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Clinical Practice become Clinical Science in the Years 1720-1820. There were many Reasons for This Transformation. The Discoveries By Santorio Santorio, William Harvey, Marcello Malpighi, Giovanni Alfonso Borelli, Lorenzo Bellini, Thomas Sydenham, Giovanni Maria Lancisi were perceived by the students who Asked for Change in the Medical Curriculum. In 1761 Morgagni Centered the Study of Diseases on Morbid Anatomy, a Way To Control at Autopsy the Validity of Diagnosis. J.P. Frank Who Worked on Public Health and John Locke who Supported a Method of Scientific Reasoning Based on Asking questions were also Instrumental for Changes. Hospitals, Formerly Hospices for The Poor,Became Places for Curing and Healing. Military Hospitals Represented Models to be Followed. In Vienna Marie Therese Inaugurated the Allegemein Krankenhaus in 1785. In Revolutionary France Fourcroy with the Law Frimaire an III,1794 gave a new Rationale. Medicine and Surgery Were Unified in the Curriculum. Basic sciences Were Introduced. Dissection Become Compulsory,Practical Teaching Become The Rule. But it Was With John Hunter, Domenico Cotugno and P. Joseph Desault That the Great Advancement Was Achieved. They Were Anatomist and Therefore The Made The Knowledge of Human Body The Core of Medical Curriculum. However Experimentations on Animals , as Well as Practical Beside Teaching at The Hospital Also Became Important. Through Their Work Hospitals and Universities Were Associated in a Common Goal. Key words: Clinical science - Domenico Cotugno - P.J. Desault - John Hunter - Anatomy - Clinical teaching - Percussion - Auscultation - Morbid anatomy

Intro -- Editorial Committee -- Editor-in-Chief -- Editors -- Preface -- Contents -- Contributors -- Abbreviations -- Part I Autophagy and Neuropsychological Disorders -- 1 Autophagy and Alzheimer's Disease -- 1.1 The Role of Autophagy in the Pathogenesis of AD -- 1.1.1 Aβ and Autophagy -- 1.1.2 Tau Metabolism and Autophagy -- 1.1.3 Other Factors Associated with AD and Autophagy -- 1.2 Autophagy-Targeted Therapy for the Treatment of AD -- 1.3 Autophagy in Other Types of Dementia -- 1.3.1 DLB and Autophagy -- 1.3.2 FTD and Autophagy -- 1.3.3 VD and Autophagy -- 1.3.4 Prion Disease and Autophagy -- 1.4 Conclusion -- References -- 2 Autophagy and Parkinson's Disease -- 2.1 The Pathogenesis of Parkinson's Disease -- 2.1.1 Pathogenesis of Parkinson's Disease -- 2.1.2 Molecular Pathogenesis -- 2.2 The Roles of Autophagy in the Pathogenesis of PD -- 2.2.1 PD-Related Genes and Autophagy -- 2.2.2 Oxidative Damage, Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Autophagy -- 2.2.3 Selective Autophagy -- 2.2.4 Lysosome Function and Autophagy -- 2.2.5 Synaptic Vesicle Trafficking and Autophagy -- 2.2.6 Neurotoxic Parkinson's Disease Model and Autophagy -- 2.3 Autophagy Regulation in PD Treatment -- 2.3.1 Small Molecular Autophagy Regulators in PD Models -- 2.3.2 Autophagy-Related Genes Regulation in PD Models -- 2.4 Conclusion -- References -- 3 Autophagy and Motor Neuron Diseases -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 SOD1 and Autophagy -- 3.2.1 Degradation of mSOD1 Protein -- 3.2.2 SOD1 and Autophagic Flux -- 3.3 TDP-43 and Autophagy -- 3.3.1 Degradation of TDP-43 Protein -- 3.3.2 Loss-of-Function -- 3.4 C9orf72 and Autophagy -- 3.4.1 Loss-of-Function of the C9orf72 Protein -- 3.4.2 RNA-Mediated Toxicity -- 3.4.3 Dipeptide Repeat Proteins Gain-of-Function Mechanism -- 3.4.4 C9orf72 and Autophagy -- 3.5 Other ALS-Related Genes and Autophagy -- 3.5.1 Ubiquilin-2 -- 3.5.2 VCP.

The growth of evidence-based medicine has occurred against a backdrop of health care reform, managed care, cost containment and quality improvement, and clinicians have been urged to adopt the rigours of science while remaining true to their 'clinical judgement'. This tension - between efforts to make medical practice more scientific and the suspicions of many clinicians - has caused one of the greatest practical and ethical challenges in the history of the health professions. This incisive book reviews the history and conceptual origins of evidence-based practice, and discusses key ethical issues that arise in clinical practice, public health and health policy. Essential reading for all physicians, and practitioners in epidemiology and public health, it will also be suitable as a text in medical and public health school courses on evidence-based practice

"This book is a comprehensive reference source for the latest scholarly material on emerging strategies and methods for delivering optimal health care and examines the latest techniques and methods of clinical science. Highlighting a range of pertinent topics such as medication management, health literacy, and patient engagement"--

Uppsala Clinical Research Center (UCR) is a non-profit organization that provides service for clinical research aiming for development and improvement of health care in Sweden and worldwide. UCR was started in 2001 with the ambition to shift the focus of clinical research from new medications or devices launched by the industry to problem-based research on issues identified in clinical reality, for example through the national quality registries. In order to accomplish these goals, UCR has established services in: 1) clinical trials of new and old methods in health care; 2) quality development of the health care system supported by internet-based national quality registries; 3) biostatistics, epidemiology, and data management; 4) biobanking of biological materials (Uppsala Biobank); 5) high-throughput biochemical analyses (UCR laboratory); and 6) academic leadership by the members of the UCR research faculty. The UCR clinical trials group provides services for investigator-driven projects in all areas of health care, for global mega-trials on new pharmaceutical treatments and devices, for biobanking including biomarker and genetics analyses, and for clinical events adjudication in national as well as global mega-trials. During the last few years, UCR has been a pioneer in establishing the registry-based randomized clinical trial (R-RCT), which today is an international model on how to perform cost-effective pragmatic randomized trials in the real-world environment. In 2002, UCR started the first national competence center for national quality registries, which pioneered the development of the current internet-based technologies for registering, reporting, and supporting continuous systematic improvement of health care. UCR is currently harboring around 20 national quality registries in all areas of health care. Today, UCR is the leading European center for registry-based quality development and evaluation of new medical treatments in cardiovascular care and has started to support other European countries in implementing the UCR registry platform in order to improve quality of care in the European Union.

Studies in several sub‐Saharan African countries demonstrated that the expansion of antiretroviral therapy (ART) access is not only beneficial for people living with HIV, but also results in significant declines in tuberculosis and malaria incidence and prevalence, bolstering arguments for earlier and increased ART access and contributing to a growing understanding of co‐epidemic dynamics. Several studies demonstrated that using standard triple‐drug ART in resource‐limited settings can reduce vertical transmission by as much as less than 1% if continued throughout breastfeeding.The Nevirapine Resistance Study (NEVEREST) results provided proof of concept that nevirapine could be used as part of a paediatric second‐line regimen, despite exposure to nevirapine prophylaxis for vertical transmission, following successful suppression on a lopinavir/ritonavir‐based regimen. A South African study found that high pre‐treatment levels of inflammatory and coagulation markers were strong predictors of death, reflecting similar findings in high‐income countries and reinforcing the shift towards viewing HIV as a chronic, inflammatory disease. An early study of a new integrase inhibitor (S/GSK1349572) indicated strong potency and limited cross‐resistance with raltegravir, the only integrase inhibitor currently approved for treatment.19‐22 July 2009, 5th IAS Conference on HIV Pathogenesis, Treatment and Prevention (IAS 2009), Cape Town, South Africa