Suchergebnisse

RIJEČ UREDNIŠTVAZa ovogodišnje lipanjske Dane hrvatskoga šumarstva održana je panel rasprava o trenutnoj situaciji u šumama Hrvatske. Naziv rasprave bio je "Hoće li nas šume nadživjeti?". Svrha skupa bila je informirati širu javnost o stanju šumskih ekosustava, ali i o promjenama koje se događaju u njima. Govori li sam naziv skupa dovoljno o ozbiljnosti situacije u kojoj se nalaze naše šume? Promijenjeni klimatski uvjeti koji vladaju na početku 21. stoljeća, donijeli su mnogo neprilika u šumama posljednjih pet godina. Tome treba pribrojiti i nikad veću trgovačku globalizaciju, što doprinosi bržem i lakšem širenju invazivnih vrsta bolesti i štetnika. Danas gotovo da nema ni jedne značajnije šumske vrste drveća koja nema svojih problema. Šume Gorskog kotara sastavljene od jele, bukve i smreke stradale su uslijed klimatskih ekstrema, a potom potkornjaka, nizinske šume hrasta lužnjaka napadnute su hrastovom mrežastom stjenicom, a šume poljskog jasena ubrzano propadaju uslijed više čimbenika, posebice Halare, dok dalmatinske borove šume ozbiljno ugrožava borov potkornjak. Tu su i šumski požari nakon kojih uslijed erozija nestaje i šumsko tlo, što umnogome onemogućuje sanaciju i vodi degradaciji šume. Tako ugroženim šumama smanjuju se financijska sredstva za njihov zaštitu i obnovu, što je sad i definitivno ozakonjeno Zakonom o šumama (NN 68/2018) koji je stupio na snagu 4. kolovoza 2018. O prijedlogu zakona pisali smo u Šumarskom listu 5-6/2018. Saborska rasprava nije donijela zaokret u odnosu na zakonski prijedlog koji je usvojila Vlada Republike Hrvatske. Zakon je ustvari na tragu programa Vlade RH za područje gospodarstva, poljoprivrede i ruralnog razvoja iz listopada 2016. godine. Šumarstvo se u tom programu spominje u potpoglavlju "Aktivno upravljanje šumama, veća proizvodnja i više radnih mjesta u domaćoj drvnoj industriji" s rečenicom: Izmjenom zakonske regulative Vlada će poboljšati i otkloniti poteškoće u načinu raspolaganja šumama i šumskim zemljištima, provoditi razminiranje šuma i šumskog zemljišta, sprječavati ilegalne sječe i trgovine i poticati razvoj domaće drvne industrije koja proizvodi drvni proizvod. Smatramo da takav program baš i nije poticajan za šume i šumska zemljišta. Razminiranje je svakako unaprjeđenje u upravljanju i gospodarenju šumama koje se provodi godinama, kao i najavljeno sprječavanje ilegalne sječe i trgovine, samo za to nema dovoljno pozitivnih pokazatelja, jer je takva djelatnost postala jako unosna na štetu šume i šumovlasnika / šumoposjednika. Početkom godine donesen je i Zakon o poljoprivrednom zemljištu (NN 20/2018, na snazi od 9. ožujka 2018.) koji je propisao, kao i Zakon o šumama, izdvajanje iz šumsko-gospodarske osnove zapuštenog poljoprivrednog zemljišta koje se može privesti poljoprivrednoj proizvodnji i mogućnost davanja takvog zemljišta sukladno Programu raspolaganja u zakup ili prodaju. Omogućeno je i za zemljišta izvan građevinskog područja koja se u katastru vode kao poljoprivredna zemljišta, a u pravilu su zapuštena, da se uključe u šumskogospodarsko područje, jer su troškovi njihovog privođenja poljoprivrednoj namjeni veći od tržišne vrijednosti ili ukupnog iznosa zakupnine toga zemljišta. Ove odredbe trebale bi napokon omogućiti svrsishodnu raspodjelu zemljišta na poljoprivredno i šumsko te njihovo stvarno korištenje. Novi Zakon o šumama uvažio je višegodišnje primjedbe obveznika plaćanja naknade za općekorisne funkcije šuma (OKFŠ), što je u javnosti i medijima često prvo bilo na udaru kao nepotreban i neshvaćen "parafiskalni" namet. Sad se 90 % dosadašnjih obveznika (oko 180 tisuća) izuzima iz plaćanja naknade, jer je prag za obvezu plaćanja godišnji prihod ili primitak veći od 3 milijuna kuna uz zadržanu visinu stope naknade od 0,0265 %. Uvaženo je i traženje jedinica lokalne samouprave o povećanju stopa šumskog doprinosa, pa su one povećane s 3,5 % na 5 % i za jedinice na potpomognutim područjima s 5 % na 10 % prodajne cijene proizvoda na panju. Zakon je uveo i definiciju šumoposjednika: javni šumoposjednik ovlašten za gospodarenje šumom i/ili šumskim zemljištem u vlasništvu Republike Hrvatske, javna ustanova čiji je osnivač Republika Hrvatska i njezine znanstveno-nastavne sastavnice, koje svoju znanstveno-nastavnu djelatnost i znanstvenoistraživački rad obavljaju iz područja šumarstva, pravna osoba čiji je osnivač i vlasnik jedinica lokalne samouprave, a kojoj se odlukom Vlade povjerava gospodarenje te privatni šumoposjednik s podjelom na male (do 20 ha šume i/ili šumskog zemljišta), srednje (od 20 do 300 ha) i velike (većim od 300 ha) šumoposjednike. Za šumskogospodarsko područje ustanovljuje se Registar pri Ministarstvu koji se vodi u elektroničkom obliku, a bit će dostupan pod određenim uvjetima. Registar će sadržavati i dio za izvješćivanje potreban za ispunjavanja međunarodnih i nacionalnih obveza iz sektora šumarstva. Zakon predviđa i izdvajanje namjenskih sredstva u poseban fond za razvoj drvne industrije, što je također jedna od predviđenih aktivnosti u programu Vlade iz 2016. godine.Novi Zakon o šumama pokušao je uvažiti razne promjene koje su se dogodile od donošenja prošloga zakona iz 2005. godine, a koje su nivelirane izmjenama i dopunama kroz proteklih 13 godina, njih ukupno osam. Pokušao se uskladiti i s drugim zakonima iz područja poljoprivrede, zaštite pri­ro­de i okoliša, te strategije EU za šume i sektor koji se temelji na šumama. Potrebno je još uskladiti i donijeti sve podzakonske akte vezane uz zakon.Pitamo se hoće li odredbe novog Zakona o šumama biti na tragu rješavanja nagomilanih problema u šumama Hrvatske?Uredništvo ; EDITORIALA panel addressing the current condition of Croatian forests was organized on the occasion of Days of Croatian Forestry that were held in June 2018. The title of the discussion was "Will forests outlive mankind?" The purpose of the panel was to inform broader public of the condition of forest ecosystems, as well as of the changes taking place in them. Does the title of the panel reflect the seriousness of the danger facing our forests? In the last five years, changed climate conditions occurring at the beginning of the 21st century have inflicted major problems to the forests. Add to this general market globalisation, which contributes to the faster and easier spread of invasive diseases and pests. There is not one important forest tree species today that does not have problems. Forests of Gorski Kotar, which are composed of fir, beech, and spruce, have succumbed to climatic extremes and to attacks of bark beetles. Lowland forests of pedunculate oak are infested with the oak lace bug, while forests of narrow-leaved ash are rapidly deteriorating under the cumulative action of several factors, particularly Halare. Dalmatian pine forests are severely threatened by the pine bark beetle. Forest fires also cause extensive damage. The subsequent erosions lead to the loss of forest soils, which greatly hinders recovery and contributes to the degradation of forests. The financial means needed to protect and regenerate such forests are being minimized and this has now definitely been incorporated in the new Forest Act (Official Gazette 68/2018), which came into effect on August 4th, 2018. A parliamentary discussion did not bring about any changes with regard to the proposed act, which was adopted by the Government of the Republic of Croatia. The Act in fact follows the Government programme for the field of economy, agriculture and rural development of October 2016. In the said programme forestry is addressed in the sub-chapter "Active management of forests, higher production and more work places in the domestic wood industry" with the following sentence: By changing legal regulations, the Government will remove obstacles and improve ways of managing forests and forest land. It will also undertake demining operations in forests and forest land, prevent illegal felling and trade and stimulate the development of domestic wood industry which produces wood products. In our opinion, such programme is not really stimulative for forests and forest land. Demining is certainly an improvement in the management of forests and it has been carried out for years, and so is the announced prevention of illegal felling and trade. However, there are not enough positive indicators for this, since these activities have become very profitable at the detriment of forests and forest owners. At the beginning of the year the Agricultural Land Act was passed (Official Gazette 20/2018, in effect since March 9th, 2018), which regulated, as did the Forest Act, the exclusion of abandoned agricultural land from the forest-management plan and its conversion to agricultural production, as well as the possibility of leasing or selling such land in accordance with the Disposition Programme. The Act also allows for the land outside construction areas, which is listed as agricultural land in the land register but is abandoned in reality, to be included in the forest-management area, since the cost of converting the land for agricultural purposes is higher than the market value or the total amount of rent for such land. These provisions should finally enable a rational division of land into agricultural and forest land, and consequently its proper usage. The new Forest Act has also adopted long-lasting objections made by those obliged to pay a non-market forest function fee. The public and the media often harshly criticized this fee as an unnecessary and incomprehensible "parafiscal" tax. Now, 90% of those obliged to pay the fee (about 180 thousand subjects) are exempt from paying the fee, since the threshold for the obligation has been set down at an annual income or profit higher than 3 million kuna, while the rate of the fee has been retained at 0.0265 %. Demands by local self-management units to raise the rate of forest contribution have also been adopted, and it has accordingly been raised from 3.5 % to 5 %, while for units in subsidized areas it has been raised from 5 % to 10 % of the selling price of the product before felling. The Act also defines a forest owner: a public forest owner authorized to manage a forest and/or forest land owned by the Republic of Croatia, a public institution whose founder is the Republic of Croatia and its scientific-teaching components which carry out their scientific-teaching activity and scientific-research work in the field of forestry, a legal person whose founder and owner is the local self-management unit and which is entrusted with management by a Government decision, and a private forest owner. Private forest owners are divided into small (up to 20 ha of forests and/or forest land), medium (from 20 to 300 ha) and large (more than 300 ha) forest owners. A Register of a forest-management area in the electronic form will be established by the Ministry, and it will be available under certain conditions. The Register will contain a reporting part needed to fulfil international and national obligations in the forestry sector. The Act also provides for the allocation of earmarked means into a special fund for the development of the wood industry, which is also one of the activities in the Government programme from 2016. The new Forest Act has attempted to incorporate different changes taking place since the previous Act of 2005 was passed. There have been a total of eight changes, which have been adjusted by revisions and amendments over the past 13 years. The Act is also coordinated with other laws from the field of agriculture, nature and environment protection, and the EU strategy for forests and forest-based sector. All by-laws related to the Act need to be coordinated and passed.We wonder whether the regulations of the new Forest Act will try to solve the growing problems in the forests of Croatia. Editorial Board

This systematic country diagnostic is structured in two main parts, one backward looking and the other forward looking. The backward-looking analysis aims to draw lessons on the determinants of poverty and sustainable and inclusive growth from (a) stakeholder consultations; (b) a poverty profile; (c) a jobs profile; and (d) a review of Cote d'Ivoire's experience, and a comparison with Ghana and Sri Lanka, countries with similarities to Côte d'Ivoire, but with different growth trajectories. The poverty analysis shows that over the past 25 years, poverty has deepened considerably, in particular in rural areas in the North and West. While the fall in cocoa prices played an important role, consequences of the price shock were amplified by political and social crisis and cuts in social expenditure. The main employment challenge faced by Cote d'Ivoire is a high concentration of employment in low-productivity occupations, such as agricultural and non-agricultural self-employment, particularly among the poor, women and those living in rural areas. Very few individuals hold formal wage jobs, and those who do are concentrated among the more educated in urban areas. In the near- and medium term, job creation will benefit significantly from growth in the self-employment and micro-enterprise sectors. The analysis concludes that Cote d'Ivoire's poor performance can be attributed to its response regarding four sets of policy issues: (a) lack of agricultural development and diversification; (b) lack of structural transformation into agro-business and non-agrobusiness led by the private sector; (c) inequitable social policies; and (d) lack of good governance. Based on this analysis, the forward-looking part outlines Côte d'Ivoire's strategic pathways out of poverty, better jobs creation through private sector-led growth and human capital development, and the prerequisites for achieving those goals. For better jobs creation, the main pathways are increased agricultural productivity and diversification into agribusiness and other types of industries. Addressing constraints under these pathways, in particular access to finance, will also promote microenterprises and self-employment. For human capital development, the main pathways are increased and higher quality social spending and an effective social safety net. The last chapter prioritizes key binding constraints and discusses knowledge gaps.

Spatial inequality is an important feature of many developing countries that seems to increase with economic growth and development. At the same time, there seems to be little consensus on the causes of spatial inequality and on a list of effective policy instruments that may foster or reduce spatial inequality. This paper examines the theoretical and empirical literature on spatial inequality to learn what we know and do not know about the causes of spatial inequality, to investigate what policies may or may not ameliorate spatial inequality, and to determine whether policy makers can identify and implement policies that promote or reduce spatial inequality.

Il paesaggio forestale è al centro delle politiche europee di salvaguardia dell'ambiente e della biodiversità, in quanto contribuisce allo sviluppo sostenibile e al contrasto dei cambiamenti climatici. Ciò è riconducibile ai servizi ecosistemici che il suo capitale naturale fornisce alla società. La ricerca si dedica perciò all'individuazione dei principali fattori di rischio per la conservazione di questi ambienti sia a scala globale, ma anche soprattutto a scala locale dove si può constatare come specifici ecosistemi siano legati a forme storiche di paesaggio. Molti ambienti forestali del vecchio continente, infatti, si sono coevoluti con l'uomo, rispondendo a innumerevoli funzioni, ma tramandando, grazie alla loro resilienza paesaggistica, peculiari connotati identitari dei luoghi. Un caso emblematico di tutto ciò è lo storico paesaggio laurentino dell'Ager Laurens, tra Roma e il mare, conservatosi all'interno della Tenuta presidenziale di Castelporziano e assediato dalla città che vi si è sviluppata intorno. Studiare la storia e l'evoluzione paesaggistica dell'area, consentendo di attestare la resilienza di queste foreste negli ultimi tremila anni, grazie a fonti storiche e cartografiche che affondano le proprie radici nella mitologia classica, è stato il presupposto per affermare la necessità di interventi volti alla sua conservazione, in linea con gli obiettivi sanciti dai Presidenti della Repubblica nel 1999 e rinnovati nel 2020. A tal fine è stato condotto, per due anni e in una rete permanente, il monitoraggio dei fenomeni di rinnovazione naturale del querceto planiziale di caducifoglie, una delle componenti naturalistiche di maggior pregio e allo stesso tempo più minacciata nell'ambito costiero mediterraneo, ancor più se periurbano. Strumento fondamentale di approfondimento è stata inoltre la raccolta e l'analisi di dati storici presenti e quelli delle serie storiche meteo-climatiche. Dalle analisi dei dati è emerso uno stato di conservazione critico per il querceto, sia nella senescenza degli individui adulti che nella quasi assenza di rinnovazione naturale che sopravvive al secondo-terzo anno. Ciò è correlato in primo luogo alla numerosità della fauna selvatica, seguita dall'elevata densità della copertura arborea e infine al maggiore stress idrico e richiede interventi di gestione sostenibile integrata più incisivi e costanti nel tempo. ; The forest landscape is at the centre of European policies related to the protection of the environment and biodiversity, as it contributes to sustainable development and the fight against climate change. This is due to the ecosystem services that its natural capital provides to society. The aim of the research is to identify the main risk factors for the protection of the natural environments on a global scale and, above all, on a local scale where it can be seen how specific ecosystems are linked to historical landscape. Many forest environments of the old continent have undoubtedly co-evolved with man, responding to countless functions but simultaneously, thanks to their landscape resilience, handing down peculiar identity-related connotations of the places. A case in point is that of the historic Laurentian landscape of Ager Laurens, between Rome and the sea, preserved within the presidential estate of Castelporziano and under threat by the city that has developed around it. Studying the history and landscape evolution of the area, that has made it possible to attest the resilience of these forests over the last three thousand years, and thanks to historical and cartographic sources, which have their roots in classical mythology, was the prerequisite for affirming the need for interventions aimed at its conservation, in line with the objectives established by the Presidents of the Republic in 1999 and renewed in 2020. For that purpose, during two years and in a permanent network, was conducted the monitoring of the phenomena of natural renewal of the planitial deciduous oak forest, one of the most valuable naturalistic components and at the same time most threatened in the Mediterranean coastal area, even more if peri-urban. Furthermore, essential analyzing and study tools was the collection and analysis of historical data and climatic series. The analysis shows that the oak forest face a critical conservation status, both on the senescence of adult individuals and the almost total absence of natural renewal that survives the second-third year. This is attributable firstly to the abundance of wildlife, followed by the high density of the tree cover and finally to the greater water stress and requires more incisive and constant integrated sustainable management interventions over time. ; El paisaje forestal está en el centro de las políticas europeas de protección del medio ambiente y la biodiversidad, ya que contribuye al desarrollo sostenible y a la lucha contra el cambio climático. Esto se debe a los servicios ecosistémicos que su capital natural ofrece a la sociedad. La investigación, por tanto, se dedica a identificar los principales factores de riesgo para la conservación de estos entornos tanto a escala global, como a escala local, donde se puede ver cómo los ecosistemas específicos están vinculados a formas históricas de paisaje. De hecho, muchos ambientes forestales del viejo continente han co-evolucionado con los seres humanos, respondiendo a innumerables funciones y transmitiendo, gracias a su resiliencia paisajística, características peculiares identificativas de los lugares. Un caso emblemático es el histórico paisaje laurentino de los ager laurens, entre Roma y el mar, conservado dentro de la finca presidencial de Castelporziano y asediado por la ciudad que se ha desarrollado a su alrededor. Estudiar la historia y la evolución paisajística de la zona, que permita atestiguar la resiliencia de estos bosques durante los últimos tres mil años, gracias a fuentes históricas y cartográficas que tienen sus raíces en la mitología clásica, fue el requisito previo para afirmar la necesidad de intervenciones destinadas a su conservación, en línea con los objetivos establecidos por los Presidentes de la República en 1999 y renovados en 2020. Para ello, durante dos años y en una red permanente, se llevó a cabo el seguimiento de los fenómenos de renovación natural del robledal caducifolio llano, uno de los componentes naturalistas más valiosos y a la vez más amenazado del litoral mediterráneo, aún más si es periurbano. Una herramienta fundamental para el análisis fue la recopilación y análisis de los datos históricos y meteorológicos. Del análisis de los datos surgió un estado de conservación crítico para el robledal, tanto en la senescencia de los individuos adultos como en la casi ausencia de renovación natural que sobrevive al segundo-tercer año. Esto es atribuible en primer lugar a la abundancia de vida silvestre, seguida de la alta densidad de la cobertura arbórea y finalmente al mayor estrés hídrico que requiere intervenciones de manejo sustentable integrado más incisivas y constantes en el tiempo.

The EU adapted a set of proposals to make the EU's climate, energy, transport and tax policies adequate to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions, aiming to reduce emissions by 55% by 2030 However, to achieve these reductions, the European GREEN DEAL was launched, which encompasses different areas of action. One of the areas of action of this commission is the action plan "From the Farm to the Table" that covers all phases of the food chain and formulates a more sustainable food policy, through this strategy the plan to combat climate change and protect the environment. In such a way that the European Union promoted the HORIZON 2020 program where various projects such as INNOSETA and OPTIMA were created with the aim of developing, innovating and implementing new phytosanitary application techniques, therefore, one of the most important concepts is the characterization of the vegetation, before carrying out any application of phytosanitary products that are often disproportionate, and therefore it is essential to ensure correct dosage. In this way, the technology regarding the sensors helps us to be able to characterize the vegetation. In this sense, the objective of this work has been the validation of an ultrasound sensor for the Characterization of Vegetation in apple plantations. For this, 6 ultrasound sensors with 3 types of Narrow configurations were used; narrow cone, Medium with average cone and Wide with wide cone. The sensors have been placed on a mast at different heights and mounted on a Qi 9.0 Inverter Sprayer (FEDE) with H30 Technology. The tests were carried out in both artificial and real vegetation, simulating different densities to see the response of the signal from the sensors. The results showed that it is reliable to use these sensors and the proposed configuration to estimate the width of vegetation in apple trees at three heights. Furthermore, it was found that the configuration of the sensors is less important when working with very dense vegetations, but that in sparse vegetations (very early phenological stages) it is advisable to work with beam configurations between medium and wide. A methodology has also been developed to estimate the number of holes in the vegetation from the signal of the ultrasound sensors. ; La UE va adaptar un conjunt de propostes per fer que les polítiques de clima, energia, transport i impostos de la UE, siguin adequades per reduir les emissions netes de gasos d'efecte hivernacle, tenint com a objectiu reduir les emissions en un 55% pel 2030, però, per aconseguir aquestes reduccions, es va posar en marxa el GREEN DEAL europeu que s'embarca diferents àmbits d'actuació. Un dels àmbits d'actuació d'aquesta comissió és el pla d'acció "De la Graja a la Taula" que abasta totes les fases de la cadena d'alimentació i formula una política alimentària més sostenible, a través d'aquesta estratègia es reforcés el pla per combatre amb el canvi climàtic i protegir el medi ambient. De tal manera que la Unió Europea impuls al programa HORITZÓ 2020 on es va crear diversos projectes com INNOSETA i OPTIMA amb l'objectiu de desenvolupar, innovar i implementar noves tècniques d'aplicació fitosanitàries, per això, una dels conceptes més importants és la caracterització de la vegetació, abans de realitzar qualsevol aplicació de productes fitosanitaris que sovint són desproporcionades, i per això és imprescindible per assegurar una correcta dosificació. D'aquesta manera, la tecnologia pel que fa als sensors ens ajuda a poder caracteritzar la vegetació. En aquest sentit l'objectiu d'aquest treball ha estat la validació d'un sensor d'ultrasons per a la Caracterizacion de la Vegetació en plantacions de pomeres, per això es van utilitzar 6 sensors d'ultrasons amb 3 tipus de configuracions Narrow; de con estret, Medium de con mitjana i Wide de con ample. Els sensors s'han col·locat en un pal a diferents altures i es van muntar en un Polvoritzador Inverter Qi 9.0 (FEDE) amb Tecnologia H30. Els assajos es van realitzar en vegetació tant artificial com a real, simulant diferents densitats per veure la resposta del senyal dels sensors. Els resultats van mostrar que és fiable utilitzar aquests sensors i la configuració proposta per estimar l'amplada de vegetació en pomera a tres altures. A més, es va veure que la configuració dels sensors és menys important quan es treballa amb vegetacions molt denses, però que en vegetacions poc denses (estadis fenològics molt inicials) és recomanable treballar amb configuracions de feix entre mig i ample. També s'ha desenvolupat una metodologia per a l'estimació de l'nombre de buits en la vegetació a partir del senyal dels sensors d'ultrasons. ; La UE adapto un conjunto de propuestas para hacer que las políticas de clima, energía, transporte e impuestos de la UE, sean adecuadas para reducir las emisiones netas de gases de efecto invernadero, teniendo como objetivo reducir las emisiones en un 55% para el 2030, sin embargo, para lograr estas reducciones, se puso en marcha el GREEN DEAL europeo que embarca distintos ámbitos de actuación. Uno de los ámbitos de actuación de esta comisión es el plan de acción "De la Graja a la Mesa" que abarca todas las fases de la cadena de alimentacion y formula una política alimentaria más sostenible, a través de esta estrategia se reforzara el plan para combatir con el cambio climático y proteger el medio ambiente. De tal forma que la Unión Europea impulso el programa HORIZONTE 2020 donde se creó diversos proyectos como INNOSETA y OPTIMA con el objetivo de desarrollar, innovar e implementar nuevas técnicas de aplicación fitosanitarias, por ello, una de los conceptos más importantes es la caracterización de la vegetación, antes de realizar cualquier aplicación de productos fitosanitarios que con frecuencia son desproporcionadas, y por ello es imprescindible para asegurar una correcta dosificación. De este modo, la tecnología respecto a los sensores nos ayuda a poder caracterizar la vegetación. En tal sentido el objetivo de este trabajo ha sido la validación de un sensor de ultrasonidos para la Caracterizacion de la Vegetación en plantaciones de manzanos, para ello se utilizaron 6 sensores de ultrasonidos con 3 tipos de configuraciones Narrow; de cono estrecho, Medium de cono promedio y Wide de cono ancho. Los sensores se han colocado en un mástil a distintas alturas y se montaron en un Pulverizador Inverter Qi 9.0 (FEDE) con Tecnología H30. Los ensayos se realizaron en vegetación tanto artificial como real, simulando distintas densidades para ver la respuesta de la señal de los sensores. Los resultados mostraron que es fiable utilizar estos sensores y la configuración propuesta para estimar la anchura de vegetación en manzano a tres alturas. Además, se vio que la configuración de los sensores es menos importante cuando se trabaja con vegetaciones muy densas, pero que en vegetaciones poco densas (estadios fenológicos muy iniciales) es recomendable trabajar con configuraciones de haz entre medio y ancho. También se ha desarrollado una metodología para la estimación del número de huecos en la vegetación a partir de la señal de los sensores de ultrasonidos¿ ; Objectius de Desenvolupament Sostenible::12 - Producció i Consum Responsables

Changes in the global economy are increasingly accelerating and deepening. This work invites you to read and appreciate them through the performance of its main protagonists: transnational corporations and national States.The two types of organizations keep a relationship that is ambivalent: they repel and confront but at the same time they prove to need each other.The features of the link define what has been called "late capitalism" since J. Habermas. The tension knot between the two types of organizations is today the feverish rate of reproduction of capital and the ensuing battles waged by transnational corporations in order to expand their markets and concentrate ownership and control of the means of production in order to feed the process indefinitely.During the second half of the twentieth century, a recipe was introduced in Latin America to promote the autonomous development of different sub-regions, which were reported to have been compromised by the actions of transnational corporations. Following this recipe were designed companies with participation or under the state promotion to compete with transnational corporations. While the initiatives failed again and again, some recent policy orientations lead the author to wonder about their viability. In this sense, the evolution of the global system suggests that such political projects are impossible to fulfill.What about the reasons that prevent the creation and management of companies under political guidelines? At first, technological waves are replacing products, services, processes and productive activities and thus expel from the markets the same populations that the economic system claims peremptorily as consumers and users. National states -which technocratic fantasies even today regard as anachronistic beings-reappear on the international scene, trying to bear the internal social cost of these segregations. Thus, paradoxically and as far as they can, they must feed back to the same system. It is a restorative task that cannot be done without transnational corporations, but must count on them.In particular, developing country states make a commitment in the only possible way that they can do so in order to be predictable: through detailed inter-governmental regulations, under the so-called "free trade agreements". These treaties, usually bilateral, are joining and converging laboriously. Its regulations, embedded in a multilateral support still in force, allow national states and transnational corporations to meet their mutual expectations under conditions of economic belligerence, which can only be achieved through unprecedented strategic and operational flexibility on both sides.As a result of their confrontation or cooperation, depending on the issues involved, these actors are changing among themselves as they interact in multiple networks of increasingly complex and integrated systems. It is then mutual relationships that are redefining at all time their respective entities.Is it possible to conjecture about the historical sense of the current trend? At the moment it should be noted the increasing uncertainty generated by the adverse effects of the global system when its territorial spread in the developed world is already well known. And there are also warnings about potential climatic events whose occurrence would be uncontrollable. In this picture the exacerbation of connectivity seems contraindicated. Hence the overcoming challenge: the reconversion of public and private organizations so that they can support themselves in interrupting external connections, when they have to be rebuilt and having the suitability to operate in the transition even without such connections. ; Las transformaciones en la economía global son cada vez más aceleradas y profundas. Este trabajo invita a leerlas y apreciarlas a través del desempeño de sus principales protagonistas: las empresas transnacionales y los Estados nacionales.Los dos tipos de formaciones mantienen entre sí una relación ambivalente: se repelen y confrontan pero a la vez demuestran necesitarse recíprocamente.Las características del vínculo definen lo que desde J. Habermas se denomina "capitalismo tardío". El motivo central de la tensión entre ambos tipos de formaciones es hoy día el ritmo febril de reproducción del capital y las consiguientes batallas que libran las empresas transnacionales con el objeto de ampliar sus mercados y concentrar la propiedad y el control de los medios de producción para poder realimentar dicho proceso indefinidamente.Durante la segunda mitad del siglo xx se difundió en América Latina una receta destinada a promover el desarrollo autónomo de distintas subregiones, que según se advirtió estaba comprometido por la acción de las empresas transnacionales. Siguiendo esta receta fueron diseñadas empresas con participación o promoción estatal para competir con las empresas transnacionales. Si bien las iniciativas fracasaron una y otra vez, algunas orientaciones políticas recientes llevan al autor a preguntarse por su viabilidad. En tal sentido, la evolución del sistema global indica que semejantes proyectos políticos resultan de imposible cumplimiento.¿Cuáles son entonces los motivos que en el capitalismo tardío impiden la creación y gestión de empresas políticamente condicionadas? En primer lugar, las oleadas tecnológicas van sustituyendo productos, servicios, procesos y actividades productivas y de ese modo expulsan de los mercados a las mismas poblaciones que el sistema económico reclama perentoriamente como consumidores y usuarios. Los Estados nacionales –que las fantasías tecnocráticas hasta hoy mismo reputan como entes anacrónicos- reaparecen en la escena internacional, procurando cargar con el costo social interno de esas segregaciones. Así, paradójicamente y hasta donde puedan, deben realimentar al mismo sistema. Es una tarea reparadora que no puede prescindir de las empresas transnacionales, sino que ha de contar con ellas.En particular, los Estados de países en desarrollo asumen el compromiso de la única forma posible que pueden hacerlo para que se les reconozca previsibilidad: a través de minuciosas regulaciones intergubernamentales, encuadradas bajo los denominados "tratados de libre comercio". Son tratados, usualmente bilaterales, que se van ensamblando y convergiendo laboriosamente. Sus regulaciones, enancadas sobre un soporte multilateral todavía vigente, permiten que los Estados nacionales y las empresas transnacionales acoten sus expectativas mutuas dentro de condiciones de aguda beligerancia económica, lo que sólo puede lograrse mediante una inédita flexibilidad estratégica y operativa de uno y otro lado.Como resultado de su confrontación o cooperación, según sean las cuestiones en juego, dichos actores van modificándose entre sí al interactuar en un entramado de múltiples redes de redes cada vez más complejas e integradas. Son entonces las relaciones mutuas las que están redefiniendo a toda hora a sus respectivas entidades.¿Se podrá conjeturar sobre el sentido histórico de la tendencia en curso? Por el momento habría que tomar nota de la creciente incertidumbre generada por los efectos adversos del sistema global cuando ya es notoria su propagación territorial en el propio mundo desarrollado. Y adicionalmente aparecen alertas acerca de potenciales eventos climáticos cuya ocurrencia sería incontrolable. En este cuadro la exacerbación de la conectividad parece contraindicada. De ahí el desafío sobreviniente: la reconversión de las organizaciones públicas y privadas para que puedan sustentarse a sí mismas a la hora de interrumpir las conexiones externas, cuando deban recomponerlas y teniendo la idoneidad para funcionar en la transición sin poder contar con ellas.

Over the April-June 2008 period, prices of the commodities such as wheat, maize, rice and vegetable oils, reached impressive yet not exceptional peaks. By contrast, the populations of 48 countries were stricken by severe under nutrition. Most of them had already been weakened not only by conflicts, social disorders, dramatic and unusual climatic and natural disasters, but also by outbreaks, epizooties, and population displacements. In some cases, all these factors together played a significant role in the worsening situation. However, another important reason could be advanced to explain why the 2008 food crisis was an "extraordinary problem". This one is that "normal" scientific knowledge was defeated by the complexity of what it appears now as a food "poly-crises" (Morin, 2011). We answered by designing an epistemological, methodological, and technical knowledge base from two very different and alternative economics approaches of facing complexity. The first is the Hayekian approach (1899-1992), and the second, the Simonian approach (1916-2001). The research intends to fulfill cumulativity criteria, traditionally difficult to satisfy with the ones of complexity. From the following analysis we mostly learned two things. First, epistemological grounds of economics needed to be broken in complex environment(s): 1) from certainty/objectivity to uncertainty/subjectivity, 2) from accurate prediction to design, 3) from linear causality deemed inappropriate or, worse, threatening people freedoms, to complex causality. Second, in the adaptation process, the role of "tacit" knowledge production and sharing is central. For that reason, the core of economics problem is not allocation of resources anymore. Now, the main problem for humans whose cognitive capacity are "bounded" is to compute, to "socialize" (Nonaka et alii, 1994, 2001), available but dispersed information and knowledge and to converse them into heuristics or patterns allowing the adaptation to complex and uncertain environment(s). Two others auxiliary hypotheses –E. Ostrom (2011) will endorse them later- can be drawn from that preliminary work: 1) the dynamics of change rooted "in the thinking and in the creativity of people involved in complex situations and their capacity to restructure their own models for interactions", 2) reciprocal altruism (Simon, 1992, 1993) is a rational behavior which can be more effective in/for the social interactions in complex environment(s) than maximizing or selfish behavior. To present preliminary results in an effective way, we created a very simple interface scheme. It takes the form of a three-dimensional knowledge loop with two strands, "generic" and "tacit" knowledge connected between themselves to produce by recursion a meta-knowledge. We made the choice of the interface because it reflects with the most accuracy the position defended by Hayek and Simon which is that economics is a frontier science. Moreover, the interface has the advantage of being both open and closed. A part of the research is more specifically dedicated to design tools increasing the understanding of the "polyfood" crises. We elaborated a three-level indicator with: 1) perceptions of the contribution of each factor to the outbreak and the worsening of the situation; 2) contributions of actors to the explanation of the food crisis proposed in 2008. It was developed from: 1) a case study comparing and contrasting explanations proposed a) in their statements by 138 Heads of State and Government attended the High Level Conference on World Food Security (3-5 June 2008), b) in their analyses by economists, c) in their testimonies by people hit by under nutrition/rising food prices (database IRIN); 2) a new and more updated typology focused on the responses addressed by 18 countries split into 3 groups [.]. ; Entre avril et juin 2008, le prix des commodités (blé, maïs, riz) a atteint un niveau impressionnant, mais pas exceptionnel. Les populations de 48 pays ont été affectées par une sévère sous-alimentation. La plupart d'entre eux avait déjà été affaiblie par des conflits et des catastrophes naturelles inhabituelles et dramatiques. Ces facteurs ont souvent interagi pour aggraver la situation. Pourtant, si la crise de 2007-2008 a été un «problème extraordinaire», c'est aussi parce que la connaissance scientifique «normale» a échoué face à la complexité de la «poly-crises» alimentaire (Morin, 2011). En réponse, nous avons conçu un cadre épistémologique, méthodologique, et technique, à partir de deux approches face à la complexité, celles de Hayek (1899-1992) et de Simon (1916-2001), avec un objectif, satisfaire au critère de cumulativité, un reproche traditionnellement adressé à ce type d'approche. Ce travail a produit deux enseignements. Premièrement, les fondements épistémologiques de la production de la connaissance en économie doivent être révisés en environnement complexe et incertain: 1) du certain/de l'objectif vers l'incertain/le subjectif; 2) de la prédiction exacte vers la conception; 3) de la causalité linéaire inappropriée, ou pire, menaçant la liberté individuelle, vers une causalité complexe. Deuxièmement, dans le processus d'adaptation, le rôle de la production et du partage de la connaissance «tacite» est central. Pour cette raison, le problème économique n'est plus un problème d'allocation des ressources. Il est de savoir comment des êtres humains aux capacités cognitives «limitées» computent et socialisent (Nonaka et alii, 1994, 2001) la connaissance et l'information disponibles, mais dispersées, pour la convertir en heuristiques ou patterns favorisant l'adaptation. Deux autres hypothèses les renforcent : 1) les dynamiques du changement s'enracinent «dans la pensée et la créativité des gens impliqués dans des situations complexes et dans leur capacité à restructurer leurs propres modèles d'interactions», (Ostrom, 2011) ; 2) l'altruisme réciproque (Simon, 1992, 1993) est un comportement rationnel qui peut être plus efficient dans les interactions sociales en environnement complexe que le comportement maximisateur ou égoïste. Ces résultats ont été synthétisés dans une interface que nous avons créée et qui a pris la forme d'une boucle de la connaissance à deux allèles, une pour la connaissance générique, l'autre, pour la tacite, qui, par récursion, produisent une méta-connaissance. Cette interface est à la fois ouverte et fermée et reflète ainsi la position défendue par Hayek et Simon pour qui la science économique est une «science frontière». Une part de la recherche est consacrée à la création d'outils, par exemple à un indicateur de perception de la contribution des facteurs au déclenchement et/ou à l'aggravation de la crise, à partir : 1) des allocutions des 138 Chefs d'État et de Gouvernement présents à la Conférence de Haut Niveau sur la Sécurité alimentaire mondiale (3-5 juin 2008) ; 2) des analyses des économistes, 3) des témoignages des gens qui ont subi la sous-nutrition ou la hausse des prix des denrées alimentaires (database IRIN). Nous proposons également une typologie actualisée des policy-mix mis en œuvre par 18 pays divisés en 3 groupes : des pays en développement, pour la plupart importateurs nets, sévèrement touchés par la crise et qui ont connu des «émeutes de la faim» (Égypte, Tunisie, Cameroun, Côte d'Ivoire, Sénégal, Mauritanie, Haïti, Bangladesh) ; des pays Membres du groupe de Cairns ayant connu soit des «émeutes de la faim», soit des désordres sociaux (Indonésie, Philippines, Thaïlande, Afrique du Sud) ; enfin, des pays ayant adopté des restrictions et/ou prohibitions aux exportations (Chine, Inde, Indonésie, Égypte, Cambodge, Ukraine, Vietnam) [.].

Air pollution is an important topic with a great social impact; it is related with public health, environment and ecology, and climate change. Scientists have developed several models in the last thirty years, and regional air quality operational systems are used routinely by governments and agencies. Efforts have also been done to simulate the air quality in the local scale; main models are Gaussian and Puff models, that are based on a Lagrangian approach. In contrast with these models, in this thesis we have developed a system using an Eulerian approach. This model is specifically designed for regions with complex orography where the Lagrangian models have problems computing the trajectory of the particles. This model can be used for diagnostic or prediction simulations. Air quality operational systems depend on the orography, meteorological data, and emission data. Air quality models use processors to incorporate these data into the model. The data can come from numerical weather prediction systems, experimental data, or databases. In this thesis we have developed processors, specifically designed for the local scale, to incorporate these data into our system. To incorporate the orography, we have developed a mesh generation algorithm suitable for complex terrain discretization; it also allows to insert layers that can match the regional models. A wind field model has also been used; it can interpolate a three-dimensional wind field from some station measurements using a log-linear vertical wind profile, or can interpolate it from a numerical weather prediction system. Once an interpolated wind field is computed, a mass-consistent model is applied to ensure null divergence and impermeability in the terrain. The wind field is modified to take into account the injection of the pollutants into the atmosphere. Briggs studied the trajectory of the plume rise giving some empirical equations that will be used in our model. Briggs' equations describe the trajectory in a plane; our model will modify this trajectory adapting it to the ambient wind field. This modification allows the plume rise to surround the mountains or channel into the valleys. The transport and reaction of pollutants in the atmosphere is then computed using an splitting method, so the transport and the chemical reactions are computed independently. To solve the transport of pollutants we have used a finite element method stabilized using least squares. The chemical reaction is simulated using simplified models such as RIVAD, or more complex ones such as CB05. To obtain more accurate results we have used adaptation. An error indicator has been used to adapt the mesh to the solution. To adapt the mesh to the concentration distribution of all the species is very demanding, for this reason we have used a multimesh method where every chemical specie has its own mesh where we solve the transport and the chemical reactions are simulated in a common mesh. The system developed in this thesis has diagnostic and forecasting capabilities. For this reason we present two different applications. The first one is a diagnostic application in La Palma island (Spain), where wind measurements are given, and SO2 and NO2 emissions from a stack are considered. The topography of the island is real, from a digital elevation model, but the wind field measurements, and the stack location and emissions, are simulated. The second application is a forecasting application data from the CMAQ benchmark test. It is located in the surrounding of Pineville Kentucky. In this application we have used all the data from CMAQ and the chemical reaction model CB05. ; La contaminació atmosfèrica té gran impacte social; està relacionada ambla salut pública, l'ecologia, el medi ambient i el canvi climàtic. En els últims trenta anys, els científics han desenvolupat diversos models que els governs i les agències mediambientals utilitzen diàriament. També s'han fet esforços per simular la qualitat de l'aire en l'escala local. Els models principals són els models Gaussians i Puff, que es basen en una descripció Lagrangiana. En contrast amb aquests models, en aquesta tesi s'ha desenvolupat un sistema que utilitza una descripció Euleriana. Aquest model està dissenyat específicament per a les regions amb topografia complexa on els models Lagrangians tenen problemes calculant la trajectòria de les partícules. El model presentat en aquesta tesi pot ser utilitzat tant pel diagnòstic com per la predicció. Els sistemes operatius utilitzats actualment depenen de l'orografia, de dades meteorològiques i de dades d'emissió. Per tal d'incorporar aquestes dades, els models de qualitat de l'aire han desenvolupat diferents preprocessadors. Les dades poden venir dels sistemes numèrics de predicció meteorològics, de dades experimentals o de bases de dades. En aquesta tesi hem desenvolupat preprocessadors dissenyats específicament per a l'àmbit local, per tal d'incorporar aquestes dades al nostre sistema. Per incorporar l'orografia, hem desenvolupat un algoritme de generació de malles adequat per terreny complex; l'algoritme també ens permet inserir capes que poden coincidir amb la dels models regionals. S'ha desenvolupat un model de càlcul de camp de vent; a partir de les dades s'interpola un camp de vent tridimensional fent servir un perfil log-lineal vertical del vent, o s'interpola a partir dels resultats d'un sistema de predicció meteorològica. Quan s'ha calculat el vent interpolat, es fa servir un model de massa consistent per obtenir un camp de vent definitiu on s'ha imposat divergència zero i impermeabilitat del terreny. El camp de vent s'ha de modificar per tenir en compte la injecció dels contaminants a l'atmosfera. Briggs va estudiar la trajectòria de l'elevació de la ploma i va trobar equacions empíriques que utilitzarem en el nostre model. Les equacions de Briggs descriuen la trajectòria de la ploma en un pla vertical; el nostre model modificarà aquesta trajectòria adaptant-la al camp de vent ambiental. Aquesta modificació permet que l'elevació de la ploma rodegi les muntanyes o s'acanali a les valls. El transport i la reacció de contaminants a l'atmosfera es calcula utilitzant un mètode de "splitting", de manera que el transport i la reacció química es calculen de forma independent. Per resoldre el transport de contaminants, hem utilitzat el mètode d'elements finits estabilitzat amb mínims quadrats. La reacció química es simula mitjançant models simplificats com el model RIVAD, o més complexes com el CB05. Per obtenir resultats més precisos hem adaptat la malla a la solució utilitzant un indicador d'error. Haver d'adaptar la malla a la distribució de la concentració de totes les espècies contaminants és molt exigent i per aquest motiu hem utilitzat un mètode "multimesh" on cada espècie química té la seva pròpia malla on resolem el transport i les reaccions químiques es simulen en una malla comú. El sistema desenvolupat en aquesta tesi té capacitats de diagnòstic i pronòstic. Per aquesta raó es presenten dues aplicacions diferents. La primera és una aplicació de diagnòstic a l'illa de la Palma (Espanya), on es disposa de mesures de vent, i de les emissions de SO2 i NO2 d'una xemeneia. La topografia de l'illa és real, a partir d'un model digital del terreny, però les dades del camp de vent, la ubicació de la xemeneia i el valor de les emissions són simulades. La segona aplicació és una aplicació de predicció fent servir els resultats del benchmark del CMAQ. Es simula una zona a Pineville Kentucky. En aquesta aplicació hem utilitzat totes les dades del CMAQ i el model químic CB05. ; Postprint (published version)

Intensification of agriculture that has been going on in Ukraine, has a negative impact not only on the environment but also depletes natural resources, without which agricultural production impossible. Organic production provides a real benefit to the environment and human health. Domestic consumers seeking to improve the quality of consumption of vegetable products. The article presents the results of studies on the dependence of yield of roots beet varieties Bordeaux Kharkiv and cylinders from sowing. Intensification of agriculture, that lately takes place in Ukraine, has negative influence not only on an environment but also exhausts natural resources without that the conduct of agricultural production is impossible. Having regard to potential of agriculture of our state, there is an urgent necessity of the use of long-term experience of the European countries in relation to such ecologically, socially - and economically expedient direction of agricultural activity, as an organic production. An organic production provides the real benefit for an environment and health of people.The domesticconsumers aspire to the increase of quality consumption of vegetable products. Growing of vegetables at this method, is based on maximal application of scientifically-reasonable crop rotations, use ofsideratesand organic fertilizers, wide use of biological facilities, defence of plants from wreckers and illnesses, new going near technology of till of soil. Advantages of organic method of production, above traditional, consists in that at growing ofс/g of products does not use synthetic mineral fertilizers, pesticides, regulators of height and genetically modified organisms, accordingly get the products of the best quality. For providing of population, including table beets a necessary amount and assortment of vegetables, it is necessary to promote their productivity and biochemicalquality. An organic production in Ukraine develops from 1997, first of all due to demand from the side of traders ofEUandrecyclersof organic grain, oil-bearing, leguminous cultures andwild plants. In 2007 a situation began slightly to change - at the internal market the assortment of organic foods broadened: organic bread, milk, sausages, fruit, vegetables, juices, drinks, syrups, jams, honey and grains have appeared .Ever since there is a positive progress of internal user market of organic foods trend in Ukraine, that in obedience to research of Federation of organic motion of Ukraine has next indexes: in 2008 is a 500 thousand euro, in 2009 is a 600 thousand euro, in 2010 is a 1,2 million euro, in 2011–2,4 million euro, in 2012 is a 5,1 million euro, in 2013 is a 7,9 million euro, and in 2014 is a 12,2 million euro. An annual increase of internal market of organic products is on 60–100level. On the beginning of 2014 in Ukraine worked about 164 certificated organic economies that process over 280 thousand hectaresandagricultural lands. and yet about 300 economies that is not certificated, but produce quality organic products and process over 400 thousand and agricultural lands. Most farming can not get a certificate, through its high cost (within the limits of a 5500 in a year). More favourable work of organic sector of Ukraine is restrained by the imperfect institutional providing. For today state support of development of organic sector is declared only in a few normative acts basic from that is : Law of Ukraine«On a production and turnover of organic agricultural produce and raw material»[6] but the Government having a special purpose program of development of the Ukrainian village on a period 2020 to the year. Ukraine is the agrarian state, sector of plant-grower, provides food safety and food independence of country. In an order to go out on a world level from growing of organic products, it is necessary to stimulate theagricultureof producers, and increase the network of quality organic production distribution. In the article is given the results of researches from the study of dependence of the productivity of root crops of beet the table of sorts of Claret Kharkiv and Cylinder from the terms of sowing. The ways of exit of producers of organic products are offered to the market through distribution of network of shops from organic production distribution. The basic channels of sale for organic foods in Ukraine are specialized departments of supermarkets and small shops. Having regard to the increase of demand, a seating capacity increases, where it is possible to purchase natural organic products. In the process of undertaken studies, it is set that in the conditions of the Western Forest-steppe zone of Ukraine sorts of table beet of Claret Kharkiv and Cylinder give the high productivity of root crops at the organic production of goods. At the sort of Claret Kharkiv is the greatest productivity of 44,4 t/h got at sowing in the first ten-day period of May. While in the 2nd and 3rd ten-day periods of May more subzero productivity of 40,3–39,2t/h . At sowing in the first ten-day period of May a raise to control presented 5,3 t/h. The sort of Cylinder appeared more intensively. At sowing of table in the 2 to the ten-day period of May the greatest productivity is got–50,5t/h more subzero–41,5 t/h at sowing in the first ten-day period of May. Sowing at the beginning of the third ten-day period resulted in the decline of the productivity. Thus, an optimal term for sowing of beet a table is the first and 2nd ten-day period of May. At equal climatic terms, to composition of soil, temperature a beet is a table to the sort of Cylinder gives on 6,1t/h the greater productivity for the sort of Claret Kharkiv. Stability of sort of Claret Kharkiv is highercomparatively with the sort of Cylinder. The productivity of beets a table depends on terms of sowing. Taking into account that a sort of Cylinder is more intensive, stability was below, that characteristically for high-performance sorts. ; Интенсификация сельского хозяйства имеет негативное влияние не только на окружающую среду, но и истощает природные ресурсы, без которых ведение сельскохозяйственного производства невозможно. Органическое производство имеет преимущество для окружающей среды и здоровья людей. В статье представлены результаты исследований по изучению зависимости урожайности корнеплодов свеклы столовой сортов Бордо харьковский и Цилиндра от сроков сева. ; Інтенсифікація сільського господарства має негативний вплив не лише на навколишнє середовище, але і виснажує природні ресурси, без яких ведення сільськогосподарського виробництва неможливе. Органічне виробництво має очевидну перевагу для довкілля та здоров'я людей. У статті висвітлені результати досліджень з вивчення залежності урожайності коренеплодів буряка столового сортів Бордо харківський і Циліндра від строків сівби. Урожайність буряка столового залежить від строків сівби. Оптимальним строком для сівби буряка столового є І-а та 2-а декада травня. За однакових кліматичних умов, складу ґрунту та температури, буряк столовий сорту Циліндра формує більшу врожайність на 6,1 т/га ніж сорт Бордо харківський. Стабільність сорту Бордо харківський є вищою, порівняно із сортом Циліндра.

Air pollution is an important topic with a great social impact; it is related with public health, environment and ecology, and climate change. Scientists have developed several models in the last thirty years, and regional air quality operational systems are used routinely by governments and agencies. Efforts have also been done to simulate the air quality in the local scale; main models are Gaussian and Puff models, that are based on a Lagrangian approach. In contrast with these models, in this thesis we have developed a system using an Eulerian approach. This model is specifically designed for regions with complex orography where the Lagrangian models have problems computing the trajectory of the particles. This model can be used for diagnostic or prediction simulations. Air quality operational systems depend on the orography, meteorological data, and emission data. Air quality models use processors to incorporate these data into the model. The data can come from numerical weather prediction systems, experimental data, or databases. In this thesis we have developed processors, specifically designed for the local scale, to incorporate these data into our system. To incorporate the orography, we have developed a mesh generation algorithm suitable for complex terrain discretization; it also allows to insert layers that can match the regional models. A wind field model has also been used; it can interpolate a three-dimensional wind field from some station measurements using a log-linear vertical wind profile, or can interpolate it from a numerical weather prediction system. Once an interpolated wind field is computed, a mass-consistent model is applied to ensure null divergence and impermeability in the terrain. The wind field is modified to take into account the injection of the pollutants into the atmosphere. Briggs studied the trajectory of the plume rise giving some empirical equations that will be used in our model. Briggs' equations describe the trajectory in a plane; our model will modify this trajectory adapting it to the ambient wind field. This modification allows the plume rise to surround the mountains or channel into the valleys. The transport and reaction of pollutants in the atmosphere is then computed using an splitting method, so the transport and the chemical reactions are computed independently. To solve the transport of pollutants we have used a finite element method stabilized using least squares. The chemical reaction is simulated using simplified models such as RIVAD, or more complex ones such as CB05. To obtain more accurate results we have used adaptation. An error indicator has been used to adapt the mesh to the solution. To adapt the mesh to the concentration distribution of all the species is very demanding, for this reason we have used a multimesh method where every chemical specie has its own mesh where we solve the transport and the chemical reactions are simulated in a common mesh. The system developed in this thesis has diagnostic and forecasting capabilities. For this reason we present two different applications. The first one is a diagnostic application in La Palma island (Spain), where wind measurements are given, and SO2 and NO2 emissions from a stack are considered. The topography of the island is real, from a digital elevation model, but the wind field measurements, and the stack location and emissions, are simulated. The second application is a forecasting application data from the CMAQ benchmark test. It is located in the surrounding of Pineville Kentucky. In this application we have used all the data from CMAQ and the chemical reaction model CB05. ; La contaminació atmosfèrica té gran impacte social; està relacionada ambla salut pública, l'ecologia, el medi ambient i el canvi climàtic. En els últims trenta anys, els científics han desenvolupat diversos models que els governs i les agències mediambientals utilitzen diàriament. També s'han fet esforços per simular la qualitat de l'aire en l'escala local. Els models principals són els models Gaussians i Puff, que es basen en una descripció Lagrangiana. En contrast amb aquests models, en aquesta tesi s'ha desenvolupat un sistema que utilitza una descripció Euleriana. Aquest model està dissenyat específicament per a les regions amb topografia complexa on els models Lagrangians tenen problemes calculant la trajectòria de les partícules. El model presentat en aquesta tesi pot ser utilitzat tant pel diagnòstic com per la predicció. Els sistemes operatius utilitzats actualment depenen de l'orografia, de dades meteorològiques i de dades d'emissió. Per tal d'incorporar aquestes dades, els models de qualitat de l'aire han desenvolupat diferents preprocessadors. Les dades poden venir dels sistemes numèrics de predicció meteorològics, de dades experimentals o de bases de dades. En aquesta tesi hem desenvolupat preprocessadors dissenyats específicament per a l'àmbit local, per tal d'incorporar aquestes dades al nostre sistema. Per incorporar l'orografia, hem desenvolupat un algoritme de generació de malles adequat per terreny complex; l'algoritme també ens permet inserir capes que poden coincidir amb la dels models regionals. S'ha desenvolupat un model de càlcul de camp de vent; a partir de les dades s'interpola un camp de vent tridimensional fent servir un perfil log-lineal vertical del vent, o s'interpola a partir dels resultats d'un sistema de predicció meteorològica. Quan s'ha calculat el vent interpolat, es fa servir un model de massa consistent per obtenir un camp de vent definitiu on s'ha imposat divergència zero i impermeabilitat del terreny. El camp de vent s'ha de modificar per tenir en compte la injecció dels contaminants a l'atmosfera. Briggs va estudiar la trajectòria de l'elevació de la ploma i va trobar equacions empíriques que utilitzarem en el nostre model. Les equacions de Briggs descriuen la trajectòria de la ploma en un pla vertical; el nostre model modificarà aquesta trajectòria adaptant-la al camp de vent ambiental. Aquesta modificació permet que l'elevació de la ploma rodegi les muntanyes o s'acanali a les valls. El transport i la reacció de contaminants a l'atmosfera es calcula utilitzant un mètode de "splitting", de manera que el transport i la reacció química es calculen de forma independent. Per resoldre el transport de contaminants, hem utilitzat el mètode d'elements finits estabilitzat amb mínims quadrats. La reacció química es simula mitjançant models simplificats com el model RIVAD, o més complexes com el CB05. Per obtenir resultats més precisos hem adaptat la malla a la solució utilitzant un indicador d'error. Haver d'adaptar la malla a la distribució de la concentració de totes les espècies contaminants és molt exigent i per aquest motiu hem utilitzat un mètode "multimesh" on cada espècie química té la seva pròpia malla on resolem el transport i les reaccions químiques es simulen en una malla comú. El sistema desenvolupat en aquesta tesi té capacitats de diagnòstic i pronòstic. Per aquesta raó es presenten dues aplicacions diferents. La primera és una aplicació de diagnòstic a l'illa de la Palma (Espanya), on es disposa de mesures de vent, i de les emissions de SO2 i NO2 d'una xemeneia. La topografia de l'illa és real, a partir d'un model digital del terreny, però les dades del camp de vent, la ubicació de la xemeneia i el valor de les emissions són simulades. La segona aplicació és una aplicació de predicció fent servir els resultats del benchmark del CMAQ. Es simula una zona a Pineville Kentucky. En aquesta aplicació hem utilitzat totes les dades del CMAQ i el model químic CB05. ; Postprint (published version)

En España, la legislación minera obliga, desde el año 1982, a que todas las actividades mineras realicen trabajos de restauración con el fin de devolver al entorno aquellos terrenos afectados por las actividades extractivas. En la presente tesis doctoral se ha comprobado la aplicabilidad de lodos de depuradora que han sido sometidos a secado térmico o a compostaje, como fuente de materia orgánica (MO) y nutrientes para sustratos minerales de restauración (residuos de extracción y de trituración) de áreas dedicadas a actividades extractivas de piedra caliza a cielo abierto. El contenido de de Carbono orgánico (C), C-biomasa microbiana (CBM), carbohidratos totales (CHT), carbohidratos extractables (CHE), respiración basal (RB) y actividades β-glucosidasa (GLU) y β-galactosidasa (GAL) fueron utilizados como índices de calidad del suelo o indicadores del éxito de la restauración. Suelos naturales no alterados por acción antrópica fueron utilizados como referencia para los indicadores establecidos. Se evaluó el efecto del pre-tratamiento de los suelos (secado al aire o secado al aire y rehumedecimiento) sobre los parámetros bioquímicos con el objeto de dilucidar su validez para las determinaciones analíticas que debían realizarse. El rango de los valores de los parámetros bioquímicos en los suelos naturales se mantuvieron generalmente dentro del rango de valores previamente publicados para suelos nativos bajo condiciones mediterráneas. Las variables C, CHT, CHE, CBM y GLU (directamente relacionadas con el contenido de MO o de biomasa microbiana y de su actividad) fueron apropiadas para caracterizar los diez suelos estudiados. Se evaluó el efecto de la adición de tres lodos sometidos a secado térmico sobre los parámetros bioquímicos seleccionados y sobre las características fisicoquímicas de dos tipos de suelos residuales (de extracción y de trituración), y se comparó con la que proporcionaron tres lodos compostados. El ensayo se realizó en lisímetros que fueron llenados con las mezclas de lodo-suelo residual y con los controles, y los muestreos se realizaron inmediatamente después de la preparación de las mezclas y luego de dejarlos en el campo 13 meses. La adición del lodo mejoró claramente las propiedades fisicoquímicas y biológicas de los suelos residuales y el efecto del tipo de lodo fue mayor que el del tipo de suelo. El efecto de lodo fue generalmente más duradero sobre el suelo de trituración. Según los cambios observados en CBM y RB, no hay pruebas de que los lodos tuvieran efectos tóxicos importantes. La pérdida MO luego de 13 meses de agregada la enmienda fue menor en las mezclas que contenían lodos compostados. El efecto de los lodos disminuyó más en el tiempo en los parámetros asociados a la MO fácilmente degradable (RB, COE, CBM y CHE). El tipo de suelo residual empleado como substrato sólo tuvo efecto sobre los parámetros que caracterizan la composición de la MO del suelo (COE, CHT y CHE), sin embargo no afectó los valores de CBM, RB y de las actividades enzimáticas. Los exudados radiculares y los restos vegetales contribuyeron al incremento de los valores de GLU y GAL. El efecto de los lodos difirió con su post tratamiento: el secado térmico hizo la MO más fácilmente degradable. El secado al aire de las muestras de suelo puede considerarse un pre-tratamiento válido en las evaluaciones de CBM, GLU y GAL tanto en los suelos naturales como en los suelos restaurados estudiados. En contraste, los valores de las actividades GLU y GAL en muestras de suelo secas aire y rehumedecimiento no fueron representativos de los valores a humedad de campo. Los indicadores biológicos evaluados nos permitieron asimilar los suelos restaurados a los suelos naturales con características climáticas y litológicas similares, es decir suelos carbonatados con un contenido de MO menor al 3%, y con pH superiores a 8 correspondientes a la zona más árida. ; Since 1982 Spanish legislation obliges all companies engaged in mining to carry out restoration work with the view to environmentally recuperate those lands affected by their activities. The present thesis has shown the applicability of sewage sludges that had been subjected to thermal drying or composting, as a source of organic matter (OM) and nutrients to restore mineral substrates (extraction and trituration residues) of areas dedicated to limestone quarrying activities in the open. In our work we used chemical and biochemical parameters (organic carbon: C; extractable oorganic carbon: EOC, microbial biomass carbon: MBC; total carbohydrates: TCH; water soluble carbohydrates: ECH; basal respiration; BR; ß-glucosidase activity: GLU, and ß-galactosidase activity: GAL) as soil quality indices or indicators of restoration success. The values obtained in these indicators were compared with those of Catalan soils with minimal anthropogenic disturbance. To facilitate the routine procedures of soil analysis, the effect of pre-treatment of the soil (air drying or air drying and rewetting) on biochemical parameters was evaluated. The studied properties were highly variable among soils but generally remained within the range of values published before for native soils under Mediterranean conditions. C, TCH, ECH, MBC and GLU were found to be suitable for reflecting the main differences among soil type and location. We evaluated the effects of three thermally dried sewage sludges on the before mentioned biological properties and on some physicochemical characteristics when these sludges were added to two types of debris (extraction soil and trituration soil) from a limestone quarry; the effects were compared with those of three composted sewage sludges. Lysimeters previously filled with debris-sludge mixtures and control soils were sampled immediately after preparation and after being left in the open for 13 months. Adding sewage sludge clearly improved the physicochemical and biological properties of the residual soils and the effect of the type of sludge was greater than that of the type of soil. The sludge effect was generally more durable over the trituration soil. Results observed in BMC and MR suggests the sludge did not cause major toxic effects on residual soils. Losses in organic matter after 13 months were lesser in soils amended with composted sludge. The sludge effect decreased the most in BR and EOC followed by MBC and ECH. The soil type effect was significant only in EOC, TCH and ECH. Root exudates and plant debris contributed to ß-glucosidase and ß-galactosidase activities in the treated soils. The sludge effect differed with the pre and post treatments of the sludges: thermal drying made the sludge organic matter more easily decomposable. The values of MBC and of ß-glucosidase and ß-galactosidase activities in air-dried soils had the same ranking as in field-moist soils, whereas air-drying plus rewetting led to a change in the ranking of both enzyme activities compared with field-moist samples. The evaluated biological indicators allowed us to assimilate restored soils to natural soils with similar climatic and lithological characteristics, namely carbonate soils with organic content of less than 3%, and pH above 8, which correspond to the most arid zone. ; Postprint (published version)

La present tesi doctoral tracta de l'estudi de la tecnologia de membranes des d'un punt de vista aplicat: com és el cas de la nanofiltració (NF) pel tractament d'aigua potable i de l'ús d'un bioreactor de membranes (MBR) per la depuració d'aigües residuals. La primera part ha estudiat la capacitat de la NF per reduir el contingut de precursors de subproductes de desinfecció presents en l'aigua potable, especialment dels trihalometans (THM). En canvi, la segona part ha avaluat la capacitat de la tecnologia MBR per tractar els efluents de la indústria vinícola i dotar a l'aigua residual de la qualitat necessària per a la seva reutilització. Les membranes de NF s'han estudiat des d'escala laboratori, en configuració de mòdul pla, fins a planta pilot utilitzant 18 mòduls en espiral. Els estudis previs a nivell de laboratori han permès comparar 10 membranes comercials de NF en funció de la seva permeabilitat i capacitat de reducció del potencial de formació de trihalometans (PFTHM). La majoria d'elles permeten reduir el PFTHM en més del 95%, tot i que presenten rebutjos variables respecte les sals inorgàniques, fet que afecta la permeabilitat i consum energètic del sistema. En aquest estudi també es va tenir en compte com afecta la variabilitat estacional i el punt de captació sobre la qualitat de l'aigua d'entrada a les membranes. Es van seleccionar dues membranes per a l'estudi en paral·lel en la planta pilot obtenint un bon rendiment en ambdós casos sota condicions d'operació òptimes. Amb l'objectiu final d'optimitzar el procés de tractament, es van avaluar diferents aspectes: capacitat de separació de diferents components inorgànics i orgànics, requeriments de pressió d'entrada per treballar a igual recuperació per a un mateix cabal d'entrada, pretractament, reducció del flux inicial de permeat i efectivitat de les neteges químiques. Els resultats obtinguts a ambdues escales es van comparar per poder validar la predicció des del nivell de laboratori, juntament amb els programes de disseny dels proveïdors. Finalment, en aquest treball també es va avaluar l'impacte ambiental d'aquesta tecnologia mitjançant l'anàlisi de cicle de vida (ACV) utilitzant les dades obtingudes de la planta pilot i aproximacions per a una possible instal·lació a escala real de la NF. Els resultats d'aquest estudi indiquen un increment de l'impacte ambiental, respecte el procés actual, degut principalment al major consum energètic durant l'operació de les membranes. Combinant l'estudi d'ACV amb l'anàlisi de risc per a la salut humana en funció de la qualitat de l'aigua obtinguda s'ha desenvolupat una eina que ajuda al disseny del escalat de la planta real. De fet, en l'estudi s'observa que es pot arribar a obtenir una reducció del 75% del risc associat a la presencia de THM a l'aigua potable. D'altra banda, per avaluar la tecnologia MBR es va instal·lar una planta pilot a la depuradora d'una empresa vinícola. Durant els mesos d'operació es va comparar la qualitat dels efluents del sistema convencional i del MBR. Demostrant que el MBR presenta una qualitat final molt superior que en permet la seva reutilització en diferents aplicacions. També es va demostrar com la tecnologia MBR es capaç d'absorbir les variacions de càrrega i cabal que presenten els efluents d'aquesta indústria, fet que demostra la seva aplicabilitat en aquest sector. Les dades obtingudes d'aquesta planta pilot també es van utilitzar per avaluar l'impacte ambiental derivat de la implementació a escala real de la tecnologia MBR. Els resultats obtinguts es van comparar amb el procés existent, basat en la digestió aeròbica de fangs activats, on s'observa un trasllat de l'impacte entre vectors ambientals, degut a que la millora de la qualitat de l'aigua i per tant reducció en categories d'impacte ambiental com la eutrofització implica l'augment del consum energètic i per tant un augment de l'impacte en categories com el canvi climàtic o la formació de partícules o del smog fotoquímic. ; The present thesis is about membrane technology implementation for two cases of water processes: nanofiltration (NF) to produce drinking water and membrane bioreactor (MBR) to treat wastewater effluent. The first part has evaluated NF capacity to reduce contents of disinfection by-products precursors, especially for trihalomethanes (THM). On the other hand, the second part is focused to evaluate MBR capacity to treat winery industry effluents giving the required quality for wastewater reclamation and reuse. NF membranes have been studied in laboratory set-up (flat-sheet module) and in pilot plant (18 spiral-wound elements). Initially, laboratory results allowed to select two of the ten membranes tested at this scale, in function of the permeability and the reduction of trihalomethane formation potential (THMFP). Most of the membranes rejected THMFP at levels of 95%, however the separation capacities in front of inorganic salts were highly variable, which may have important consequences in permeability and energy demands for a full-scale system. This study also considered factors influencing feed water quality for the NF membranes, such as seasonal variations and different catchments of raw water. Two NF membranes were selected in order to be compared simultaneously in a pilot plant. Under optimum conditions, good performances were obtained for both membranes. With the final aim to optimize treatment process, several aspects were evaluated simultaneously for each membrane: separation capacities for different inorganic and organic components, feed pressure requirements to operate with the same recovery for the same feed flow, pretreatment, initial flux decline and chemical cleaning efficiencies. Results obtained from both scales were compared to validate prediction for solutes rejection in a real plant from laboratory experiments, together with the calculations using suppliers¿ design software. Finally, in this work environmental impact for this technology was also evaluated by means of life cycle assessment (LCA), using pilot plant data and approximations for the NF implementation in a full-scale drinking water treatment plant (DWTP). Results indicated how increase the environmental impacts using NF in front of the current treatment, mainly as a result of higher energy demands during membrane process. These results have been correlated with results calculated by means of human health risk (HHR) assessment, developing a multicriteria tool in order to design a full-scale DWTP. Is important to note that carcinogenic risk index can be lowered near to 75%, associated to the reduction of THM precursor material (THMFP), if NF plant produces 100% of the final drinking water. On the other side, a MBR pilot plant was installed in the wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) to treat effluents of winery industry. Quality of effluents from the current conventional activated sludge (CAS) plant and from the MBR pilot plant was compared during the experimental campaign, demonstrating that MBR effluent presented a higher quality that accomplished with legislated requirements for some reuse applications. In addition, MBR technology was able to maintain permeability although organic loads fluctuations in winery industry take place, what demonstrated its applicability in this sector. Data obtained from MBR pilot plant were also employed to evaluate environmental impact associated to full-scale implementation of MBR technology, together with those obtained for the actual CAS system. Among other environmental impact categories, observed impacts related to wastewater emissions into water bodies (freshwater eutrophication) were diminished while impacts on climate change and particulate material (or photochemical compounds) formation were increased as a result of energy consumption. ; Postprint (published version)

En España, la legislación minera obliga, desde el año 1982, a que todas las actividades mineras realicen trabajos de restauración con el fin de devolver al entorno aquellos terrenos afectados por las actividades extractivas. En la presente tesis doctoral se ha comprobado la aplicabilidad de lodos de depuradora que han sido sometidos a secado térmico o a compostaje, como fuente de materia orgánica (MO) y nutrientes para sustratos minerales de restauración (residuos de extracción y de trituración) de áreas dedicadas a actividades extractivas de piedra caliza a cielo abierto. El contenido de de Carbono orgánico (C), C-biomasa microbiana (CBM), carbohidratos totales (CHT), carbohidratos extractables (CHE), respiración basal (RB) y actividades β-glucosidasa (GLU) y β-galactosidasa (GAL) fueron utilizados como índices de calidad del suelo o indicadores del éxito de la restauración. Suelos naturales no alterados por acción antrópica fueron utilizados como referencia para los indicadores establecidos. Se evaluó el efecto del pre-tratamiento de los suelos (secado al aire o secado al aire y rehumedecimiento) sobre los parámetros bioquímicos con el objeto de dilucidar su validez para las determinaciones analíticas que debían realizarse. El rango de los valores de los parámetros bioquímicos en los suelos naturales se mantuvieron generalmente dentro del rango de valores previamente publicados para suelos nativos bajo condiciones mediterráneas. Las variables C, CHT, CHE, CBM y GLU (directamente relacionadas con el contenido de MO o de biomasa microbiana y de su actividad) fueron apropiadas para caracterizar los diez suelos estudiados. Se evaluó el efecto de la adición de tres lodos sometidos a secado térmico sobre los parámetros bioquímicos seleccionados y sobre las características fisicoquímicas de dos tipos de suelos residuales (de extracción y de trituración), y se comparó con la que proporcionaron tres lodos compostados. El ensayo se realizó en lisímetros que fueron llenados con las mezclas de lodo-suelo residual y con los controles, y los muestreos se realizaron inmediatamente después de la preparación de las mezclas y luego de dejarlos en el campo 13 meses. La adición del lodo mejoró claramente las propiedades fisicoquímicas y biológicas de los suelos residuales y el efecto del tipo de lodo fue mayor que el del tipo de suelo. El efecto de lodo fue generalmente más duradero sobre el suelo de trituración. Según los cambios observados en CBM y RB, no hay pruebas de que los lodos tuvieran efectos tóxicos importantes. La pérdida MO luego de 13 meses de agregada la enmienda fue menor en las mezclas que contenían lodos compostados. El efecto de los lodos disminuyó más en el tiempo en los parámetros asociados a la MO fácilmente degradable (RB, COE, CBM y CHE). El tipo de suelo residual empleado como substrato sólo tuvo efecto sobre los parámetros que caracterizan la composición de la MO del suelo (COE, CHT y CHE), sin embargo no afectó los valores de CBM, RB y de las actividades enzimáticas. Los exudados radiculares y los restos vegetales contribuyeron al incremento de los valores de GLU y GAL. El efecto de los lodos difirió con su post tratamiento: el secado térmico hizo la MO más fácilmente degradable. El secado al aire de las muestras de suelo puede considerarse un pre-tratamiento válido en las evaluaciones de CBM, GLU y GAL tanto en los suelos naturales como en los suelos restaurados estudiados. En contraste, los valores de las actividades GLU y GAL en muestras de suelo secas aire y rehumedecimiento no fueron representativos de los valores a humedad de campo. Los indicadores biológicos evaluados nos permitieron asimilar los suelos restaurados a los suelos naturales con características climáticas y litológicas similares, es decir suelos carbonatados con un contenido de MO menor al 3%, y con pH superiores a 8 correspondientes a la zona más árida. ; Since 1982 Spanish legislation obliges all companies engaged in mining to carry out restoration work with the view to environmentally recuperate those lands affected by their activities. The present thesis has shown the applicability of sewage sludges that had been subjected to thermal drying or composting, as a source of organic matter (OM) and nutrients to restore mineral substrates (extraction and trituration residues) of areas dedicated to limestone quarrying activities in the open. In our work we used chemical and biochemical parameters (organic carbon: C; extractable oorganic carbon: EOC, microbial biomass carbon: MBC; total carbohydrates: TCH; water soluble carbohydrates: ECH; basal respiration; BR; ß-glucosidase activity: GLU, and ß-galactosidase activity: GAL) as soil quality indices or indicators of restoration success. The values obtained in these indicators were compared with those of Catalan soils with minimal anthropogenic disturbance. To facilitate the routine procedures of soil analysis, the effect of pre-treatment of the soil (air drying or air drying and rewetting) on biochemical parameters was evaluated. The studied properties were highly variable among soils but generally remained within the range of values published before for native soils under Mediterranean conditions. C, TCH, ECH, MBC and GLU were found to be suitable for reflecting the main differences among soil type and location. We evaluated the effects of three thermally dried sewage sludges on the before mentioned biological properties and on some physicochemical characteristics when these sludges were added to two types of debris (extraction soil and trituration soil) from a limestone quarry; the effects were compared with those of three composted sewage sludges. Lysimeters previously filled with debris-sludge mixtures and control soils were sampled immediately after preparation and after being left in the open for 13 months. Adding sewage sludge clearly improved the physicochemical and biological properties of the residual soils and the effect of the type of sludge was greater than that of the type of soil. The sludge effect was generally more durable over the trituration soil. Results observed in BMC and MR suggests the sludge did not cause major toxic effects on residual soils. Losses in organic matter after 13 months were lesser in soils amended with composted sludge. The sludge effect decreased the most in BR and EOC followed by MBC and ECH. The soil type effect was significant only in EOC, TCH and ECH. Root exudates and plant debris contributed to ß-glucosidase and ß-galactosidase activities in the treated soils. The sludge effect differed with the pre and post treatments of the sludges: thermal drying made the sludge organic matter more easily decomposable. The values of MBC and of ß-glucosidase and ß-galactosidase activities in air-dried soils had the same ranking as in field-moist soils, whereas air-drying plus rewetting led to a change in the ranking of both enzyme activities compared with field-moist samples. The evaluated biological indicators allowed us to assimilate restored soils to natural soils with similar climatic and lithological characteristics, namely carbonate soils with organic content of less than 3%, and pH above 8, which correspond to the most arid zone. ; Postprint (published version)

La present tesi doctoral tracta de l'estudi de la tecnologia de membranes des d'un punt de vista aplicat: com és el cas de la nanofiltració (NF) pel tractament d'aigua potable i de l'ús d'un bioreactor de membranes (MBR) per la depuració d'aigües residuals. La primera part ha estudiat la capacitat de la NF per reduir el contingut de precursors de subproductes de desinfecció presents en l'aigua potable, especialment dels trihalometans (THM). En canvi, la segona part ha avaluat la capacitat de la tecnologia MBR per tractar els efluents de la indústria vinícola i dotar a l'aigua residual de la qualitat necessària per a la seva reutilització. Les membranes de NF s'han estudiat des d'escala laboratori, en configuració de mòdul pla, fins a planta pilot utilitzant 18 mòduls en espiral. Els estudis previs a nivell de laboratori han permès comparar 10 membranes comercials de NF en funció de la seva permeabilitat i capacitat de reducció del potencial de formació de trihalometans (PFTHM). La majoria d'elles permeten reduir el PFTHM en més del 95%, tot i que presenten rebutjos variables respecte les sals inorgàniques, fet que afecta la permeabilitat i consum energètic del sistema. En aquest estudi també es va tenir en compte com afecta la variabilitat estacional i el punt de captació sobre la qualitat de l'aigua d'entrada a les membranes. Es van seleccionar dues membranes per a l'estudi en paral·lel en la planta pilot obtenint un bon rendiment en ambdós casos sota condicions d'operació òptimes. Amb l'objectiu final d'optimitzar el procés de tractament, es van avaluar diferents aspectes: capacitat de separació de diferents components inorgànics i orgànics, requeriments de pressió d'entrada per treballar a igual recuperació per a un mateix cabal d'entrada, pretractament, reducció del flux inicial de permeat i efectivitat de les neteges químiques. Els resultats obtinguts a ambdues escales es van comparar per poder validar la predicció des del nivell de laboratori, juntament amb els programes de disseny dels proveïdors. Finalment, en aquest treball també es va avaluar l'impacte ambiental d'aquesta tecnologia mitjançant l'anàlisi de cicle de vida (ACV) utilitzant les dades obtingudes de la planta pilot i aproximacions per a una possible instal·lació a escala real de la NF. Els resultats d'aquest estudi indiquen un increment de l'impacte ambiental, respecte el procés actual, degut principalment al major consum energètic durant l'operació de les membranes. Combinant l'estudi d'ACV amb l'anàlisi de risc per a la salut humana en funció de la qualitat de l'aigua obtinguda s'ha desenvolupat una eina que ajuda al disseny del escalat de la planta real. De fet, en l'estudi s'observa que es pot arribar a obtenir una reducció del 75% del risc associat a la presencia de THM a l'aigua potable. D'altra banda, per avaluar la tecnologia MBR es va instal·lar una planta pilot a la depuradora d'una empresa vinícola. Durant els mesos d'operació es va comparar la qualitat dels efluents del sistema convencional i del MBR. Demostrant que el MBR presenta una qualitat final molt superior que en permet la seva reutilització en diferents aplicacions. També es va demostrar com la tecnologia MBR es capaç d'absorbir les variacions de càrrega i cabal que presenten els efluents d'aquesta indústria, fet que demostra la seva aplicabilitat en aquest sector. Les dades obtingudes d'aquesta planta pilot també es van utilitzar per avaluar l'impacte ambiental derivat de la implementació a escala real de la tecnologia MBR. Els resultats obtinguts es van comparar amb el procés existent, basat en la digestió aeròbica de fangs activats, on s'observa un trasllat de l'impacte entre vectors ambientals, degut a que la millora de la qualitat de l'aigua i per tant reducció en categories d'impacte ambiental com la eutrofització implica l'augment del consum energètic i per tant un augment de l'impacte en categories com el canvi climàtic o la formació de partícules o del smog fotoquímic. ; The present thesis is about membrane technology implementation for two cases of water processes: nanofiltration (NF) to produce drinking water and membrane bioreactor (MBR) to treat wastewater effluent. The first part has evaluated NF capacity to reduce contents of disinfection by-products precursors, especially for trihalomethanes (THM). On the other hand, the second part is focused to evaluate MBR capacity to treat winery industry effluents giving the required quality for wastewater reclamation and reuse. NF membranes have been studied in laboratory set-up (flat-sheet module) and in pilot plant (18 spiral-wound elements). Initially, laboratory results allowed to select two of the ten membranes tested at this scale, in function of the permeability and the reduction of trihalomethane formation potential (THMFP). Most of the membranes rejected THMFP at levels of 95%, however the separation capacities in front of inorganic salts were highly variable, which may have important consequences in permeability and energy demands for a full-scale system. This study also considered factors influencing feed water quality for the NF membranes, such as seasonal variations and different catchments of raw water. Two NF membranes were selected in order to be compared simultaneously in a pilot plant. Under optimum conditions, good performances were obtained for both membranes. With the final aim to optimize treatment process, several aspects were evaluated simultaneously for each membrane: separation capacities for different inorganic and organic components, feed pressure requirements to operate with the same recovery for the same feed flow, pretreatment, initial flux decline and chemical cleaning efficiencies. Results obtained from both scales were compared to validate prediction for solutes rejection in a real plant from laboratory experiments, together with the calculations using suppliers¿ design software. Finally, in this work environmental impact for this technology was also evaluated by means of life cycle assessment (LCA), using pilot plant data and approximations for the NF implementation in a full-scale drinking water treatment plant (DWTP). Results indicated how increase the environmental impacts using NF in front of the current treatment, mainly as a result of higher energy demands during membrane process. These results have been correlated with results calculated by means of human health risk (HHR) assessment, developing a multicriteria tool in order to design a full-scale DWTP. Is important to note that carcinogenic risk index can be lowered near to 75%, associated to the reduction of THM precursor material (THMFP), if NF plant produces 100% of the final drinking water. On the other side, a MBR pilot plant was installed in the wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) to treat effluents of winery industry. Quality of effluents from the current conventional activated sludge (CAS) plant and from the MBR pilot plant was compared during the experimental campaign, demonstrating that MBR effluent presented a higher quality that accomplished with legislated requirements for some reuse applications. In addition, MBR technology was able to maintain permeability although organic loads fluctuations in winery industry take place, what demonstrated its applicability in this sector. Data obtained from MBR pilot plant were also employed to evaluate environmental impact associated to full-scale implementation of MBR technology, together with those obtained for the actual CAS system. Among other environmental impact categories, observed impacts related to wastewater emissions into water bodies (freshwater eutrophication) were diminished while impacts on climate change and particulate material (or photochemical compounds) formation were increased as a result of energy consumption. ; Postprint (published version)

Recycling and material recovery are gaining more grounds in applicability as viable options to sustainable solid waste management especially in Municipal Solid Waste Management (MSWM) schemes. In this dissertation a critical analyzes is made of the MSWM problem in Cameroon and an assessment of the role Small- and Medium-Size Enterprises have been playing in the area of recycling and material recovery. The main research methods applied in this research include: fieldwork, administration of questionnaires, interview and literature review. Using two case study localities (Limbe and Buea municipalities), the various practices in MSWM are elaborated, the constraints and challenges faced by management discussed and proposals for either expanding/upgrading existing schemes to be more sustainable as well as strategies to initiate new systems presented. Innovations within collection systems such as the introduction of household bins and specialized collection of specific waste could be quite beneficial to existing schemes. Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) which constitute one of the fastest growing waste streams presents greater management challenges. Two case study localities (Buea and Kumba) are used to analyze the problem of WEEE in Cameroon. An overview of the handling of Electrical and Electronic Equipment (EEE) at end-of-life (EoL) in Cameroon is made with special focus on households and repair units. At household level, WEEE is disposed of alongside other waste arisings in the available disposal facilities for given household. Repair units represent a very vital connection between dysfunctional EEE and EoL forms as all users of EEE tend to bring these devices to these units for repairs. An inventory of the various EEE at repair units for these two localities shows that above 40% percent of such equipments are totally out of use. In Kumba, Classes 1 and 4 EEE (according to EU WEEE directive classification) dominate while class 3 is almost absent. In Buea, Class 3 and 4 are dominant. These results show that socio-cultural, economic and even climatic factors influence the choice of EEE that people in this area acquire. The intense level of repair activities and recovery of useful parts by repair units show that there exist adaptable options to handle WEEE in especially economically and environmentally beneficial ways. The recycling of aluminum for production of household utensils represents a very basic and adaptive industrial set-up, which can easily be operated and run at very cheap cost and with a little manpower. While this venture seems apparently successful in economic terms as an option to poverty alleviation through income generation, it is plagued by some problems which, if given due consideration will render it a prospective option for poverty alleviation (through small enterprise business development) and environmental sustainability (as an option to sustainable MSWM). In this dissertation, a model is thus presented, which can be utilized by stakeholders to improve on the sector. An assessment of efforts and constraints to implementing comprehensive recycling and recovery schemes in Cameroon was also carried out. Results show that there are existing practices on which comprehensive recycling and recovery can be built upon that would be beneficial to both councils and engaged schemes – mostly SMEs and NGOs. The challenges faced and likely to be faced and the way forward to implementing any broad scale recovery and recycling are presented. If municipal councils choose to operate existing MSWM schemes without significant changes, then collective collaboration will be highly required. Such collaboration will present benefits to both waste collection and disposal. On the other hand, if they wish to expand schemes or create new schemes, adaptive innovation would be highly recommended. Such adaptive innovation would have to incorporate local practices and approaches of MSWM as well as socio-economic considerations so as to ensure new or expanded schemes survive within local socio-economic context. A greater challenge in enhancing recycling and material recovery in particular and MSWM in general, in Cameroon is on the role the government takes on designing appropriate policies and legislative frameworks to cover such activities in economically and ecological beneficial ways. In the absence of these, SMEs, councils and NGOs (working in partnership with other specialized groups) concerned with activities related to recycling and material recovery may be left with the option of regulating activities within their sectors as such activities stand to alleviate poverty and also present ecological benefits. ; Recycling und Wiederwertung gewinnen bei der Realisierung einer nachhaltigen Abfallwirtschaft insbesondere in Systemen für ein kommunales Abfallmanagement kontinuierlich an Bedeutung. In dierser Dissertation ist eine kritische Untersuchung dieser Problematik in Kamerun durchgeführt worden und eine Beurteilung, welche Rolle kleine und mittelständische Unternehmen bei Recycling und Wiederverwertung gespielt haben. Als wesentliche Untersuchungsmethoden sind Feldstudien, die Auswertung von Fragebögen, Interviews und Literaturauswertung zum Einsatz gekommen. Am Beispiel von zwei Fallstudien (der Gemeinde Limbe und Buea) werden die unterschiedlichen Praktiken herausgearbeitet, die Hemmnisse und Heausforderungen mit dem Management diskutiert und Vorschläge für einen Ausbau bzw. eine Verbesserung der existierenden Maßnahmen in Richtung stärkere Nachhaltigkeit sowie Strategien zur Initiierung neuer Systeme präsentiert. Innovationen bei Sammelsyste-men wie der Einführung von Hausmülltonen und getrennten Sammlung von besonderen Wertstoffen, können die bestehenden Maßnahmen ergänzen und die aktuellen Systeme verbessern. Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE, Elektro-Altgeräte) ist einer der am schnellsten wachsenden Zweige des Abfallaufkommens und stellen eine besonders hohe Herausforderung an das Management dar. Zwei Fallstudien (Buea und Kumba) werden herangezogen, um die Problematik des WEEE in Kamerun zu untersuchen. Es wird ein Überblick über die Handhabung von elektrischen und elektronischen Geräten in Kamerun am Ende des Lebenszyklus gegeben, der einen speziellen Fokus auf Haushalte und Reparaturwerkstätten hat. Elektroaltgeräte aus Haushaltungen, werden WEEE neben anderem Müllaufkommen in den verfügbaren Entsorgungeinrichtungen eingesammelt. Reparaturwerkstätten spielen eine entscheidende Rolle bei der Verlägerung des Lebens von Elektrogeräten, da diese häufig vor einer Entsorgung in die Werkstatt zu einer Reparatur abgegeben werden. Der Bestand dieser verschiedenen Elektrogeräte in den Reparaturwerkstätten dieser beiden Gemeinden zeigt, dass über 40% dieser Geräte veraltet sind. In Kumba dominierten die Klassen 1 und 4 (nach EU Klassifikation), während die Klasse 3 nahezu nicht vorhanden war. In Buea herrschen dagegen die Klassen 3 und 4 vor. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass das sozio-ökonomische Umfeld und sogar klimatische Faktoren das Anschaffungsverhalten von Elektrogeräten in einer Region beinflussen können. Der hohe Grad an Reparaturaktivitäten und die Rückgewinnung von Bauteilen durch die Reparaturwerkstätten zeigt, dass anpassungsfähige Optionen zum Umgang mit Elektrogeräten insbesondere unter ökonomisch und ökologisch sinnvollen Gesichtspunkten vorhanden sind. Das Recycling von Aluminium zur Herstellung von Haushaltswaren erfordert ein eifaches und anpassungsfähiges System, welches einfach und kostengünstig betrieben werden kann und nur wenig Personal benötigt. Während dieses Vorhaben unter ökonomischen Anforderungen als eine Option zur Verminderung der Armut aufgund der Einkommenserzielung offensichtlich erfolgreich scheint, treten auch Probleme auf, die allerdings bei entsprechender Berücksichtigung zukünftig die Grundlage zur Verminderung der Armut (aufgrund der Entwicklung von Kleinunternehmen) und für ökologische Nachhaltigkeit liefern. In dieser Dissertation, wird ein Modell aufgezeigt, das von Interessengruppen für Verbesserungen in diesem Beriech genutzt werden kann Eine Beurteilung der vorhandenen Anstrengungen und Hemmnisse, flächendeckende Recycling- und Verwertungssysteme in Kamerun einzuführen, wurde ebenfalls durchgeführt. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass es bestehende Methoden gibt, auf denen flächendeckende Recycling- und Verwertungssysteme mit einem Nutzen für Gemeinden und den engagierten Beteiligten - vorzugsweise kleine und mittelständische Unternehmen oder nichtstaatliche Einrichtungen (NGO) aufgesetzt werden können. Die sich stellenden Herausforderungen und der Weg, eine breite Wiederverwertung und ein hohes Recycling einzuführen, sind entsprechend dargelegt worden. Sofern sich Gemeinden entscheiden, die vorhandenen Systeme ohne signifikante Änderungen zu betreiben, ist eine Abstimmung und Zusammenarbeit unbedingt erforderlich. Eine derartige Zusammenarbeit wird Vorteile sowohl bei der Müllsammlung als auch bei der Müllentsorgung liefern. Sofern ein Ausbau der bestehenden Systeme oder die Einführung eines neuen Systems angestrebt wird, sind anpassungsfähige und flexible Innovationen nötig. Derartig flexible Systeme sollten lokale Ansätze für ein kommunales Abfallmanagement sowie die sozio-ökonomischen Rahmenbedingungen berücksichtigen, um sicherzustellen, dass die neuen oder erweiterten Systeme im lokalen, sozio-ökonomischen Umfeld bestehen. Eine hohe Herausforderung zur Verbesserung von Recycling und Wiederverwertung im speziellen und kommunales Abfallmanagement im allgemeinen wird in Kamerun an die öffentliche Verwaltung gestellt, die angemessene Richtlinien und den gesetzlichen Rahmen für derartige Aktivitäten unter Berücksichtigung vom ökonomischen und ökologischen Nutzen geben muss. Beim Ausbleiben dieser regulatorischen Grundlagen, werden SME´s, Gemeinden und NGO´s (in Zusammenarbeit mit weiteren, spezialisierten Gruppen), die sich mit Aktivitäten in Bezug auf Recycling und Wiederverwertung beschäftigen, allein gelassen, wobei diese innerhalb des Sektors bei der Verringerung der Armut unterstützen können und auch noch ökologische Vorteile erbringen können.