructs the rise and ongoing demise of the Great Frontier in three parts, focusing successively on environmental history, Civilizing Projects, and today's climate crisis. In Part I, I reprise the historical-geographical outlines of the Great Frontier in the rise of capitalism. The author revisits core elements of the commodity frontier argument, developed to interpret the epochal shift in world environmental history after 1492. From this historical-geographical sketch of the rise of capitalism, I unpack a twofold argument. One is that commodity frontiers are not strictly about commodities or commodification. They are about imperialism, which is always the world bourgeoisie's favored mode of class formation. Imperialism is the world politics of the tendency (and countertendency) of the rate of profit to fall. It is premised not only on armed force but also on the geocultural hegemony and violence of Civilizing Projects. This is the focus of Part II. To be sure, commodification is in play; but to reduce the story to market forces replays a neo-Smithian error. It fails to grasp the centrality of imperialism and its mechanisms of class power in forging capitalism's major commodity frontiers. Capitalist relations of Nature — I use the uppercase to underscore the real abstraction — are always politically-mediated by states that pursue the creation and reproduction of a "good business environment." The (geo)political project of managing and securing webs of life for capital depends upon a geocultural project that makes possible the practical violence of commodity fetishism on the Great Frontier. This is civilizational fetishism. Its expressions are found the successive and overlapping Christianizing, Civilizing, and Developmentalist Projects of great empires, given intellectual expression over the longue durée by figures ranging from Francisco de Vitoria to Walt W. Rostow. These projects reproduce and reinvent the ruling abstractions of Civilization and Savagery. After 1949, this was President Truman's "Point Four" declaration on the divide between the "developed" and "undeveloped world." A second argument foregrounds the connective tissues binding our historical-geographical assessments of capitalist frontier-making and today's climate crisis. In Part III, I frame the planetary crisis as joining two fundamental moments: an unfolding crisis in life-making, registered widely in the climate and biodiversity literatures; and an unfolding crisis in profit-making, registered widely in the Great Stagnation discourse. Those two moments are unevenly combined in the geohistorical character of climate crisis, one in which the geophysical turning point finds expression in the destabilization of a trinity born in the seventeenth century: the climate class divide, climate patriarchy, climate apartheid. The seventeenth-century's climate crisis hothoused the Great Frontier as accumulation strategy, assuming its modern form between 1550 and 1700 as a climate fix to the era's "general crisis": an era of interminable war, endemic political crisis, and economic instability. In this era we find the maturation of capitalism's Planetary Proletariat, joining socially necessary "paid" and "unpaid" work by humans and the rest of nature: the differentiated unity of Proletariat, Femitariat, and Biotariat The blossoming of the Great Frontier as a full-fledged productivist revolution — the Plantation Revolution — inaugurated the Great Cheapening, a long-run secular decline in the price (value composition) of the Big Four inputs: labor-power, food, energy, and raw materials. A specifically capitalist historical nature was born, and its epoch-making service to world accumulation was to allow the systematic reduction of re/production costs for capital. Today we are witnessing that strategy's implosion. The web of life is rapidly moving from a source of Cheapness to an unavoidable vector of rising costs. The Biotariat is in open revolt. In place of the "limits to growth," the world-ecological alternative offers an alternative: Not only is "Another world possible" — the unofficial slogan of the World Social Form — but: Another class struggle is possible. We have in the Great Stagnation the revolt of the Biotariat — whose contribution to the revolutionary destabilization of capitalism has been underestimated by Environmentalists and Marxists alike. Although easily romanticized, grasping the web of life through the oikieos — the creative, generative, and multilayered pulse of life-making — asks us to reexamine human solidarity with the rest of nature in ways that challenge the Promethean domination of life and that explore the communist possibilities for liberation: "the creatures too should become free." Foregrounding the oppressive and exploitative dynamics of work, life, and power, Planetary Justice prioritizes the abolition of the Proletarian-Biotarian-Femitarian relation created through the Great Frontier after 1492. This is the challenge of the planetary class struggle in the last days of the Holocene. ; Este artículo vincula dos grandes acontecimientos histórico-mundiales: el auge del capitalismo tras 1492 y su crisis epocal actual, al final del Holoceno. El autor sostiene que la interminable acumulación de capital ha sido, desde el principio, posibilitada por la interminable conquista de la Tierra: la Gran Frontera. La ecología-mundo capitalista es un tipo peculiar de sociedad de clases que combina la acumulación monetaria con la apropiación excepcionalmente rápida del trabajo humano y planetario. La Gran Frontera es la zona de la Naturaleza Barata, uniendo dialécticamente la valorización del capital y la desvalorización ético-política de los humanos y del resto de la naturaleza, así, el racismo, el sexismo y el prometeísmo revelan ser pilares ideológicos fundamentales de la acumulación de capital. De manera crucial, la Gran Frontera ha permitido a las burguesías imperialistas avanzar en la productividad del trabajo, reducir los costes de los insumos y resolver las recurrentes crisis de sobreacumulación del capitalismo. Hoy en día, estamos asistiendo a la inversión geohistórica de la estrategia de la Naturaleza Barata del capitalismo. Se trata de la transición de la red de la vida como una dinámica de reducción de costes y aumento de la productividad a otra de maximización de costes y reducción de la productividad. La clase dominante y los economistas marxistas han entendido sus primeros signos como el "Gran Estancamiento". Pero esto es sólo el principio; podríamos llamarlo una "crisis de señalización". El Gran Estancamiento indica los primeros momentos de la Gran Implosión. Al igual que el cambio climático se entiende como un proceso no lineal que confunde los modelos biosféricos, la Gran Implosión es una dinámica no lineal a través de la cual las contradicciones del capitalismo en la red de la vida confunden los modelos lineales del cambio histórico. El capitalismo, frente a este panorama, es mucho más vulnerable de lo que creemos, y, sobre todo, lo es a la revuelta que el Proletariado Planetario está cociendo a fuego lento.
Da den menneskelige civilisation står overfor global opvarmning som et af de største eksistentielle kriser nogensinde, er konverteringen af spildvarme til en bæredygtig vedvarende energikilde en attraktiv løsning, der kan reducere afhængigheden af fossilt brændstof. Termoelektricitet gør det muligt at konvertere varme til elektricitet. Tidligere har højt ydende og stabile tellurid termoelektriske generatorer (TEG) været brugt, til missioner udenjordisk ved at forsyne den påkrævende energi til sondering af rummet. I de seneste år er der opstået interesse for at udnytte denne teknologi i områder som biler, fabrikker, kraftværker, militær og husholdninger. Der har været stor fremgang i opdagelsen af nye og effektive materialer med høj termoelektrisk (TE) ydeevne, men overgangen mod kommercialisering er stadig en udfordring. Selvom nye materialer som Zn4Sb3, Mg2Si, SnSe, skutterudider, Cu2Se, osv. har vist sig at have glimrende termoelektrisk ydeevne, men anvendelsen af disse materialer i kommercielle TEGs er stadig en udfordring. En af de største udfordringer er at producere en stabil og lav resistent kontakt til intensive arbejdsforhold. I denne tese er forskellige sammensætnings metoder blevet udviklet, til at skabe kontakt mellem forskellige TE materialer og metalliske elektroder. Udviklingen af grænseflade mikrostruktur er blevet undersøgt for at undersøge kontakt stabiliteten og nedbrydningsmekanismen. ZnSb blev valgt som det første materiale på baggrund af, at det er et termoelektrisk materiale, som er let, ugiftigt, billigt, og let tilgængeligt. Den succesfulde metode udviklet til ZnSb, blev derefter udvidet til CoSb3 baseret skutterudider, som er blandt de bedste TE materialer ved en temperatur mellem 300 ᴼC-600 ᴼC. Den første del af tesen undersøger konventionelle sammensætningsmetoder ved brug af lodningslegeringer. ZnSb blev valgt som materialet der skal bindes til forskellige metal elektroder som sølv, nikkel og Crofer 22 APU. Materialerne blev loddet sammen med kommercielle zink baseret loddematerialer. Sammensætningen blev testet i lang tid ved høj temperatur, hvorefter grænseflade mikrostruktur og kemisk komposition blev observeret ved brug af elektronmikroskop (SEM) og Energi-dispersive røntgen spektroskopi (EDS). Undersøgelsen viste at både sølv og nikkel elektroderne reagerer med de zink baserede loddematerialer, hvilket resulterede i et tykt diffusions lag bestående at forskellige intermetalliske faser. Det resulterede også i, at zink var dybt diffunderet i ZnSb, hvilket resulterede i en ændring af materiale kompositionen. Introduktionen af en tyk film bestående af titan eller krom som buffer lag var ikke i stand til at stoppe diffusionen. Ved brug af Crofer 22 APU, viste det sig at reaktionslaget var minimalt; hvilket tyder på, at Crofer 22 APU var det optimale elektrode valg til zink baseret loddematerialer. En ny loddefri sammensætnings metode blev hermed udviklet, ved brug af mikrolag med titan og krom som sammenkoblings materialer. Denne metode blev demonstreret på ZnSB TE systemet. Undersøgelsen viste, at titan og krom mikrolag til sammenkoblingsmidler resulterede i et rigtig god grænseflade kontakt uden huller eller revner. Yderligere, var denne metode også i stand til at konservere den oprindelige komposition af ZnSb. Grænseflade kontakten af ZnSb/Cr/Ni viste sig at være stabil efter varme behandling ved 400 ᴼC i 30 timer, hvilket tyder på at den lodnings frie metode er effektiv til at skabe pålidelig kontakt i TE enheder ved medium temperatur (200 ᴼC-400 ᴼC). Den lodningsfri metode var yderligere udviklet og anvendt til forskellige højtydende materialer i en højere temperatur interval. En særdeles stabil n-type Skutterudite blev valgt til sammensætning med Crofer 22 APU elektroden. Den blev testet ved 550 ᴼC i mere end 300 timer, hvorefter grænsefladens mikrostruktur blev undersøgt. De sammenføjende lag baseret på Krom og kobolt blev undersøgt systematisk og resultatet viste, at et flerlagede krom/kobolt gav den bedste kontakt. ; As human civilization faces global warming as the biggest existential threat it has ever faced, harnessing waste heat is a sustainable, renewable source of energy to reduce our dependence on fossil fuels. By directly converting heat into electricity, thermoelectricity offers solutions for waste heat recovery. In the past, very stable and high-performance telluride based thermoelectric generators (TEG) have been used for extraterrestrial missions to provide the energy needed for probing the dark deep space. In the recent years, the interest in application of this technology to automobiles, factories, power plants, military and households has increased. There has been great advancement in discovery of new and smart materials, exhibiting high thermoelectric (TE) performance, but the transition towards their commercialization is not smooth. While many new materials, such as Zn4Sb3, Mg2Si, SnSe, skutterudites, Cu2Se, etc., have been reported to show very high thermoelectric performance, the application of these materials in commercial TEGs is still hindered. One of the key challenges is to form stable and low resistant contacts for intensive working conditions. In this thesis, different joining methods were developed to make contacts between various TE materials and metallic electrodes. Interfacial microstructure evolution was investigated to study the contact stability and degradation mechanism. ZnSb was first chosen because it is non-toxic, low-cost, abundant and light weight thermoelectric material. The successful method developed for ZnSb is then extended to CoSb3 based Skutterudites, which are among the highest performing TE materials in the temperature range (300 ᴼC-600 ᴼC). In the first part, conventional joining method using soldering alloys was investigated. Low-cost high performance ZnSb material was chosen to bond with different metal electrodes such as Ag, Ni and Crofer 22 APU using some commercially available Zn-based solders. The joints were tested for long time at high temperature and the interfacial microstructure and chemical composition were observed using scanning electron microscope equipped with energy dispersive x-ray spectrometer (EDS). It was found that both Ag and Ni electrodes reacted with Zn-based solders and formed a thick diffusion layer comprising of different intermetallic phases. Furthermore, Zn was found to deeply diffuse into ZnSb TE leg, resulting in change of material composition. Introduction of thick films of Ti and Cr as buffer layers could not stop this diffusion. In case of Crofer 22 APU, the reaction layer was found to be minor; suggesting that Crofer 22 APU was a good electrode to be used with Zn-based solders. A novel solder-free joining method using microlayers of Ti and Cr as interconnecting agents was then developed and demonstrated on the ZnSb TE system. It was found that, using microlayers of Ti and Cr as interconnecting agents, a very good interfacial contact was obtained without any gaps or cracks. Interestingly, the starting composition of ZnSb legs was also preserved. The interfacial contact of ZnSb/Cr/Ni was found to be stable after heat treatment at 400 ᴼC for 30 hours, suggesting solder free joining as an effective method for reliable contacts in TE devices in the medium temperature range (200 ᴼC-400 ᴼC). The solder free joining method was further developed and applied to different high-performance materials in higher temperature range. A very stable n-type skutterudite material was chosen to join with Crofer 22 APU electrode. The joint was tested at 550 ᴼC for 300 hours and the interfacial microstructure was studied. Cr and Co based interconnecting layers were systematically investigated and it was found that the Cr/Co multilayer made the best contact.
A symposium on trends in legal learning covering the following country & area studies: (1) 'The Arab-Islamic World,' by Mohamed Sami Abdel-Hamid & Yassin Mohamed Tageldin, outlines the general theory of law in the Middle East, the subject-matter of legal sci, the relationship between the 'is' & the 'ought' (ethical & rational standards), & deals with the question by what intellectual process ought one to interpret & apply the law? The subject-matter of the history of law is reviewed. The relationship between law & society is discussed re both law & the nat'l society & law & internat'l society. The relationship between the law & men is defined in terms of human rights, rights of minorities, & law & the knowledge of man. It is concluded that trends of legal sci in the ArabIslamic world are not always in the same direction & indeed frequently run counter to one another as a result of the crisis through which Islamic civilization is passing; & it is almost impossible to predict which of the trends analyzed will prevail in the near or distant future. (2) 'Japan,' by Junichi Aomi, emphasizes the civil law background of the Japanese legal system. Post-war legislative reforms & developments in their org'al aspects are discussed. The primary sources of law are still considered to consist mainly of codes & other statuatory enactments of the Diet. Re legal thinking, the influence of the conceptualistic Sch's is strong. Lately, however, the value of value judgments & empirical inquiry into the realities of soc life is coming to the fore. The pluralism of Japanese legal philosophy is examined: natural law doctrine, Marxism, modern analytic philosophy, & neo-Kantian philosophy. Comparative studies of law are reviewed. The sudden outburst of lego-sociol'al literature following the end of the war is evaluated, which resulted in the conducting of empirical res on the efficacy of legislative reforms. The development of legal history in post-war Japan is characterized. (3) 'Mexico,' by Hector Fix Zamudio, draws attention to the fact that legal res in Mexico is predominantly personal & individualistic, due to the lack of a res instit dealing with the legal disciplines. There is an almost total absence of investigation into the techniques of legal res, analysis of instruments of sci'fic study & legal methodology. There has been a recent trend towards the application of the mathematical logic technique to legal res. The general theory of law is outlined re its axiological & juridical features & its general & formal logic aspects, including the influence of neo-Thomist thought & neo-Kantianism. Res trends in the history of law in Mexico are reviewed, which show a trend to isolated study of legal instit's & absence of a real historiography. Law & society is discussed re the adaptation of legal norms (too much value is placed in the normative virtue of the law & no serious investigation has been attempted re the appropriateness of specific provisions vis-a-vis the society they must govern), & law & democratic process. The relationship between law & man is examined re human rights, criminal law (many prominent works are cited here), & the law of civil procedure. Comparative law developments are then treated, & problems of the harmonization of internal & internat'l legal provisions concerning human rights. (4) 'Italy,' by Massimo Severo Giannini, points out that most Italian jurists belong to 1 or 2 tendencies: one Sch thinks that the jurist should know other disciplines, but refrain from making use of them in his legal work; the other Sch holds that the jurist must necessarily undertake work in the other disciplines as well. The methodology of Italian legal sci is highly individual. Legal sci in Italy has by no means adopted one single position on the factors of the legal phenomenon which are either determining or conditioning. The subject-matter of the history of Italian law is reviewed. The relationship between law & man is discussed in terms of the protection of the human personality, human rights, ethnic minorities, & law & the knowledge of man. Finally, re comparative law, the attitude of legal sci has been more reserved, since it is felt that a legal instit has no independent life but exists only in so far as it finds its place in a complex of other legal instit's. (5) 'Hungary,' by Zoltan Peteri, states that in the socialist system of soc sci's, legal studies are studied as a consolidated branch under the heading of legal & admin'ive sci's. There is no formal separation between legal & pol'al sci's. The state & law as soc phenomena constitute the main theme of res in legal & admin'ive studies & cover both their ideological & instit'al aspects. The central task is to examine how phenomena connected with the State & law are conditioned by society & the economy, & how these in turn react upon soc life. The point of departure is MarxismLeninism. The need to study soc practice has recently been emphasized. Studies in the history of law are limited to the sphere of statute law & do not extend to the history of any natural laws. Re law & society, res is mainly concerned with issues connected with the bourgeois & socialist interpretation of constitutionality, theoretical generalizations from experience gained in socialist constitutional evolution, & the outlining of perspectives of continued development. Res on soc or legal anthrop is not conducted in Hungary. The value of the study of comparative law is just beginning to be recognized. (6) 'United States of America,' by Max Rheinstein, stresses that in the US scholarly & practical concern about law are inextricably intertwined. The amount of legal writing is enormous, & its subject-matter is conceived broadly. Amer legal scholars are concerned with both the law as it is & the law as it ought to be. Legal scholars exert considerable influence not only upon the course of case law but also on that of legislation. The main trend is the exploration of the relationship between the facts of soc life & the law. The good society, for the elaboration of which the legal scholars regard themselves responsible, is the democratic society of active citizens having equal rights & opportunities in free, but controlled enterprise. The task of strengthening & extending the fundamental human & civil rights of all persons has occupied a prominent place. Legal scholars have also been firm in maintaining freedom of opinion, of information, of expression, of the press & of MM. The principle that internal law has to be in accord with internat'l law has also long been recognized in the US. It is traced how the transition to new methods was initiated by the writings of O. W. Holmes, R. Pound, Cardozo, T. Arnold, K. N. Llewellyn, which stressed study of society & use of the results. In conclusion the close relations which exist between law & sociol are detailed. E. Weiman.