Suchergebnisse

The population of environmentally displaced people has increased recently, thus this article aims to address the challenges climate change may impose on Nation-States concerning human rights in relation to forced migration. The relationship between climate change and forced migration will be studied in order to present the problems arising from the allocation of international responsibility among States and the international protection (or the lack thereof) of "Climate Refugees" and stateless persons caused by the disappearance of Nation- States under climate change; solutions will be proposed under the existing International Human Rights Law.

Climate variations in Mesoamerica have influenced the development and decay of populations from the earliest human settlements. The present time is no exception; there is no evidence that global warming will impact rainfall in the region, but rather there are important studies showing a response of rainfall to climate variability in the American tropics. Since our tropical region is vulnerable to climate variability, public policies must be congruent to avoid the mistakes of previous generations and achieve, with the help of science, a real progress in the fight against global warming. ; Las variaciones en el clima de Mesoamérica han influenciado el desarrollo y decaimiento de las poblaciones desde los primeros asentamientos humanos. La época actual no es la excepción; sin embargo, no se tienen evidencias de que el calentamiento global impactará las precipitaciones en la región, sino que más bien hay estudios importantes que muestran que los cambios en las lluvias responden más bien a la variabilidad climática que actualmente sufre el trópico americano.Debido a que nuestra región tropical es vulnerable a la variabilidad del clima, las políticas públicas deben ser congruentes para evitar los errores de generaciones previas y lograr, de la mano de la ciencia, un verdadero avance en la lucha contra el calentamiento global.

Los problemas contemporáneos relacionados con el cambio climático han fomentado una amplia gama de acciones en diferentes campos, debido a la complejidad del tema. Desde los años 90, la necesidad de una base científica confiable condujo al establecimiento del Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) de la ONU. Desde entonces, las evaluaciones científicas han sido cruciales para el desarrollo de políticas y legislación, como lo demuestra el Pacto Verde Europeo. Este ensayo analiza los reconocimientos científicos y las acciones para abordar el cambio climático sugeridas por el IPCC, con el objetivo de proporcionar una evaluación breve de la propuesta de la European Climate Law y ofrecer una base para futuros estudios comparativos de derecho público sobre medidas legislativas que vayan a aprobar los Estados miembros.

La presente investigación establece los elementos teóricos del cambio climático y la justicia climática en términos de responsabilidad global, acciones internacionales, equidad generacional, deuda climática y redistribución de las cargas ambientales. Se toma como punto de referencia el proyecto Zenú. Este es un caso de regulación de bienes comunes locales a través de recursos financieros aportados por los actuales mecanismos de mitigación al cambio climático. La propuesta metodológica genera un acercamiento a la identificación de beneficios y conflictos ambientales derivados de las actividades de captura de carbono. La revisión teórica incluye: i) una discusión conceptual sobre la problemática global, ii) la teoría sobre deuda ecológica, ambiental y climática, iii) los avances desde enfoques de bienes comunes (locales y globales), iv) el patrimonio común de la humanidad y v) las teorías sobre justicia ambiental. Utilizando tres metodologías complementarias: i) métodos cualitativos de investigación social, ii) evaluación multicriterio social y iii) mapa de actores o interesados, se identificaron aquellos beneficios ambientales generados en el ámbito local (i. e. aspectos biofísicos, sociales y económicos) (e. g. mejoramiento de suelos, disponibilidad de agua, condiciones de empleo, existencia colectiva, etc.) para luego contrastarlos con conflictos y problemas asociados a la implementación del proyecto que se evidencian en el análisis de caso (e. g. grados de incertidumbre de las comunidades, aplicación de las metodologías de reforestación, conflictos por el uso del suelo, restricción a prácticas tradicionales de agricultura y ganadería, problemas frente a la re-distribución de los beneficios monetarios, etc.). Los principales resultados del análisis teórico muestran la situación actual de injusticias e inequidades ambientales derivadas de la responsabilidad histórica de los �países industrializados� que no ha sido debidamente reflejada en las negociaciones del clima. Sobre el análisis de caso, los principales resultados indican la generación de algunos beneficios que no son sustanciales (e. i. resultados moderadamente positivos en el ámbito biofísico, pero en el social no tanto) y que se enfrentan con la aparición de conflictos por la implementación de este tipo de actividades. / Abstract. This research provides the theoretical elements of climate change and climate justice in terms of global responsibility, international actions, generational equity, climate debt and re-distribution of environmental burdens. Reference point is the Zenu project. This is a case of regulation of local commons through financial resources provided by the current mechanisms for climate change mitigation. This analysis implements a methodological purpose aimed at identifying environmental benefits and environmental conflicts by the carbon sequestration activities. The theoretical review includes a conceptual discussion on: i) conceptual analysis about global change, ii) the theory of ecological-environmental-and-climate debt, iii) commons approaches (local commons and global commons), iv) the common heritage of mankind and v) theories on environmental justice. Using three complementary methods: i) qualitative methods of social research, ii) social multi-criteria evaluation and iii) map of actors (stakeholders map), we identified those environmental benefits generated locally (i. e. biophysical, social and economic issues) (e. g. soil remediation, water supply, employment, existence of groups, cultural identity, etc.) to then compare this benefits with conflicts and problems associated with implementing the project in this case (e. g. uncertainty in the communities, implementation of reforestation methodologies, conflicts over land use, restricting traditional practices of agriculture and cattle, problems in re-distribution of monetary benefits, etc.). The main theoretical results establish the current situation of environmental injustice and inequity arising from the historical responsibility of the "developed countries" that has not been properly reflected in the climate negotiations. About the case study, the main results indicate the generation of some benefits that are not substantial (e. i. moderately positive results in the biophysical environment, but not so much in the social) and faced with the appearance of conflicts over the implementation of this activities. ; Maestría

We discuss a model of gradual coalition formation with positive externalities in which a leading country endogenously decides whether to negotiate multilaterally or sequentially over climate change. We show that the leader may choose a sequential path, and that the choice is determined by the convexity of the TU-game and the free-rider payoffs of the followers. Except in a few clearly defined cases, the outcome of the negotiation process is always the grand coalition, although the process may need some time. This holds for the standard IEA game with heterogeneous players even if the grand coalition is not stable in a multilateral context. We also analyze the role of a facilitating agency. The agency has an incentive to speed up intra-stage negotiations and to extend the period between negotiation stages in a sequential process. ; Peer reviewed

Theories of justice that have been discussed in Political Philosophy during XX century have not paid attention to environmental problems and to climate change. However, some of their arguments can be used to do a moral evaluation of the policies against climate change. Many of those policies have an anthropocentric andutilitarian perspective. By contrary, in this paper, a biocentric contention will beargued that defends the intrinsic value of any type of life. From these arguments, the policies adopted against climate change are not adequate and it is necessary a newproductive and economic model. ; Las teorías de la justicia que se han venido discutiendo en la filosofía política del siglo XX han prestado poca atención a las cuestiones medio ambientales y al cambio climático. No obstante, algunos de sus elementos pueden servir para hacer una evaluación, desde la moral, a las políticas que se pueden seguir contra el cambio climático. Muchas de esas políticas parten de un enfoque antropocéntrico y utilitarista. En este artículo, por el contrario, se defiende un enfoque biocéntrico que defiende el valor intrínseco de cualquier tipo de vida. Desde esos postulados, las medidas que sea doptan son insuficientes y es necesario un cambio de modelo económico y productivo.

Es claro que el crecimiento de la población, la extracción de materiales, la producción alimentaria y el incremento de energía para todas las actividades humanas nos conducen a un estado de colisión con las capacidades de la biosfera y los ecosistemas en el proceso de asegurar la provisión de bienes y servicios indispensables para la vida (1). La producción de energía convencional y contaminante es hoy una de las más graves en este escenario, tanto que la comunidad internacional y las potencias ya han empezado a dar muestras de preocupación por la seguridad energética y, con ello por la amenaza del cambio climático.En el actual cambio climático por primera vez se viene demostrando que la humanidad ha cambiado decisivamente un ciclo liberando CO2 a la atmósfera a través de la quema de combustibles fósiles y cambios en el uso del suelo por más de 500 000 años. El origen del cambio climático se remonta a dos grandes transformaciones en el uso de la energía. En primer lugar, la energía hidráulica fue reemplazada por el carbón, una fuente de energía condensada por la naturaleza a lo largo de millones de años. Fue el aprovechamiento del carbón para nuevas tecnologías lo que propulsó la revolución industrial y desató aumentos sin precedentes en la productividad. La segunda gran transformación ocurrió 150 años más tarde. El petróleo había sido una fuente de energía humana durante milenios. En China, por ejemplo, se registran pozos petroleros ya en el siglo IV. No obstante, la utilización del petróleo para los motores de combustión interna a comienzos del siglo XX marcó el inicio de una revolución en el transporte. La quema de carbón y petróleo, junto con el gas natural, ha transformado a las sociedades humanas al proveerle la energía impulsora de grandes aumentos en la riqueza y la productividad, pero también ha impulsado el cambio climático (2).La economía humana ha crecido vertiginosamente, se multiplicó más de 60 veces desde la revolución industrial a la fecha, y entre 2010 y 2050 se multiplicará por cuatro. ¿Cómo proveer la suficiente cantidad de energía para tal crecimiento económico sin continuar acrecentando las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero y por tanto el cambio climático?Las respuestas tecnológicas y las propuestas globales están a la vista, pero no hay suficiente voluntad política de los grandes tomadores de decisiones para aportar en su solución. Una propuesta importante es abandonar los combustibles fósiles (carbón, petróleo) como fuente principal de producción energética, y migrar lo más rápido posible hacia fuentes de energías renovables como la hidráulica, eólica, mareomotriz, geotérmica y sobre todo la energía solar (1). De esta forma, la reducción de las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero se prevé que estaría adecuadamente encaminada. Complementariamente, hay necesidad de incrementar la eficiencia de las plantas generadoras, el aumento del uso de tecnologías de energía renovable, reforzado con un uso más eficiente de la energía en el transporte, los edificios y los distintos sectores industriales (3).Al fin y al cabo, debemos tener en cuenta que prácticamente toda la energía que tenemos disponible en el planeta proviene del Sol. Los combustibles fósiles son tales porque alguna vez fueron seres vivos que, en grandes cantidades, quedaron sepultados y por procesos geológicos de millones de años se transformaron en petróleo y carbón. Es decir, son productos de la fotosíntesis del pasado. Asimismo, las energías eólica e hidráulica son producto de energía solar más gravedad. Salvo la geotérmica y la atómica, todas las fuentes de energía en la Tierra tienen que ver con el Sol de alguna manera (1).El Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo (PNUD) promueve diversas estrategias de bajo consumo de carbono, que van desde el apoyo en la transformación del mercado de electrodomésticos eficientes en materia de energía hasta la ayuda a los países para que eliminen las barreras de acceso al uso de energías renovables. También promueve una transición a largo plazo hacia formas de transporte con bajas emisiones de carbono y sostenibles.El potencial acumulado de calentamiento del planeta que se ha evitado como resultado de la labor del PNUD en materia de sustancias que agotan el ozono en todo el mundo, asciende a 24,5 millones de toneladas métricas de CO2 (4). La clave, entonces, es influir sobre la conducta de las instituciones y las personas y alentar las inversiones en empresas y actividades inocuas para el medio ambiente.La Unión Europea, asumiendo el liderazgo mundial en la lucha contra el cambio climático y a la vez en su afán de protegerse de energía ante eventuales crisis internacionales, ha emprendido como reto una gran reforma energética común, considerada histórica, con énfasis en la protección del medioambiente a través de la energía renovable. Sus líderes, en marzo de 2007, se comprometieron a alcanzar la estrategia energética, conocida como 20-20-20, hasta el año 2020. Esta estrategia implica el cumplimiento de tres grandes objetivos: 1) reducir 20% el consumo energético mediante una mayor eficiencia energética; 2) incrementar el uso de energías renovables hasta alcanzar 20% el consumo energético total, y 3) reducir en 20% las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero en relación con las emisiones de 1990.De acuerdo con las tendencias de consumo energético, todo parece indicar que el cambio climático es y será inevitable, y la Tierra continuará calentándose. Solo basta imaginar que de llegar el incremento del consumo energético al 83,7% hasta el año 2025, tal como está previsto desde 1990, el planeta recibirá el 76,4% más de CO2 en este lapso (5).Mientras más tardemos en asumir las decisiones y en modificar nuestros patrones dominantes de generación y uso de energía, más altos serán los costos por adaptación a un futuro que, previsiblemente, se nos anuncia lleno de impactos adversos. ; It is clear that the population growth, the extraction of materials, food production and increased energy needed for all human activities lead us to a state of collision with the capabilities of the biosphere and ecosystems in the process of ensuring the provision of goods and services essential for life (1). Production of conventional and clean energy is now one of the most serious issues in this scenario; both the international community and the world powers have begun to show signs of concern about energy security and the threat of climate change.The current climate change has demonstrated for the first time that humanity has decisively changed the atmosphere by releasing CO2 through the burning of fossil fuels and changes in land use over 500 000 years . The origin of climate change can be traced back to two great transformations in energy use. First, water power was replaced by coal, a source of energy condensed by nature over millions of years. The use of coal for new technologies propelled the industrial revolution and triggered unprecedented increases in productivity. The second great transformation happened 150 years later. Oil had been a source of human energy for millennia. In China, for example, oil wells are recorded as early as the fourth century. However, the use of oil for internal combustion engines in the early twentieth century marked the beginning of a revolution in transport. The burning of coal and oil, along with natural gas, is a transformation providing the driving energy for great increases in wealth and productivity. The downside is that it is a prime contributor to climate change (2).The human economy has grown rapidly, multiplied 60 times since the industrial revolution to date, and between 2010 and 2050 will be multiplied again by four. How to provide enough energy for such growth to continue without adding to emissions of greenhouse gases and therefore exacerbating climate change?Technological responses and global proposals are obvious, but there is not enough political impetus of the great decision makers to contribute to its solution. One important proposal is to leave behind the fossil fuels (coal, oil) as the main source of energy production, and migrate as quickly as possible to renewable energy sources such as hydro, wind, tidal, geothermal and especially solar energy (1). By doing this, the reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases is expected to be properly directed. In addition, there is need to increase the efficiency of power plants, increase use of renewable energy technologies, reinforce with a more efficient use of energy in transportation, building and the different industrial sectors (3).At the end of the day, we must bear in mind that virtually all the energy we have available on the planet is from the sun. Fossil fuels are such because they were once living beings that, in large quantities, were buried by geological processes millions of years ago and were transformed gradually into oil and coal. Also, wind and hydro energy are solar energy and gravity products. Except for geothermal and nuclear energy, most sources of energy on Earth have to do with the sun in some way (1).The United Nations Development Program (UNDP) promotes various strategies for low-carbon, ranging from supporting the market transformation of efficient appliances energy to helping the countries to remove barriers to the access of renewable energy. It also promotes a long-term transition towards forms of sustainable and low-carbon transportation.The cumulative global warming potential has been avoided as a result of UNDP work on substances that deplete the ozone worldwide, amounting to 24,5 million metric tons of CO2 (4). The key, then, is to influence the behavior of institutions and people and encourage investment in businesses and activities which are innocuous on the environment.The European Union, taking global leadership in combating climate change and yet making an effort to provide energy to any international crisis, has undertaken the challenge of a common energy reform, historically considered, with emphasis on environmental protection through renewable energy. Its leaders, in March 2007, undertook to achieve an energy strategy, known as 20-20-20, 2020. This strategy involves the fulfillment of three major objectives: 1) to reduce energy consumption by 20 % through increased energy efficiency; 2) to increase the use of renewable energy up to 20 % of total energy consumption, and 3) to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases in relation to 1990 emissions by 20 %.According to energy consumption trends, it appears that climate change is and will be inevitable, and the Earth will continue to warm. Just imagine that, to increase the energy consumption to 83,7 % until 2025, as planned since 1990, the planet will receive 76,4 % more CO2 during this period (5).The more we delay in making decisions and changing our dominant patterns of energy generation and use, the higher the costs of adaptation to a future that is expected to announce adverse impacts.

Climate change is the biggest problem that humanity has faced in recent decades, one of the main causes are the greenhouse gases (GHG). To mitigate it, it has been proposed and international agreement in Paris 2016, known as COP21 by several countries. On it, the Colombian government got engaged a 20% reduction on its GHG to achieve it they will focus on the energy sector and deforestation to zero in the Colombian Amazon. This article analyzes the implications and challenges of energy policies for GHG mitigation in Colombia related to opportunities in energy demand, electric power generation sources, smart grid systems, reduction on energy loss in transport, demand schemes and management of methane in carbon deposits. The main conclusion reached in this analysis is that in energy matters COP21 objectives will not be met, the strategies that the government has chosen are not well focused based on the emission source in the country, ve of the six strategies have not yet been legislated and much less implemented. Being in the second semester of 2020, the objectives will not be met this year or in the short term, the government opted for strategies that could not have been achieved

Ecopolis es el primer volumen de la nueva serie Future City, de la editorial de revistas científicas especializadas Australiana, Springer. Tiene por objeto difundir la discusión y el conocimiento de las cuestiones que atañen a las ciudades del futuro desde una mirada que integra la teoría ecológica y desarrollo urbano contemporáneo con prácticas sociales y estéticas.De publicación reciente, este libro aborda un estudio riguroso de la ecopolis como ecociudad basada en los principios de justicia social y democracia directa. El autor, arquitecto australiano, con vasta experiencia en el campo del desarrollo y la arquitectura sostenible, explora el .

*Bayartsengel Damdinjav, Chuck Davis, Steven Jones, Zach Long, Claudia Risner, Sydney Sheppard, Christina Slentz Climate change is the global challenge of the twenty-first century, a threat that carries dire environmental, social, security, and economic implications for every region of the world. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the primary driver of climate change is the increase in greenhouse gas emissions attributed to human activities. Although climate change must be met with a comprehensive global response in order to effectively address the effects of harmful greenhouse gases (GHG), these efforts depend on the actions taking place within nations. The United States, the greatest per-capita emitter of GHG, and China, that produces the largest amount of GHG overall, bear a good deal of responsibility for the problem. The United States, in particular, with its rejection of the Kyoto Protocol and its inability to craft a viable climate change agenda, has failed to offer the leadership needed to secure meaningful reductions in GHG. This essay seeks to establish perspective by profiling the political, social, and economic circumstances within six nations (three advanced industrial countries and three newly modernizing countries) and the European Union (EU) in order to better understand the dynamics involved in achieving a global solution to climate change.Case Studies1.- European UnionThe European Union has led the push for climate change regulationsto curb emissions 30% by 2030 and 80%-95% by 2050. To reach that goal, it has invested significant funds targetting 20% of the EU budget from 2014-2020 towards climate related measures. The EU believes that climate change policies will not only preserve the planet for generations to come but will also create greater long-term health and economic benefits. This position can be attributed to the lack of politicization of climate change in the EU allowing politicians to advocate forward thinking policies without the constant fear of political or electoral retribution. Furthermore, the close proximity of EU member states and their relatively small size creates an "all in this together" mentality allowing them to harness their resources to compete with larger world powers.2.- United KingdomWidely acknowledged as one of the foremost countries addressing climate change, the United Kingdom moved definitively to establish a science-based framework for approaching this global phenomenon even prior to the Earth Summit in Rio in 1992. This de-politicizing effort is revealed in the staunch support of conservatives like Margaret Thatcher, whose instrumental leadership set this critical tone and aided in the formation of the UN's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change in 1990, and Tony Blair, who seized his 2005 G-8 presidential term as an opportunity to promote the reduction of GHG through mitigation technologies, sustainable energy, and adaptation strategies. The UK has fostered domestic integration of climate and energy policies to reduce ill effects at home as well as international cooperation in the form of a post-Kyoto strategy and the ongoing European Union's Emission Trading Scheme (ETS), designed to blend climate change collaborative goals of equity distribution and cost effectiveness.3.- CanadaCanada's efforts to address climate change can be best described as leaping forward, stepping back and, finally, standing in place. An original early proponent for mitigation since 1975, under the Chrétien administration in the 1990s, the country committed to relatively aggressive reductions - - a 30% decrease over projected 2010 emissions - - as part of the Kyoto Protocol. However, a clear implementation plan proved elusive until 2005, at which time "Project Green" successfully established meaningful initiatives. Although temporarily rolled back the following year under the more business-friendly Harper administration, a brief surge in climate change public awareness subsequently forced the return of some mitigation initiatives. Currently, climate change policy stagnation is largely explained by prioritizing economic growth over environmental concernsparticularly in the wake of the 2008 Credit Crisis.It is further complicated by Canada's neighbor to the south - - the administration of President Barack Obama who supports addressing GHG emissions and a clean energy future.4.- AustraliaAustralia's international position on climate change reflects its domestic policy agenda. For the first 10-years of the Kyoto Protocol, 1997-2007, Australia was a climate change laggard based on both its refusal to ratify the agreement and its largely symbolic GHG reduction policies. In 2007, Australia ratified the Protocol and implemented stringent abatement policies but is now reversing course. What caused the shifts Down Under? Two domestic factors, electoral interests and political leadership, are most influential. Compared to economic growth, voters' prioritization of environmental issues rose until 2007 and then declined. The political leadership within the Coalition government (1996-2007, reelected in 2013) favors business and the fossil fuel industry, and is skeptical of climate change. This stands in contrast to the Labor Party (2007-2013) that favors GHG emissions reductions. So, although Australia has committed internationally to a 5% reduction of 2000 level emissions by 2020, it still lacks a consistent domestic policy to achieve this goal. Russia Russia experienced massive industrial decline in the immediate aftermath of the Soviet Union's collapse in 1991. Despite the fact that there has been a significant reduction of GHG emissions, Russia still ranks third on the list of the largest greenhouse gas emitters in the world. Problems caused by climate change in recent decades include public health risks, increased recurrence, intensity and duration of droughts in some regions, extreme precipitation patterns, floods, and over-moisturized soil and permafrost degradation in the northern regions. However, the climate change issue does not constitute a priority for Russian authorities. Several internal factors, such as a well-rooted skepticism within the Russian scientific community towards anthropogenic global warming, low environmental awareness among Russian citizens, and the priority given to the country's economic restoration, suggests that Russian climate policy is to a great extent being driven by the pursuit of benefits in areas other than that of environmental policy.ChinaOne of the best ways to summarize China's approach to climate change is via a domestic politics model. Decisionmakers involved in China's climate change policy belong to the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and there is little or no foreign influence over them. Among these decision makers, the most influential have managed to frame the issue as one of sovereignty and economic development. These hardliners see climate change as an issue that threatens China's sovereignty and its right to develop economically. As such, it has taken a stance of not joining any multilateral agreement until the U.S. does so. Thus, China's right to develop economically is assured. Domestically, China has made progress developing solar and wind technology for domestic use and for foreign markets. However, it continues to use fossil fuels, especially coal,to ensure that it develops along the lines deemed acceptable to the CCP.IndiaIndia's position on climate change is guided by two priorities - - namely, sustainable development and the elimination of poverty. With a growing economy that demands more energy for growth, there are hundreds of millions of people without access to electricity in India. Energy use and consequently greenhouse gas emissions will grow substantially in the coming decades. As a modernizing country, India is not bound to any GHG emission reduction goals under the Kyoto Protocol. However, it has established a National Action Plan on Climate Change and implemented a combination of mitigation and adaptation policies to reduce the country's contributions to climate change. These policies include energy conservation, promotion of renewable energy, abatement of air pollution among others. While India's development will require growth in energy use, the country must work to reduce the energy intensity of its production processes.Comparative AnalysisOn the basis of political, economic and social factors, a comparative analysis of the case studies reveals three key groupings: supporters of international climate change policy that involves implementing significant carbon mitigation reduction requirements; fickle hesitators who, if cooperative, face major reduction requirements; and unburdened supporters who face little-to-no mitigation requirements. The EU and the UK, as a climate change leader, fall into the first category, politically defined as highly democratic and economically and regionally integrated. The EU and the UK have softened views on sovereignty, have historically utilized the market for political/social ends, and normatively seek international cooperation as a means of reducing risk.For Canada and Australia,reduced support for international action on climate change is largely based on modern era socio-political attitudes and a perceived threat to their economic viability. Stemming from strong political views on state sovereignty, they are historically less likely to cooperate on international initiatives and, unlike the economically integrated EU and UK, are not willing to constrain markets in the name of political or social ends. These nations traditionally prefer individualistic as opposed to collective responses to major issues and consequently see cooperative action as risky.The newly modernizing countries of China, India and Russia exhibit different degrees of democracy and are not economically integrated nor fully industrialized. While highly centralized political authority is helpful in making international level commitments, enforcement capacity is hindered domestically. Willingness to cooperate is generally conditional upon gaining financial assistance and technical support needed for development. For China and Russia, the first priority is maintaining state authority and social well-being for the sake of stability. Environmental policy is put forward only when these priorities are not threatened. For India, the focus centers on lifting its population out of poverty that takes precedence over international climate change cooperation.ConclusionOverall, countries willing to cooperate internationally and make sacrifices to mitigate the causes of climate change perceive a lower economic and political threat for doing so than countries that refuse. In fact, the supporters of international climate change policy are more likely to view global warming as an all-encompassing economic, political, and social threat rather than as a discrete environmental threat. Having said this, they also see potential opportunities in assuming the role of early adaptors to climate change.Countries reluctant to support international cooperation face domestic political barriers that the comparative analysis above indicates is due primarily to economic perceptions and viability. Some countries that have rejected a commitment to international cooperation have, in fact, implemented national or sub-state abatement policies. At the same time, others ignore the threat entirely.In short, differences in behavior toward climate change indicates that not all countries perceive the threat the same. The task for climate change leaders, therefore, is to maintain their resolve to educate global populations such that perceptions of economic risk become less significant than perceptions of climate change risk. At the same time, they must offer best practices of reducing compliance costs and sharing knowledgeto build a clean energy agenda in order to ensure a sustainable global solution to climate change. *Students in the Graduate Program in International StudiesOld Dominion University, USAUnder the Direction of Professor Glen Sussman

Caribbean economies, lifestyles, activities, practices and operational cycles are intricately linked to climate, making them vulnerable to its variations and/or changes. As examples, climate extremes impact agriculture, fisheries, health, tourism, water availability, recreation, and energy usage, among other things. There is however limited incorporation of climate information in the long term developmental plans and policies of the region. This is in part due to a knowledge deficit about climate change, it's likely manifestation in the region and the possible impact on Caribbean societies. In this paper, a review of the growing bank of knowledge about Caribbean climate science; variability and change is undertaken. Insight is offered into the basic science of climate change, past trends and future projections for Caribbean climate, and the possible implications for the region. In the end a case is made for a greater response to the threats posed by climate change on the basis of the sufficiency of our current knowledge of Caribbean climate science. A general profile of what the response may look like is also offered. ; Las economías de los países caribeños, los estilos de vida, las actividades, y las prácticas y ciclos operativos están íntimamente ligados al clima, por lo que estas sociedades son vulnerables a los cambios y/o las variaciones del mismo. Los extremos climáticos afectan la agricultura, pesca, salud, turismo, disponibilidad de agua, recreación, uso de energía, para sólo mencionar algunos ejemplos. Sin embargo, no se incorpora mucha información acerca del clima en los planes de desarrollo a largo plazo ni en el desarrollo de políticas públicas de la región. Esto se debe en parte a un desconocimiento acerca del cambio climático, su manifestación probable en la región y su posible impacto en las sociedades caribeñas. Este artículo presenta una revisión del creciente banco de conocimiento sobre la ciencia climática caribeña; sus cambios y variabilidad. Se ofrece una breve descripción de los fundamentos de la ciencia que estudia el cambio climático, las tendenciaspasadas y las proyecciones futuras para el clima en el Caribe, así como los posibles impactos para la región. Al final se aboga por que haya una mayor respuesta a las amenazas que representan los cambios climáticos entendiendo que la ciencia climática caribeña cuenta con suficiente información actualizada. Además, se presenta un perfil general de cómo podría ser tal respuesta. ; Les économies des pays caribéens, les modes de vie, les activités, les pratiques et les cycles opérationnels sont intimement liés au climat, à cause de la vulnérabilité de ces sociétés face aux changements climatiques et/ou aux variations de ces deniers. Les extrêmes climatiques affectent l'agriculture, la pêche, la santé, le tourisme, l'approvisionnement en eau, la consommation d'énergie, pour ne citer que quelques exemples. Cependant, peu d'importance est accordé au climat dans les plans de développement à long terme, ni dans le développement des politiques publiques de la région. Ceci est dû en partie à un manque de connaissance sur le changement climatique, sa probable manifestation dans la région et son possible impact dans les sociétés caribéennes. Cet article présente une vue d'ensemble de la croissante banque de connaissances sur la science du climat caribéen ; ses changements et ses variabilités. On propose une brève description des éléments fondamentaux de la science qui étudie le changement climatique, les tendances passées et les projections futures pour le climat dans la Caraïbe, ainsi que les menaces que représentent les changements climatiques, tout en considérant que tenant compte la science climatique caribéenne dispose suffisamment de données récentes. En outre, on présente un aperçu général de la façon dont le problème climatique pourrait être abordé.

Hace 15 años comenzó la transformación de Chicago hacia la urbe más ecológica de la nación americana, hoy en día es una de las metrópolis más verdes y habitables del mundo, debido a la conciencia ambiental de las autoridades, los residentes y empresarios. Con 7 millones de pies cuadrados de techos verdes construidos y/o en proceso, con un extenso sistema de transporte público y un programa de ciclismo, Chicago se ha convertido en un modelo creativo de ambientalización de un paisaje urbano. Los esfuerzos del gobierno local han culminado en el Plan de Acción para el Clima de Chicago (Chicago Climate Action Plan), iniciativa del 2008 que perfilo los desafíos del cambio climático para fomentar la participación de los residentes y visitantes en la reducción del impacto medio ambiental y mejorar la calidad de vida de todos los habitantes de la ciudad. El presente trabajo da a conocer esta iniciativa y sus estrategias. ; 15 years ago began the transformation of Chicago to the greenest city of the American nation, today is one of the greenest and most livable cities in the world, due to the environmental awareness of the authorities, residents and entrepreneurs. With 7 million square feet of green roofs constructed and / or in the process, with an extensive public transport system and a cycling program, Chicago has become a creative model of greening of an urban landscape. The local government efforts have culminated in the Plan of Action for Climate of Chicago (Chicago Climate Action Plan), the 2008 initiative that outlined the challenges of climate change to encourage the participation of residents and visitors in reducing the environmental impact and improve the quality of life for all city residents. This study presents the initiative and strategies.

Hace 15 años comenzó la transformación de Chicago hacia la urbe más ecológica de la nación americana, hoy en día es una de las metrópolis más verdes y habitables del mundo, debido a la conciencia ambiental de las autoridades, los residentes y empresarios. Con 7 millones de pies cuadrados de techos verdes construidos y/o en proceso, con un extenso sistema de transporte público y un programa de ciclismo, Chicago se ha convertido en un modelo creativo de ambientalización de un paisaje urbano. Los esfuerzos del gobierno local han culminado en el Plan de Acción para el Clima de Chicago (Chicago Climate Action Plan), iniciativa del 2008 que perfilo los desafíos del cambio climático para fomentar la participación de los residentes y visitantes en la reducción del impacto medio ambiental y mejorar la calidad de vida de todos los habitantes de la ciudad. El presente trabajo da a conocer esta iniciativa y sus estrategias. ; 15 years ago began the transformation of Chicago to the greenest city of the American nation, today is one of the greenest and most livable cities in the world, due to the environmental awareness of the authorities, residents and entrepreneurs. With 7 million square feet of green roofs constructed and / or in the process, with an extensive public transport system and a cycling program, Chicago has become a creative model of greening of an urban landscape. The local government efforts have culminated in the Plan of Action for Climate of Chicago (Chicago Climate Action Plan), the 2008 initiative that outlined the challenges of climate change to encourage the participation of residents and visitors in reducing the environmental impact and improve the quality of life for all city residents. This study presents the initiative and strategies.