The computational fluid dynamics (CFD) in the area of agricultural researches has been widely embraced as a very effective tool. The application of CFD has spread to various fields due to the accuracy and realism of CFD simulations. Amongst various problems in agriculture, this study dealt with the atmospheric environmental problem, especially transport and dispersion of livestock odor in the atmosphere, which was increasing in most countries. Because many limitations in understanding and predicting the odor dispersion have been endured in field experiments, this study was started to predict the quantitative and qualitative odor dispersions over complex terrain under various weather conditions. In chapter 4, as the first step of the study, various phenomena and influence factors of odor dispersion from livestock farms were investigated in two target areas through field experiments. The odor concentration was generally decreased according to the leeward distance from the farm, however, several excessive or deficient values were found due to topographical effect, unstable weather conditions, atmospheric stability, etc. When the wind conditions were stable, the atmospheric stability was the most influential factor in odor dispersion. All measured data, including odor distributions and meteorological data, were utilized to build CFD model and to verify the accuracy of simulation results. In chapter 5, the wind tunnel experiments were conducted to determine the primary design conditions in advance of a CFD modeling. Through heat dispersion test under various turbulent inflows, the large eddy simulation (LES) model was appropriate to dispersion modeling under all turbulent flows. The grid size of 5 m was determined for modeling of wide terrain and the size up to 10 m were also supposed to be allowed in some cases. The time step size of 1 s or slightly longer proven to be appropriate considering computational cost. In chapter 6, some methodologies for terrain modeling to simplify the creation of complex topography for CFD analysis were presented. The terrain modeling method was to make triangulated irregular network (TIN) faces on the contour lines, then drape the solid surfaces over the TIN structures. This method which used various graphical tools resulted in high resolution and shorter computational time. The upper boundary was made flat to improve numerical convergence, and raised up to 2,500 m height to alleviate the effects of high mountains. In chapter 7, CFD model was developed for the atmospheric dispersion modeling of livestock odor. To model the atmospheric conditions, such as atmospheric stability, wind shear and insolation, modules for atmospheric dispersion model (MADM) was developed. The MADM automatically controlled the dynamic boundary conditions of CFD model to simulate changing wind environments as realistically as possible. The livestock odor was modeled as odorous gas parcel mixture (OGPM). The use of CFD simulation with the LES and MADM produced the accurate wind fields, which was main mechanism of dispersion phenomenon, over complex terrain, and the wind environment and odor distributions computed by CFD model were well agreed with the field measurements. From odor predictions under various weather conditions, the most critical conditions were the westerly wind with neutral or stable atmospheric stability for Cheongyang area, and the north-westerly wind with stable stability for Yesan area. In chapter 8, utilizing the CFD modeling and simulation approaches, the environmental impact of livestock odor was evaluated and quantified, and the performance of windbreaks to reduce the odor dispersion was assessed. CFD has proved to be an effective method to take preventive measures against livestock odor dispersion. Consequently, the use of CFD would help the farm holders and government employees to make quick decisions on probable odor problems and its solution. ; 전산유체역학은 다양한 농업 연구들에서 매우 효과적인 접근법으로 알려져 있으며, 특히 높은 정확도로 현실적인 구현이 가능하기 때문에 다양한 분야에서 응용되고 있다. 이 중 본 연구에서는 대기 환경 내 오염 물질 이동 문제에 접근하고자 하였으며, 그 중에서도 최근 많은 국가들에서 문제시 되고 있는 축산 악취의 확산 문제를 다루고자 하였다. 그 동안 현장 실험에 의존한 연구들에서 이러한 악취의 확산 문제를 다뤄왔으나 대부분 많은 한계에 부딪혀 왔으며, 이러한 한계를 극복하기 위하여 본 연구에서는 전산유체역학 시뮬레이션을 활용하여 다양한 기상 환경 조건과 복잡한 지형 조건에서 확산되는 악취의 분포를 정성적 및 정량적으로 예측하고자 하였다. 제 4장은 본 연구의 첫 단계로서, 축산 농가가 위치한 두 지역을 선정하여 현장실험을 수행하고, 이로부터 악취의 확산을 측정하고 다양한 영향 요인들을 분석하였다. 그 결과 악취의 농도는 전반적으로 축산 농장으로부터 풍하측으로 갈수록 감소하는 경향을 보였으나, 일부 측정 지점에서는 지형적인 요인, 불안정한 기상 요소, 대기안정도 등의 영향에 의하여 악취 농도가 지나치게 높거나 낮게 나타나기도 하였다. 이러한 영향 요인들 중, 풍향과 풍속이 일정할 경우, 대기 안정도가 악취의 확산 현상에 가장 큰 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났다. 또한 본 현장실험을 통하여 측정된 악취 분포 및 기상 자료들은 모두 전산유체역학 모델을 만들고 그 정확도를 검증하는데 사용되었다. 제 5 장에서는 풍동실험을 통하여 전산유체역학 시뮬레이션의 주요 설계 인자들을 결정하였다. 다양한 난류 강도를 가진 유입기류에 대하여 열 확산 실험을 수행하고 확산 양상을 시뮬레이션과 비교한 결과, LES 모델을 사용할 경우 모든 난류 정도에 대하여 확산 현상을 가장 잘 모의하는 것으로 나타났다. 또한 격자의 크기는 5m 정도에서 경우에 따라 10m 정도로 사용하고, 연산 시간간격은 1초나 10초 정도를 사용할 경우 경제적으로 적절한 계산 결과를 얻을 수 있는 것으로 나타났다. 제 6 장에서는 복잡한 지형 형상을 전산유체역학 시뮬레이션에 사용하기 위한 계산 영역으로 설계하는 방법을 다루었다. 본 연구에서 제안하는 방법은 먼저 등고선 형태의 지형 정보를 불규칙 삼각망 (TIN) 면으로 변환하고, 이 위에 솔리드 형태의 면을 덮어 씌워 지형과 동일한 형상의 솔리드 면을 만드는 방법이다. 비록 몇몇 그래픽 프로그램들이 필요하지만 비교적 짧은 시간에 고해상도의 지형 모델을 설계할 수 있다. 또한 계산 영역의 윗면은 수렴성을 높이기 위하여 편평하게 만들었으며, 계산 영역 내 높은 산에서 단면 축소효과가 나타나지 않도록 약 2500m 정도의 높이로 여유있게 설계하였다. 제 7 장에서는 대기 중 축산 악취의 확산을 모의하기 위한 전산유체역학 모델을 완성하였다. 대기 안정도, 바람시어, 일사 등의 기상 효과를 구현하기 위하여 MADM 모듈을 만들었으며, MADM은 CFD 모델의 동적인 경계 조건들을 자동적으로 조정하여 현실과 유사하게 변화하는 풍환경을 모의하도록 하였다. 축산 악취는 OGPM으로 모의되었다. 바람장과 악취 확산 분포의 시뮬레이션 계산 결과를 현장 실험 결과와 비교한 결과 매우 일치하는 결과를 얻을 수 있었으며, 이로부터 MADM 과 LES 모델을 이용한 시뮬레이션 모델이 복잡 지형 내 바람장과 악취의 확산을 정확히 예측하는 것으로 판단할 수 있었다. 검증된 모델을 활용하여 다양한 기상 조건에서 악취의 확산을 모의하였으며, 그 결과 악취 문제에 가장 취약한 환경 조건은 청양 지역의 경우 서풍계열이 불고 대기 안정도가 중립 내지 안정일 경우로 나타났다. 또한 예산 지역의 경우는 북서풍 계열이 불고 대기 안정도가 안정일 경우로 나타났다. 제 8 장에서는 전산유체역학 시뮬레이션의 활용 방안을 검토하였다. 본 연구의 시뮬레이션 연구를 적용하여 두 실험 지역에 대한 축산 악취의 환경 영향을 평가하고 정량화하였다. 또한 방풍림을 설치할 시 예상되는 악취 확산의 저감을 모의하고 평가하였다. 이러한 결과들로부터 전산유체역학 시뮬레이션은 축산 악취에 대한 대책을 수립하는데 매우 효과적인 접근법을 제시할 수 있으며 또한 악취 문제들에 대한 다양한 정책결정에 능동적으로 활용될 수 있을 것으로 판단된다. ; Doctor
本文主要研究十九世紀末二十世紀初的一種傳統民間藝術--年畫。這短短的幾十年見證了在中國發生的一系列翻天覆地的社會政治變化:清政府的垮臺,外國勢力的入侵,以及西方先進技術與思想的引入;這些變化我們都可以在這一時期的年畫中找到。本文的地點範圍主要集中于天津楊柳青,另外其他中國北方的年畫產地的年畫,如武強、楊家埠,以及江蘇的桃花塢等,也會在文章因行文需要而被提到。總的來說,本文分為三個大部份,也就是年畫的生產、內容和消費。我認為這些新內容之所以在年畫中出現主要有三個原因:首先,西方先進印刷技術和新的繪畫風格的引入讓年畫內容的轉變有了可能性;其次一些維新人士創辦的畫報和報刊也對年畫的發展產生了影響;最後便是民初時期民國政府採取的對年畫的干涉。本文將這些在年畫中出現的新的主題進行了詳細的探討。一方面,我們可以發現反帝和其他愛國的內容被放入年畫,以此激發百姓的愛國情緒。與傳統年畫主要關注家庭這一點不同的是,改良年畫的重心放在了保衛國家這個更高的主題上。另一方面,在這類年畫中,婦女不再被認為是男人的附屬品,它們鼓勵婦女實現經濟和人格上的獨立,並且有必要的話,也可以成為士兵,加入到保家衛國的行列中。最後一方面,西方先進事物的引入,如鐘錶、自行車、火車和飛機等,為大眾引領了一種新的物質文化,也在不知不覺中改變中百姓的日常生活習慣。作為結論,我提出改良年畫是大眾文化和精英文化互動產生的結果。它們大多數都是在民國政府的提倡之下而生產的,但是年畫的商業本質決定了它需要有一定的市場以保證盈利。這樣,傳統年畫的形式被保留了下來,同時改革家和當權者為其填入了新的思想和觀念,用來教育廣大百姓。這種"舊瓶裝新酒的宣傳方式雖然效果在清末民初效果不佳,但是它卻在某種程度上為中國作為一個現代國家的出現奠定了基礎。 ; This research examines nianhua年畫 (New Year pictures), a form of traditional folk art, from the late nineteenth to the early twentieth centuries. This time period witnessed a series of dramatic social and political changes in China: the collapse of Qing Dynasty, invasions of foreign powers, and introduction of Western advanced technologies and ideas, all of which could be found in nianhua prints. The spatial focus is mainly on Yangliuqing楊柳青, a town very close to Tianjin. However, nianhua produced in other places in North China, such as Wuqiang武強 and Yangjiabu楊家埠, and those from Taohuawu桃花塢 in the Yangzi River Delta, will also be mentioned, for some of them are of great use in my writings. Generally, this study has three sections: the production and circulation of nianhua in Yangliuqing, the contents of nianhua with new elements, and how common people reacted to the reformed nianhua. I demonstrate that the import of Western advanced printing technologies and painting styles, pictorials and vernacular newspapers published by social reformers, and the involvement of Republican government were the major reasons for the appearance of new elements in nianhua. Then the new themes in nianhua are discussed in details. First of all, anti-imperialist and other patriotic topics are ...
Solare Kühlung ist eine Technologie, die sich noch auf dem Weg in die Wettbewerbsfähigkeit zu herkömmlichen, in der Regel mit Strom angetrieben Kompressionskältemaschinen befindet. Ein Schlüssel für die angestrebten Primärenergieeinsparungen und Kostenvorteile ist ein effizientes Betriebsverhalten der Solarkollektoren über einen Zeitraum von 20-25 Jahren. Die vorliegende Arbeit untersucht daher verschiedene thermische und hydraulische Eigenschaften von Solarkollektoren für solare Kühlung. Das übergeordnete Ziel ist es, wichtige Faktoren, die zu Leistungsminderung führen, zu identifizieren und Methoden und Techniken für eine detaillierte thermische und hydraulische Analyse der Solarkollektoren in Bezug auf diese Faktoren zu entwickeln, um schließlich praktische Richtlinien für Auslegung und Betrieb der Kollektoren vorzuschlagen. Ein beispielhaftes System ist im Bundespresseamt der Bundesregierung in Berlin installiert. Es besteht aus zwei LiBr/H2O Absorptionskältemaschinen mit je 35 KW Kühlleistung, einem Feld aus Vakuumröhrenkollektoren mit einer Gesamtfläche von 348 m2 und zwei 800-Liter-Heißwassertanks als Wärmespeicher. Zunächst wurde eine Analyse der Betriebseigenschaften des Systems auf der Grundlage von Messdaten für die thermischen Energieumsätze der verschiedenen Heiz- und Kühlanlagen und für den Stromverbrauch der elektrischen Komponenten durchgeführt. Ein spezielles Bewertungsverfahren wurde angewendet, bei welchem verschiedene zentrale Leistungsgrößen für den Betrieb des Systems wie der thermische und elektrische COP (Coefficient of Performance, entspricht Wirkungsgrad), solare Deckungsgrad und Primärenergieeinsparung im Vergleich zu einer nicht solar basierten Klimaanlage bestimmt werden. Die Ergebnisse wurden für verschiedenen Monate des Jahres 2007 bis 2009 ausgewertet und die Ergebnisse werden in Form von Kennzahlen dargestellt. Die Ergebnisse zeigen einen sehr niedrigen thermischen Wirkungsgrad der Solarkollektoren und sehr geringe Primärenergieeinsparungen. Mögliche Ursachen hierfür und Optionen zur Verbesserung werden ebenfalls diskutiert. Weiter wurde eine einfache experimentelle Vorgehensweise entwickelt, um im Labor den Einfluss des Druckes der Restgase im Inneren der evakuierten Glasröhre auf den Wärmeverlustkoeffizienten (U-Wert) einer einzelnen Vakuumröhre des Kollektors zu finden. Eine Reihe von Kollektorröhren gleicher Geometrie wurden nach dem Zufallsprinzip aus der genannten Solaranlage ausgewählt und einzeln getestet. Die Messergebnisse zeigen, dass die meisten der untersuchten Kollektorröhren höhere Wärmeverlustkoeffizienten haben als erwartet und sich entsprechend eine erhebliche Menge an Gas im Inneren der Glashülle befinden muss. Für gleiche Bedingungen wurde ein theoretisches Modell für die näherungsweise Berechnung der U-Werte entwickelt. Das theoretische Modell wurde mit den experimentellen Ergebnisse für eine bei Atmosphärendruck mit Luft gefüllte Röhre verglichen und eine gute Übereinstimmung wurde festgestellt. Dann wurde der Einfluss des Gasdruckes für verschiedene Gase untersucht. Mögliches Vorhandensein von Luft, Wasserstoff, Helium und Argon wird diskutiert. Eine CFD-Analyse (Computational Fluid Dynamics) wurde durchgeführt, um die Druckverluste von den Verteiler- und Sammlerelementen (T-Stücke) zu finden, die die parallel geschalteten Vakuumröhren im Solarkollektor wärmeträgerseitig verbinden. Simulationen wurden für eine Reihe von Strömungsverhältnissen und Reynolds-Zahlen durchgeführt und für die sich ergebenden Druckverlustkoeffizienten wurden Näherungsgleichungen entwickelt. Mit Hilfe der Ergebnisse für den laminaren Bereich wurde die isotherme und nicht-isotherme Strömungsverteilung im Kollektor, bestehend aus 60 parallelen Vakuumröhren, die entweder in U-Konfiguration oder in Z-Konfiguration verbunden sind, abgeschätzt. Die Ergebnisse der U-Konfiguration konnten mit experimentellen Daten verglichen werden und es ergibt sich eine gute Übereinstimmung. Ein stationäres Modell wurde entwickelt, um die thermische Leistungsfähigkeit einer einzelnen Vakuumröhre eines Solarkollektors mit koaxialer Wärmeträgerführung (Direct Flow-Typ) sowohl bei einphasiger als auch bei zweiphasiger Strömung (partial stagnation) zu studieren. Ein System von Gleichungen, welches die verschiedenen Wärmeübertragungsmechanismen und Strömungsverhältnisse beschreibt wurde aufgestellt, diskretisiert und iterativ gelöst. Für den Fall eines intakten Vakuums (10-5 mb) weicht die berechnete Wirkungsgradkurve für einphasige Strömung bei steigender Kollektortemperatur wesentlich von Experimenten ab, während sie für den Fall von Wärmeleitung durch Restgas innerhalb des Glaskolbens bei geringem Druck (< <1mb) durch die entsprechende Erhöhung der Wärmeverlustkoeffizienten mit den Experimenten übereinstimmt. Die Ergebnisse der Modellierung zeigen, dass der Kollektorwirkungsgrad mit abnehmendem Durchfluss abnimmt. Bei den dann erreichten hohen Temperaturen kann lokal Zweiphasenströmung durch Sieden und Rückkondensation auftreten. Sobald die Flüssigkeit den Siedepunkt bei einem bestimmten Massenstrom erreicht ist keine signifikante Reduktion des Wirkungsgrades mehr zu beobachten, was in Übereinstimmung mit Experimenten ist. Schließlich werden für optimale Leistungsfähigkeit eines ganzen Kollektorfeldes aus parallel geschalteten Vakuumröhrenkollektoren eine Reihe von Leitlinien und Regeln aufgestellt, die während Auslegung und Betrieb des Kollektorfeldes zu beachten sind. ; Solar cooling is an emerging technology and in a process of development to be competitive with the conventional systems generally based on electricity driven vapor compression cooling machines. Efficient performance of the solar collectors consistently over a time span of 20-25 years is the key towards achieving the required primary energy savings and cost benefits. The present research work investigates various thermal and hydraulic aspects of the solar collectors used for a solar cooling application. The overall aim is to identify major factors contributing to solar collector's performance reduction and to develop methods and techniques for a detailed thermal and hydraulic analysis of solar collectors pertaining to these factors, in order to suggest the optimal operating guidelines to be implemented in practice for solar collector design and operation. An exemplary system is installed at the Federal Press Information Center, Berlin. It consists of two LiBr/H2O absorption chillers with 35 KW cooling capacity for each one, a collector field made up of vacuum tube collectors having a total gross area of 348 m2, and two 800 liters of heat storage tank. Initially, the overall performance monitoring of the system was carried out, based on the on-field measured data for thermal energies of the various heating/cooling components of the system and electricity consumption of the electrical components. A monitoring procedure was then implemented and various key performance factors related to the system operation are determined such as total electrical COP, solar heat management efficiency, fraction of primary energy savings compared to a non-solar based air-conditioning system. The results are evaluated for various months of year 2007 to 2009, and the outcomes are presented in the form of performance figures. The results showed quite a low thermal efficiency of the solar collector and primary energy savings. Possible causes of the reduced collector performance and options for improvement are discussed also. A novel simplified experimental strategy is devised to find the overall heat loss coefficient (U-value) of an individual vacuum collector tube in the laboratory, with regard to the pressure of the remaining gas inside the evacuated glass envelope. A number of collector tubes of same geometry are randomly selected from an installation of a solar based air-conditioning system and tested individually in the laboratory for the determination of the U-value. Measurement results indicate that most of the examined collector tubes have higher overall heat loss coefficients than expected corresponding to a significant amount of gas inside the glass envelope. For the same conditions, an approximate theoretical model is developed for the evaluation of the U-value. The theoretical model is validated against the experimental results for a collector tube having air inside the glass cover at atmospheric pressure and found to be in close agreement. Then, the influence of gas pressure is studied for various gases. Possible presence of air, hydrogen, helium and argon is discussed. A computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis has been conducted to find the pressure losses for dividing and combining fluid flow through a tee junction of a solar collector manifold. Simulations are performed for a range of flow ratios and Reynolds numbers and equations are developed for pressure loss coefficients at junctions. A theoretical model based on successive approximations then is employed to estimate the isothermal and non-isothermal flow distribution in laminar range through a collector consisting of 60 vacuum tubes connected in parallel in a reverse (U-configuration) and parallel (Z-configuration) flow arrangement. The results are in reasonable agreement with the available experimental results for U-configuration. An analytical steady state model is developed to study the thermal performance of an individual vacuum tube solar collector with coaxial piping (direct flow type) incorporating both single and two-phase flows. A system of equations which describe the different heat transfer mechanisms and flow conditions was established, discretized, and solved in an iterative manner. For the case of good vacuum condition (10-5 mb) the calculated efficiency curve for single phase flow deviates significantly from the experiments with increasing collector temperature, but agrees well for the case of gas conduction inside the glass envelope at very low pressure (« 1mb) due to the corresponding increase in overall heat loss coefficient (U-value). For two-phase flow, the occurrence and propagation of flow boiling and condensation inside the collector piping under saturated condition is hypothesized. The modeling results indicate that for all-liquid-single-phase fluid flow, the collector efficiency decreases with decreasing mass flow rate. Once the fluid reaches the boiling point at a certain mass flow rate, no significant reduction in efficiency is observed anymore, which is in accordance with the experimental study. Finally, performance predictions are made for the whole collector consisting of a number of vacuum tubes connected in an array. This leads to devise a set of guidelines and strategies, which needs to be taken care off during design and/or operation phase to optimize the collector operation.
Dottorato di ricerca in Scienze e tecnologie per la gestione forestale e ambientale ; L'importanza dei paesaggi rurali tradizionali come parte del patrimonio culturale di una nazione ha negli ultimi anni portato allo sviluppo di politiche ed azioni volte alla loro tutela ed alla loro valorizzazione, anche grazie alla Convenzione Europea del Paesaggio, che invita ad "individuare i propri paesaggi nel proprio territorio, ad analizzarne le caratteristiche, nonché le dinamiche e le pressioni che li modificano e a seguirne le trasformazioni". La necessità di individuare gli elementi caratteristici e le pratiche tradizionali deriva principalmente da due Decreti Ministeriali: il Decreto Condizionalità, secondo il quale il "mantenimento degli elementi caratteristici del paesaggio" costituisce una norma obbligatoria per il rispetto delle Buone Condizioni Agronomiche e Ambientali (BCAA), e il Decreto sull'Osservatorio Nazionale del Paesaggio rurale, delle pratiche agricole e conoscenze tradizionali, approvato a fine 2012, che istituisce il "Registro nazionale dei paesaggi rurali di interesse storico, delle pratiche agricole e delle conoscenze tradizionali", con il quale si vuole "censire i paesaggi, le pratiche agricole e le conoscenze tradizionali ritenute di particolare valore". Da queste iniziative nasce il problema di individuare e classificare gli elementi caratteristici del paesaggio rurale, soprattutto relativamente ad una loro classificazione tipologica che permetta di individuare i "caratteri della tipicità" a livello paesaggistico. Questo lavoro intende quindi individuare quelli che possono essere considerati gli elementi caratteristici e le pratiche tradizionali del paesaggio storico, definendo la varietà presente e portando a termine una classificazione tipologica, utilizzando come base le aree del Catalogo Nazionale dei Paesaggi Rurali Storici, studio promosso dal Ministero per le Politiche Agricole Alimentari e Forestali, coordinato dal Prof. Mauro Agnoletti, in cui sono raccolti i paesaggi rurali tradizionali maggiormente significativi a livello nazionale. La ricerca ha portato all'individuazione di circa 105 elementi caratteristici e pratiche tradizionali divisi in 14 classi. Per ogni elemento è stata realizzata una scheda descrittiva con una struttura standard e corredata da materiale fotografico e da informazioni utili per arrivare ad una classificazione di questi elementi, in modo da individuare e caratterizzare delle tipologie basandosi sui caratteri di tipicità, anche a livello locale. Sono inoltre state eseguite analisi multitemporali in cinque aree di studio, per osservare i cambiamenti relativi al paesaggio negli ultimi 50 anni e per testare tale tipo di analisi ai fini dello studio e della individuazione degli elementi caratteristici del paesaggio, gettando inoltre le basi per la creazione di un sistema di monitoraggio del paesaggio rurale storico a scala nazionale. Queste analisi hanno permesso un approfondimento dello studio degli elementi caratteristici, tramite la realizzazione di cartografie tematiche, ed hanno confermato come questo tipo di analisi costituisca un ottimo strumento per indagare nel dettaglio la struttura di un paesaggio e per seguirne le trasformazioni. Il quadro che emerge mette in luce come il paesaggio storico sia ancora oggi particolarmente diversificato, con molte tipologie di elementi caratteristici e di pratiche tradizionali che sopravvivono e che spesso rappresentano l'identità stessa di un determinato territorio. Gli elementi caratteristici e le pratiche tradizionali identificati in questo studio, rappresentano un primo passo per approfondire la conoscenza sui paesaggi storici italiani e sulle pratiche agricole. Vista la grande varietà dei paesaggi culturali italiani, infatti, per applicare azioni concrete per la valorizzazione è necessario fornire un quadro completo, con una classificazione tipologica valida, in modo da seguire le iniziative a livello nazionale, ma con attenzione alle diversità locali. Non è infatti possibile attuare misure che si adeguino universalmente a tutti i paesaggi italiani, senza calibrare le singole misure sulle diverse situazioni, socio-economiche, ambientali, storiche e culturali, locali. ; The importance of cultural landscapes as part of the cultural heritage of a country has in recent years led to the development of policies and actions for their protection and valorisation, following the European Landscape Convention, which invites each country to "identify its own landscapes throughout its territory" and "to analyse their characteristics and the forces and pressures transforming them" and "to take note of changes". The need to identify the characteristic features and the traditional practices is mainly due to two Ministerial Decrees. The first one is the Cross Compliance Decree, where the "maintenance of the characteristic elements of the landscape" is mandatory for the preservation of the Good Agricultural and Environmental Conditions (GAEC). The second one is the Decree on the National Observatory of Rural Landscape, approved at the end of 2012, which establish the "National Register of Rural Landscapes of Historical Interest, Agricultural Practices and Traditional Knowledge", which has the purpose of "identify and catalogue in the Register traditional rural landscapes or landscapes of historical interest present within the national territory and connected traditional practices and knowledge". From these initiatives come the problem of identifying and classifying the characteristic features of the rural landscape, especially with regard to their typological classification that allows to identify the "characters of the typical" in a particular landscape. This study intends to identify those that can be considered as the characteristic features and the traditional practices of the historical landscape, defining the variety present at national level and completing a typological classification, using as a basis the study areas of the National Catalogue of Historical Rural Landscapes, a study promoted by the Ministry for Agriculture, Food and Forestry, coordinated by Prof. Mauro Agnoletti, in which are collected the most significant cultural landscapes in Italy. This research led to the identification of about 105 characteristic elements and traditional practices, divided into 14 classes. For each element was made a fact sheet with a standard structure, accompanied by photos and various information so as to carry out a classification of these elements, in order to identify and characterize some typologies, based on typicalness, even at the local level. In addition, in five study areas were carried multi-temporal analyses, to observe the changes in the landscape over the last 50 years and to test this type of analysis for the study and identification of characteristic landscape elements. This kind of analysis can also provide the base for the creation of a monitoring system of the rural landscape on a national scale. These analyses have allowed a more detailed study of the characteristic elements, through the creation of thematic maps, and have confirmed that this type of analysis is an ideal instrument to investigate in detail the structure of a landscape and to follow the changes in time. The study has shown that the Italian rural landscape is still very diverse, with many different types of characteristic elements and of traditional practices, that still survive and which often represent the identity of a territory. The characteristic elements and the traditional practices identified in this study, represent a first step to deepen our knowledge of the historical landscapes and of traditional agricultural practices. Due to the wide diversity of cultural landscapes in Italy, in fact, to apply concrete actions for the valorisation and safeguarding of historical landscapes, a complete description must be provided, with a good typological classification in order to follow the initiatives at the national level, but with attention to the local diversity. As a matter of fact, it is not possible to apply measures universally suitable for all the Italian landscapes, without calibrating the individual actions to the different, socioeconomic, environmental, historical and cultural situations that can be found at the local level.
The present study documents a language educator's reflection on two transitions that mirror current curricular changes in undergraduate language programs in the United States. The first chronicles her personal pedagogical transformation from a general-purposes Spanish language professor and her adjustment to teaching as a visiting professor in a Spanish for Specific Purposes (SSP) language-learning environment at the United States Air Force Academy. The second reports the evolution over several decades of the Spanish language program at University of Alabama at Birmingham from a traditional general Spanish-language program to a multipurpose program. The study suggests that SSP and liberal arts values are not mutually exclusive, and it explores what Spanish for General Purposes (SGP) can learn from SSP. Spanish programs that find common ground and hybridize to respond to multiple demands of today's Spanish learners are likely to be the most successful in the future. ; To cite the digital version, add its Reference URL (found by following the link in the header above the digital file). ; A TALE OF TWO INSTITUTIONS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 88 The Unexpected Spanish for Specific Purposes Professor: A Tale of Two Institutions Sheri Spaine Long United States Air Force Academy University of Alabama at Birmingham Abstract: The present study documents a language educator's reflection on two transitions that mirror current curricular changes in undergraduate language programs in the United States. The first chronicles her personal pedagogical transformation from a general-purposes Spanish language professor and her adjustment to teaching as a visiting professor in a Spanish for Specific Purposes (SSP) language-learning environment at the United States Air Force Academy. The second reports the evolution over several decades of the Spanish language program at University of Alabama at Birmingham from a traditional general Spanish-language program to a multipurpose program. The study suggests that SSP and liberal arts values are not mutually exclusive, and it explores what Spanish for General Purposes (SGP) can learn from SSP. Spanish programs that find common ground and hybridize to respond to multiple demands of today's Spanish learners are likely to be the most successful in the future. Keywords: language learning curriculum, liberal arts, medical Spanish, military language learning, Spanish for General Purposes (SGP), Spanish instruction, Spanish for Specific Purposes (SSP), United States Air Force Academy, University of Alabama at Birmingham (UAB) Introduction This academic year, I dubbed myself the unexpected Spanish for Specific Purposes (SSP) professor because specialized career-focused instruction became part of my pedagogical repertoire. Working in a SSP language-learning environment has made me take stock of what mainstream language educators can gain from exposure to the philosophy and instructional techniques of languages for specific purposes. I am serving currently as Distinguished Visiting Professor of Spanish at the United States Air Force Academy. I am a permanent Professor of Spanish at the University of Alabama at Birmingham (UAB). In this reflective paper, I chronicle two transitions. First, I share observations about my transition from general purposes language instruction to the more focused language-learning setting at the United States Air Force Academy. Language learning at the United States Air Force Academy exemplifies the definition of a Spanish for Specific Purposes (SSP) program because it is dedicated to the goal of educating future Air Force officer-leaders with a global perspective. Secondly, I narrate from an administrative/ administrator's point of view UAB's evolution from a traditional Spanish curriculum to a dual-purpose program that includes a SSP certificate. I conclude that both the United States Air Force Academy and UAB Spanish language programs provide unique insights into the curricular changes and challenges in language teaching that have emerged during the last several decades in higher education. My experiences in these respective undergraduate Spanish programs show that signature language curricula have been and can be developed to serve diverse missions of learners and institutions and that intellectual and practical needs simultaneously helped mold these A TALE OF TWO INSTITUTIONS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 89 programs. The United States Air Force Academy and UAB Spanish language programs are traditional and nontraditional at the same time. I posit they will resemble our future hybridized Spanish language programs. For purposes of this paper, I understand hybridized to mean multipurpose programs that have SSP components and a liberal arts foundation. The subfield of SSP can be defined as a practice that gives language learners access to the Spanish that they need to accomplish their own academic or occupational goals (Sánchez-López, 2013). It is necessary to locate SSP within the domain of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) in order to recognize that SSP is not a departure from current theory or practices in foreign language education. The counterpoint to SSP is Spanish for General Purposes (SGP). SGP is a broad descriptor for the teaching and learning of Spanish in ways that can be exploratory in nature. It is language teaching and learning that is likely not to have a singular career focus. Along with the concept of language learning for cultural breadth, traditionally SGP has been ensconced within the notion of liberal arts education. After almost 20 years of teaching principally undergraduate SGP at UAB, I relocated to Colorado Springs to experience anew the teaching and learning of Spanish in a different context. The learning environment that I envisioned at the service academy would be focused on the specific Air Force mission within undergraduate higher education. By contrast, I am the product of a liberal arts education that was not singularly focused on a specific career. For the last several decades, I have taught students with a variety of goals, both professional and personal. The teaching and learning environment with which I am the most familiar is rooted in the model of a liberal education that has historically framed SGP programs across the United States over the last 75 years. Goals of the liberal arts education include such attributes as thinking critically, possessing broad analytical skills, learning how to learn, thinking independently, seeing all sides of an issue, communicating clearly (orally and in writing), exercising self-control for the sake of broader loyalties, showing self-assurance in leadership ability, and participating in and enjoying (cross-)cultural experience (Blaich, Bost, Chan, & Lynch, 2010). By reviewing some attributes commonly found in definitions of a liberal arts education, I highlight the cornerstone of numerous undergraduate programs in higher education. My goal is not to produce a comprehensive list of its characteristics. In fact, one finds variations in the definition of the liberal arts education tailored to suit institutional realities and needs. The elements that I emphasize in the present discussion are particular characteristics, such as analytical and critical thinking, leadership development, civic responsibility and cultural breadth, which are especially relevant to how these two Spanish language programs evolved at both the United States Air Force Academy and UAB. Although critical thinking may not be one of the characteristics that spring to mind within military education given the realities of obedience, discipline and hierarchy, critical thinking is an essential characteristic of military officers that must make decisions in complex situations. The teaching/learning of the ability to analyze critically is key in military service academies and in civilian institutions, such as UAB. UAB and arrived at the United States Air Force Academy in summer 2011. Because of the courses that I had been asked to design and teach, I knew that the United States Air Force Academy's curriculum was not about technical instruction as in Spanish for Military Purposes. In fact, my fall courses had mainstream course titles that one might find in any Spanish program: Literature and Film of Spain and Latin American Civilization and Culture. My military supervisors told me that I was invited here to bring a different perspective and pedagogy into the classroom. As my first semester unfolded, I set out to learn from diverse A TALE OF TWO INSTITUTIONS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 90 pupils and faculty members and to absorb and adapt to the differences before me. The United States Air Force Academy's mission fits neatly on a sign that everyone reads upon entering the military installation: "Developing Leaders of Character." The United States Air Force Academy (2011) is an undergraduate institution, awarding the BS degree as part of its mission to inspire and develop officers with knowledge, character and discipline. Undergraduates are referred to as cadets, and this underscores both the military and academic focus of the learners. After a few weeks at the United States Air Force Academy, I realized that I had landed in a one-of-a-kind educational setting. The institution subscribes to and emphasizes many of the key core values that I associate with a liberal arts education while additionally providing technical training. As Pennington (2012) pointed out in her recent commentary in The Chronicle of Higher Education, we need to acknowledge that preparing for work and pursuing a liberal arts education are not mutually exclusive. Considering liberal arts principles and professional training as polar opposites is a deeply ingrained notion by many individuals in higher education and in society at large. This belief needs to change because of the type of complex preparation that today's students will need to flourish in the future. Below is the complete list of shared outcomes of the Unites States Air Force Academy. Even with a cursory examination, one finds intertwined traditional liberals arts concepts and elements associated with technical education for engineers, scientists and warriors: Shared United States Air Force Academy Outcomes (2011) Commission leaders of character who embody the Air Force core values. . . . . .committed to Societal, Professional, and Individual Responsibilities Ethical Reasoning and Action Respect for Human Dignity Service to the Nation Lifelong Development and Contributions Intercultural Competence and Involvement . . .empowered by integrated Intellectual and Warrior Skills Quantitative and Information Literacy Oral and Written Communication Critical Thinking Decision Making Stamina Courage Discipline Teamwork . . .grounded in essential Knowledge of the Profession of Arms and the Human & Physical Worlds Heritage and Application of Air, Space, and Cyberspace Power National Security and Full Spectrum of Joint and Coalition Warfare A TALE OF TWO INSTITUTIONS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 91 Civic, Cultural and International Environments Ethics and the Foundations of Character Principles of Science and the Scientific Method Principles of Engineering and the Application of Technology Source: http://www.usafa.edu/df/usafaoutcomes.cfm?catname=Dean%20of%20Faculty Values such as critical thinking, ethics and ethical reasoning, respect for human dignity, lifelong development and contributions, intercultural competence, and oral and written communication are integral to a liberal arts education and are the foundation of cadet education. The first phrase that frames the entire list—"Commission leaders of character who embody the Air Force core values. . ."—is key to my contention that the United States Air Force Academy's type of SSP is the teaching and learning of languages in the broader context of leadership education. The direct relationship between what one associates with well-informed leaders and liberal arts values emphasizes the importance of nurturing future leaders (whether cadets or college students) that are civically and globally astute. Leadership development clearly underpins both liberal arts values and those of the United States Air Force Academy. Like many undergraduate institutions in the United States, Spanish is widely taught at the United States Air Force Academy. According to Diane K. Johnson, an institutional statistician, there are a total of more than 500 cadets (out of a total cadet enrollment of over 4,000) that are in Spanish classes (introductory through advanced) in spring semester 2012. There are also cadets enrolled in 7 other languages that are labeled strategic or enduring. Notably, there is no language major at the United States Air Force Academy. However, there is a Foreign Area Studies major. Also, cadets can declare a minor in a language. There were 327 cadets with minor in languages at the time of this spring semester 2012 snapshot. The specific mission statement of the United States Air Force Academy's Department of Foreign Languages is: "To develop leaders of character with a global perspective through world-class language and culture education." Language and culture are embedded in the concept of the kind of global perspective that a 21st-century leader must possess. From Washington DC to Wall Street, there is agreement that future leaders internationally—both military and civilian—need to be multilingual and culturally adept to be able to navigate and lead in the 21st century (Education for global leadership, 2006). According to Lt. Col. Western (2011), it is imperative that our military comprehend that maintaining world leadership and security requires a broad understanding of other languages, cultures and thought processes. Although the Department of Defense's report (2012) on "Sustaining United States Global Leadership: Priorities for 21st Century Defense" does not directly address language and cultural expertise, many of theses priorities rely on knowledge from military leaders with considerable language and cultural acumen. Historically, the language department has always had a dual purpose that has consisted of SSP focusing on developing future Air Force officers, while providing many elements of a liberal arts education. From the following list, you will see a sampling of the generic course titles. They are not a departure from what one might find at other institutions: Basic Spanish I & Basic Spanish II (Spanish 131–132), Intermediate Spanish A TALE OF TWO INSTITUTIONS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 92 I & Intermediate Spanish II (Spanish 221–222), Advanced Spanish I & Advanced Spanish II (Spanish 321–322), Civilization and Culture (Spanish 365), Current Events in the Spanish-Speaking World (Spanish 371), Introduction to Peninsular Literature (Spanish 376), Introduction to Latin American Literature (Spanish 377), Advanced Spanish Readings (Spanish 491), and Special Topics (Spanish 495). The course titles do not offer clues as to how these classes might differ from the average civilian college or university classes with similar names. In my experience teaching and/or observing these classes, differences do stand out because language learners at the United States Air Force Academy focus on application of language as a skill combined with cultural and historical knowledge. The cadets also seek intellectual breadth through the analysis of multiple perspectives particularly found in intermediate- to upper-level Spanish language classes. In the first six months in residence at the United States Air Force Academy, I observed that cadets are more intellectually broad than I assumed at the outset. Cadets read about literature and culture, analyzed film, and even wrote poetry in Spanish with gusto. They do perform in the classroom with a defined career in mind. The focus on the military profession and leadership changes the daily routine in the language classroom. By emphasizing deliberate leadership and language teaching and/or learning opportunities, crosspollination enhances the classroom exper-ience and improves institutional learning outcomes. Form cannot be divorced from function in language learning, so the synthesis of leadership development and language/cultural learning occurs. Recent studies from interdisciplinary research with the neurosciences and education show that fusion between disciplines can provide effective pathways to learning (Coyle, Hood, & Marsh, 2010). Teaching Spanish at the United States Air Force Academy altered my preparations and delivery. Because of SSP, I adapted to differences that are administrative, operational, pedagogical, experiential and conceptual. First, I experienced the surface-level administrative transformations from SGP to the special brand of SSP at this institution. I learned about: Classroom rituals that include military protocols, such as calling the class to attention in Spanish, inspecting students' regulation dress and upholding other classroom standards in the target language; References to Air Force traditions and military rank in the target language; And, lock down, active shooter and natural disaster drills that might happen during class time in the target language. Additionally, there were different details in course design that reshaped my pedagogical filter. During an examination of all Spanish language course syllabi at the United States Air Force Academy, I noticed that the communities standard from the 5Cs in the Standards for Foreign Language Learning (1999) is often replaced with a different C that stands for Careers. The focus on the professional use of Spanish is starkly emphasized through this substitution. On an operational level in the classroom, staying abreast of current events in the Spanish-speaking world and being able to interpret them—such as changes in government officials, political and economic transitions in the target culture—take on greater importance while teaching at the United States Air Force Academy. For example, when A TALE OF TWO INSTITUTIONS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 93 learners know that they might be assigned to carry out tasks in any Latin American country in the future, the learners understandably pay more attention to geographical details, how economic conditions impact political situations, how longstanding historical realities affect the current mood, and so on. The language-learning environment carries with it a cachet of practical information, and it also supplies complex situations and problem-solving scenarios on which future Air Force decision makers can cut their teeth. Language practice includes creating a number of hypothetical SSP situations in which cadets participate in order to foreshadow their leadership roles, such as role-play opportunities that are relevant to Air Force operations. For example, cadets might be asked what they would do and say as a United States Air Attaché or an intelligence officer stationed in Latin America. On the conceptual level, I am currently organizing and creating a seminar that is titled War in the Arts, Literature and Film in Spain and Latin America. It is a themed-humanities seminar that offers a rich lexical environment and an opportunity to focus on the profession of war, ethics, conflict and peacekeeping in the context of film, art and print texts of the Spanish-speaking world. Considering, for example, the representation of the warrior in a literary work provides an opportunity to discuss ethics and strategies and to analyze the representation of leaders across cultures. At the United States Air Force Academy, I have participated in preparing cadets to go on semester-long exchanges to foreign military academies. Some of this is done through wayside teaching at our Spanish conversation table, emphasizing the type of current and relevant social, linguistic, and cultural information that a cadet might need to function abroad in a variety of contexts and represent the United States. One way to prepare for going abroad has been to encourage and mentor cadets to volunteer for selection to host visiting military dignitaries, such as ranking delegations from the Colombian and Mexican Air Force. To prepare cadets, instructors share with them tips about how to interact appropriately and to display leadership through social intelligence and knowledge of protocol in the target language and culture. As a follow up, debriefing after these events is essential to discuss perceptions and observations and to develop cross-cultural competence. Much like teaching and interacting with SGP students, there are immediate needs, and then, there is the important long-range goal of encouraging life-long learning in Spanish. In the context of the United States Air Force, there are programs that make this objective more concrete than what is generally experienced by students in civilian colleges and universities. To take advantage of what the Air Force has to offer, I have also learned about LEAP (Language Enabled Airman Program), which provides for structured life-long language learning for specific purposes in the Air Force. According to the Air Force Culture and Language Center ("Air force culture," 2012), LEAP is designed to sustain, enhance and utilize the existing language skills and talents of Airmen in the program. The stated goal of LEAP is to develop a core group of Airmen across specialties and careers possessing the capability to communicate in one or more foreign languages. To become a participant in LEAP, Airmen must already possess moderate to high levels of proficiency in a foreign language. Individuals that apply and are accepted into the LEAP program receive regular training both face to face and online in the target language as well as have immersion opportunities at intervals during their careers. Working to encourage and help cadets apply for LEAP is another SSP goal at the United States Air Force. A TALE OF TWO INSTITUTIONS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 94 These are an overview of my unexpected SSP experiences at the Air Force Academy. My transformation from SGP to SSP started with learning and applying new vocabulary that focuses on cadets' professional needs. Later, I began to think of my learners as future leaders that will need to perform and apply knowledge to make judgments about the Spanish-speaking individuals and groups. This motivated me to reorganize courses and reconceive of them with a keener eye toward performance and to explore ways to get cadets to think beyond their immediate milieu. With the overlay of leadership development and military culture, this teaching experience has driven me to operate in a more interdisciplinary fashion than before. I experienced first hand a teaching and learning climate that offers a unique hybrid of liberal arts and technical education in a military context. Perhaps the best lesson that SSP teaches is to constantly question the relevance of what you are doing in the classroom: to whom is it relevant and for what purpose? Within the Department of Foreign Languages at the United States Air Force Academy, the SSP focus on career preparation in language instruction and the liberal arts connection with leadership evolved simultaneously. This dual focus of the curriculum contrasts the reality in most civilian language departments where there was one general focus and departments are being (or have been retrofitted) to include new curricula and/or tracks. Many civilian language departments are currently transitioning from SGP programs and integrating more SSP language options. In the late 1980s and on into the 1990s, Spanish for Business and Medical Spanish courses appeared. The integration of professional courses happened in response to societal needs (Doyle, 2010). The Department of Foreign Languages at the United States Air Force Academy offers a rare, fully integrated model of the curricular common ground of career-focused language learning with an underpinning of liberal arts breadth. Conversely, civilian language programs have transitioned to dual-purpose or multipurpose programs for different reasons. In many cases, motives for transitioning programs have been to maintain relevance and enrollments. The latter was clearly the case with the Spanish language program at UAB in the 1990s. This two-fold reality raises the palpable issue of how best to organize these dual-purpose programs from both a curricular and an administrative point of view. Undergraduate language departments and programs have to meet the needs of both their general and specific constituencies. There is a general consensus in the language discipline that multiple paths to the language major, as advocated by the Modern Language Association in the report "Foreign Languages and Higher Education: New Structures for a Changed World" (2007), will be a necessity for the future survival of undergraduate language programs. With curricular reform underway, how do traditional language programs best transition from general purposes programs to hybridized programs that also house languages for specific purposes? Another obvious driver of dual-purpose Spanish language programs is the limited support for language teaching and learning. As programs transform, we need to be mindful of the realities that face most undergraduate language programs: 1) limited financial resources to support language programs, 2) staffing limitations because of faculty back-ground and adaptability, 3) reward systems that favor faculty members who work in the more established subdisciplines in the language field, and 4) multifoci and/or shifting interests of undergraduate students. Because of these conditions, exploring ways that resources can be shared intentionally and constructively will be essential to benefit general A TALE OF TWO INSTITUTIONS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 95 and specific purposes language programs at the same time. The UAB Spanish language program learned to share resources and evolved into a multipurpose program. The UAB Spanish language program transitioned from SGP to include SSP gradually over several decades. This transformation aligns the department with the institution's vision and mission, which is outlined below: The UAB Vision UAB's vision is to be an internationally renowned research university—a first choice for education and health care. The UAB Mission UAB's mission is to be a research university and academic health center that dis- covers, teaches and applies knowledge for the intellectual, cultural, social and eco- nomic benefit of Birmingham, the state and beyond. Source: http://www.uab.edu/plan/ Reflecting the mission and vision at UAB, these statements clearly present the dual role of the institution: it is both medical and educational. When I joined the faculty 20 years ago, we spoke of the medical side and the academic side of campus in a way that implied a scant relationship between the two. Therefore, the undergraduate curriculum in the language department in the early years of my appointment had no relationship with the health sciences. This separation slowly eroded over the years. When I was hired in 1992, the curriculum for the UAB undergraduate language major would best be described as traditional: language and literature. UAB students studied languages for a variety of reasons, ranging from enrichment to the fulfillment of the compulsory language requirement. We had a multiquarter language requirement that was rescinded in the mid-1990s as a result of the politics between the state's community colleges and the universities. Currently, UAB has no foreign language requirement. Almost 650 students were enrolled in Spanish in spring 2012 out of an undergraduate population of close to 12,000 students ("UAB student profile," 2011). Ironically, the lack of a language requirement in the undergraduate curriculum set the department on a path toward popularizing SSP. At that time, the UAB Department of Foreign Languages and Literatures began to turn its attention to providing courses that the students demanded. As a result in the mid-1990s, UAB offered its first medical Spanish classes for undergraduate students. From that time on, I became interested increasingly in SSP for reasons that had to do with the institution's human capital both faculty and student. Also from 2002–2009, I served as chairperson of the UAB Department of Foreign Languages and Literatures. I took an administrator's interest in growing and integrating a SSP program into the existing general Spanish program. The medical Spanish courses were a good match for the interests of our student body. Approximately 40% of the freshmen that enroll at UAB declare that they are on the premedicine track. Many students are attracted to our campus because UAB houses an internationally known School of Medicine, although many freshmen abandon the premedicine track for other health-related fields. A TALE OF TWO INSTITUTIONS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 96 Student interest grew in professionally focused language courses and key faculty members invested in SSP as well. In 2001, our first applied linguist in Spanish was hired in the language department. She shared her vision of starting a SSP program by offering a few courses to appeal to pre-professionals. She became the director of the nascent SSP program. Over the years, the SSP program became so popular that it evolved into a more defined and elaborate SSP certificate program ("UAB Spanish for specific purposes program," 2012) that had 62 students enrolled in the program in spring 2012. It was the first undergraduate certificate program on the UAB campus. As the program grew, the SSP Director was successful in convincing existing junior faculty to take professional development seminars in SSP and develop additional SSP courses, such as Intermediate Spanish for the Professions, Advanced Business Spanish and Advanced Spanish for Health Professionals. In 2007, we hired a Spanish instructor to develop and expand the medical Spanish courses in the undergraduate curriculum under the umbrella of SSP. She began to collaborate with the Schools of Nursing, Medicine, and Dentistry to provide short courses to their graduate students. Over time, signs of curricular integration increased between the medical and academic sides of campus. Also, there was a confluence of external events in the state of Alabama and internal events on the UAB campus that occurred in the late 1990s and the first decade of the 21st century that promoted the success of the SSP program. Prior to the 2007 recession, a rapidly growing Spanish-speaking population in Alabama had health professionals in a reactive mode because they were not prepared to handle patients that spoke limited English ("Demographic profile of Hispanics in Alabama," 2012). In 2005, UAB hosted campus-wide events around its first freshmen discussion book The Spirit Catches you and you Fall Down: A Hmong Child, her American Doctors and the Collision of two Cultures by Ann Fadiman (1997). The book was widely read across campus, especially in the School of Medicine. Fadiman's volume chronicled Hmong (not Spanish) speakers. Nevertheless, the book captured the timely problem of the critical need for communication with the foreign born in the health professions. From that year on, the importance of cross-cultural communication became part of the UAB campus dialogue. Also around this time, UAB's prominent, grant-funded Minority Health and Research Center unofficially broadened its definition of minority to include Latinos. Meanwhile, within the UAB Department of Foreign Languages and Literatures we were able to offer our first scholarship award for a Spanish major on the premedicine track in 2003. Beginning in 2003, I recall anecdotally receiving periodic inquiries from ranking individuals in the School of Medicine that wanted to collaborate. Typically, they requested the assistance of Spanish-speaking faculty with informed-consent forms. There were repeated requests for help with interpretation until the UAB clinics developed protocols to deal with Spanish-language only patients. In January 2010, we piloted a short course in Spanish (Davidson & Long, 2012) that was offered as part of the medical school elective curriculum. In 2002, the staff of the language department informally observed a trend in the increase of undergraduate students who declared a double major in Spanish and Biology/Chemistry. I procured a modest donation from a local physician for the aforementioned scholarship. All of these events fueled the popularity of the UAB SSP program and clearly defined the need for it. The current SSP program and certificate houses a number of preprofessional courses that are not limited exclusively to SSP students. The full program description can A TALE OF TWO INSTITUTIONS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 97 be viewed at http://www.uab.edu/languages/languages-programs/ssp. The number of general versus pre-professional students varies from course to course, but courses such as Spanish Translation and Interpretation tend to enroll students from both cohorts, whereas Spanish for the Health Professionals enrolls few general-purposes students. Of course, the faculty members have noticed over time that our student clientele had slowly changed: two very different types of students were sitting in the same classroom. Professionally focused Spanish students and general Spanish students enrolled in the some of the same courses. This presented new pedagogical challenges for our faculty members and raised the issue: how does one meet the needs of both groups (SSP and SGP) in the context of our institution's student body? To date, this matter has not been systematically dealt with in the UAB Spanish Division. Individual professors have developed strategies, like individualizing projects, and yet, other faculty members teach to one group to the exclusion of the other. The curricular changes discussed by the Modern Language Association have come about in many language departments, and they have been welcomed by some faculty members but not by all. Embracing the notion that the traditional liberal arts language learner can cohabitate with the interdisciplinary and/or career-focused language learner (as demonstrated at the United States Air Force Academy) is key. Highlighting the philo-sophical common ground rooted in a liberal arts education is what may be perceived by some individuals as strictly technical training may help ease the transition. The next phase will be to articulate relevant practices for educators and administrators, as well as shared values and outcomes, and to provide models that show transitional programs how to achieve what I would like to call 'constructive hybridity.' I define constructive hybridity as a positive and collective effort to sort out and integrate the best of traditional Spanish language programs with different SSP practices evidencing more focused professional goals. The next task is to define the 'shared canon' between the various tracks in any given Spanish program. Obviously, this is not a one-size-fits-all charge due to different student, societal and institutional needs, but there is foundational work to be done in order to come up with more consensuses. Given my administrative experiences as a faculty member at UAB and my teaching experience at the United States Air Force Academy, I have come to realize that both general and specific missions in Spanish-language learning are not mutually exclusive. In June 2011, I marched off to Colorado to teach and to learn. I have learned that there is a place for time-tested liberal arts values within SSP programs and that hybridized programs (liberal arts and SSP) can be successful and beneficial to the learner. As suggested by the United States Air Force Academy and UAB programs, future programs in Spanish-language instruction will need to focus on our common ground to serve multiple purposes. Thus, I return to the concept that I mentioned at the outset: it is time to think hybrid. Our future undergraduate language programs will have multiple tracks/purposes. This hybridization can be as positive and enriching for both faculty members and language learners as it has been for me during this phase of my career as a language educator. Returning to my own narrative as a committed, career Spanish professor, I have no doubt that, in the future, my newfound SSP instructional acumen and orientation will inform my future general purposes classes and improve them. A TALE OF TWO INSTITUTIONS Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 98 Disclaimer The views expressed in this paper are those of the author and do not necessarily represent those of the United States Air Force Academy, the United States Air Force, The Depart-ment of Defense or the United States Government. References Air force culture and language center. (2012, May). Retrieved from http://www.culture.af.mil/leap/index.aspx Blaich, C., Bost, A., Chan, E., & Lynch, R. (2010). Defining liberal arts education. Retrieved from http://www.liberalarts.wabash.edu/storage Coyle, D., Hood, P., & Marsh, D. (2010). Content and language integrated learning (p. 25). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Davidson, L., & Long, S. S. (2012). Medical Spanish for US medical students: A pilot case study. Dimension, 1–13. Retrieved from http://scolt.webnode.com/ Demographic profile of Hispanics in Alabama. (2012). Retrieved from http://www.pewhispanic.org/states/state/al/ Doyle, M. S. (2010). A responsive, integrative Spanish curriculum at UNC Charlotte. Hispania, 93(1), 80–84. Education for global leadership: The importance of international studies and foreign language education for US economic and national security. (2006). Washington, DC: Committee for Economic Development. Fadiman, A. (1997). The spirit catches you and you fall down: A Hmong child, her American doctors, and the collision of two cultures. NY: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Foreign languages and higher education: new structures for a changed world. (2007) MLA ad hoc committee on foreign languages. Profession published by the Modern Language Association, 2007 (May), 1–11. Pennington, H. (2012, April 13). For student success, stop debating and start improving. The Chronicle of Higher Education, pp. A33–A34. Sánchez-López, L. (2013). Spanish for specific purposes. In C. Chapelle (Ed.), The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics. Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell. Standards for foreign language learning in the 21st century. (1999) Lawrence, KS: National Standards in Foreign Language Education Project, Allen Press. Sustaining US global leadership: Priorities for 21st century defense. (2012) Washington DC: Department of Defense. UAB Spanish for specific purposes program. (2012). Retrieved from http://www.uab.edu/languages/ssp UAB Student profile. (2011). Retrieved from http://www.uab.edu/home/about/student-profile-accomplishments United States Air Force Academy curriculum handbook 2011–2012. (2011). USAF Academy, CO: Academy Board. Western, D. J. (2011). How to say 'national security' in 1,100 languages. Air & Space Power Journal, 48–61. Retrieved from http://www.airpower.au.af.mil
In Germany, as in almost all industrial countries, active pharmaceutical substances can now be found in virtually all water bodies and occasionally also in drinking water. Even though the concentrations in question tend to be very low, there are initial signs of their impact on aquatic life. There is no evidence as yet of any acute consequences for human health. It is, however, impossible to rule out long-term consequences from these minimal concentrations or unexpected effects from the interaction between various active ingredients (cocktail effect). At special risk here are sensitive segments of the population such as children and the chronically ill. There is thus a need for action on precautionary grounds. The main actors in the health system are largely unaware of the problem posed by drug residues in water. Although knowledge cannot be equated with awareness – given the existence of the 'not wanting to know' phenomenon – the first step is to generate a consolidated knowledge base. Only by creating awareness of the problem can further strategies be implemented to ultimately enlighten and bring about behavioural change. At stake here is the overall everyday handling of medications, including prescription, compliance, and drug-free disease prevention down to the doctor-patient relationship. The latter, namely, is often characterised by misunderstandings and a lack of communication about the – supposed – need to prescribe drugs. The first part of the strategy for the general public involves using various channels and media to address three different target groups. These were identified by ISOE in an empirical survey as reacting differently to the problem under review: · 'The Deniers/Relativists' · 'The Truth-Seekers' · 'The Hypersensitives' The intention is to address each target group in the right tone and using the most suitable line of reasoning via specific media and with the proper degree of differentiation. The 'Truth-Seekers' play an opinion-leading role here. They can be provided with highly differentiated information through sophisticated media which they then pass on to their dialogue partners in an appropriate form. The second part of the strategy for the general public relates to the communication of proper disposal routes for expired drugs. The goal is to confine disposal to pharmacies so that on no account are they flushed down the sink or toilet. Based on an analysis of typical errors in existing communications media on this topic, ISOE prepared recommendations for drafting proper information materials. In addressing pharmacists, the first priority is to convey hard facts: to this end we propose a PR campaign to place articles in the main specialist media. At the same time, the subject should feature in training and continuing education programmes. Another aim is to strengthen the advisory function of the pharmacies. The environmentally sensitive target group would indeed react positively to having their attention drawn to the issue of drug residues in water. For all other customers, the pharmacists can and should act as consultants: they emphasise how important it is to take medication as instructed (compliance) and use suitable pack sizes, and warn older customers in particular about the potential hazards of improper drug intake. The first stage of the communications strategy for doctors likewise revolves around knowledge. Here, however, it is important to take into account their self-image as scientists while in fact having little grasp of this specific area. The line to take is that of 'discursive selfenlightenment'. This means that the issue of drug residues in water cannot be conveyed to doctors by laymen but must be taken up and imparted via the major media of the medical profession and by medical association officials (top-down). The second stage, namely that of raising doctors' awareness of the problem, is likely to encounter strong resistance from some of the medical profession. They may fear a threat of interference in treatment plans from an environmental perspective and feel the need to emphasise that doctors are not responsible for environmental issues. As shown in empirical surveys by ISOE, such a defensive reaction is ultimately down to an underlying taboo: people are loath to discuss the over-prescription taking place in countless doctors' surgeries. And it is a fact that this problem cannot be tackled from the environmental perspective, although the goals of water protection are indeed consistent with the economic objectives of restraint in the deployment of drugs. Any communications measure for this target group has to bear in mind that doctors feel restricted by what they see as a 'perpetual health reform' no matter which government is in power. On no account are they prepared to tolerate any new form of regulation, in this case for environmental reasons. An entirely different view of the problem is taken by 'critical doctors' such as specialists in environmental health and those with a naturopathic focus. They are interested in the problem because they see a connection between the quality of our environment and our health. What is more, they have patients keen to be prescribed as few drugs as possible and who are instead interested in 'talking medicine'. So, any communication strategy intent on tackling the difficult problem of oversubscribing drugs needs to look carefully at the experiences of these medical professionals and also at a 'bottom-up strategy'. Implementation of strategic communications should be entrusted to an agency with experience in 'issue management'. Knowledge of social marketing and the influencing of behaviour are further prerequisites. All important decisions should be taken by a consensus committee ('MeriWa'1 round table), in which the medical profession, pharmacists and consumers are represented. ; In Deutschland und in fast allen Industrieländern finden sich mittlerweile Medikamentenwirkstoffe in nahezu allen Gewässern und vereinzelt auch im Trinkwasser. Auch wenn die Konzentrationen in der Regel sehr gering sind, lassen sich erste Anzeichen für Auswirkungen auf Wasserlebewesen nachweisen. Akute Folgen für die menschliche Gesundheit sind bisher nicht erwiesen. Es kann allerdings nicht ausgeschlossen werden, dass sich Langzeitfolgen dieser Niedrigstkonzentrationen entwickeln und unerwartete Effekte durch die Wechselwirkung zwischen verschiedenen Wirkstoffen (Cocktaileffekt) entstehen. Besonders gefährdet sind dabei sensible Bevölkerungsgruppen wie Kinder und chronisch Kranke. Es besteht daher nicht zuletzt aus Vorsorgegründen Handlungsbedarf. Das Problem der Medikamentenreste im Wasser ist bei den wichtigsten Akteuren des Gesundheitssystems weitgehend unbekannt. Auch wenn Wissen nicht mit Bewusstsein gleichgesetzt werden kann – denn es gibt auch das Phänomen des Nicht-Wissen-Wollens – geht es in einem ersten Schritt darum, fundiertes Wissen zu erzeugen. Nur auf Basis dieser Sensibilisierung können weitere Strategien umgesetzt und letztendlich Aufklärung und Verhaltensänderungen erreicht werden. Dabei geht es um die gesamte Alltagspraxis im Umgang mit Medikamenten. Diese umfasst Fragen der Verschreibung, der Compliance, der nichtmedikamentösen Krankheitsvorsorge bis hin zum Arzt-Patienten-Verhältnis. Das ist nämlich häufig von Missverständnissen und mangelnder Kommunikation über – vermeintliche – Verschreibungsnotwendigkeiten geprägt. Der erste Teil der Strategie für die Bevölkerung soll über unterschiedliche Kanäle und Medien drei unterschiedliche Zielgruppen ansprechen, die in einer empirischen Untersuchung vom ISOE identifiziert wurden und auf das angesprochene Problem ganz unterschiedlich reagieren: · 'Die Verleugner/Relativierer' · 'Die Aufklärungsinteressierten' · 'Die Hypersensiblen' Jede Zielgruppe soll in der passenden sprachlichen und argumentativen Art und Weise durch spezifische Medien und mit dem richtigen Grad der Differenziertheit angesprochen werden. Dabei spielen "die Aufklärungsinteressierten" eine Opinionleader-Rolle. Sie können über anspruchsvolle Medien mit sehr differenzierten Informationen versorgt werden und geben dieses Wissen dann in angemessener Form an ihre Gesprächspartner weiter. Der zweite Teil der Strategie für die Bevölkerung bezieht sich auf die Kommunikation richtiger Entsorgungswege für Altmedikamente. Ziel ist es, dass Medikamentenreste nur noch in der Apotheke, keinesfalls aber in der Spüle oder in der Toilette entsorgt werden. Auf Grundlage einer Analyse typischer Fehler in bereits bestehenden Kommunikationsmedien zu diesem Thema hat das ISOE Empfehlungen zur richtigen Konzeption von Infomaterialien erarbeitet. Bei der Ansprache der Apotheker geht es in einem ersten Schritt um die Vermittlung von Faktenwissen: Wir schlagen dazu eine PR-Kampagne vor, die Artikel in den wichtigsten Fachmedien platziert. Gleichzeitig soll das Thema auch Teil der Aus- und Fortbildung werden. Zusätzlich soll die Beraterfunktion der Apotheken gestärkt werden. Die spezielle Zielgruppe der umweltsensiblen Kunden würde durchaus positiv darauf reagieren, wenn sie auf die Problematik der Medikamentenreste im Wasser hingewiesen würde. Bei allen anderen Kunden können und sollen die Apotheker ihre Rolle als Berater wahrnehmen: Sie betonen, wie wichtig die korrekte Einnahme (Compliance) und adäquate Packungsgrößen sind und warnen ihre Kunden, insbesondere die älteren, auch vor potenziellen Fehleinnahmen. Bei der Kommunikationsstrategie für Ärzte geht es im ersten Schritt ebenfalls um Wissen. Dabei muss aber deren Selbstverständnis als Wissenschaftler bei gleichzeitig niedrigem Wissensstand in diesem speziellen Feld berücksichtigt werden. Hier muss der Weg einer 'diskursiven Selbstaufklärung' beschritten werden. Das Thema Medikamentenreste im Wasser kann somit nicht von Laien von außen an die Ärzte herangetragen werden, sondern muss in wichtigen Medien der Ärzteschaft und durch Verbandsfunktionäre angenommen und kommuniziert werden (top-down). Wenn es im zweiten Schritt um eine Problemsensibilisierung geht, muss mit starkem Widerstand eines Teils der Ärzteschaft gerechnet werden. Sie könnten fürchten, dass eine Einmischung in Heilungspläne aus Umweltsicht droht und betonen, dass Ärzte nicht für Umweltfragen zuständig seien. Letztlich steht – das haben empirische Untersuchungen des ISOE gezeigt – hinter dieser Problemabwehr ein Tabu: Es soll nicht darüber gesprochen werden, dass in zahlreichen Praxen zu viel verschrieben wird. Diese Problematik kann tatsächlich nicht aus der Umweltperspektive angegangen werden. Doch decken sich hier die Ziele des Gewässerschutzes mit den ökonomischen Zielen eines sparsamen Umgangs mit Arzneimitteln. Bei jeder Kommunikationsmaßnahme für diese Zielgruppe muss berücksichtigt werden, dass sich die Ärzte von dem, was sie als 'Dauergesundheitsreform' aller Regierungen wahrnehmen, gegängelt fühlen. Sie sind keinesfalls bereit, eine neue Form der Regulierung, diesmal aus Umweltgründen, hinzunehmen. Ganz anders wird das Problem von 'kritischen Ärzten' wie Umweltmedizinern und von Ärzten mit Naturheilschwerpunkt gesehen. Sie interessieren sich für die Problematik, weil sie einen Zusammenhang zwischen Umweltqualität und Gesundheit sehen. Außerdem haben sie Patienten, die an möglichst wenig Medikamentenverschreibungen, dafür aber an einer 'sprechenden Medizin' interessiert sind. Wenn eine Kommunikationsstrategie also auch das schwierige Problem der übermäßigen Verschreibungen angehen will, empfiehlt es sich, die Erfahrungen dieser Mediziner einzubeziehen und zusätzlich auf eine 'Bottom-up-Strategie' abzuzielen. Mit der Umsetzung der strategischen Kommunikation sollte eine Agentur beauftragt werden, die Erfahrungen im 'Issue Management' vorweisen kann. Weiterhin sollte die Agentur Kenntnisse im Social Marketing und der Beeinflussung von Verhalten haben. Alle wichtigen Entscheidungen sollten von einem Konsens-Gremium (Runder Tisch 'MeriWa'1) verabschiedet werden, in dem die Ärzteschaft, die Apotheker sowie die Verbraucherinnen und Verbraucher angemessen repräsentiert sind.
In: Lommers , S B 2012 , ' Europe - on air : interwar projects for radio broadcasting ' , Doctor of Philosophy , Industrial Engineering and Innovation Sciences , Eindhoven . https://doi.org/10.6100/IR734076
In the eyes of the ruling international elites, the Great War had been driven by a rising nationalism that left Europe's civilization in shambles. The elites argued that a new modernism, combined with a world that was increasingly technologically interconnected, was to blame for the ruins, anguish, and hatred that dominated peoples' minds after 1918. These intellectual elites tried to rebuild Europe's civilization and create awareness beyond national boundaries. In this context, broadcasting experts in Europe built the first radio broadcasting infrastructures inside and beyond their borders. This book examines if, how, and why the promoters of broadcasting linked their activities in the interwar period to projects that aimed to unite Europe. The book describes five cross-border issues that the emerging transnational community of broadcasting experts worked to resolve. These issues concerned the institutionalization of broadcasting; the construction of networks; the interactions between broadcasting systems such as Radio Moscow, Radio Nations, Vatican Radio, and Radio Luxembourg; the role of broadcasting within a broader international context of warfare and peace building; and international programming efforts. The book is mainly based on research in the archives of international organizations such as the International Broadcasting Union, the League of Nations, and the International Telegraph Union. These organizations could all be seen as European system builders. They functioned as arenas in which various actors simultaneously negotiated the futures of both transnational broadcasting and Europe. Chapter 2 examines the "birth of an idea." Broadcasting was originally a private activity whereby states usually granted concessions to companies that would then operate (and sometimes construct) the stations. Several of the operational and construction problems mentioned above could not be resolved without a certain amount of international collaboration. However, international organizations such as the League of Nations and the International Telegraph Union (ITU) did not face such problems. They argued that the rapidly developing technology outpaced legislative action. As a result, ten European broadcasting organizations established the International Broadcasting Union (IBU) in 1925. The IBU's institutional structure followed the European tradition of combining a technical approach with the ideals of international peace and rapprochement. A wave of nationalizing broadcasting in Europe challenged this structure. Eventually, shared European traditions, combined with the central role of a small core group of experts in the IBU, ensured minimal state interference. The IBU was able to continue to seek cross-border collaboration and became the key player for interwar broadcasting in Europe. Chapter 3 deals with the pressing problem of network construction. Radio signals traveled through the air freely, which caused interference with signals across borders and major inefficiencies in the network. The IBU, at first alone, but later in collaboration with national PTT administrations, the League of Nations' Communication and Transit Committee, the ITU and its consultative committee for long-distance telephony, drafted plans to allocate frequencies in Europe. These activities secured efficient national wireless broadcasting. Furthermore, the gradually growing transnational community of broadcasting experts complemented these wireless systems with an interconnected European relay network for broadcasting via wire and cable. This network, coupled to the national wireless networks, facilitated the exchange of music and broadcasting of international programs throughout Europe. The construction processes were contested along the way. Throughout the 1930s, the development of short waves challenged the recently established European frequency allocation standards. Attempts to standardize these short waves resulted in an unplanned global regionalization of broadcasting. Chapter 4 challenges the IBU and ITU network efforts by focusing on their interaction with other structures, such as Radio Moscow, Radio Nations, Vatican Radio, and Radio Luxembourg. These stations, with the exception of Radio Moscow, were expanding at a time when the IBU and ITU efforts were well on their way to becoming the European standard. The ideas of the new stations' promoters, which were mostly globally-oriented, did not necessarily coincide with the IBU's vision of a Europe with national wireless broadcasting systems. Fine-tuning these standards with the structure of Radio Moscow, for instance, would redefine the eastern boundaries of the European network. Furthermore, the structure of Radio Nations and Radio Luxembourg threatened the very idea of a Europe made up of nation states. These systems favored a pan-national approach to the organization and network construction of broadcasting. International fine-tuning of these different systems in Europe could usually only take place via "technified" discussions that bridged ideological and political differences. Chapter 5 looks more closely at the role of broadcasting in the context of war and peace. Illicit propaganda broadcasting created serious problems on a continent with as many states as Europe and in an era of rapidly changing international relations. Any attempt to solve this problem depended on how well international relations were progressing. In a reluctant international atmosphere, the IBU initially took a gentleman's approach, requesting that its members broadcast in a civilized way without offending people in other countries. When international relations improved in the late 1920s, the League recognized the idea of positive propaganda. The subsequent close collaboration between the League and the IBU endorsed an international mindset based on European values of civilization and Enlightenment. The collaboration came to a halt when the rise in harsh nationalism caused international relations to deteriorate in the 1930s, thereby disrupting a well-oiled European broadcasting system. Nazi Germany forced the IBU to cease any activity related to power politics. The IBU officially dropped out of propaganda regulation, but a core of IBU experts continued to individually facilitate the League on this matter. Solutions came too late – a new world war broke out in 1939. Chapter 6 explores international programming. Programs and music touched the heart of culture and had a direct impact on feelings of belonging and identity. Any effort to standardize transnational cultural broadcasting policy, build international programs, and compile a musical repertoire suitable for broadcasting became an intricate matter. IBU experts and intellectual elites, both within and outside the League of Nations, disagreed substantially on what constituted a "high quality," "high culture," or "suitable" program. Consequently, many programming issues remained unresolved in 1939. Over the years, the various promoters of broadcasting expressed different concepts of the kind of unity that international programs should convey to listeners. They related programming more directly to the creation of European unity than their other broadcasting activities. Ultimately, their programs communicated a European culture that reflected a universal idea of national diversity. The promoters contributed a relatively safe, generally accepted, high-quality, and high-art image of European culture to Europe's cultural heritage in the interwar years. They balanced the local and national diversity of Europe with the international unity of Europe. Europe – On Air concludes that interwar promoters of broadcasting did indeed connect their activities to projects for European unification. To most of these promoters, broadcasting was a matter of practical internationalism. In the First instance, this meant resolving practical problems from a technical standpoint. The promoters formed a cross-organizational and flexible transnational expert community that could adapt to the problems at hand. Diffuse personal networks offered a way out when official routes failed. Secondly, practical internationalism meant that the promoters' ultimate goal was to contribute to the internationalist ideals of peace and rapprochement worldwide. With the exception of Radio Luxembourg, systems such as Radio Moscow, Radio Nations and Vatican Radio had global aims, albeit for different reasons. As always, Europe was shimmering somewhere in the background, whether entering into construction efforts and interests for a practical in-between solution, as a geographical space, as a tradition of commerce and organization, or as an explicit goal for cultural unification and civilization. Opinions vary regarding the success or failure of these interwar efforts. On one hand, the promoters of broadcasting created suitable international institutions, material networks, a great variety of "international" programs, and managed to let their vision trickle down into European program guides. On the other hand, increasing tension during the 1930s and the outbreak of the Second World War hindered the implementation and effective employment of their efforts. Many issues remained unresolved. Europe – On Air argues that the efforts of these promoters were not in vain. They have managed to create a European space, a community, and a kind of European regulatory culture for broadcasting. Equally important, their efforts have found a new start in post-Second World War organizations like the European Broadcasting Union and the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization. In this way, interwar projects have influenced the broadcasting agenda right through to today.
This thesis comprises of three research studies undertaken on three important topics of political economics. The first paper (chapter 2) "Bread and the attrition of power: Economic events and German election results'' has analyzed the German's voting behavior in response to the economic situations prevailing during the postwar period 1953-2005. This paper has been a modified and extended version of the Hibbs "Bread and Peace Model'' and result shows that real per capita disposable income growth is the only economic variable that explains the incumbent aggregate vote share in Germany. The second paper (chapter 3) "Pakistan, Politics and Political Business Cycles'' relates to Pakistan's experience in terms of politics, economics and political business cycles. This paper investigates the presence of political business cycles in various macroeconomic indicators during the period 1973-2009. The third paper (chapter 4) "Pakistan Central Bank Independence and Electoral Politics'' examines the existence of political monetary cycles in Pakistan, keeping in view the independence of the State Bank of Pakistan. Each of these three chapters is a self-contained unit, provides empirical evidence enriched with modern sophisticated econometric techniques and provides useful policy implications. Although the substance uncovered in the three chapters is different to each other, but they are all based on the common concept of "economic voting'' and its implications on economy, politics and other institutions. Chapter two studies the German's voting behavior in response to economic situations prevailing during the period 1953-2005. Empirical results suggest that German voters are backward-looking and they consider the whole legislative term with only small discounting of past events. They are concerned about national economic well-being, vote according to the per capita real disposable income growth of the economy. As in Hibbs (2008) for the United States, we find that the aggregate votes for incumbent parties in post-war Germany were determined by the weighted-average growth of real per capita disposable income. Each percentage point of per capita real disposable income growth sustained over the legislative term yielded approximately two percentage points of votes in Germany. No other economic variables add value or significantly perturb the coefficients of our model. However, attrition of power is turned out to be another important variable in the case of Germany that has reduced the vote share in election years 1961, 1994 and 1998. Chapter three focuses on the opportunistic politicians' behavior in terms of manipulation of the macroeconomic indicators during the election period. Research study has been carried out to study whether in Pakistan the dynamic behavior of unemployment, inflation, budget deficit and real GDP growth is systematically affected by the timing of elections. We have covered the period from 1973-2009 that comprises of seven election terms. Auto Regressive Moving Average (ARMA) Model and Auto Regressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) models with political dummies have been used to investigate the presence of political business cycles in Pakistan. Results show that unemployment tends to be lower in pre-election periods and tends to increase immediately after elections, perhaps as a result of politically motivated employment schemes. Inflation tends to be lower in pre-election periods, perhaps as a result of pre-electoral price regulation. Similarly we find an increase in the governmental budget deficit financed by heavy government borrowings from the central bank and banking sector during the election year. However, real GDP growth and real governmental investment growth declines during pre and post election years, may be as a result of inefficient resource allocation. Chapter four attempts to examine the Pakistan's central bank independence and the existence of political monetary cycles (PMC) during the period 1985-2010. Existence of such cycles demonstrates the opportunistic political behavior as well as the non-independence of central bank in its monetary operations. Despite various amendments that have been made to strengthen the autonomy of Pakistan's central bank during the decade 1990s, it has been witnessed that Pakistan's central bank is still among the list of least independent central banks. The same picture has been exhibited by the rising fiscal deficit and deficit financing trend during the period 1985-2010. Considering this status, one may suspect the existence of political monetary cycles in Pakistan. Using quarterly data for the period 1985Q1-2010Q4, we have estimated the central bank monetary policy reaction function. Empirical results allow us to conclude that whenever there is an increase in the real output gap or real GDP growth and inflationary pressures in the economy, the central bank tighten its monetary policy by raising the discount rate. To test the existence of political monetary cycles, we have introduced some political dummies in the estimated baseline models. Pre-election political dummies are found to be negative and significant, accepting the PMC hypothesis that the central bank facilitates the incumbent parties in the run up to election by reducing the interest rate during the underlying study period in Pakistan. ; Diese Arbeit besteht aus drei Studien zu jeweils einem wichtigen Thema aus dem Bereich der politischen Ökonomie. Das erste Forschungsthema ``Brot und Machtverfall: Volkswirtschaftliche Ergebnisse und Deutsche Wahlergebnisse'' analysiert das Wahlverhalten der Deutschen als Reaktion auf die eigene wirtschaftliche Situation in den Jahren 1953 bis 2005 und ist in ``Public Choice'' (2009) VR. 141, S. 151 -169 veröffentlicht. Diese Studie ist eine modifizierte und erweiterte Version des ``Brot- und Friedensmodells'' von Hibbs und die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass das Wachstum des real verfügbaren Pro-Kopf-Einkommens die einzige ökonomische Variable ist, die den Stimmenanteil der bis dato regierenden Partei bzw. Koalition erklärt. Die zweite Studie (Kapitel 3) ``Pakistan, Politik und politische Konjunkturzyklen'' bezieht sich auf die pakistanische Erfahrung in Bezug auf Politik, Wirtschaft und politische Konjunkturzyklen. Es wird die Präsenz von politischen Konjunkturzyklen in Hinsicht auf verschiedene makroökonomische Indikatoren im Zeitraum von 1973 bis 2009 untersucht. Der dritte Beitrag (Kapitel 4) ``Pakistan die Unabhängigkeit der Zentralbank und parlamentarische Politik'' untersucht die Existenz von politischen monetären Kreisläufen in Pakistan in Hinblick auf die Unabhängigkeit der Zentralbank of Pakistan. Jedes dieser drei Kapitel ist eine in sich geschlossene Einheit, liefert empirische Beweise anhand moderner ökonometrischer Methoden und liefert hilfreiche politische Implikationen.Obwohl die Kapitel unterschiedliche inhaltliche Schwerpunkte setzen, beziehen sich alle auf das Konzept von demokratischer Abstimmungen und deren Auswirkungen auf Wirtschaft, Politik und andere Institutionen. Kapitel 2 untersucht das deutsche Wahlverhalten in Reaktion auf die wirtschaftlichen Situationen während des Zeitraums 1953 bis 2005. Empirische Ergebnisse weisen darauf hin, dass Wähler in Deutschland eine gesamte Legislaturperiode rückblickend und dabei nur schwach distanzierend bewerten. Sie sind besorgt über ihr eigenes wirtschaftliches Wohlergehen, sodass sie auf Basis des real verfügbaren Pro-Kopf-Einkommens der Volkswirtschaft abstimmen. Genauso wie Hibbs (2008) für die Vereinigten Staaten herausfand, konnte auch für die etablierten Parteien im Nachkriegsdeutschland eine Stimmenabhängigkeit vom durchschnittlichen Wachstum des realen Pro-Kopf-Einkommens bestimmt werden. Jeder Prozentpunkt des Pro-Kopf-Wachstums des verfügbaren Realeinkommens in einer Legislaturperiode, ergab nachhaltig rund zwei Prozentpunkte mehr der Stimmen in Deutschland. Keine andere ökonomische Variable stört oder schwächt die Aussagekraft der Koeffizienten des Modells signifikant. Allerdings stellt der Machtverfall eine weitere wichtige Variable in Deutschland dar, welche sich negativ auf die Stimmvergabe in den Wahljahren 1961, 1994 und 1998 auswirkte. Kapitel 3 konzentriert sich auf das Verhalten von opportunistischen Politikern in Bezug auf die Manipulation der makro-ökonomischen Indikatoren. Dieser Forschungsbeitrag ist durchgeführt worden um zu untersuchen ob in Pakistan das dynamische Verhalten von Arbeitslosigkeit, Inflation, Haushaltsdefizit und dem realen BIP-Wachstum systematisch durch den Zeitpunkt der Wahlen beeinflusst wird. Wir haben den Zeitraum von 1973 bis 2009 abgedeckt, der sieben Wahlzyklen umfasst. Das Auto Regressive Moving Average (ARMA) Modell und das Auto Regressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) Modell mit politischen Dummys wurde verwendet, um das Vorhandensein von politischen Konjunkturzyklen in Pakistan zu untersuchen. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die Arbeitslosigkeit tendenziell in Wahlkampfzeiten niedriger ist und dazu neigt, sofort nach den Wahlen zu steigen, vielleicht als Folge der politisch motivierten Beschäftigungsprogramme. Die Inflation ist in Wahlkampfzeiten tendenziell niedriger, vielleicht als Folge der im Vorfeld der Wahlen stattfindenden Preisregulierung. Ebenso finden wir eine Erhöhung des staatlichen Haushaltsdefizits durch eine massive Kreditaufnahme bei der Zentralbank und des Bankensektors im Wahljahr. Doch das reale BIP-Wachstum und das reale staatliche Investitionswachstum sinkt wahrend der Pre- und Post-Wahljahre, was als Ergebnis einer ineffizienten Ressourcenallokation gewertet werden kann. Kapitel 4 versucht zu begutachten, wie sich die Unabhängigkeit der Zentralbank in Pakistan und die Existenz von politischen monetären Zyklen (PMC) im Zeitraum von 1985 bis 2010 darstellt. Die Existenz solcher Zyklen deutet auf opportunistisches politisches Verhalten sowie die Nicht-Unabhängigkeit der Zentralbank bei ihren geldpolitischen Operationen hin. Trotz verschiedener Änderungen, die gemacht wurden um die Autonomie der Zentralbank Pakistans in der Dekade der 1990er Jahre zu stärken, ist zu beobachten, dass Pakistans Zentralbank noch auf der Liste der am wenigsten unabhängigen Zentralbanken zu finden ist. Das gleiche Bild ergibt sich durch das steigende Haushaltsdefizit und den Trend der Defizitfinanzierung während der Zeit von 1985 bis 2010. Angesichts dieses Status kann man vermuten, dass politische monetäre Zyklen in Pakistan existieren. Mit vierteljährlichen Daten für den Zeitraum 1. Quartal 1985 bis 4. Quartal 2010, haben wir die geldpolitische Reaktionsfunktion der Zentralbank geschätzt. Empirische Ergebnisse bringen uns zu dem Schluss, dass, wenn es zu einer Erhöhung der realen Output-Lücke, des realen BIP-Wachstums und dem Inflationsdruck in der Volkswirtschaft kommt, die Zentralbank ihre Geldpolitik durch die Erhöhung des Zinssatzes verschärft. Um die Existenz von politischen monetären Zyklen zu testen, haben wir einige politische Dummys in die geschätzten Basis-Modelle eingeführt. Politische Dummys bei Vorwahlen erwiesen sich als negativ und signifikant, was zu der Annahme der PMC Hypothese, dass die Zentralbank in Pakistan die Regierungsparteien im Vorfeld der Wahlen durch Verringerung des Zinssatzes unterstützt, führt.
학위논문 (석사)-- 서울대학교 대학원 : 정책학과, 2012. 2. 이승종. ; 본 논문은 우리나라의 주민소환투표에 있어 소환결정과 부결에 영향을 주는 요인이 무엇인지 보여준다. 동일한 지역에서 동일한 사유가 적용된 소환 대상자에 대해 투표구에 따라 소환투표 결과가 달라지는 것에 착안하여 어떤 요인이 작용할 때 소환투표에 주민들의 참여가 잘 일어나는지가 본 연구의 동기가 되었다. 기존 주민소환 관련 연구들은 주로 제도 운영상의 쟁점을 도출하고 그에 따른 정책대안의 제시 또는 주민소환제의 개선방안에 대한 논의가 주를 이루고 있다. 주민소환투표 사례에 대한 연구는 양적으로 부족하다. 더욱이 소환결정, 부결 결과에 영향을 미치는 요인에 관한 직접적 연구는 찾아보기 힘들다. 따라서 본 연구는 시민참여의 관점에서 어떤 요인이 작용할 때 주민소환투표 참여가 잘 일어나는지에 대해 주목하였고, 이를 밝히기 위해 투표결과에 영향을 미치는 요인을 연구하였다. 이를 위해 '하남시 주민소환투표 사례'를 대상으로 단일 사례연구 방법을 시도하되, 사례 안에서 두개의 투표구의 상이한 투표결과를 비교하여 결과에 영향을 미치는 요인을 식별하였고, 그 요인들 가운데 소환결정 혹은 부결을 결정짓는 요인이 무엇인지 분석하였다. 분석결과 소환 사유, 소환 추진 주체, 소환에 대한 소환대상자의 반응, 소환대상자의 수 요인은 주민소환투표 결과에 제한적으로 영향을 미치는 요인임을 확인하였다. 이 네 가지 요인은 하남시 주민소환투표 결과를 볼 때, 소환 결정된 투표구에서는 영향요인으로서 작용하였지만 소환 부결된 투표구에서는 영향요인으로서 작용하지 못했음을 관찰할 수 있다. 즉, 투표구에 따라 차별적이고 제한적인 영향 요인으로 작용하였다. 한편, 소환지역의 경제적 여건 요인은 영향요인이라고 하기에는 불분명해 보였고, 거주지 특성, 소환 지역의 정치적 여건, 인구밀집정도 요인 등은 소환투표 결과에 영향을 줄 수 있는 직접적 요인임을 확인하였다. 거주지 특성 요인의 경우 자기집 거주 비율이 높은 투표구는 투표 참여율이 높게 나타났고, 전‧월세, 무상 주택이 많은 투표구는 주민소환투표 참여율이 낮은 현상을 관찰하였다. 또한 투표구별 유력한 정치세력의 존재 여부와 인구밀집 요인은 주민소환투표 결과의 요인일 뿐만 아니라 투표구별 소환 결정, 부결 결과에 영향을 미치는 주요 요인임을 확인하였다. 본 연구를 통해 얻을 수 있는 정책적 함의는 다음과 같다. 정책을 추진하려는 지방자치단체의 선출직 공직자에게 지역주민과의 의사소통은 매우 중요한 요소라는 것이다. 공론화 과정 없이 정책을 추진시 주민들은 이를 '독단적 행정'이라고 여길 수 있고, 이는 주민소환으로 이어질 수 있다. 따라서 지방자치단체의 선출직 공직자는 정책을 시행하기 전에 지역주민을 대상으로 공론조사나 이슈포럼 등 토의의 과정을 거치는 것이 필요하다. 정책을 추진함에 있어 정보가 충분하게 제공되고 토의의 기회가 마련되는 등 찬성 또는 반대단체가 지방자치에 관여할 수 있는 장치가 충분하다면 지방자치단체장의 정책추진 자체만을 이유로 소환투표단계까지 진행되기 어려워 보이며, 아직까지 정책추진 자체가 문제가 되어 소환투표를 실시한 사례도 없다. 한편, 주민소환과정에서 소환대상자의 사법적 대응은 소환대상자 측과 소환 추진 세력 간 갈등을 고조시켜 결국 지역에서 주민소환의 판을 키우는 결과를 초래한다. 본 연구는 기존의 연구가 직접적으로 다루지 않았던 주민소환투표 결과의 영향요인을 도출하고 아울러 동일한 지역 내 동일한 사유로 소환된 대상자에 대해 소환결정, 부결이라는 상이한 결과에 대한 원인이 무엇인가 밝히려는 시도를 했다는 점에서 그 의의가 있다. ; This paper shows the cause of affecting the decision to recall and veto in terms of Recall of our country. Looking at the fact that the result of Recall differs in accordance with the occurrence of objectives of summon in the same region, detecting certain factors which increases Participation becomes the motivation of this study. Current studies regarding Recall mainly drag the disputed point of administrative policy and suggest alternative plan or discuss improvement option for Recall system. Researches of recall precedent are insufficient in numbers. Moreover, there is no experiment aimed at factor which affects result of deciding summon and veto. Therefore, this investigation focuses on certain points where participation of recall occurs well in the perspective of participation and researches the factor affecting vote outcome to reveal the point. For this, single case study investigation using 'Ha-nam city's precedent of recall applied, but compared different vote result of two districts within the precedent and found the factors affecting the product, and analyzed the factors affecting recall decision or veto among those causes. As the result of analysis, reason for recall, group promoting recall, reaction of target who got recalled, number of objectives who could be recalled were the restricted causws identified which could affect the result of a recall. These four reasons regarding the result of Ha-nam city's Recall, affected the region as affecting factors where recalling was accepted, but did'nt affect the area where recalling was denied. There for, according to the region, these were applied as restricted affecting factors. On the other hand, it was not certain that the economic condition of area recalled was an affecting factor. Characteristics or residence, political circumstance of area recalled, population density were factors directly affected the result of Recall. Considering the traits of residence, the turn rate was high for the district where the rate of household who lives in their own houses was high. For the areas where leasing, monthly rent and gratis house prevail, however, showed low participation rate. Also, the existence of powerful political group of each district and population density were not only the factors affecting the result of Recall, but also the crucial factors affecting the accepting of Recall or denying the Recall. Following is the policy implication could be acquired from this investigation. Communication with local civilian is extremely crucial element for elected public official of a local government of a region which tries to promote a policy. Promoting a policy without publicizing, residents might regard this as 'arbitrary administration' which could lead to the recall. Therefore, it is necessary to go through the discussion process for elected public official such as conducting a deliberation poll or issue forum before a implementation of policy. If there was enough mechanism for agreeing and denying groups to participate in local autonomy such as providing information and opportunities of discussion when promoting a policy, the process of recall would not have to be advanced only for the reason of chief of local government's policy promotion and still, there was no precedent of recall due to the policy promotion itself as a catalyst. On the one hand, judicial confrontation during the process of summoning resident only elevates the conflicts between the objectives of summon and the powers trying to call which eventually foster the situation of summoning resident. This study was a meaningful one, since it tried to find the cause for the different result in deciding summon and veto of summoned ones because of the same reason within the same area and sought simultaneously for the affecting factor of recall that existing research did not deal with directly. ; 제 1장 서 론 1_x000D_ 제 1절 연구의 필요성과 목적 1_x000D_ 제 2절 연구의 대상 및 범위 2_x000D_ 제 3절 연구의 방법 3_x000D_ 제 2장 이론적 배경 및 선행연구 검토 4_x000D_ 제 1절 주민소환제도에 관한 개념 및 내용 4_x000D_ 1. 주민소환제도의 개념 및 의의 4_x000D_ 2. 주민소환제도의 내용 및 특징 7_x000D_ 3. 주민소환제도의 법률적 내용과 절차 9_x000D_ 제 2절 주민소환에 관한 선행연구 12_x000D_ 1. 주민소환제도에 관한 연구 12_x000D_ 2. 주민소환투표 쟁점 및 영향요인에 관한 연구 13_x000D_ 3. 선행연구의 한계 14_x000D_ 4. 연구 문제 15_x000D_ 제 3절 주민소환투표 결과의 영향 요인 15_x000D_ 1. 소환 사유 16_x000D_ 2. 소환 추진 주체 17_x000D_ 3. 소환 대상자 18_x000D_ 4. 소환 지역 여건 19_x000D_ 5. 영향 요인 분석 틀 21_x000D_ 제 3장 주민소환 실태 22_x000D_ 제 1절 전국적 주민소환 실태 22_x000D_ 1. 전국적 주민소환 사유의 특징 25_x000D_ 2. 하남시 주민소환 사유의 특징 27_x000D_ 제 2절 하남시 주민소환투표 사례 28_x000D_ 1. 하남시 일반 현황 28_x000D_ 2. 하남시 주민소환투표 사례 경과 29_x000D_ 제 4장 주민소환투표 결과의 영향 요인 분석 31_x000D_ 제 1절 제한적 영향 요인 31_x000D_ 1. 소환 사유 32_x000D_ 2. 소환 추진 주체 33_x000D_ 3. 소환 대상자 36_x000D_ 제 2절 직접적 영향 요인 49_x000D_ 1. 소환 지역의 거주지 특성 49_x000D_ 2. 소환 지역의 정치적 여건 58_x000D_ 3. 소환 지역의 인구 밀집 정도 65_x000D_ 제 5장 결 론 68_x000D_ 제 1절 연구결과 요약 68_x000D_ 제 2절 연구결과의 정책적 함의 74_x000D_ 제 3절 연구의 한계 74_x000D_ 참고문헌 76 ; Master
This report covers basic descriptions and characteristics of the equine sector, including statistics on number of horses, horse farms, employment, current structure and recent dynamics in the horse sector in Finland, Latvia and Sweden and also the mobility (e.g. trade, import, export and tourism) within the Central Baltic Region. The information was gathered through literature reviews, round table discussions and interviews with equine organisations and stakeholders, and through visits to farms with equine business activities in each of the three countries. Horses in Finland, Latvia and Sweden At the moment the horse population in Finland is growing steadily. In 2010 there were about 75 000 horses. Most of these are warm-blooded trotting horses, but riding horses are becoming increasingly popular as riding as a hobby increases in popularity. Approximately 35 000 people own at least one horse and co-ownership is becoming a common way of owning a horse with relatively small costs and responsibilities, especially among trotting sports. There are approximately 16 000 stables, of which over 3 000 are business orientated. These numbers are still only estimates, because Finland is lacking a comprehensive register of stables and stable enterprises. Although statistical data on the number of horses, breeds, herds, stables etc. are being collected and are available in Latvia, there is still a lack of statistical data that characterise the sector in relation to employment, provide an idea of the financial results, and characterise horse uses for tourism or therapy purposes. For example, there are no data on the number of people working with horses. This is perhaps related to the perception of the sector as being located within the context of horse breeding. Statistical data show that the number of horses in Latvia in general has decreased, from 15 250 in 2005 to 11 476 in 2012, and the current trends indicate that it could decrease even more. The number of livestock has decreased correspondingly, from 9814 in 2005 to 5577 in 2012. More than 84% of all farms have 1 to 5 horses, and only a few farms have more than 100 horses. The number of horses in Sweden decreased in the early 1920s from about 700 000 to about 70 000 in the 1970s. During the past 30 years the number of horses has increased tremendously, but the trend seems to be stagnated the last few years. Today there are approximately 362 700 horses and about 20% of all horses in Sweden are within business establishments. The number of horses per 1 000 habitants is 39 for the whole country and Sweden is now estimated to have the second highest density of horses per capita in Europe. There are approximately 77 800 establishments involving horses in Sweden. The equine businesses have on average 4.7 horses and provide full-time or part-time work for a total of 25 000 people. About two-thirds of those working with horses are women. Horse related legislation in Finland, Latvia and Sweden Environmental legislation is one of the broadest judicial systems in Finland. It consists of a number of different laws and regulations, relating to waste disposal, water protection, environmental protection, land use and construction. After EU membership, environmental legislation in Finland was harmonised with EC (European Community) legislation, especially in the case of environmental protection and conservation. The main environmental legislation concerning the horse sector in Finland consists of following laws, directives and regulations: 1) Environmental protection law and regulation, 2) Waste law and regulation, 3) EU waste incineration directive, 4) By-product regulation, 5) Nitrate regulation, 6) Law concerning dead animals in remote areas, 7) The law on processing household water in remote areas, 8) Health protection law and regulation, 9) Fertilizer law, 10) Conservation law, 11) Land use and construction law and 12) Law about neighbourliness. According to the requirements of the Ministry of Agriculture, the policy of the horse breeding sector in Latvia is based on: a) Horse breeding is performed according to the targets stated in the breeding programme, which are based on production of high quality animals, preservation and improvement of the genotype through purposeful use of the breeding stock and improvement of horse monitoring, b) The importance of the development of horses and equestrian sports within the framework of the common agricultural policy is emphasised in order to encourage development of the rural environment, and c) Horse breeding is compliant with welfare regulations. National and European Union aid for the development of the agricultural sector is allocated to horse breeding too. Most of it consists of aid for breeding measures in the equine sector. Currently there are no specific regulations in Latvia which define requirements for keeping horses. Horse breeding is not distinguished separately within the field of animal welfare in Latvia and therefore the main document is the Animal Protection Law. Its norms are general, while Cabinet Regulation No 959 ´Welfare Requirements for the Keeping and Training of Sport, Work and Exhibition Animals and Use Thereof in Competitions, Work or Exhibitions´ does not specify actions with horses and can easily be interpreted in different ways. There is no measurable evaluation system to assess fulfilment of the requirements in the Cabinet Regulations. The law stipulates the actions and activities which may be undertaken with an animal and those which are strictly forbidden and lists the institutions that should supervise compliance with the law and the welfare requirements. Latvia lacks the basis of normative documents that would specifically regulate personal safety in the horse breeding sector and in businesses related to horse use. Therefore the common normative basis has to be considered, the foundation of which is the ´Labour Protection Law´. The foundation of Swedish environmental legislation is the Swedish Environmental Code. The purpose of the Swedish Environmental Code is to promote sustainable development which will assure a healthy and sound environment for present and future generations. The Code is a legislative framework based on a number of fundamental principles permeating international environmental protection and resource management. These include the "precautionary" principle, the "polluter pays" principle, the "product choice" principle and principles governing resource management, natural cycles and appropriate siting of industrial (and other) operations and remedial measures. The main environmental legislation in Sweden concerning the horse sector consists of the following laws, directives, ordinances and regulations: 1) Environmental Code, 2) Ordinance concerning environmentally hazardous activities and the protection of public health, 3) Ordinance on environmental consideration in agriculture, 4) Nitrate directive, 5) Water directive, 6) Swedish guidance on storage and spreading of manure, 7) Regulation on environmental consideration in agriculture as regards plant nutrients, 8) Ordinance on inspection and enforcement according to the Environmental Code, 9) Ordinance on self-inspection by operators, 10) Ordinance on animal by-products, 11) Ordinance on fees for examination and supervision under the Environmental Code and the fees ordinance, 12) Regulations on the protection of the environment, in particular the soil, when sewage sludge is used in agriculture, 13) Regulations on consideration for natural and cultural values in agriculture, 14) Ordinance on environmental penalty charge, 15) The Planning and Building Ordinance, 16) The Land Code. In Sweden the occupational safety and health issues in general are regulated in the Work Environmental Act (SFS 1977:1160), in the Work Environmental Ordinance (SFS 1977:1166) and in several provisions. There is no specific legislation regarding occupational health and safety in the horse sector. However, these issues are included in the provision Working with animals (SFS 2008:17). Some results of the round table discussions in Finland, Latvia and Sweden In general, the participants in round table discussions in Finland were hoping for concrete solutions and examples of low-cost and easy help for everyday businesses. Entrepreneurs with lower profitability need more support, but the challenge is to get them involved in education or advisory events. The riding sector at least is much divided, with some businesses having as many customers as they can serve, and others who are constantly on the edge of bankruptcy. To help those small and medium-sized enterprises that need help the most, the project should produce advice that can immediately be used in practice, and concrete results and solutions. The problem with small and medium-sized businesses is the lack of capital and the related impossibility of investing large amounts of money in new technologies or large-scale facilities. In this sector the profitability and competitiveness are often low, but small changes in operations could improve these. Many business owners are still lacking business skills and they may not see what they could use as a competitive advantage. The current understanding of the equine sector in Latvia has to be reconsidered or a better understanding has to be created. Therefore the policy guidelines and the aid to the sector will have to be reviewed. For example, according to the view of the Ministry of Agriculture of the Republic of Latvia, the equine sector only concerns breeding and accordingly state aid is predominantly provided for this purpose. The Latvian Horse Breeding Association also considers breeding to be its priority, but several representatives of the tourism industry expressed the opinion that horse breeding should be reconsidered, paying special attention to the Latvian horse breed, which could be interesting for foreign and local tourists as a special feature of Latvia. Latvian breed horses possess a nature and traits that make them suitable for tourism and also therapeutic riding purposes. The equine sector in Latvia in general lacks a clear direction for orientation, what should be bred, what might be a profitable product or an exportable product. Since this is not clear on a national scale, it is difficult to discuss aid instruments. The people working in the sector often lack skills in project preparation, they do not have time to learn and study it all, and therefore it is difficult to apply for and to receive the aid. In order to solve this, it is usual practice to involve companies that prepare the project application. Other entrepreneurs try to master these skills themselves. The horse sector in Sweden is now on a downward trend, pointing out the decreased number of served mares. The horse businesses need to streamline their business ideas, look for better locations (closer to customers) and the activities offered must be more adapted to customer needs and demands, such as different types of activities and livery stables with more specialist services or diversified food production. In general, horse stables will have a lot of opportunities in the sector if they can keep up with the changes in the sector. The interest in Sweden regarding keeping horses and attending riding sports was perceived to be decreasing and it was thought that there is a system change underway. The way to keep horses in the future may not be the same as it used to be. People are not willing to sacrifice time and efforts to keep on with horses any more, people are getting older and there is limited recruitment of young people into the sector. The horse activities mainly take place in urban and periurban areas.
Dottorato di ricerca in Diritto dei contratti pubblici e privati ; La persistente inefficienza nell'utilizzo delle risorse umane nel settore del lavoro pubblico impone l'attenzione sul come la pubblica amministrazione stia tentando di rispondere alle nuove complesse problematiche poste a livello nazionale, internazionale e globale. In un mercato del lavoro in rapido sviluppo il settore del lavoro pubblico mostra una scarsa dinamicità ed una certa resistenza ad accettare soluzioni innovative. Si parla da molto tempo della necessità di innovare il rapporto di lavoro nel settore pubblico "privatizzato" e la pubblica amministrazione in generale, ma solo da ultimo il lavoro alle dipendenze delle pubbliche amministrazioni ha conosciuto uno stimolo all'uso dei fattori premiali e flessibili grazie all'introduzione della valutazione della performance. Innovare attraverso lo strumento della flessibilità contrattuale nel settore del lavoro pubblico significa raggiungere l'obiettivo dell'efficienza. Per questo bisogna indagare se il problema della mancata efficienza sia di carattere giuridico "contrattuale" o le ragioni vadano indagate anche rispetto ad una complessità progettuale che tenga conto della cultura e dei processi sociali. L'indagine, in questa sede, è finalizzata allo studio dell'adattabilità delle tipologie contrattuali di lavoro flessibile, utilizzabili per l'organizzazione e la gestione del personale nelle pubbliche amministrazioni. L'uso di tali tipologie è divenuto, combinato con la necessità di produttività ed efficienza, fondamentale per la politica di sviluppo delle pubbliche amministrazioni, ma soprattutto indispensabile per l'attuazione delle politiche di contenimento della spesa, (così dette di spending review), per il personale che, in modo particolare a partire dalla fine degli anni novanta, ha raggiunto un livello rilevante. Ciò ha generato una serie di provvedimenti limitativi tendenti a bloccare le nuove assunzioni nel tentativo di raggiungere nello stesso momento un contenimento dei costi ed una riduzione del personale ritenuto, non sempre a ragione, eccedente il fabbisogno, il tutto, ovviamente nel tentativo di incrementare l'efficienza dei servizi erogati. Per tipologie contrattuali flessibili di lavoro si intendono tutte quelle che differiscono dal contratto di lavoro subordinato a tempo pieno ed indeterminato, disciplinato dall'art. 2094 cod. civ. e definito contratto di lavoro standard. Partendo dalle linee guida tracciate dalla legge n. 15 del 4 marzo 2009, di riforma del pubblico impiego, sono state analizzate le misure che disciplinano le modalità attraverso le quali le pubbliche amministrazioni possono avvalersi delle tipologie contrattuali di lavoro flessibile. Per meglio inquadrare l'attuale riforma del lavoro nel settore pubblico privatizzato (in questo studio indicata come Terza Riforma) è necessaria la ricostruzione storica della disciplina normativa del rapporto di lavoro nelle pubbliche amministrazioni, prendendo le mosse in un'ottica efficientistica e passando attraverso l'evoluzione dei modelli contrattuali che l'hanno caratterizzata, partendo dal modello unilaterale e autoritativo fino ad arrivare al modello contrattuale pattizio e paritario. Attraverso questa ricostruzione è possibile individuare i principi fondamentali, quali l'efficienza dell'organizzazione delle pubbliche amministrazioni, l'intangibilità dell'organizzazione e del potere datoriale e la relativa responsabilità dirigenziale, la specialità dell'accesso agli uffici pubblici (anche in attuazione del principio costituzionale di uguaglianza contenuto nell'art. 3 e dell'imposizione della stessa Costituzione all'art. 97, co. 3, del concorso pubblico, salvo i casi di deroga stabiliti dalla legge, quale forma di reclutamento a garanzia dell'imparzialità della pubblica amministrazione), che sono il presupposto essenziale posto alla base del possibile utilizzo per le pubbliche amministrazioni sia dei contratti di lavoro standard sia dei contratti di lavoro flessibile. L'uso dei contratti di lavoro flessibile rappresenta uno strumento idoneo, quando inserito tra i vari strumenti ed obiettivi primari delle pubbliche amministrazioni, a garantire la migliore organizzazione degli uffici se finalizzato a perseguire il buon andamento della pubblica amministrazione, così come previsto dall'art. 97 della Costituzione. Grazie ad un opportuno utilizzo delle risorse umane diviene possibile raggiungere anche l'ulteriore obiettivo, primario per le pubbliche amministrazioni, del controllo delle risorse finanziarie. Una conoscenza approfondita della gestione delle risorse umane (dipendenti con contratto di lavoro standard e non) ed una attenta analisi del contesto di riferimento possono favorire una efficiente razionalizzazione delle risorse, non solo in merito all'organizzazione degli uffici e del lavoro, ma anche sul piano politico, economico e sociale, piani con cui fino ad oggi si è dovuto scontrare il datore di lavoro pubblico nell'uso delle tipologie contrattuali di lavoro flessibile inserite nella gestione del personale e delle risorse delle pubbliche amministrazioni. Non a caso l'art. 36 del decreto legislativo n. 165 del 2001, Testo Unico del Pubblico Impiego, ed in particolare il comma 3, così come da ultimo modificato dall'art. 17, comma 26, del decreto legge n. 78 del 2009, ha evidenziato che un sistema che preveda l'uso delle predette tipologie contrattuali come strumento di gestione per le pubbliche amministrazioni deve essere finalizzato a combattere gli abusi derivanti dal suo uso distorto. L'abuso e l'uso distorto delle tipologie contrattuali flessibili ha dato vita ad un intenso precariato, sanato ciclicamente dalle norme dette di "stabilizzazione" (norme che sono state oggetto di valutazione di legittimità costituzionale). Attraverso una attenta analisi dell'attuale contenuto dell'art. 36 del d.lgs. n. 165 del 2001 è possibile individuare, tenendo a mente la disciplina che regola il rapporto di lavoro nel settore privato, da una parte gli aspetti critici dell'impianto regolativo che consentono di verificare la distanza tracciata tra le discipline che permettono l'uso delle tipologie contrattuali di lavoro flessibile da applicarsi al datore di lavoro privato con quelle riservate al datore di lavoro pubblico, e dall'altra individuare quanto sia ancora presente nel rapporto di lavoro alle dipendenze delle pubbliche amministrazioni del modello unilaterale ed autoritativo che caratterizzava il rapporto di pubblico impiego prima della privatizzazione del rapporto di lavoro. Partendo dalla prima versione contenuta nel decreto legislativo n. 29 del 1993, dei primi due commi del citato art. 36, è possibile individuare il campo di applicazione dei rapporti giuridici derivanti dalla stipulazione dei contratti di lavoro flessibile ivi elencati. Sono così messe in risalto le diversità esistenti tra la disciplina prevista per i rapporti di lavoro alle dipendenze del privato datore di lavoro e la disciplina prevista per il pubblico impiego privatizzato. Grazie alla comparazione tra il contenuto delle norme che disciplinano ciascuna tipologia contrattuale flessibile inclusa nel contenuto dell'art. 36 d.lgs. n. 165/2001 ed il suo valore precettivo è stato possibile verificare la specialità che caratterizza il rapporto di lavoro nelle pubbliche amministrazioni e l'uso delle tipologie contrattuali flessibili. Il rinvio inserito nel secondo comma dell'art. 36 del d.lgs. n. 165/2001 al contenuto dei contratti collettivi nazionali di lavoro, che hanno il compito di disciplinare la materia dei contratti di lavoro a tempo determinato, dei contratti di formazione e lavoro, degli altri rapporti formativi e della somministrazione di lavoro, del lavoro accessorio e dei lavoratori socialmente utili, mette in luce la possibilità per l'autonomia collettiva di regolare ed integrare i singoli schemi contrattuali, realizzando, se così fosse, lo schema del modello contrattuale pattizio, ed evidenziando, in realtà, il limite costituito dall'essere circoscritta alla sola individuazione dei contingenti di personale da utilizzare. Una piccola parte dell'indagine è dedicata al lavoro a tempo parziale ed agli incarichi dirigenziali del personale inquadrato con contratto standard che, seppur inseriti nel contesto del rapporto a tempo indeterminato, sono anch'essi espressione di flessibilità del lavoro nelle pubbliche amministrazioni considerati nell'ottica efficientistica dell'organizzazione amministrativa. Gli incarichi di collaborazione coordinata e continuativa e gli incarichi dirigenziali a tempo determinato conferiti a dipendenti sia interni sia esterni all'amministrazione che pubblica il bando presentano degli aspetti critici che hanno avuto spazio per un breve sviluppo. L'analisi del comma 5, dell'art. 36 del d.lgs. n. 165/2001, ha permesso di sviluppare il tema della violazione delle disposizioni imperative; ipotesi che nel passato ha trovato scarsa applicazione ma oggi, grazie alla recente versione introdotta dalla legge n. 102 del 2009, ribadisce, con più forza, la misura disciplinare che prevede il recupero nei confronti dei responsabili dirigenti inosservanti delle somme erogate dall'Amministrazione per l'impiego di lavoratori assunti con contratti di lavoro flessibile illegittimi. Interessante, considerata l'abrogazione della conciliazione obbligatoria in materia lavoro, anche per gli esigui risultati ottenuti, risulta la possibile applicazione al settore pubblico privatizzato delle forme irrituali di deflazione del contenzioso quali l'arbitrato e la conciliazione alla luce delle recenti innovazioni introdotte con la legge n. 183 del 2010, cd. Collegato Lavoro e dalla disciplina emanata, da ultimo, in materia di mediazione con il D.Lgs. n. 28 del 2010 e il D.M. n. 180 del 2010, così come modificato ed integrato dal D.M. n. 145 del 2011. Ulteriori considerazioni giungono dalla previsione obbligatoria, per tutte le amministrazioni, di redigere ogni anno un rapporto informativo da trasmettere ai nuclei di valutazione nonché alla Presidenza del Consiglio dei Ministri sulle tipologie di lavoro flessibile utilizzate relativamente alla quantità numerica ed alla spesa relativa per tipologia. Tale rapporto informativo è uno strumento avente duplice finalità: la prima è quella di permettere di individuare il dirigente responsabile dell'irregolare utilizzo delle tipologie contrattuali non standard, attraverso la verifica degli atti gestionali posti in essere; la seconda si avvale della possibilità, offerta da una rapida conoscenza del fenomeno, di adottare misure mirate a migliorare sia l'aspetto normativo, sia quello organizzativo che di controllo della gestione delle risorse umane e finanziarie. Aspetti che rilevano la necessità di insediare in maniera efficace la cultura della buona amministrazione della cosa pubblica. Questa linea di condotta rappresenta la migliore politica per realizzare i principi di trasparenza ed imparzialità propri delle pubbliche amministrazioni. Principi idonei ad evitare che l'uso dei contratti di lavoro non standard degenerino in forme di precariato o realizzino una alternativa modalità di accesso ai ruoli professionali delle pubbliche amministrazioni, elusiva, grazie al collaudato ricorso a norme che introducono le procedure di stabilizzazione, dei previsti concorsi pubblici di accesso all'impiego pubblico per contratti di lavoro a tempo indeterminato. Alla luce dei recentissimi interventi normativi e giurisprudenziali, merita una trattazione il "caso" rappresentato dai rapporti di lavoro flessibili utilizzati dal Ministero della Pubblica istruzione, sia per il personale docente sia per il personale amministrativo definito ATA. Prendendo spunto dai testi normativi (legge n. 124 del 1999 e D.P.R. n. 430 del 2000), la ricerca ha evidenziato alcuni aspetti critici rispetto all'applicabilità della direttiva comunitaria in tema di contratti a termine. Nelle conclusioni vengono messi in luce i caratteri del modello contrattuale neo-autoritatio, attualmente utilizzato, nella Terza Riforma, dalle pubbliche amministrazioni. Ulteriori considerazioni finali sono orientate ad indagare gli effetti che la imminente riforma del mercato del lavoro, attualmente in discussione in Parlamento, avrà anche nel settore pubblico "privatizzato" ed in particolar modo quali novità introdurrà rispetto all'uso delle tipologie contrattuali di lavoro flessibile; e quali di queste saranno sviluppate nel tentativo di fornire una soluzione circa l'opportunità che la pubblica amministrazione utilizzi - ancora una volta - uno schema negoziale previsto nel settore privato ma "riadattato" alle esigenze di specialità, insite nel rapporto di lavoro del settore pubblico, comunque insuperabili. ; The persistent inefficiency in human resources management in the public sector draws our attention on how the public administration is currently trying to face the new, complex issues raised on a national, international and global level. In a fast-developing labour market, the public sector is showing a scarce dynamism and a certain resistance to accepting innovative solutions. The discussion about the need to innovate the "privatised" working relationship and the public administration in general has been going on for quite some time; still, only recently performance evaluation has been introduced for "privatised" jobs within public administrations. Contractual flexibility in the public sector is an innovation that typically equals to more efficiency. That is why it seems necessary to us to investigate the reasons behind the lack of efficiency: is it only due to contractual issues or are there more complex causes, linked to cultural and social processes? Our study aims to investigate the adaptability of flexible employment contracts – that could be used to handle the organisation and management of personnel in public administrations – within the neo-authoritative contract model's framework. The use of these types of contracts, together with the need for improved productivity and efficiency, has become fundamental to the development policy of public administrations. It is also essential for the implementation of cost containment policies - the so-called spending review – for the personnel who, starting from the late 1990s, reached high levels in the organization. Control measures have been previously taken: aiming at improving the efficiency of the services provided, by containing costs and reducing personnel – wrongly deemed redundant –, new employments were blocked. By flexible employment contracts we mean all those types of contracts which are different from a full-time, permanent contract of employment, disciplined by the Article 2094 of the Italian civil code and defined as standard employment contract. Starting from the guidelines outlined in law n.15 of 4th March 2009 – which reformed public employment – we analyse the measures which discipline the way public administrations can avail themselves of flexible work contracts. To better understand the third reform of labour in the privatised public sector, it is necessary to examine the historical reconstruction of the normative discipline that regulates the working relationship within the public administrations: starting from the assumption of performance improvement, through the evolution of contract types which characterised it, from the unilateral and authoritative model to the pactional and equal one. Thanks to this reconstruction it is possible to identify the fundamental principles which are the basis of a possible use, by public administrations, of both standard employment contracts and flexible ones. This principles are "the efficiency of public administrations' organizations", "the intangibility of the organization, of the employer's power and its relative managerial responsibility", "the access to public offices" (relating to the application of the constitutional principle of equality, included in art.3, and to the imposition with the art.97 co.3 of the Constitution of public competitive examinations as the hiring method, except for dispensations stated by the law, in order to guarantee the public administration's impartiality). When included among the several instruments and primary objectives of public administrations, the use of flexible employment contracts represents a suitable tool to guarantee an improved organization of the offices, especially if it is aimed at pursuing the overall public administration's good performance (according to art.97 of the Constitution). Thanks to an appropriate management of human resources, it also becomes possible to reach a further target of primary importance for public administrations: the control of financial resources. An in-depth knowledge of human resources management (be them either employed through a standard contract or a flexible one), combined with a detailed analysis of the relevant context could support an efficient rationalisation of resources, not only on an organizational level but also on a political, economical and social one. The latter ones being so far the most complicated to deal with when managers tried to use flexible types of contracts within public administrations. It is not a coincidence that art. 36 of legislative decree n.165 of 2001 (Testo Unico per il Pubblico Impiego) and especially paragraph 3, eventually modified by art. 17 paragraph 6 of legislative decree n.78 of 2009, highlights that a system which foresees the use of the above-mentioned types of contracts as a management instrument for public administrations must be aiming at fighting the abuse deriving from its own distorted use. The abuse and distorted use of flexible employment contracts generated a large number of temporary employees, who are being cyclically helped by the so-called "stabilization norms" (norms which themselves have been under scrutiny for their legal validity). Through a detailed analysis of article 36 of legislative decree n.165 of 2001, and bearing in mind the norms that regulate the working relationship within the private sector, it is possible to pinpoint all the critical aspects of the legislative apparatus, thus verifying the separation between disciplines which allow the application of flexible employment contracts by private employers and public ones. This analysis also shows that the "unilateral and authoritative model", which regulated the working relationship within public administration before its privatisation, is still very much applied in that context. Starting from the first revision of the first two paragraphs of the already mentioned article 36, included in legislative decree n.29 of 1993, we can determine the field of application of legal relationships deriving from the stipulation of flexible employment contracts here listed. All the discrepancies between the discipline that regulates the working relationship with a private employer and the one with a privatised public administration are easily highlighted. By comparing the contents of the norms which regulate every single type of flexible contract, included in article 36 of legislative decree n. 165/2001, and its perceptive value, it is possible to verify the specification that characterizes the working relationship within public administrations and how flexible contracts are there applied. The cross-reference - included in the second paragraph of article 36 of legislative decree n. 165/2001 - to the content of the National collective labour agreements, which regulate temporary contracts, "paid apprenticeships" (contratti di formazione e lavoro), other vocational training and supply contracts (altri rapporti formativi e somministrazione del lavoro), ancillary casual labour (lavoro accessorio) and socially useful workers (lavoratori socialmente utili), highlights the possibility for the "collective autonomy" to regulate and integrate single contractual schemes thus realizing the scheme of the pactional contract model and at the same time emphasizing its limit in indicating only the categories of employees to whom that can be applied. A small part of this analysis is dedicated to part-time jobs and managerial assignments for personnel employed through standard contracts which, although falling under the category of permanent jobs, are nevertheless an expression of a certain labour flexibility within public administration on the basis of improved performance and administrative organization. The analysis of article 36, paragraph 5 of the legislative degree n. 165/2001 develops the topic of violation of imperative provisions: rarely applied in the past, a new revision has been re introduced with law n. 102/2009 and now strongly reasserts the application of disciplinary measures against non compliant managers in order to recover funds used to hire employees through illegal types of flexible contracts. Further considerations come from the mandatory requirement, for all public administrations, to present every year to their relevant evaluation board and to the Presidenza del Consiglio dei Ministri an informative report on all the types of flexible employment contracts applied in relation to the number of personnel and the relevant expenditure per type. This informative report has a double purpose: on one side it allows the board to easily locate the manager responsible for misusing non-standard contract types, by checking the managerial decisions taken; on the other side - and on a more general level - it offers the opportunity to adopt measures aimed at improving the legislative and organizational management of human resources and finances. As if to say, it is essential to effectively promote a culture that encourages a good management of the res publica. This trend represents, in our opinion, the best strategy to fulfill the principles of transparency and impartiality peculiar to public administrations. These principles will help avoiding that the implementation of non-standard employment contracts either degenerates into new forms of temporary employment or creates a new, elusive method to access professional jobs within public administrations thanks to the proven resort to the so-called "stabilization norms" and public competitive examinations for permanent positions. In light of the recent regulatory and jurisprudential interventions, we will separately analyze the case of flexible employment contracts applied by the Ministry of Education both for teachers and administrative personnel (called ATA). Starting from law n.124/1999 and D.P.R. n.430/2000, this section highlights the relationship between school employees and the applicability of the EU directive concerning temporary contracts. In the conclusions, we will describe the main characteristics of the neo-authoritative contract model, now used in public administrations. Further final reflections consider the effects that the imminent reform of the labour market, currently being discussed in Parliament, will produce also in the privatised public sector and especially what innovations will introduce in the flexible contractual typologies, in the attempt to provide a solution about whether or not the public administration should or could once again use a contractual scheme different from the one implemented in the private sector.
Dottorao di ricerca in Ecologia forestale ; Le criticità di carattere ambientale e produttivo, che attualmente affliggono il settore agricolo, spingono l'attenzione della ricerca e l'interesse delle Istituzioni verso lo sviluppo dei sistemi agroforestali, in modo da abbinare produzioni erbacee e legnose, contribuendo alla salvaguardia ambientale. Il predominio della monocoltura e l'impatto di pratiche agricole intensive hanno contribuito ad una progressiva e pericolosa semplificazione degli agroecosistemi, con serie ripercussioni ambientali e produttive e con un notevole impoverimento di numerosi scenari rurali tradizionali. In tale contesto, il presente lavoro di dottorato si pone l'obiettivo di analizzare il ruolo dei sistemi agroforestali, moderni (sistemi silvoarabili) e tradizionali, nell'ambito della moderna agricoltura, verificandone l'applicabilità in termini di sostenibilità economica. Lo studio è stato condotto alla luce delle nuove direttive a sostegno dell'Agroselvicoltura (Misura 2.2.2 dei Piani di Sviluppo Rurale 2007/13: Primo impianto di sistemi agroforestali su terreni agricoli) e delle modalità di applicazione del Premio Unico Aziendale (PUA) sulle superfici agricole interessate dalla presenza di piante arboree forestali. La tesi ha interessato tre diversi campi d'indagine, strettamente connessi tra di loro e legati alle strategie incentivanti della Politica Agricola Comunitaria (PAC). La prima parte della ricerca ha riguardato l'analisi del modello silvoarabile del noce da legno. Tali sistemi, in base a precedenti ricerche europee di carattere modellistico, sono stati individuati tra i più remunerativi, abbinando la pregiata produzione del legno di noce alla consociazione con diverse colture agrarie. L'obbiettivo della ricerca è stato quello di completare gli studi sull'uso dell'area basimetrica (G) del noce, indice di modellizzazione e di previsione delle performance produttive delle due componenti, erbacea ed arborea, del sistema. Sono state condotte ricerche in una piantagione sperimentale di noce comune ed ibrido del CNR IBAF di Porano, che dal 1992 studia le interazioni tra noce da legno e diverse colture erbacee (grano, trifoglio e prato naturale). Lo studio ha confermato i benefici produttivi di tale sistema colturale, in grado cioè, di assicurare alti ritmi di accrescimento del noce e garantire una buona resa della coltura erbacea consociata. Riassunto Sulla base dei dati raccolti, sono stati elaborati dei modelli colturali di consociazione, per i quali, attraverso l'uso di G del noce, è possibile stimare, sino alla fine del ciclo di produzione legnosa, le interazioni competitive per la luce tra gli alberi e le colture erbacee consociate. La seconda parte della ricerca, realizzata mediante indagini territoriali GIS e rilievi aerofotogrammetrici, analizza la relazione tra sistemi agroforestali e PAC incentivante, con l'obiettivo di quantificare il decremento del PUA per le piante arboree presenti nei sistemi agroforestali tradizionali. Lo studio, condotto in Veneto, Umbria e Lazio, si è concretizzato nell'analisi sia di seminativi arborati tradizionali sia di sistemi lineari arborei lungo i perimetri parcellari. Nei casi esaminati è stata individuata una consistente riduzione del contributo percepito dall'agricoltore per particella catastale, in relazione alla tara generata dalle piante arboree presenti. Inoltre, la ricerca ha anche rivelato una errata fotointerpretazione degli spazi non eleggibili e occupati dalle piante sparse, in contrasto con quanto indicato dalle direttive AGEA per il calcolo del premio. Gli attuali meccanismi di calcolo del PUA per i sistemi agroforestali possono dunque disincentivare gli agricoltori al mantenimento degli alberi fuori foresta. Le informazioni ottenute sono state, infine, validate attraverso interviste strutturate a dottori agronomi, forestali e periti agrari, alla luce della recente introduzione, in alcune Regioni d'Italia, della misura 2.2.2, finanziamenti per l'impianto di nuovi sistemi agroforestali. Il campione studiato ha confrontato due diversi contesti socio-economici ed agronomici del Nord (Veneto) e del Centro (Umbria), per capire il ruolo svolto dalle associazioni di categoria e dai tecnici professionisti nella promozione e propaganda dell'agroselvicoltura e percepire, attraverso il loro rapporto con le aziende agricole, l'effettivo interesse verso tali sistemi. L'indagine ha messo in evidenza il totale insuccesso della misura 2.2.2, legato ad una sua scarsa divulgazione, alla mancanza di un'adeguata attività di ricerca di supporto e alla bassa attrattività economica dei sistemi agroforestali, fortemente legata ad incertezze e lacune del regolamento sulla modulazione del PUA. In generale emerge l'impellente necessità di una PAC più in grado di valorizzare le potenzialità dell'agroselvicoltura per un nuovo modello di sviluppo rurale, in cui gli alberi fuori foresta possano esplicare le proprie valenze produttive ed ambientali. ; Global environmental and productive emergencies, which are currently affecting the agricultural sector, have focused the research attention and the Institutions interest on the preservation and implementation of Agroforestry systems, for their intrinsic capacity of combing food and wood production with environmental preservation. Intensive agricultural practices, combined with predominant monocropping farming systems, have contributed to the progressive and dangerous simplification of agroecosystems, with serious environmental and productive consequences and with a dramatic impoverishment of many traditional rural scenarios. In this context, the PhD work aims to analyze the role of Agroforestry systems in modern agriculture, verifying their economic sustainability. The study, organized into three research papers, was developed in relation to the two main current regulations of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) of the European Union linked with agroforestry: Measure 2.2.2 of the Rural Development Plans 2007/13: first establishment of Agroforestry systems on agricultural land; the Single Farm Payment (SFP), supporting farmers according to their Eligible Agricultural Area (EAA), that might be reduced by scattered trees across farmland. The first part of the study is related to Silvoarable models of walnut for timber production and intercropped with arable crops. According to recent modeling research, walnut Silvoarable models are amongst the most profitable farming systems under temperate conditions of western Europe. The PhD research was conducted in an experimental plantation of CNR-IBAF of Porano, where since 1992 there has been a continuous monitoring of the interaction between trees of common and hybrid walnut with the following crops: wheat, clover and meadow. The objective was to bring to the conclusion the observations on the use of tree basimetric area (G), as an index for estimation of the relative yield of intercrops according to the trees growth. This research has confirmed the benefits of walnut Silvoarable systems, combining high tree growth rates and good intercrops yield. According to the collected data, various Silvoarable models are presented according to the tree growth rates and whose G, up to the harvesting age of the plantation, can be Abstract used for minimizing the competitive interactions for the solar radiation towards the intercrops. The second research part analyzed the relationship between the trees outside forest (TOF) and CAP, quantifying the SFP decrement in traditional agroforestry systems. This study was conducted combing GIS with aerial surveys of rural parcels. It was carried out in the regions of Veneto, Umbria and Lazio, and analyzed traditional agroforestry systems, with TOF in the parcels lined up along the borders, as well scattered across. In the study cases it was found a considerable reduction of the SFP, because TOF canopy reduces the eligible agricultural area; additionally, incorrect photointerpretation, in contrast with the official rules regulating the payment of farmers' grants, further reduces the SFP in agroforestry systems. Therefore, the current relationship between SFP and TOF strongly discourage farmers to the maintenance of these trees in their farmland. In the third part, the above results were validated through structured interviews to agronomists and foresters, the professionals in charge to promote innovative farming systems to agricultural stakeholders. The study sample compared two different socio-economic and agronomic realities of the northern (Veneto) and central (Umbria) Italy. The survey showed the total failure of 2.2.2 measure (First Establishment of novel agroforestry systems), depending on: i) inappropriate extension and research activities; and ii) lack of economic attractiveness of agroforestry systems, strongly linked to uncertainties and gaps in the regulation on the SFP modulation. Overall, the research work have showed that the current CAP is not able to promote the high potentialities of agroforestry systems for sustainable rural development, that would be strongly implemented throughout a judicious management of the environmental and productive benefits of trees outside forest.
IntroductionThe Report that the AIB has decided to publish starting from this year aims at presenting, even if synthetically, the main characteristics of an overview of Italian libraries, each time pointing out the questions, tendencies and some of the events that are of most interest to those who are interested in the development of the library service in our country.When it is proposed to describe a national picture of the situation of the libraries of the various types (public, university, state, scholastic, ecclesiastic, private, etc.) one finds oneself before the almost total absence of comparable and trustworthy organic information. Using the various sources available, it is possible to estimate with a certain approximation that the over 15,000 Italian libraries (in which approximately 20,000 people work) possess almost 200 million documents, that they acquire annually almost 7 million books, that their annual users are little less than 10 million and the loans made are around 65 million. It is believed that in the year 2001 the running costs exceeded 1000 billion lire, of which a little more than 10% were destined to the purchase of documents.LegislationThe year 2001 was rich in new details with regard to the sector of legislation for libraries. This was also due to the effect of the constitutional reforms and the new scenarios relative to the responsibilities and federalist arrangement of the State.Regulations of particular importance for libraries and indirectly linked to the overall institutional situation are those contained in the law of 28 December 2001, no. 448 (finance law 2002). This prescribes that the management of services aimed at the improvement of the public use and development of the artistic patrimony (and therefore also of the state libraries) can be entrusted to subjects other than those of the state. It also introduces an art. 113 bis in the sole text of the laws on the organization of local bodies (legislative decree 18 August 2000, no. 267), on the basis of which "local public services without industrial importance are managed through direct entrusting to: a) institutions; b) special businesses, including consortiums; c) joint-stock companies" and only as a residual solution (paragraph 2) "is economic management permitted when, due to the small dimensions or the characteristics of the service, it is not opportune to proceed to entrusting it to subjects as described in paragraph 1". Awaited on many sides as the chance to respond to a number of the age-old problems that have afflicted the sector of state public libraries for decades, the new organization regulations of the Ministry for cultural and artistic heritage, issued with the Presidential Decree of 29 December 2000, no. 441, actually only indicate, without solving, some fundamental questions that regard the sector, postponing their settlement, without any time limits, to subsequent second degree regulations.As regards the more strictly library themes of interest, the necessity to solve the problems of the legal deposit drove the AIB to revive the bill proposal, which had already been discussed and had arrived at the threshold of final approval in Parliament in the 13th legislature.During the year 2001, moreover, the European Parliament and the European Union Council finally approved the Directive 2001/29/CE, that aims at integrating the laws of the member countries regarding reproduction rights, rights of communication of works to the public and distribution rights, in reference to those works, on every kind of medium, including digital medium, subject to authors' rights. Art. 5 provides the faculty of member states to order exceptions and limitations to the above mentioned rights, to guarantee the right balance between authors' rights and other social interests. This article furthermore contains the "exceptions" that are to the advantage of libraries or of didactics and scientific research.Cooperation and consortiumsThe last two years have shown considerable progress in the field of cooperation activities, confirming also in Italy the current tendencies at international level. These developments generally - but with different nuances - regard various types of libraries and involve different sectors of activity, from those already established (such as cataloguing and purchases) to emerging activities, more directly linked with the diffusion of Internet (management and development of digital resources, etc.).Access to information and the development of electronic collections are surely the areas that are most involved in the new cooperation initiatives. The university sector is that which demonstrates most vitality in this area, but a certain recent enterprise of state and public libraries should be noted. The initiatives promoted by two large university computer consortiums should also be mentioned: the Cilea and Caspur.The CiBit project for digitalisation, archiving and networking, with a special research interface for Italian literature texts should be noted.In Italian universities, as in other developed countries, the idea of creating alternative models of academic electronic publishing is being increasingly encouraged: in this field mention must be made of the initiative of the University of Florence with the Firenze University Press project.On-line cataloguesThe catalogues of Italian libraries available through Internet number 420. For the year 2001 growth stabilized around 15% and mainly regarded the local body systems, the libraries of which cover municipal or provincial areas.The Italian university OPACs (On line Public Access Catalog) form approximately 40% of the total.National Library Service (SBN) and national projectsIn the last two years the SBN network has been established as the largest public network of libraries in Italy, both due to the number of libraries participating and to the considerable increase in the information in the catalogue: at the end of the year 2001 the libraries numbered approximately 1400, the size of the national collective catalogue was 5,500,000 titles (corresponding to approximately 12 million localizations, that is mentions of the presence of the works in the participating libraries). Daily hits, also as a result of the availability on Internet of the catalogue, are currently on average 160,000 on weekdays, with high points on some days of over 200,000 hits.Other cooperation projects are underway in the field of antique books and manuscripts.The Anagrafe delle biblioteche italiane (Registry of Italian libraries) data base, it too available for consultation on Internet, provides an instrument of general information on the patrimonies, services to the public and specializations of approximately 12,500 libraries.But it is "SBN on line" that has really marked a further step forward towards the improvement of the services: from a single access point, with identical modalities, users can consult catalogues of different institutions (libraries, archives, museums); they can compile a bibliography according to their own specific requirements by integrating information sources; they can also locate documents and ask for them on loan or in reproduced form.Formation, occupation and professionItaly also considers university formation as the basis for the initial preparation of librarians. In the nineties especially, the degree course in Preservation of Cultural Heritage was a source of considerable attraction among young people and in the year 2000/01 it ended up having over 23,000 students registered in the 17 universities offering the course as well as almost 3,000 registered in various related diploma courses (Operators of Cultural Heritage), for a total of 26,339 students. As a whole this is a small sector with respect to all university education (1.6% of the total of students, 2% of those enrolled, 0.6% of those graduated or having obtained diplomas), but a large group with respect to the degree or diploma "arts" group into which it is statistically inserted (16% of those registered, 23% of those enrolled and 7% of those graduated or having obtained diplomas).In the year 2000/01, the first year of the "3+2" university reform, among the 42 first level degree classes, that in Sciences of Cultural Heritage is at the 12th place as regards number of enrolled (9079) and is generally in the first place among the characteristic courses in the Arts Faculty (in the order Arts, Sciences and technologies of figurative arts, of music, entertainment and fashion, Philosophy, Historical Sciences). Sixty-six percent of the students in the degree courses in the archive-library field are female.As a whole the number of students registered is certainly greatly increased with the new courses (9079 enrolled in 2001/02 as against the 5920 of the previous year, +53%). The current offer is of 71 courses in 41 universities: among these, 9 (in a like number of universities) are specifically dedicated to the formation of librarians and archivists, while 33, 2 of which by distance-learning, have a general nature (18 with a specialization for librarians and archivists), and 29 regard other specific sectors (artistic, archaeological, musical, etc., heritage ). Overall, there are therefore at least 27 courses aimed at the formation of librarians, in 26 universities and with locations in 25 different cities.Those who graduated in Cultural Heritage have up to now obtained rapid and effective insertion into the world of work, initially above all with assistance initiatives or contract jobs but also with permanent employment, demonstrating among other things their capacity to temporarily or permanently exploit employment opportunities even in related fields (publishing, multimedia production, Web services, communications, etc.).Generally speaking, the offer of long-term employment in public administration is about 180 positions per year. The main employers are the local bodies, with 64%, followed by the Universities with 27%. Absent for years now is the Ministry for Cultural Heritage (except for two small competitions in 1998 and 1999); some offers come from the sector of research (institutions of the CNR and other bodies, for 7% in the three-year period under consideration), and exceptionally from other public bodies.From the point of view of geographic distribution, the vast majority of the jobs offered is in the North (72%, as against 11% in the Centre and 17% in the South and in the islands), and the percentage exceeds 80% for places in the local bodies: about half of the jobs offered by Italian local bodies are in the region of Lombardy; this is followed at a great distance by Emilia Romagna and then the Veneto region. In the universities, the distribution is a little less unbalanced, again with Lombardy in the first place but with a good offer also in regions of the Centre (Lazio) or of the South (Campania, Puglia).The offer of contract employment or with assistance positions is very active, both through competitions and screening for contract jobs in public administrations and through the search for assistants by service companies, mainly in the field of cataloguing, and of library structures: we can consider that through these forms of selection approximately 300 persons per year find temporary employment.The Italian Libraries Association and the Professional RegisterAn indicator of the dynamism of the profession is given also by the activity of the Italian Libraries Association (AIB) which, during the year 2000 extended to include all twenty Italian regions and considerably increased its number of members: 4407 members (+2% with respect to the previous year). This shows a much larger and clearer growth than that of employment in the sector, which therefore testifies to a greater group thrust, of "self-recognition" and identification, while a considerable number of occasional registrations remain: these are not renewed with any continuity.Since 1998, the AIB manages the Italian Professional Register of librarians, a private register that was established along the lines indicated by the European directives on the recognition of professional titles and by the bills on the unrecognised professions presented in the last legislatures but not yet approved. On 31 December 2001 the Register had 566 qualified librarians enrolled, 160 of which enrolled during the last year.The following persons co-operated to this work: Giovanni Solimine (Introduction); Luca Bellingeri, Gianni Lazzari (Law); Anna Maria Mandillo (Law, SBN and national projects); Gabriele Mazzitelli, Serafina Spinelli (Academic library systems); Tommaso Giordano (Cooperation and consortia); Antonella De Robbio (Italian OPACs); Vanni Bertini (Automation systems in Italy); Alberto Petrucciani (Training, employment and profession). ; Hanno collaborato alla redazione del Rapporto: Giovanni Solimine (Introduzione); Luca Bellingeri, Gianni Lazzari (Legislazione); Anna Maria Mandillo (Legislazione, SBN e progetti nazionali); Gabriele Mazzitelli, Serafina Spinelli (Sistemi bibliotecari di ateneo); Tommaso Giordano (Cooperazione e consorzi); Antonella De Robbio (OPAC italiani); Vanni Bertini (Sistemi di automazione in Italia); Alberto Petrucciani (Formazione, occupazione e professione).
At first glance, it may be surprising to consider the German-Jewish born sociologist Norbert Elias (Breslau, 1897–Amsterdam, 1990) as a reference of primary importance for thinking about the future of democracy and citizenship in Europe and beyond. Until recently, 'classics' of historical sociology as a whole have rarely been considered as highly relevant for investigations of the present state and future of relations between political communities in the age of globalisation. Moreover, in Elias's work, which focuses on very long-term social (including political) processes in pre- modern and modern Europe, the major terms used in European Studies and in political theories on European Union – such as 'legitimacy', 'sovereignty', 'citizenship' or 'democracy' – are rarely mentioned. Elias was obviously not first and foremost a theorist of nationalism or a post-nationalist author. He would even have refused to be considered mainly as a political or social theorist, and even less as a theorist or as a philosopher tout court. Elias's first doctorate was in philosophy but he was to abandon that discipline in favour of sociology, an intellectual break that deeply shaped his subsequent thinking (Elias 1994; Mennell 1998: 7-9). Elias's sociology was then marked by the opposition between positive, descriptive or 'reality congruent' social sciences, on the one hand, and normative philosophy, sometimes denounced as unrealistic or utopian, on the other. In addition, he refused to consider politics or policy as a distinct sphere. Moreover, Elias's historical sociology, in its more political aspects, mostly seems interested in the genesis of the state (Elias 1996; 1997), as were such sociologists as Anderson (1977) and Tilly (1993). However, a closer examination of his work reveals the undoubtedly central character of the question of social and political integration beyond the nation state. This preoccupation is already present in the conclusion of Über den Prozess der Zivilisation (1997, completed in 1939), often considered as his magnum opus, which reveals that, at this early stage in his writings, Elias questioned the relationship between nation-states and democracy. He continued to do so in later essays, especially in the crucial text, 'Changes in the We–I Balance' (1991, written in 1987), on which I will focus in the following discussion, and in Humana Conditio (2010, written in 1985). Now, the nature of this 'link' – historical and contingent, or, alternatively, conceptual or necessary – has led in the past twenty years to a well-known opposition between the so-called 'post-nationalist' authors and the 'national republicans', in France, or the 'liberal' or 'civic nationalists', in Great Britain (see Lacroix 2002; 2004). Even though Elias did not directly confront the problem of transcending national borders in conceiving of, and implementing, democracy in European Union, his intuitions can be read in relation to these recent debates about the pertinence of the national-democratic and post-national paradigms. It is true that Europe in the sense of the actual European Union does not really receive close attention in his writings. Quite obviously in Elias's view, European integration, if it would really take place, should rather be considered as a first step or as a transitional phase towards a more global, worldwide integration. Nevertheless, he demonstrated through all his work how much historical sociology is relevant for thinking about European integration and the very nature of the European Union. In 'Changes in the We–I Balance', Elias did not explicitly examine whether democracy can, or should, exist beyond the nation state, although it appears quite obvious, as in Humana Conditio (2010), that the nation-state is not the end of history. The originality of Elias's sociology lies elsewhere, and is twofold. On the one hand, it is to be found in Elias's forceful suggestion that any immediate political problem has to be considered in the light of long-term developments (see Déloye 2000; 2008) and in an all-embracing sociological perspective. Recently, Stefano Bartolini's book Restructuring Europe (2005) is an exceptional attempt to adopt a genuinely long-term socio-political perspective in order to understand the centralising processes that led to nation-states and to European integration. However, it remains focused on politics whereas Elias's more comprehensive approach includes the domains of psychology and the emotions. On the other hand, Elias's originality consists of his determination not to turn observations into norms or values that could legitimate particular conceptions of politics. If one forgets that sociological, self detached, standpoint, then Elias's propositions might sometimes seem similar to nationalist ideas, of course referring to civic or liberal nationalism (see Miller 1995; 2000) that considers the nation as the 'ultimate horizon of a political identity', or at least to the notion that democracy cannot be detached from the national frame. First of all, Elias strongly insists on the importance of affects and emotions for all kinds of collective identities, including political ones, and for every social and individual process of integration. Furthermore, his writings lay great stress on the enduring importance of the 'national habitus' (Elias 1991; 1996), particularly in the case of the old European countries. Finally, Elias sometimes seems to define the community as founded on conflicts with outsiders, both inside the community (Elias 2008), at the cultural or national level (Elias 1996), and beyond (Elias 1991), which at first glance resembles the fashionable idea (after Edward Said) of 'the Other'. In this paper, I will challenge this 'national' or culturalist reading of Elias's work, a reading that insists on the importance of belonging to a national community that one can find in the French sociologist Dominique Schnapper's essay La communauté des citoyens (1994). I will show that Elias's intuitions, by giving a crucial role to democratisation processes, contribute much more to deepen, from a sociological standpoint and in a critical way, the conceptions articulated by the post-nationalist authors – first of all the concept of 'constitutional patriotism' advocated by Jürgen Habermas[2] (1998; 2000) and that of 'post-national identity' presented by Jean-Marc Ferry (1992; 2000; 2005). And yet, according to Elias, European union, European unity or European integration, is not, first of all, a matter of values or ideals, political will or belief. More generally and less consciously, the growing repulsion towards suffering and pain would reveal a growing emotional identification between human beings over the centuries, though most obviously within their particular nation-states. However, just like Habermas, Elias suggests that a democratic political community could not be entirely based on such a feeling, although it is a 'civilising' one. This is because of his rational preferment that leads him to argue that people should rather base their acts on an understanding of the reality of their social relations. Moreover, there is no reason to consider as typically European in any meaning of the term that conscience-formation process associated with a widening circle of mutual identification. Elias admittedly studied the civilizing process by focusing on modern Western Europe at first, but it has never signified that European people have to be considered as 'civilized', compared to others, or even 'more civilized' thanks to cultural specific features, or in the vanguard of such a decentred conscience-formation process thanks to a specific European process. Not only did Elias severely criticise all nationalist and Eurocentric positions but, in the twentieth century more than ever before, humanity as a whole has to be considered as the real social unit of reference in a wholly interdependent world. In what follows, I firstly propose to review briefly the main ideas of the theory of the civilising process from state formation to globalisation that provides the framework for a long-term historical sociology. In this first part I will emphasize the crucial question of the links between the nation-state and democracy in the twentieth century that constitute the background of the current discussion between (liberal, civic) nationalists and post-nationalists. Second, I will show how the question of post-national interdependence and integration appears as a central problem in Elias's 'political' sociology, that always considers distinctly and together national, European, and global levels in a processual way. Third, I will tackle what are, according to Elias, the main obstacles to post-national political integration in terms of the endurance of national habitus, and will insist on the importance of not conflating the sociological study of such a phenomenon with its political justification. I will end with some comments on Eliasian post-nationalism and on his 'realist cosmopolitanism'. My opinion is that the stimulating tension between Hobbesian and Kantian inflexions in Elias's work, already analysed by Andrew Linklater in the field of international relations theory (Linklater 2004; 2011), is interestingly questioned when post-national integration in Europe or civic patriotism is at stake. My hypothesis is that, from an 'Eliasian' standpoint, the sociological study of long-term historical processes would not only reveal what separates Europeans from each other, but also what (temporarily) binds them together, 'for better and for worse', and what (more definitely) binds Europeans to the rest of the world.
