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Professor David Dabydeen is a Guyanese-born writer, critic and academic at the Centre of Caribbean Studies at the University of Warwick. In 1993 he became Guyana's ambassador at UNESCO and is still a member of their Executive Board. He has been Guyana's ambassador to China since 2010. Professor Dabydeen has also won several international and national prizes such as the Commonwealth Poetry Prize, the Quiller-Couch Prize, and the Hind Rattan (Jewel of India). Among his works are Slave Song (1984), The Intended (1991), Disappearance (1993); and Our Lady of Demerara (2004). He also co-edited The Oxford Companion to Black British History in 2007. RB[1]: You are both a writer and a university professor of comparative literature. Do you know yourself first as a writer or a university professor?DD[2]: First as a writer. When I was a boy that is basically all I wanted to be. As a teenager I wrote the usual self-pitying stuff and, at 16 or 17, I attempted a novel in verse, inspired by some story in the Bible, I forgotten which; but gave up after a couple of pages. Why want to be a writer? I don't know. In my youth in Guyana I never encountered a writer. I think it must have been youthful aspiration to emulate the writers of Nancy Drew and Hardy Boys novels, which were standard childhood fare in Guyana. Also, since I come from a large family, it must have been the regular escape to the New Amsterdam public library to be alone, and whilst there( the place was usually empty), discovering books in the Ladybird series on great scientists, great politicians etc. I distinctly remember reading about Benjamin Franklin, Madame Curie, Alexander the Great, and others, at the age of nine or ten. There were also the odd books on Greek myths, lavishly illustrated for children. The story of Andromeda chained and naked and threatened by a monster, before being saved by Perseus, awakened unfamiliar boyish erotic feelings… perhaps not 'unfamiliar '( I was 8 or 9 ) but certainly the first time a book had aroused such feelings. When I was about 11 or 12 I came across V.S. Naipaul's MIGUEL STREET and was awed by how it made our lives in Guyana so familiar. It was set in Trinidad but the characters lived down my street. A great contrast to the Andromeda story which was exotic and erotic as opposed to the familiar lives of ordinary folk described by Naipaul.Being an academic has also been important to my writing. Firstly, you get a lot of time to read and discuss books with very bright students. Teaching in seminar groups has been amazingly exciting at times, and that intellectual excitement, sensuous in intensity, inspires the act of writing. I used to teach MA courses on Black British Literature and on Literature and Slavery. Certainly, Olaudah Equiano's autobiography in 1789, which I read multiple times for teaching purposes, left an impact on my writing, which is dotted with 'Equiano' figures ( people who moved from deprivation to the craft of writing, through cunning and an inclination for mischief mostly). Secondly, as an academic, you are exposed to theory, which can fertilised your writing and give it a 'metaphysical' content. Overexposure leads to didacticism, which I am sure my writing suffers from. As Derek Walcott says, you shouldn't "put Descartes before the horse." Most importantly, being an academic pays the bills, so whilst hunger has provoked a lot of writers, I preferred to have a house rather than a hovel. Growing up in Guyana was to exist in relative lack of material things. Many years ago I met Maya Angelou, she had kindly invited me to her house, and she had cooked a lovely Southern meal. She said: "I drive a Cadillac. I don't do bicycles, which were my youth. And I eat meat, because all I had as a child was garden vegetables'. I appreciated her extravagance, though deep down she was a kindly person, and generous. RB: You are also a politician. In 2010 you were appointed as Guyana's Ambassador in China. How have you proved yourself as a politician?DD: I don't belong to any political party in Guyana, but I enjoyed a close friendship with Cheddi and Janet Jagan. Cheddi had been cheated out of office as a result of the CIA and the British Government, in the 1960s, because he was a committed man of the left. In 1984, when I was appointed to Warwick University, I invited Cheddi to lecture there. He had no money, so the University and a travel agent friend, Vino Patel, were persuaded to provide his economy ticket and accommodation whilst at Warwick. We treated him as the true President of Guyana. All the national elections had been fiddled, and he was kept out of office for decades. Warwick offered him a platform, when other places thought of him as a 'has been'. He visited about five times, then in 1992, the Berlin Wall having fallen and the Cold war ended, the Americans allowed us to have free and fair elections, supervised by President Carter and Cheddi Jagan won and became President of Guyana. I was his regular houseguest from 1992 until 1997 when he died. He taught me more about how colonialism behaved than any textbook. He had lived through the colonial period and was jailed by the British in 1953. All his life was dedicated to the betterment of the poor: he was fiercely concerned with reducing and eliminating poverty. In return for his great hospitality, all I could do was to edit and publish some of his political speeches. He also asked me to be his Ambassador at Large and to sit on the UNESCO Executive Board representing Guyana. He had no money, since he inherited a bankrupt country in 1992, so it was an amazing honour to serve him pro bono. One day I will write something more extensive about him… one of the stories he told me was about Fidel Castro. The two of them were friends and political comrades in the late 50s and early 60s. It was Cuba who supplied us with food in the early 1960s when the CIA formented strikes and shortages in Guyana. Castro, however, needed allies in the region, against American embargo, so when Cheddi was manoeuvred out of Office, Castro started to court the friendship of our new autocratic Prime Minister, Forbes Burnham, and more or less dropped his relationship with Cheddi. I learn from this that politics trumps decency; that politicians by and large are opportunists. Learning this first hand from a great and ethical politician like Cheddi Jagan was more powerful than learning this from textbooks.As to Janet Jagan, his wife, who, when he died, was elected President in our national elections, with an enhanced vote, she was an astonishingly generous host. My role was to edit and publish her short stories for children. She was a bit lonely in Guyana, in terms of only a few people to share her passion for the arts, so whenever I showed up, a bottle of wine was uncorked, or better still, a bottle of Bailey's Irish Cream( we had a local equivalent). She too had been jailed by the British in 1953, so, again, I learnt from her intimate details of Guyana's struggle for independence, and the callousness of politicians ( Forbes Burnham had attempted to murder her in the 1964 but his bomb went off in the wrong place in the Party's Headquarters, killing a young activist instead, Michel Forde. Janet suffered from minor injuries.)As to Walter Rodney, Guyana's internationally renowned historian, assassinated by Forbes Burnham and the State apparatus in 1980( the International Commission of Enquiry into his death was issued to Guyana's Parliament last month), it was an enlightened decision on the part of the University of Warwick to set up an annual Memorial Lecture . The Walter Rodney lecture has been given, since 1985, by some of our leading Caribbean scholars, like Hilary Beckles, Carolyn Cooper, Harold Goulbourne, Michael Gilkes, Clem Seecharan, Ken Ramchand, Verene Shepherd and others.I don't think I have proved myself as a politician in any concrete way. My only possible 'political' act was, in 2012-2013 lobbying the Government of Guyana vigorously and regularly to set up an International Commission of Enquiry into the death of Walter Rodney. I took full advantage of my friendship with the then President, Donald Ramotar, who was readily sympathetic to Pat Rodney's written request for such an Inquiry( Walter's widow). As a member of the Walter Rodney Foundation's Advisory Group, I liaised with Pat Rodney and in 2013 the Government of Guyana agreed to set up the Commission. I don't think this was a 'political' act on my part, merely the obligation I felt to Walter Rodney, a fellow academic whose books were monumental. RB: How do you define politics?DD: In a small underdeveloped or developing country, politics normally is about the acquisition of power over state resources for the benefit of family and friends. Idealism goes out of the window as soon as the politician assumes Office; the struggle then is for survival and continuation of Office, so very little good gets done, political energy being spent on maintaining and expanding the arena of privilege. Exceptions are rare, people like CheddiJagan, Nelson Mandela…Cheddi was famous for his frugal lifestyle. He died intestate, owning no property. He never stole from the national treasury, rare for a politician from the developing world. Had Rodney lived, he would have been a leader of exemplary ethics. I should add my admiration for a previous, undemocratically elected President of Guyana, Desmond Hoyte, who, long before the Rio Summit and long before 'Climate Change' was topical, bequeathed a million acres of Guyana's rainforest to the Commonwealth, for the study of sustainable development (the Iwokrama Project). This was in 1989. It was an act of rare vision by a Caribbean politician. So, politicians like Hoyte might have been elected by crookery, but can prove to be significant and visionary leaders. I enjoyed cordial relations with him, when he was President (1985-1992) as well as when he was Leader of the Opposition, again based on books. We talked a lot about Egbert Martin, the first Guyanese poet and short story writer (19th century), and about the Guyana Prize for Literature which he had instituted in 1987, in the hope of bolstering the literary and intellectual life of Guyana and its Diaspora. He had a wonderful library, and he cared deeply for literary achievement. We talked little about party politics, except about the sharing of political power and the Mandela Rainbow ideal. Towards the end of his life he was all for power sharing, though he had enough integrity to worry about where oppositional ideas would come from if we were all in alliance. RB: Do your political affairs affect your creative writing?DD: There is no direct link, though I have written about the dereliction of Guyana under the autocratic rule of Forbes Burnham. My new novel-in-progress, set partly in China, is provoked by the unimaginable cruelty imposed on the people by the Emperors and their warlords. So, politics breeds in me a despair which can stimulate writing. One of the great disappointments, living in Britain, was Tony Blair's loss of idealism ( he seemed abundantly idealistic , which is why people voted him into Office in 1992) and the lies he told about Iraq's military capacity to justify a hideous and bloody invasion of Iraq. On the other hand, in Britain, there were politicians like Jo Cox, who was visionary and full of promise( she was murdered recently), and who made all of us feel hopeful and glad to be alive. If only we had a handful of such politicians in Guyana! I am privileged to enjoy a long-standing friendship with Clare Short, the former Labour politician whose heart is as big as Mount Kilimanjaro.RB: You have often depicted Guyanese characters and settings in your fiction such as Disappearance (1993), The Counting House (1996), and Our Lady of Demerara (2004). Does it mean that you still live in your past? and that you know yourself devoted to your homeland?DD: I do live in the past, in that my childhood in Guyana left indelible memories of family and friends and village landscape. Especially the creole language we spoke at home, and the creative tension with the 'proper' English we spoke at school. The slippages between the two are fascinating, with potential for comedy and pathos. The vigour of creole is always with me.Leaving Guyana as a boy was exciting (the prospect of adventure) but then proved to be lonely and hurtful, since I was never settled in England. On the one hand, England was a world of books but at the same time a world of grunting and guttural 'skinheads' daubing racist slogans on walls and threatening to assault immigrants. London has changed profoundly since the 60's and 70's, it is now a diverse space, enriched by waves of immigrants from the Commonwealth and from Europe. There is still a strong undercurrent of racial hostility, but more in the north of England, hence the recent vote to leave the European Community. Many in the north of England have not got accustomed to the loss of Empire and the new order of the free movement of goods and people. This hostility is at the ideological level, and contradictory, because on a day to day level, people are, by and large, decent to each other, irrespective of ethnicity. London is different; it is run by people of immigrant backgrounds: nurses, doctors, builders, hotel and retail staff, care workers. I am astonished at how much has changed, and I am excited to be living in London. The creative energy of the city is palpable, and the diversity of people is inspiring. I no longer feel culturally or physically threatened, as in the 1960's and 1970's. In other words, I feel London is home, but so is Guyana. I return to Guyana at least once a year, to renew my sense of the past, to be refreshed by creole language and creole ways, and to be awed and terrified by the rainforest. I also keep writing about Guyana partly out of a sense of obligation to the place. We only have a handful of writers, so I feel it is important to write about the place. Guyana came into modern being, in a sense, through literature: I am thinking specifically of Walter Raleigh's DISCOVERIE OF GUIANA (1596), the first text about us. RB: Why do you often depict historical tensions and challenge traditional cultural representations of the slave in your novels?DD: Guyanese history, in relation to contact with Europe, is stark: the decimation of indigenous people, the enslavement of Africans, the system of Indian indentureship. It is stark in terms of the immensity of suffering, and the sheer injustices of colonial rule. Yet, we became acquainted with Samuel Johnson's DICTIONARY and the magical properties of the English language; with the lyricism and storytelling of the Bible, of Shakespeare, of Victorian poetry. These new texts supplemented the ones we brought from Africa and India ( the KORAN, the RAMAYANA) . Ancient and living Carib, Arawak and other Amerindian stories fertilised the situation. We rewrote and reimagined our inheritance, hence Walcott, Naipaul, Jean Rhys, Pauline Melville, Grace Nichols, John Agard, and a host of others. I write about the injustice (historical, but also self-inflicted in our postcolonial condition) but more about the urge to creativity and expression that emerged from being on the margins; the fierce resolve to become educated, literate, creative, venturing beyond boundaries. Our postcolonial politicians may have failed us repeatedly, but I am forever astonished at how resilient Guyanese are. When I visit parts of India, parts of China, the nature of poverty there is brutal and overwhelming. We don't have that level of deprivation, because we have created the means of survival and the prospect of abundance, whether on the plate or on the page. RB: Do you believe that there is any nation on earth that enjoys true freedom and independence?DD: I don't know what true freedom or independence mean, we are all constrained and liberated and catapulted into creativity by being with each other. However, I recall what Walcott said about slavery: that the enslaved African being herded to the cane fields would have seen something sensationally beautiful along the way, given how lush Caribbean landscapes are. A hummingbird or kiskadee or blue-saki or brightly coloured viper…Walcott said that such encounters with beauty were moments of freedom which could only be partially understood, partially described, because they also contained the seeds of tragedy and terror. If you venture into Guyana's rainforest, you will experience the sublime which contain elemental terror and a tragic sense of how life is constantly being destroyed and remade and destroyed by tooth and claw.[1] Ruzbeh Babaee[2] David Dabydeen

A broader urban strategy to promote global competitiveness has been an increasing interest in both academic global discourses and practical policy arena. To achieve global competitiveness, attracting highly skilled expatriates is often deemed essential especially in globalizing Asian urban centers. They are believed to bring foreign capitals, advanced ideas and technologies that would multiply the economic development effects. It is thus of increasing importance for many Asian global cities to provide satisfactory housing for the upper echelon of foreign labors. Shanghai and Seoul provide contrasting cases of housing the highly skilled foreigners as they have followed two different paths that are distinguished for being 'planned' and 'evolved'. The purpose of the dissertation is to understand the formative process of Shanghai's deliberately planned and Seoul's evolved foreign communities and their resultant transnational urbanism. Specifically, it is to examine 1) in what different ways the two urban strategies have influenced the formation of foreign communities; 2) how and to what degrees the two community environments have affected the everyday life of the expatriate residents and their perception of the cities in which they reside; and 3) whether the two environments are associated with the degree of segregation and integration in the two host cities. To accomplish these objectives, the study focuses on selected foreign residential communities in Shanghai's Pudong area and Seoul's central area. The comparative study employs literature content analysis, field observation, questionnaire survey and semi-structured interview in investigating public policy, residential form, everyday life, and residents' perception for selected case study areas. The study shows the different global policies of Shanghai and Seoul in providing foreign residential services. Compared to Shanghai's deliberate provision of foreign communities since the early 1990s, Seoul's approach was more ad hoc and spontaneous until the early 2000s. Shanghai has concentrated the expatriate residential communities in Pudong area through public physical planning aimed at subsequent entrepreneurial real estate development. The provision of a 'complete package' of services and amenities for foreigners resulted in the form of a series of large exclusive foreign compounds which is walled, gated and closely guarded. In contrast, the foreign communities in Seoul have incrementally evolved in central area without any active government involvement. Being formed naturally around an US army base or an international school, they are integrated in relatively high-income residential neighborhoods and do not show any clear demarcation. Supportive services are dispersed throughout the city in areas with a large foreign population. The study finds that these different approaches and residential form have affected everyday life of residing foreigners differently. The everyday life in Shanghai's expatriate families is more introverted and self-contained as their daily or weekly needs are mostly fulfilled within the compounds. Their exclusiveness and expatriate-oriented amenities have encouraged congregation of expatriates while reducing contact with the local Chinese people. The international schools in close proximity have fostered school-focused communities. In Seoul, the integrated nature of residential form and the relatively dispersed location of amenities have resulted in a wider radius of movement around the neighborhood and within the city. These movements allow for a greater number of 'contact zones' with host country nationals. In Seoul, the expatriate associations act as foci of Seoul's expatriate communities. Hence, concerning integration and segregation in relation to the host city, Shanghai is more socially segregated, while Seoul is more integrated. Despite the differences in residential form and everyday life patterns, this study shows remarkably similar levels of residential satisfaction in both cities. In some aspects such as schooling, Shanghai's residents are more satisfied than Seoul's expatriates studied. However, carefully planned Shanghai's compounds do not outscore Seoul's spontaneously formed neighborhoods in terms of the built environment, amenities, transportation and safety. These similar satisfaction levels reflect the existing level of livability in each city. It means that Seoul has been able to house highly skilled foreign labors as well as Shanghai even without equivalent efforts. This aspect of livability level is also ascertained in the different criteria for residential location of the foreigners in each city. Housing condition and safety are most seriously considered in Shanghai's expatriates, reflecting their perception on the livability of this city. While this justifies the provision of exclusive foreign residential compounds in Shanghai, the study suggest that expatriates in these two cities prefer authenticity in experiencing the local culture and social interaction with the people in their host cities rather than being segregated among themselves in a foreign enclave. The study does not investigate whether a planned foreign community is a prerequisite of attracting foreign capitals and high-level employment. Nonetheless, these findings point to practical and academic implications regarding the globalizing strategy of East Asian cities to attract the highly skilled. First, the validity of urban policy to provide foreign residences needs to be grounded on an understanding of the place-specific context. Whether a city needs planned expatriate communities depends on the different conditions in each city such as the local level of housing quality, living amenity, public safety, and access to public transportation. Second, if integration rather than segregation is adopted as a public goal to be pursued in this era of globalization, an evolved expatriate community is preferable to a planned exclusive community. This dissertation reports that expatriates themselves prefer more integrated living with local communities. However, as Seoul shows, physical integration does not lead to full social integration as cultural and language barriers persist. Finally, from a theoretical front, this dissertation draws attention to the place-specific, everyday-life aspects of transnational urbanism. By depicting the daily experiences of expatriate spouses in two globalizing Asian cities, it shows the possibilities of greater interaction between foreigners and local residents while enhancing their community-based livability and residential satisfaction. ; 글로벌 경제체제 속에서 도시 경쟁력은 학계의 글로벌 담론과 실질적인 정책분야에서 모두 큰 관심사이다. 전문직 외국인을 유치하는 것은 글로벌 경쟁력을 확보하기 위한 효과적인 도시전략으로 인식되고 있다. 이들은 경제개발 효과를 증대시키는 외자유치, 선진 아이디어와 기술을 가져오는 것으로 여겨지기 때문이다. 이에 따라 아시아권 글로벌도시들은 전문직 외국인을 유치하기 위하여 이들에게 만족할만한 주거지를 제공하는 것을 중요한 글로벌 전략으로 채택하고 있다. 상해와 서울은 전문직 외국인주거지에 관하여 '계획된(planned)' 것과 '점진적인(evolved)' 것으로 대비되는 서로 다른 사례를 보여준다. 본 논문의 목적은 상해의 의도적으로 계획된 전문직 외국인주거지와 서울의 점진적으로 진화된 외국인거주지 형성과정과 이를 통해 나타나는 글로벌도시의 초국가적 도시현상(transnational urbanism)을 이해하는데 있다. 보다 구체적으로 말하면, 다음 세 가지를 규명하고자 한다. 첫째, 상해와 서울의 전문직 외국인 주거지에 대한 공공정책은 무엇이었으며, 그 결과로서 어떻게 다른 주거지 환경특성을 갖게 되었는가를 파악한다. 둘째, 각각 다른 거주환경이 전문직 외국인들의 일상생활과 주거환경에 대한 만족도, 그리고 그들이 거주하는 도시를 바라보는 시각에 어떤 영향을 미쳤는지를 규명한다. 셋째, 각기 다른 주거지 환경특성에 따라 외국인 거주자들과 현지인들 사이에 교류의 차이가 나타나는지를 분석한다. 이 목적을 위하여, 전문직 외국인이 집중적으로 거주하는 상해의 포동지역과 서울의 서래마을, 한남동 및 이태원 지역을 비교분석한다. 연구방법은 관련자료, 문헌 및 정부문서에 대한 내용분석, 상해와 서울 두 도시의 사례대상지에 대한 현지조사, 설문과 심층면접을 포함한다. 본 논문은 외국인거주지 조성에 관한 글로벌도시전략과 외국인 주거지의 물리적 특성, 이에 따른 외국인의 일상생활 및 거주 만족도, 각 도시의 주민과의 사회적 교류정도에 있어서 상해와 서울이 나타내는 차이를 보여준다. 1990년대 초부터 계획적으로 진행해 온 상해의 외국인거주지 전략과 비교해보았을 때, 2000년대 초반부터 시행된 서울의 전략은 단편적이고 소극적이다. 상해는 포동지역에 전문직 외국인을 위한 거주지를 조성하는데 있어서, 물리적 환경조성을 위한 공공계획을 수립하고 민간기업의 부동산개발을 유도하였다. 외국인주거단지는 서비스와 부대시설의 '완전패키지(complete package)' 형태로 공급되어, 엄격한 경비와 높은 담장을 두른 외부와 격리된 외국인 전용 복합주거 군으로 개발되었다. 이에 반해, 서울의 외국인 커뮤니티는 정부의 적극적인 개입 없이 점진적으로 도심지역에 형성되었다. 미군부대나 국제학교 주변에서 자연스럽게 형성되다가, 고소득층 거주지역과 통합되고 분명한 경계선이 없이 형성되었다. 전문직 외국인을 위한 지원시설도 외국인 거주지와 도시전역에 분산되어 있다. 이러한 차이에 따라 두 도시에 거주하는 전문직 외국인들의 일상생활은 다른 양상을 보여준다. 상해에 거주하는 외국인 가족의 서울에 비해 내향적이며 자급적(self-contained)이다. 상해의 외국인 거주지의 배타적(exclusive)인 성격과 외국인 거주민을 위한 집중된 생활편의시설(amenity)은 외국인들의 결속을 유도하는 반면, 현지 중국인들과의 교류는 감소시켰다. 외국인들간의 사회적 교류는 외국인주거지 근처에 위치한 국제학교를 중심으로 이루어지고 있다. 반면 서울은, 주거지의 형태가 한국인 주거지와 통합적 특성을 갖고 부대시설이 상대적으로 흩어져있기 때문에 활동반경이 주거지를 중심으로 광범위하거나 도시전체에 해당된다. 때문에 현지주민들과 접촉할 기회가 상대적으로 더 많고, 외국인 커뮤니티의 사회적 교류는 외국인협회를 중심으로 일어나고 있다. 따라서, 현지인과의 사회적 통합/격리 차원에서 볼 때, 상해는 보다 격리된 반면 서울은 상대적으로 통합되어 있다. 이런 주거지 형태와 일상생활의 패턴에서 나타나는 차이에도 불구하고, 서울과 상해에서 사는 외국인들의 거주지에 대한 만족도는 상당히 유사함을 보여준다. 교육적 측면에서 보았을 때, 상해에 거주하는 외국인들이 서울보다 만족 정도가 다소 높음을 보여주었지만, 그 밖에 건조환경(built environment), 생활편의시설(amenity), 교통, 그리고 안전성의 측면에서는 신중하게 계획된 상해의 복합주거지나 자연발생적으로 형성된 서울의 외국인 거주지나 만족도에서 주목할 만한 차이가 없다. 이처럼 유사한 만족도 수준은 각 도시의 현재 거주적합성(livability)을 반영하는 것으로 해석된다. 즉, 서울의 전반적인 주거환경수준은 상해와 같은 노력 없이도 전문직 외국인 거주를 가능하게 한다는 것을 의미한다. 이와 같은 거주적합성 수준은 각도시의 조사대상 외국인이 주거지 입지선택에 있어서 각기 다른 기준을 가지고 있다는 점에서도 확인할 수 있다. 거주환경과 안전은 상해에 거주하는 외국인들이 가장 중요하게 고려하는 사안으로, 이것은 이 도시의 거주적합성에 대한 그들의 인식을 반영한다. 본 연구가 계획된 외국인 커뮤니티가 외국자본과 전문직 고용을 유인하기 위한 전제조건이 되는가를 조사한 것은 아니지만, 연구결과는 외국인 전문인력을 유치하려는 동아시아의 글로벌도시전략에 대해 다음과 같은 정책적, 이론적 시사점들을 제시한다. 첫째, 외국인 전문인력의 거주를 유치하기 위하여 해당 도시에 계획된 외국인 거주지를 조성할 필요가 있는지 여부는 특정 도시의 주거의 질과 생활편의시설, 치안 및 대중교통에의 접근 성 등 그 도시의 조건과 상황에 따라 다르다. 즉, 전문직 외국인에 대한 주거정책은 거시적 글로벌 경제담론 보다는 장소특성에 대한 구체적 이해를 통해 접근되어야 한다. 둘째, 현재 세계화 시대에서 궁극적으로 추구하는 목표가 국적에 따른 격리가 아니고 다문화적 통합이라면, 외국인 주거지의 형태는 배타적으로 계획된 커뮤니티보다 모도시에 통합된 커뮤니티가 바람직하다는 점을 시사한다. 서울에서 보여주는 바와 같이, 문화적 그리고 언어적 장벽이 존재하기 때문에 물리적인 통합이 완전한 사회적 통합을 의미하는 것은 아니지만, 상해와 서울의 외국인 거주민들은 모두 현지 커뮤니티와의 사회적 교류 및 통합되기를 선호한다는 점은 주목되어야 한다. 마지막으로, 본 연구는 글로벌 경제활동의 주체인 전문직 외국인 남성의 입장이 아닌, 주거지에서 일상생활을 영위하는 배우자의 입장에서 외국인들과 현지인들 사이의 더욱 원활한 교류에 대한 가능성을 제시하는 동시에 일상생활에서의 거주적합도와 주거만족도 향상방안을 보여준다. 이론적 측면에서, 본 논문은 기존의 글로벌 경제중심의 초국가적 도시현상(transnational urbanism)에 대한 이해를 구체적 장소에 기반한(place-specific) 일상생활의 측면에서 확대하였다는 점에서 의의를 찾을 수 있다 ; Doctor

This thesis seeks to add to the development of the Social Life Cycle Assessment (SLCA), which can be defined as an assessment method for assessing the social impacts connected to the life cycle of a product, service or system. In such development it is important to realise that the SLCA is only appealing to the extent that it does what it is supposed to do. In this thesis, this goal of SLCA is defined as to support improvements of the social conditions for the stakeholders throughout the life cycle of the assessed product, system or service. This effect should arise through decision makers following the 'advise' of the assessment. In order for a positive effect to arise from following a decision, the preferred alternative has to be associated with more favourable social impacts than the other assessed alternatives, indicating that the assessment has to validly represent the consequences of each alternative. But to create an effect, validity is not enough; the SLCA furthermore has to be usable in a decision making context. It has been the aim of this thesis to identify the issues which may hinder the validity and usability of the SLCA and to propose procedures to incorporate in the SLCA alleviating the problems. With regards to the usability of SLCA, a study was conducted addressing 8 Danish companies' interest and possibility in using SLCA. Here it was shown that the interest in SLCA was limited to external purposes, most notably comparative assertions for marketing purposes. However, it was also shown that the companies' ability to obtain data throughout their products' life cycles was very limited, for example because suppliers were unwilling to hand over this information to the companies or because the goods were bought on open markets furnished by a large number of unidentified suppliers. These issues were found to potentially limit the use of SLCA in companies to applications with very limited life cycle perspective. Mitigation of this data availability problem may show to be very difficult for companies, since the only way seem to be to lower the demand for the validity of the data included in the SLCA. If the SLCA is then used for external purposes, the company would run the risk of taking credit for the results given by a potential untrue assessment, which, if being the case and later discovered, may be highly incriminating for the company. It is furthermore discussed that other user groups, such as governments and intergovernmental organisations, may have other demands for SLCA and therefore also other possibilities. The usability of SLCA is only addressed in this study, whereas the three consecutive studies focus on the validity of SLCA. The reason for this overemphasis on validity is that the usability inevitably will be addressed in the development of SLCA, whereas this in not the case with regards to validity. The first of these studies addresses the validity of impact pathways in SLCA, which denotes the cause effect relationship between indicator and the 'Area of Protection' (AoP), representing the underlying issue of importance assessed in the SLCA. The study is based on two examples from the existing work on SLCA: One considers whether the type of indicators included in SLCA approaches can validly assess impacts on the one of the two definitions of AoPs in SLCA, being the well-being of the stakeholder, and the other example addresses whether the 'incidence of child labour' is a valid indicator to assess impacts on the AoPs. Both examples show a poor validity of the impact pathways. The first example shows that depending on the definition of 'well-being' the assessment of impacts on the well-being of the considered stakeholder can not be performed exclusively with the objective indicators which are presently used in SLCA approaches. Objective indicators are indicators designed to measure impacts which can, at least potentially, be measured without the involvement of the impacted stakeholder. If well-being is understood as something pertaining to the experience of the individual, subjective indicators are needed, which are indicators that focus on the experiences or feelings of the impacted stakeholder. The second example shows that the mere fact that a child is working tells little about how this may damage or benefit the AoPs, implying that the normally used indicator; 'incidence of child labour' lacks validity in relation to predicting damage or benefit on the AoPs of SLCA. More valid indicators should rather focus on, among others, the health impacts of child labour and its impacts on schooling outcomes. However, even though the indicators proposed in both examples may improve the validity of the assessment, a problem is that in both cases, the indicators demand more detailed data, which may limit their usability. The second study begins by considering that the SLCA as presented here should assess the consequences of a decision. This can be expressed as the difference between how the world is or will be because of the decision and how the world would look like had it not been for this decision. At this point it is important to realise that social impacts on individuals do not only happen in product life cycles, but in all aspects of their life. Thus, if a decision implies that a worker participates in a product life cycle, the worker will, if the decision is not taken, have to do something else, which will equally impose some impacts on him or her. When assessing the consequence of a decision for the worker it is thus this difference between these two situations, the 'implemented' vs. the 'non-implemented' decision which should be considered. More or less same argument goes for the product user. The study attempts to model the impacts of the 'non-implemented' decision in relation to the worker and the product user and finds that when the non-implemented decision situation means that the product is not produced at all, it is often associated with increased levels of unemployment. Literature on unemployment suggests that unemployment causes decreased health levels, increased poverty, family tension and violence and crime, but that the impacts may vary with context of the unemployed. If the non-implemented decision implies that a product user will no longer use a product the non-implemented decision may lead the user to choose another products associated with another life cycle and thereby other social impacts or choose to spend his or her time on something not related to product life cycles, which will equally impose social impacts on the user. The assessment of the impacts of the non-implemented decision is discussed and found to be difficult due to the complexity of identifying what this non-implemented situation amounts to. However, it is argued that some relatively simple assessments may be performed which may still improve the validity of the assessment in comparison to simply ignoring the impacts of the non-implemented decision, however inaccurate they may be. The third and unfinished study addresses the possible influence of the context on the validity of SLCA. Here two examples are analysed. One relating to the context variability of proposed endpoint categories in SLCA where it is shown on the basis of literature that what influences the well-being of the individual (one of the suggested AoPs in SLCA) differs across respondents and geographical groups, implying that the importance of the various suggested endpoint categories varies with context. The second example addresses the data collection procedures through social audits. Through an interview with a social auditor it is suggested that the auditor varies the procedures for carrying out the audit in order to get the most valid result. For example, the auditor has to take into account the various tricks a company in a given context normally uses to cheat the auditor. However, this conclusion is based on only one interview and must therefore be considered as uncertain. Both cases thus points to that context plays a role for how the methodology in relation to endpoint categories and data collection procedures needs to take account of the context in order to get a valid assessment and it is therefore argued that not only may data be site-specific in SLCA, so may methodology if the context variation should be accounted for. The results of the studies addressing the problems of validity in SLCA all suggest measures of improvement which entail more laborious, and thereby probably also less usable, assessments, whereas the study addressing usability concludes that from a company perspective a less laborious approach is needed. It thus seems that there is a trade-off between validity and usability and it is therefore discussed to what extent compromises can be made. Here it is argued that different users may be imagined who may have different possibilities and demands in terms of requirements to work and validity of the assessment and that several different SLCA approaches should be available fitting these different possibilities and demands to increase the overall use of SLCA. However for all of these different approaches it is argued that the assessment should as a minimum be more accurate than no assessment at all. If this is not the case, SLCA can hardly be regarded as decision support. This minimum requirement is discussed in more detail and it is found that while inclusion of other measures proposed for increasing the validity of SLCA is for the user of the SLCA to decide, the assessment of the impacts of both the implemented and non-implemented life cycle situations, addressed in the second validity related study, must always be included. However, since this validity demand only establishes very few requirements to the user, this methodological 'openness' may potentially be used to consciously select indicators or data in favour of one alternative. To mitigate this possibility for manipulation, a more comprehensive demand is considered which is to always include an assessment of the completeness and uncertainties in SLCAs accessible to the public. This, however, requires knowledge about how certainty and completeness is established in SLCA, calling for further studies into the validity of SLCA procedures. Several studies addressing this issue are proposed. A final discussion summarises the findings and concludes that due to raised difficulties in SLCA about data availability and issues like the assessment of the non-implemented decision, SLCA may never gain the same popularity as ELCA.

Author's introductionPeople participate in social movements and protest events in part to pressure elites and institutions to alter the reward structure within society. When attempting to pressure their targets, activists are often confronted by the state. Whether the state is a target of protest or not, it oftentimes engages those seeking to promote extra‐institutional change. Within democratic societies, police are charged to maintain social order and protect the rights of those expressing dissent. Because of this dual charge and a variety of political, social, and economic factors, police have adopted strategies or repertoires of social control for policing protests. These repertoires can facilitate, channel, or prevent protest from occurring. A growing scholarly consensus suggests that since the 1990s, authorities in the United States and other democratic states have shifted how they react to protests. Until the 1970s, police often utilized what scholars call the 'escalated force' protest control repertoire. During this era, police saw protest as an illegitimate form of political expression. They placed a low priority on freedom of speech and assembly and often used excessive force and widespread arrests when dealing with protesters. In the 1970s to 1990s, police developed what is called 'negotiated management' to respond less confrontationally to protesters. This repertoire relied on a permitting process to facilitate police and protester efforts to negotiate the time, place, and manner of protest activities in ways satisfactory to both protesters and police. Police placed a premium on protecting freedom of speech and assembly and tolerated community inconveniences related to large rallies, marches, and the occasional staged arrest. They used violence and arrests as a last resort and only for significant violations of the law. However, following the disruptive 1999 Seattle WTO protests and the new cycle of global protests that followed, law enforcement agencies around the United States and in other western democracies began developing and adopting the 'strategic incapacitation' repertoire of protest control. With strategic incapacitation, police selectively protect civil liberties and selectively tolerate community disruption, and they seek to incapacitate protests through the use of less‐lethal weapons and preemptive arrests, extensive control of public space, reliance on 'new surveillance' technologies, and the elaborate control of information. In the United States, the development and adoption of this new style of policing accelerated after the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks as authorities embraced a risk management approach to identify and neutralize potentially disruptive events, such as large demonstrations.Author recommended books and edited volumes


Boykoff,
Jules. 2007. Beyond Bullets: The Suppression of Dissent in the United States. : .
Boykoff's book explores how the U.S. government, with assistance from federal, state and local law enforcement regularly disrupted protest movements in the 20th Century. It catalogues various forms of suppression employed by authorities from the use of direct violence, surveillance, and infiltration to the use of less direct means of mass media manipulation and demonization. Chapter 1 includes a good introduction to social movements and dissent/resistance, and the concepts of repression and suppression.


Davenport,
Christian,

Hank
Johnston and

Carol
Mueller (eds.) 2005. Repression and Mobilization. : .
This compilation of essays on repression and resistance provides a broad lens for understanding the various ways that state power is exercised against social movements. Davenport's introductory chapter helpfully evaluates the broader field of repression and recommends ways to advance it.



della Porta,
Donatella and

Herbert
Reiter (eds.) 1998. Policing Protest: The Control of Mass Demonstrations in Western Democracies. : .
This collection of essays consolidates some of the best thinking of the time on protest policing. Together, it provides a comparative historical, institutional and cultural analysis of protest policing across a variety of democratic nations. The contributors explore recent trends in the evolution of protest policing, such as whether protest policing has become 'softer' and the causes and consequences of such changes. The introductory chapter identifies important variables that define the style of protest policing employed and provides a useful model to explain the different styles. The second chapter by McPhail, Schweingruber and McCarthy introduces 'negotiated management' to the scholarly lexicon and has become one of the most influential writings on protest policing. This book should be at the top of your reading list on the topic.



della Porta,
Donatella,

Abby
Peterson and

Herbert
Reiter (eds.) 2006. The Policing of Transnational Protest. : .
This collected works is a follow up to della Porta and Reiter's earlier volume described above. It explores changes in protest policing in western democracies that parallel the rise of transnational protests in the late 1990s and early 2000s. Contributors analyzed policing efforts at protests coinciding with various international summits and other large protest events. Collectively, they investigated the question of whether a new era of policing is emerging to replace the softer styles of protest policing identified in the earlier volume. Individually, authors explored a variety of topics including the transnational character of the protests and of the police effort to control these protests, how adoption of a 'new penology' paradigm within the U.S. criminal justice influenced police adoption of strategic incapacitation, and the negotiation practices used by police and activists and problems that can occur during negotiations. A concluding chapter identifies a typology of coercive, persuasive and information strategies used by police across nations to control transnational protests.


Fernandez,
Luis A. 2008. Policing Dissent: Social Control and the Anti‐Globalization Movement. : .
Fernandez applies a Foucauldian view of social control to explain the police repression of alterglobalization protests in the early 2000s. The book provides an overview of the alterglobal movement and shows how police used legal means to limit protest and physical and psychological strategies to control public space.


Marx,
Gary T. 1988. Undercover: Police Surveillance in America. : .
Marx provides a late 1980s look into the then emerging forms of surveillance used by U.S. law enforcement. The first half of the book discusses the history of police surveillance and provides a classification schematic for how surveillance is used by police. The second half of the book identifies the intended and unintended consequences of police use of undercover surveillance. It is still widely cited and it is recognized by many as providing the blueprint for understanding and exploring 'new surveillance' (see concluding chapter).


Meyer,
David S. 2007. The Politics of Protest: Social Movements in America. : .
Meyer provides a concise introduction to social movements drawing extensively from the U.S. peace and antiwar movements to illustrate his points. Included are discussions on the major social theories and chapters on protester tactics.


Stark,
Rodney. 1972. Police Riots: Collective Violence and Law Enforcement. : .
This is one of the first scholarly books to recognize the tension police experience between maintaining order and protecting civil liberties. Previous works had tended to show protest policing uncritically and as a necessary response to unruly crowds. This work examines policing response to protest highlighting the escalated force model.


Starr,
Amory,

Luis A.
Fernandez and

Christian
Scholl. 2011. Shutting Down the Streets: Political Violence and Social Control in the Global Era. : .
This book maps efforts by the state to control social movements in a global age. Written by activist‐scholars, the research draws from participant observations made at 20 major alter‐global protest events held during major global summits over the last decade. The book explores the spatial dynamics, political economy and police violence associated with efforts to repress those opposing aspects of the global political‐economic order. A concluding chapter explores activist resistance to the social control of dissent employed by the authorities.


Tilly,
Charles. 1978. From Mobilization to Revolution. : .
This is a foundational book in social movement studies. In it Tilly introduces the core concepts of repression and contentious repertoires.


Waddington,
David P. 2007. Policing Public Disorder: Theory and Practice. : .
Waddington explores public order policing across a variety of events, from commodity riots and hooliganism to labor and global protests. The first two chapters provide a detailed exploration of theories and debates within the public order policing literature, including various approaches to policing and theories on the causes of public disorder. The remainder of the book adeptly uses the theories covered earlier and other scholarly works to analyze the policing of these differing types of events.Online materialsLaw enforcement related:

Department of Homeland Security (DHS)
http://www.dhs.gov/
Department of Justice (DOJ)
http://www.justice.gov/
Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)
http://www.justice.gov/
International Association of Chiefs of Police
http://www.theiacp.org/
Police Executive Research Forum (PERF)
http://www.policeforum.org/Civil liberties and independent media related:

American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU)
http://www.aclu.org
http://www.aclu.org/maps/spying‐first‐amendment‐activity‐state‐state
Independent Media Center (IMC)
http://www.indymedia.org/en/
National Lawyers Guild (NLG)
http://www.nlg.org/
Partnership for Civil Justice Fund
http://www.justiceonline.org/Academic related:

WTO History Project
http://depts.washington.edu/wtohist/
Dynamics of Collective Action Project
http://www.stanford.edu/group/collectiveaction/cgi‐bin/drupal/SyllabusTopics for lecture and discussionIntroduction, issues, and problems (2 weeks)Definitions, problems, and issues: What is the role of police in a democratic society? What is the tension or paradox between police as protectors of democracy and simultaneously potential threats to democracy? What are civil liberties? What is public order policing? How has US policing become militarized, and what are the consequences of this trend? What is 'broken windows' theory, and how has it shaped law enforcement practices in general?Readings:


Kraska,
Peter and

Victor E.
Kappeler. 1997. '.' Social Problems 44():1‐18.


Marx,
Gary T. 2001. '.' Policing, Security and Democracy: Theory and Practice, Vol. 2 edited by and . : . Available online at http://web.mit.edu/gtmarx/www/dempol.html (last accessed 1 July 2013).


Vitale,
Alex. 2005. '.' Policing and Society 15():99–124.


Waddington,
David P. 2007. Policing Public Disorder: Theory and Practice. : . (Chapter 1 and selections.)


Wilson,
James Q. and

George L.
Kelling. 1982. '' The Atlantic (March). Available online at http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1982/03/broken‐windows/304465/ (last accessed 1 July 2013).Social movements and protest (2 weeks)What is a social movement? What are contentious repertoires and protest tactics? What are the similarities and differences between direct action tactics and civil disobedience tactics? What are protest events? What methods do researchers use to study these events? What are the basic assertions of collective behavior, resource mobilization, political process/political opportunity, framing, and new social movement theories?Readings:


Benford,
Robert D. and

David A.
Snow. 2000. '.' Annual Review of Sociology 26:611–639.


Buechler,
Steven M. 2005. '.' The Sociological Quarterly 36():441–464.


Diani,
Mario. 1992. '.' The Sociological Review 40():1–25.


Edwards,
Bob and

John D.
McCarthy. 2004. '.' Pp. 116–152 in The Blackwell Companion to Social Movements edited by , and . : .


Koopmans,
Ruud and

Dieter
Rucht. 2002. '.' Pp. 231–259 in Methods of Social Movement Research, edited by and . : .


Meyer,
David S. 2003. '.' Social Movement Studies 2():17–35.


Taylor,
Verta and

Nella
Van Dyke. 2004. '.' Pp. 262–293 in The Blackwell Companion to Social Movements edited by , and . : .Policing of protest–the basics and additional concepts (2 weeks)What is repression, and what constitutes a theory of repression? When does policing of protest become repressive? What is COINTELPRO, and how has the FBI and other law enforcement agencies historically undermined or facilitated US social movements? How do contained and transgressive protesters differ? How does police knowledge influence police response to protest? What aspects of globalization impact police response to protests? What are the 'flash points' that lead to escalated police responses? What other factors shape police responses to protest?Readings:


Boykoff,
Jules. 2007. Beyond Bullets: The Suppression of Dissent in the United States. : . (Chapter 1 and selections.)


Cunningham,
David. 2003. There's Something Happening Here: The New Left, the Klan, and FBI Counterintelligence. : . (Chapter 1 and selections.)



della Porta,
Donatella and

Herbert
Reiter. 1998. '.' Pp. 1–32 in Policing Protest: The Control of Mass Demonstrations in Western Democracies edited by

Donatella
Della Porta and

Herbert
Reiter. : .


Della Porta,
Donatella. 1988. '.' Pp. 228–252 in Policing Protest: The Control of Mass Demonstrations in Western Democracies edited by and . :


Earl,
Jennifer and

Sarah A.
Soule. 2006. '.' Mobilization 11():145–164.


Ericson,
Richard V. and

Aaron
Doyle. 1999. '.' British Journal of Sociology 50():589–601.


Earl,
Jennifer. 2003. '.' Sociological Theory 21():44–68.


Earl,
Jennifer. 2011. '.' Annual Review of Sociology 37:261–284.


King,
Mike and

David
Waddington. 2005. '.' Policing and Society 15():255–82.


Marx,
Gary T. 1979. '.' Pp. 94–125 in Dynamics of Social Movements: Resource Mobilization, Social Control, and Tactics, edited by and . : .


Tilly,
Charles. 2000. '.' Mobilization 5(): 135–159.


Wahlström,
Mattias. 2007. '.' Mobilization 12():389–402.Policing of protest–negotiated management (1 week)What are the general aspects of the 'negotiated management' style of protest policing? How does it differ from 'escalated force'? What are the shortcomings of negotiated management?Readings:


Earl,
Jennifer,

Sarah A.
Soule and

John D.
McCarthy. 2003. '.' American Sociological Review 68():581–606.


Gorringe,
Hugo and

Michael
Rosie. 2008. '.' British Journal of Sociology, 59(): 187–205.


Gillham,
Patrick F. and

John A.
Noakes. 2007. '.' Mobilization 12():341–357.


McCarthy,
John D. and

Clark
McPhail. 1998. '.' Pp. 83–110 in The Movement Society: Contentious Politics for a New Century, edited by and . : .


McPhail,
Clark,

David
Schweingruber and

John D.
McCarthy 1998. '.' Pp. 49–69 in Policing Protest: The Control of mass Demonstrations in Western Democracies, edited by and . : .Policing of protest–command and control, Miami model, and strategic incapacitation (2 weeks)How do the 'command and control' and 'Miami model' styles of policing differ? What are the basic characteristics of 'strategic incapacitation'? How does strategic incapacitation compare to command and control and the Miami model?Readings:


Noakes,
John and

Patrick F.
Gillham. '.' Pp. 97–115 in Policing Political Protest After Seattle, edited by , and . : .


Noakes,
John,

Brian
Klocke and

Patrick F.
Gillham. '., September 29‐30, 2001.' Policing and Society 15(): 235–254.


Vitale,
Alex S. 2005. '.' Policing and Society 15():283–304.


Vitale,
Alex S. 2007. '.' Mobilization 12()403–15.Control of space, surveillance, and info control (1‐2 weeks)What are repertoires of protest control? What are public spaces of dissent, and how do police respond to dissent in these spaces? What are the different zones of spatial control, and how do they differ? What is 'new surveillance', and how is it employed by police to control protest? What are fusion centers, and how do they operate to both consolidate and disseminate information? In what ways do police control information about production and dissemination of information about protesters and about police themselves?Readings:


Gillham,
Patrick F. 2011. '.' Sociology Compass 5():636–652.


Gillham,
Partrick F.,

Bob
Edwards and

John A.
Noakes. 2013. '.' Policing and Society 23():82–103.


Marx,
Gary T. 2004. '.' Knowledge, Technology, and Policy 17():18–37.


Newkirk,
Anthony B. 2010. '.' Surveillance and Society 8():43–60.


Roberts,
John Michael. 2008. '.' Sociology Compass 2(): 654–674.Dynamics of policing and protesting (1 week)How do interactions between police and protesters impact protest policing efforts? What ironies emerge from police and protester interactions?Readings:



della Porta,
Donatella and

Sidney
Tarrow. 2012. '.' Comparative Political Studies 45():119–152.


Gillham,
Patrick F. and

Gary T.
Marx. '.' Social Justice 27():212–236.


McPhail,
Clark and

John D.
McCarthy. 2005. '.' Pp. 3–32 in Repression and Mobilization edited by , , and . : .Intended and unintended consequences of protest policing (1‐2 weeks)What are the intended and unintended consequences of protest policing? How does protest policing impact activists, social movements, and democracy? What characteristics of the new styles of protest policing are spilling over into policing of other social phenomena?Readings:


Boyle,
Phillip and

Kevin
Haggerty. 2009. '.' International Political Sociology 3:257–274.


Cunningham,
David and

John
Noakes. 2008. '.' Pp. 175–197 in Surveillance and Governance: Crime Control and Beyond (Sociology of Crime Law and Deviance, Volume 10), edited by and

Jeffrey T.
Ulmer. : .


Earl,
Jennifer and

Sarah A.
Soule. 2010. '.' Pp. 75–113 in Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change (Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change, Volume 30), edited by in . : .


Starr,
Amory,

Luis
Fernandez,

Randall
Amster,

Lesley
Wood and

Manuel J.
Caro. 2008. '.' Qualitative Sociology 31:251–270.


Wood,
Lesley J. 2007. '.' Mobilization 12():377–388.Focus questions

What challenges do researchers interested in studying social movements and the policing of protest face and why?
What methodologies do researchers use to study the policing of protest events? What types of data are generated by these methodologies? What are the strengths and limitations of each methodology and the data collected using each methodology?
What is the police‐democracy paradox? How are police both defenders of democracy and simultaneously a potential threat to democracy?
What is protest policing, and how has it changed over the years? What are the central dimensions on which researchers study the different styles or repertoires of protest policing?
What dynamics and processes drive changes in the development of protest policing repertoires, and what factors influence the choice of repertoires employed by police when controlling dissent?
What are the consequences of protest policing on democracy, activists, social movements, and the institution of law enforcement?
To what extent are changes occurring in the policing of different types of social phenomena like the Olympics, World Cup, and presidential inaugurations? What are the similarities or differences to changes occurring in protest policing?

After decades of high trade restrictions, fiscal distortions, and currency overvaluation, Cameroon implemented important commercial and fiscal policy reforms in 1994. Almost simultaneously, a major devaluation cut the international price of Cameroon's currency in half. This article examines the effects of those reforms on the incentive structure faced by manufacturing firms. Did the reforms create a coherent new set of signals? Did they reduce dispersion in tax burdens? Was the net effect to stimulate the production of tradable goods? The results of applying a cost function decomposition to detailed firm-level panel data suggest that the reforms created clear new signals for manufacturers, as effective protection rates fell by 80 to 120 percentage points. In contrast, neither the tax reforms nor the devaluation had a major systematic effect on profit margins. The devaluation did shift relative prices dramatically in favor of exportable goods, causing exporters to grow relatively rapidly.

This paper argues that global imbalances in current account positions are a natural consequence of globalization of financial markets and of demographic trends, particularly in Europe and in East Asia. Those societies are aging rapidly, with declining numbers of young adults. On both counts savings should be high and investment weak, resulting in excess saving. With globalization of capital markets, this excess saving will naturally seek secure investment opportunities abroad. The U.S. economy, where demographic trends are markedly different (due in part to immigration of young adults), offers a good combination of yield, liquidity, and security for this excess savings, which in time will be liquidated to finance consumption in old age. Thus the large 'imbalance' does not obviously reflect disequilibria in the world economy, but rather a current phase of intertemporal trade.

Although Mozambique has considerable agricultural potential, rural poverty remains extremely high. This paper examines the extent to which global and domestic price distortions affect agricultural production and national poverty. The author develops a computable general equilibrium (CGE) and micro-simulation model of Mozambique that is linked to the results of a global model. This framework is used to examine the effects of eliminating global and national price distortions. Model results indicate that agriculture is adversely affected by current trade distortions due to policies in the rest of the world. While a removal of all merchandise trade distortions will reduce import prices, it will also raise agricultural production and reduce poverty. By contrast, removing only agricultural price distortions abroad will have little effect on Mozambique's agricultural sector. Model results indicate that Mozambique's own distortions are also biased against agriculture, with producers of processed agricultural products enjoying high protection levels. Removing these distortions causes a significant expansion of agricultural Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and a reduction in both poverty and inequality. The findings therefore suggest that removing own-country and rest-of-world distortions will have positive implications for agriculture and for the overall economy in Mozambique, and in particular it will reduce its poverty and inequality.

The purpose of this handbook is to provide policy makers with a framework to assess a tax system in its entirety, measure its various parameters and how it is administered, and defines best practices for tax policy and administration that will yield a tax system that is simple and predictable and does not create an undue burden on private enterprise. This handbook is primarily designed for policy makers and tax practitioners. The goal is to analyze the impact of income tax, the value added tax (VAT), and other local taxes that are imposed on business. This handbook does not analyze the effects of trade and labor taxes such as social security. The administration of the customs duty is unique and has been addressed extensively in the literature on customs modernization. Labor taxes primarily imposed on salaried individuals are not covered by this handbook, even though their incidence affects business. VAT has been included even though it is a tax on consumption because the administrative burden to comply with it is primarily on business.

The geo-economy presents Lebanon with challenges associated with being a nexus for regional fault lines and risks from its dependence on capital inflows. Despite markedly improved security conditions since the start of 2015, anxiety over regional turmoil and potential spillover effectspersist. All the while, Lebanon continues to be, by far, the largest host of Syrian refugees (in proportion to the population). In addition, the economy's dependence on its diaspora to finance internal and external imbalances exposes Lebanon to economic and political conditions beyond its influence. Despite these challenges and risks, the political process remains impaired with the vacant presidency completing its second year with uncertain prospects of a near-term resolution. On the other hand, a short-term solution has been found to the garbage crisis that has left piles of trash uncollected on the streets across the country since summer 2015. The Lebanon Economic Monitor provides an update on key economic developments and policies over the past six months. It also presents findings from recent World Bank work on Lebanon. It places them in a longer-term and global context, and assesses the implications of these developments and other changes in policy on the outlook for Lebanon. Its coverage ranges from the macro-economy to financial markets to indicators of human welfare and development.

Existing work on China's economic influence in Africa refers to Africa in broad terms, thereby generalizing the results to an extent that is unhelpful for policy-makers in a specific country. Moreover, the emphasis is on oil exporters. This paper remedies this by focusing on a single, oil-importing country: Kenya. The paper examines China's economic presence in Kenya and some of the popular myths surrounding Chinese economic activity. The first myth is that Chinese companies do not employ local workers. In fact, 78 percent of full-time and 95 percent of part-time employees in Chinese companies are locals. Second, although China represents a large potential market for local exporters, the study finds that China has a better chance of expanding its exports to Kenya than Kenya does to China based on existing specializations. This may change with recent oil discoveries in Kenya, increasing the space for Kenyan exports to China, as well as from China's shift to a consumption-driven economy which will increase demand for services, a growing strength of Kenya's economy (World Bank Country Economic Memorandum 2016). The paper emphasizes that Kenyan policy makers should be less concerned about bilateral trade imbalances and worry about Kenya's overall trade balance. However, the Standard Gauge Railway and Thika superhighway experiences suggest that Chinese firms offer relatively few technology transfer or supplier opportunities for local firms and academia. Third, the popular focus of Chinese competition is on the impact on well-organized Kenyan producers and not on consumers, thereby underestimating the benefits Kenyan consumer derive from the availability of more affordable Chinese goods. The paper concludes with policy directions for improving export competitiveness and transparency in infrastructure projects, and local content.

The year's report projects an increase in the growth rate of global output, with notable contributions from Sub-Saharan Africa, the developing countries of Europe and Central Asian, and East Asian countries. This report places special emphasis on the role of the "Big 5" developing and transition economies – China, India, Indonesia, Brazil, and Russia – in the future of the global economy. In addition to assessing the current state of the world economy, this report discusses the expansion of global production and the costs of making the transition to a more open economy

Relevance of research. Ukraine, according to its Constitution, is a social state, whose activities are aimed at creating conditions that ensure a dignified life and free human development. The evolution of such state occurs through the implementation of a social function, the meaning of which is to provide guarantees of a social nature, social protection, social attending, social partnership and the like. Formulation of the problem. With the implementation of socio-economic reforms in Ukraine in the early 90s, the system of providing social services to the population has undergone major changes. In Soviet times, social services were provided in the social security system in stationary institutions: nursing homes, orphanages, boarding schools (hospitals) for neuropsychiatric patients, etc. In terms of their goals and content, they were aimed at helping those categories of the population who could not independently serve themselves through loneliness, orphanhood, severe disability or illness. The transition to a market economic system, a sharp increase in the number of citizens in need of social protection in the early 90s, forced the state and the institution of local self-government, which appeared during the reforms, to rethink the role of social services in human life and the organization of their provision. Networks of state and municipal institutions began to be created, designed to provide specialized social assistance, which made it possible to form a new system of social attending for the population. The rapid growth of the population's needs for social services, their impact on the dynamics of the development of society and the nature of social relations, forced to take care of the financial sources for the provision of such services. However, this issue has not yet been finally resolved. The market economy requires the creation of a multi-channel system for financing of social protection of the population. Analysis of recent research and publications. Modern research on social attending are often carried out in the context of social policy, social work, or social assistance. Among foreign scientists studying social issues are T. E. Demidova, G. Inglehart, E. E. Machulskaya, V. Pareto, V. D. Roick, R. Titmus, E. I. Kholostova, S. Eisebi, L. Erhard, G. Esping-Andersen and many others. Among the latest publications of domestic authors, scientific articles should be named: S. A. Gorbunova-Ruban and I. M. Vitkovskaya, who analyze the activities of public organizations as subjects of the provision of social services in the city of Kharkov. К. Dubich research is dedicated to the issues of state management of social services; I. V. Meschan considers social services as a component of the system of social protection of the population from the standpoint of the sociological and managerial aspect and covers in detail the theoretical approaches to the concepts of "service" and "social service"; Popok A. and Greby G. make a structural and functional analysis of the system of social services in Ukraine; Rotar V. explores modern approaches to understanding the content of the category "social services"; Savchuk L. analyzes the reforming of the system of social services in the context of decentralization and some others. The financial aspects of social services are highlighted along with other issues of financial provision of social protection of the population. Unexplored parts of the general problem. Despite the number of works on social protection and social attending, it should be noted that the evolution of social protection, economic reforms in the country encourage further study of theoretical foundations and search for financial sources of social services, taking into account the difficult financial situation of the economy and implementation strategic course of Ukraine for European integration. Many questions of theoretical and methodological nature remain open. Problem statement, research objectives. The purpose of the article is to highlight the unsolved problems of social attending in Ukraine of a theoretical, methodological and financial nature, as well as to present the author's vision of their solution. To achieve the goal, the article sets and solves the following tasks: to analyze the theoretical and methodological foundations of social attending (services) for the population as one of the important elements of the social security system; to identify the features of the domestic model of financial provision of social attending; to determine the prospects for social attending in Ukraine. Method and methodology of the study. During the study, historical, analytical-empirical, inductive-deductive, comparative research methods were used to establish the theoretical and methodological foundations of social services in Ukraine, as well as to clarify some issues of financial support of the existing model of the system of social services in Ukraine. The method of expert assessments, the causal (cause-and-effect) method of scientific research were used for understanding of the state of the modern system of social services in Ukraine and to determine the directions for further research in this area. The results of study. The paper examines the theoretical, methodological and financial aspects of social attending, shows its structural and logical scheme, developed by the authors. It has been established that in economic theory and in practice concerning social attending there is confusion in basic concepts and terms. It is, first, because in Ukraine there is still no single normative legal act that would clearly define all controversial issues and regulate legal relations between the state and citizens on the issues of receiving various types of social assistance. It is argued that the concept of "social attending" should not be replaced by the concept of "provision of social services". It means the performance of work, functions related to the satisfaction of someone's requests or needs, so in its content is a broader concept, as it involves the creation of conditions for the development of social capital. Social attending is an independent element of the system of social protection of the population; it includes the provision of social services. The structural and logical scheme of social services is presented. It is shown that the system of social services in Ukraine is constantly in the process of modernization in accordance with the new needs of citizens and modern world approaches to social attending. Several approaches of scientists to social attending are analyzed. It is argued that in recent years, due to the war in the East of the country and the need to fight coronavirus infection during the 2020-2021 pandemic. There was a reorientation of spending on social protection and social security in favor of social attending, namely, the provision of social services to the population, as well as an increase in the remuneration of workers involved in this process. It was found that local budgets and the budgets of the united territorial communities became a significant factor in financial support in the context of the decentralization reform. The article presents the parameters of the provision of social services by united territorial communities (UTC). It is forms a general idea of the resource potential of UTC within certain regions and how actively they are involved in the process of social services to their residents. It is found out why the pilot project "Development of social services", intended for the development of social services of the UTC, failed in 2020. The assessments of domestic experts in the field of social attending were studied, which made it possible to form an idea of the advantages and disadvantages of the existing system of social services. Possible ways of its improvement are outlined. The creation of a multichannel financing system is named as a feature of financial support for social protection of the population, including social services. The authors note that budget funding should be allocated on a competitive basis, and a contract should be concluded with the winner for the provision of services at the expense of the budget. The mission of the state in this matter is to control the quality of social services, the timeliness and targeting of their provision, the targeted and rational use of funds. The provision of social services should be carried out on a competitive basis. The field of results application. The research results can be used in theory and practice in the field of social services. The indicated shortcomings of the existing system for the provision of social services and their analysis will be a useful source of information for developing ways to improve the domestic model of financial support for the provision of social services to the population of Ukraine. Conclusions. The study of the theoretical, methodological and financial aspects of social attending in Ukraine gives grounds to draw the following conclusions. Despite the adoption of a number of regulatory documents defining the concept of "social services", there is confusion in economic theory and in practice on the use of basic concepts and terms. It is because Ukraine still does not have a single regulatory legal act that would clearly define all these points and regulate the legal relationship between the state and citizens regarding the receipt of various types of social assistance. The concept of "social services" should not be replaced by the concept of "provision of social services". Social attending means the performance of work, functions related to the satisfaction of someone's needs or needs. Therefore, in its content, it is a broader concept, since it implies the creation of conditions for the development of social capital, and not only the provision of social services to vulnerable categories of the population or citizens who find themselves in a difficult life situation. This term should designate one of the elements of the social protection system of the population, which is engaged in the provision of social services. The system of social services in Ukraine is constantly in the process of renewal and modernization in accordance with the new needs of citizens and modern world approaches to social services. The adoption of the new edition of the Law "On social services" and the classifier of social services is an important step towards reforming the system of social services. A feature of the financial provision of social attending in a market economy is the creation of a multichannel financing system. It means that various subjects of the social services market should be involved in the provision of services, and the state should exercise control over their quality, targeted and rational use of funds, timeliness and targeting of their provision. The mission of the state in this matter is to help service providers financially on a competitive basis. The existing system for the provision of social services has a number of shortcomings. It still remains distant from the real needs of a specific person who needs social protection, so it cannot yet be considered effective. Prospects for further research should be conducted in the direction of deepening theoretical research in the following areas: A clearer definition of the economic and legal content of categories and concepts in the in the social security system; Development of the Social Code of Ukraine; Improvement of the domestic model of financial support for the in the social security system, including social attending for the population, for the delineation of financial powers between providers of social services, as well as the development of a methodology for assessing the financial efficiency of the provision of social services.

La presente Tesis Doctoral tiene como finalidad realizar un estudio exploratorio sobre la innovación tecnológica en los servicios de las bibliotecas públicas municipales de Lima (Perú). Asimismo, realizar un diagnóstico y diseñar líneas estratégicas para su desarrollo. Las bibliotecas municipales de Lima, se ubican en la capital del Perú. Estas instituciones tienen un escaso apoyo, lo que ocasiona un desaprovechamiento de su potencial en el acceso al conocimiento, igualmente, tienen un insuficiente desarrollo en el ámbito tecnológico y de gestión, por consiguiente, carece de innovación tecnológica en sus servicios. Por tanto, para alcanzar los objetivos trazados y describir la situación, la investigación está constituida en cinco partes esenciales. En primer lugar, se presenta el estado de cuestión, donde se muestran conceptos y características primordiales que se utiliza para el análisis del objeto de estudio, que son: sociedad del conocimiento, innovación tecnológica, innovación bibliotecaria y el futuro de la biblioteca pública. Dentro de la innovación bibliotecaria, se contemplan tipos de innovaciones, elementos de innovación, áreas de innovación; así también, se muestra las tendencias en el ámbito bibliotecario. En relación con el futuro de la biblioteca pública, se indica los nuevos escenarios y el entorno de cambio al que se enfrenta. En segundo lugar, se describe las áreas de innovación tecnológica en bibliotecas públicas con sus respectivas herramientas, siendo para esta investigación siete categorías, donde se aprecia tanto el concepto, antecedentes, las funciones, sus aplicaciones y prácticas realizadas por bibliotecas públicas alrededor del mundo, estas son las siguientes: Los servicios basados en la Web Social (2.0) y sus herramientas blogs, microbloggings, wikis, sindicación de contenidos – RSS, plataformas de documentos, fotografías y videos, redes sociales, catálogo social, podcasting, geoaplicaciones, mashup, chat, entre otras aplicaciones; los servicios basados en el entorno móvil y sus herramientas, aplicaciones móviles, códigos QR, realidad aumentada, mensajería instantánea móvil, balizas (en inglés, beacons) y tecnología de comunicación de campo cercano (en sus siglas en inglés, NFC); sedes web de bibliotecas, uso y acceso a Internet, servicio de autopréstamo y circulación documental, servicios basados en plataformas para gestión de contenidos y; los servicios basados en nuevas tecnologías y sus herramientas realidad virtual, inteligencia artificial, impresoras tridimensionales, robots, drones y cartelería virtual. En tercer lugar, se describe el entorno de las bibliotecas públicas municipales de Lima, a partir, de las cifras de sociedad del conocimiento del Perú y aspectos, como el proceso histórico, políticas públicas, acceso a las TIC, características del usuario de Internet, la lectura digital y uso de redes sociales. Seguidamente, se expone aspectos legales e históricos de la biblioteca pública municipal en el Perú y características generales de la ciudad de Lima. Para luego, realizar un análisis cuantitativo que aborda datos de cobertura, 21 colección, servicios, personal, infraestructura, equipos tecnológicos y usuarios con datos proporcionados por el Registro nacional de Municipalidades (RENAMU) (2013-2018). Así también, se realiza una medición del desempeño de las bibliotecas públicas municipales de Lima, a través de los "Estándares para bibliotecas públicas municipales" diseñado por la "Biblioteca Nacional del Perú" y un análisis comparativo entre las bibliotecas de Lima y Madrid basado en los indicadores de rendimiento de las "Comunidades Autónomas" y el "Ministerio de Cultura y Deporte" (MECD). En cuarto lugar, se presenta los resultados del estudio sobre innovación tecnológica en Bibliotecas Públicas Municipales de Lima aplicando un cuestionario para la recolección de datos elaborado para este estudio, donde se demuestra el bajo nivel de uso de tecnologías, lo cual ocasiona un insuficiente desarrollo de innovación en las bibliotecas entre 2017-2018. En esta parte, se examina los escasos servicios innovadores que tienen las bibliotecas de la ciudad en las siete categorías propuestas, asimismo, se manifiesta las percepciones de los encargados de estas unidades de información sobre el tema de innovación, como la labor de la biblioteca en el contexto actual y el aprovechamiento de las tecnologías. Además, se expone una serie de buenas prácticas realizadas por las bibliotecas, y se demuestra que a pesar de las limitaciones se pueden realizar diversas actividades para sus comunidades. Por último, en quinto lugar, se presenta un diagnóstico de las bibliotecas públicas municipales de Lima y las líneas estratégicas para iniciar la renovación de estas instituciones. Dentro del diagnóstico prevalecen tres asuntos que son: la escasa visibilidad de las bibliotecas dentro de los gobiernos locales, asimismo, la carencia de tecnologías en los servicios y la escasez de profesionales de la Información dirigiendo estos centros. Por tanto, se muestra una serie de temas fundamentales que son considerados en este diagnóstico, que son: La posición de las bibliotecas de Lima en el Siglo XXI, personal especializado ausente, la tecnología fuera del alcance de las bibliotecas, los usuarios jóvenes, la experiencia de la meta 27 y 06 en la promoción de la lectura, la ausencia de la red de bibliotecas en la ciudad, recursos limitados, bibliotecas escasamente inclusivas, necesidad de un marco legal adecuado, la inclusión de las bibliotecas en la agenda nacional y la cultura de la participación en las bibliotecas. De este diagnóstico, se diseñaron una propuesta de cinco líneas estratégicas con sus respectivos objetivos, acciones e indicadores que son las siguientes: Red de bibliotecas públicas municipales de Lima, personal capacitado e innovador, presencia digital de la biblioteca, diversificación de servicios y espacios, y biblioteca centrado en la comunidad. ; The aim of this doctoral thesis is to realize an exploratory study on the technological innovation of the services in Lima's (Peru) public municipal libraries. Also, purpose a diagnostic is undertaken and strategic lines for its development are designed. The municipal libraries of Lima, are located in the capital of Peru. These institutions have little support, which leads to a waste of their potential with regards to access to knowledge. Also, their development in the technological and administrative field is insufficient, which is the reason for a lack of technological innovation regarding their services. Therefore, to achieve the objectives set and to describe the situation, the investigation consists of five essential parts. In the first place, the state of the art is presented, referencing fundamental concepts that are used for the analysis of the object of study. They encompass: knowledge society, technological innovation, library innovation and the future of the public library. Within library innovation, types of innovations, elements of innovation, and areas of innovation are reflected upon; likewise, current trends in the field of library studies are pointed out. With respect to the future of the public library, new scenarios and the changing environment it faces are indicated. Secondly, areas of technological innovation in public libraries with their respective tools are described, for this research referencing seven categories in which the concept, background, functions, applications and practices carried out by public libraries around the world are recognized. These are the following: the specific services on the Social Web (2.0) and its tools blogs, microblogging, wikis, content syndication – RSS, document platforms, photographs and videos, social networks, social catalogue, podcasting, Geoapplications, mashup, chat, among other applications; the services specified in the mobile environment and its tools, mobile applications, QR codes, augmented reality, mobile instant messaging, beacons and near-field communication technology (NFC); library web sites, use and access to the Internet, automatic loan service and document circulation, controlled services on platforms for content management and; the services identified in new technologies and their tools virtual reality, artificial intelligence, three-dimensional printers, robots, drones and virtual signage. Thirdly, the environment of the Lima public municipal libraries is described, based on Peru's knowledge society indicators and aspects such as the historical process, public policies, access to ICTs, characteristics of the Internet user, digital reading and use of social networks. Next, legal and historical aspects of the municipal public library in Peru and general characteristics of the city of Lima are presented. Then, a quantitative analysis is performed that addresses coverage, collection, services, personnel, infrastructure, technological equipment and user data, relying on data provided by the Registro Nacional 23 de Municipalidades (RENAMU) (2013-2018). Likewise, a measurement of the performance of the municipal public libraries of Lima is carried out, through the "Estándares para bibliotecas públicas municipales" designed by the "Biblioteca Nacional del Perú" as well as a comparative analysis between the libraries of Lima and Madrid based on the performance indicators of the "Comunidades Autónomas" and the "Ministerio de Cultura y Deporte" (MECD). Fourth, the results of the study on technological innovation in Lima's Municipal Public Libraries are presented applying a questionnaire for data collection prepared for this study, which demonstrates the low level of use of technologies, which causes an insufficient development of innovation in libraries between 2017 and 2018. In this part, we examine the few innovative services that the city's libraries exhibit in the seven proposed categories, as well as the perceptions of those persons responsible for these information units on the topic of innovation, such as the work of the library in the current context and the use of technologies. In addition, a series of good practices carried out by libraries is shown, and it is demonstrated that despite the limitations, various activities can be carried out for their communities. Finally, in the fifth place, a diagnosis of the municipal public libraries of Lima and the strategic lines to initiate the renovation of these institutions is presented. Within the diagnosis, three issues prevail: the limited visibility of libraries within local governments, the lack of technology in services and the shortage of information professionals directing these centres. Therefore, a series of fundamental issues can be observed that are specific for this diagnosis, namely: The position of the libraries of Lima in the 21st century, lack of specialized personnel, technology outside the reach of libraries, young users, the experience of goal 27 and 06 in the promotion of reading, the absence of a library network in the city, limited resources, poor performance in terms of inclusiveness, the need for an adequate legal framework, the inclusion of libraries in the national agenda and the culture of participation in libraries. From this diagnosis, a proposal of five strategic lines was designed with the following strategic objectives, actions and indicators: Network of public libraries in Lima, trained and innovative personnel, digital presence of the library, diversification of services and spaces, and community-centered library. ; Programa de Doctorado en Documentación: Archivos y Bibliotecas en el Entorno Digital por la Universidad Carlos III de Madrid ; Presidente: José Antonio Moreiro González.- Secretario: Juan Carlos Marcos Recio.- Vocal: Martín Alonso Estrada Cuzcano

Nell'ordinamento italiano, il tema della disciplina delle procedure e dei contenuti della contrattazione collettiva rappresenta una delle maggiori questioni giuslavoristiche, che non ha ancora trovato una stabile soluzione. Ad essa, inoltre, si lega strettamente il tema della regolamentazione, a fini negoziali, dei soggetti dell'autonomia collettiva. La finalità della presente trattazione è quella di esaminare, dapprima, lo sviluppo storico del dibattito nell'ordinamento italiano, per concentrare, in seguito, l'attenzione sulle tematiche più recenti che, anche alla luce della crisi dell'unità sindacale e della frammentazione dei tessuti produttivi generata dalla globalizzazione, evidenziano una richiesta di regolamentazione obiettiva dell'attività negoziale. In merito a tali questioni verrà infine esaminato, in una logica comparata, l'ordinamento francese che, a differenza di quello italiano, ha disciplinato per legge i presupposti, le procedure e i requisiti di accesso alla negoziazione collettiva sin dalla prima metà del XX Secolo. In particolare, il primo capitolo della tesi prende in esame, dapprima, la questione che si pone alla base dell'intero dibattito nazionale sulle modalità di regolamentazione della contrattazione collettiva: la mancata attuazione da parte del legislatore della seconda parte dell'art. 39 Cost. e la conseguente illegittimità costituzionale di quelle norme volte a generalizzare l'efficacia degli accordi collettivi aggirando quanto previsto dalla Carta fondamentale. L'analisi prosegue con la disamina dell'evoluzione storica della contrattazione anomica nel nostro ordinamento: a partire dalla negoziazione accentrata a livello nazionale nei primi anni Cinquanta, dalle istanze di decentramento e dall'effimera introduzione della contrattazione articolata con il Protocollo Intersind-Asap del 1962, fino alla bipolarità totale tra livello confederale e aziendale manifestatasi tra la fine degli anni Sessanta e la metà degli anni Settanta del Novecento, per giungere alla negoziazione collettiva della crisi, con gli accordi triangolari e la concertazione che, tra alterni risultati, hanno prodotto i loro effetti fino alla metà degli anni Duemila. In tale contesto, particolare attenzione è dedicata al sistema degli accordi del luglio-dicembre 1993 che, per quasi vent'anni, hanno costituito il fulcro di una disciplina delle relazioni industriali organizzata su due livelli, e che hanno tentato, nel contempo, con l'introduzione delle RSU, di contrastare la crisi di rappresentatività delle organizzazioni sindacali, evidenziata nella sua gravità, pochi mesi dopo, dal referendum del 1995 sull'art. 19 della l. 300/1970. La parte finale del primo capitolo si pone in ideale continuazione con l'inizio del secondo. Al centro dell'esame vi sono le questioni dei nostri giorni che hanno indotto le parti sociali, significativamente del settore industriale – a seguito della crisi del sistema del 1993, che ha avuto il proprio epicentro nella vertenza Fiat del 2009-2011, della successiva e connessa sentenza manipolativa della Corte Costituzionale del 2013 in riferimento, ancora una volta, all'art. 19 St. lav., e all'introduzione da parte del legislatore del discusso art. 8 del d.l. 138/2011 – a ritenere maturi i tempi per una nuova regolamentazione pattizia del sistema. Al riguardo, vengono analizzati nel dettaglio i tre accordi interconfederali del 28 giugno 2011, 31 maggio 2013 e 10 gennaio 2014, l'ulteriore e recentissima intesa del 28 febbraio-9 marzo 2018 e il dibattito, in una prospettiva de iure condendo, sull'opportunità di introduzione di una legge sindacale, capace, eventualmente, di dare completa attuazione all'art. 39 Cost. Il terzo capitolo, infine, si pone in parallelo con i primi due, dal punto di vista dell'ordinamento francese. Pertanto viene inizialmente presa in considerazione l'evoluzione normativa di tale contesto giuridico, a partire dalla loi del 1919 sulla contrattazione collettiva di diritto comune e dalla leggi del 1936 e 1950 sull'estensione erga omnes in via amministrativa dei contratti collettivi sottoscritti dalle organizzazioni sindacali rappresentative, fino al nuovo modello di "cittadinanza nell'impresa" proposto dalla leggi Auroux del 1982 e alla frammentazione del sistema tra gli anni Ottanta e Duemila, punteggiata di provvedimenti privi di carattere sistematico e, in alcuni casi, contraddittori. Ci si sofferma, infine, sulle riforme che, in tempi recenti, hanno svolto il ruolo di pietre angolari nella ridefinizione degli assetti dell'ordinamento francese: l'introduzione di criteri obiettivi per la selezione dei sindacati rappresentativi nel 2008, l'estensione di tale modello alle organizzazioni datoriali nel triennio 2014-2016 e, sul versante dell'assetto contrattuale, le discusse riforme introdotte con la loi Travail dell'8 agosto 2016 e dalle ordonnances promosse dal neo-presidente Macron nell'autunno del 2017, nella direzione di una forte valorizzazione del secondo livello negoziale, a discapito delle conventions de branche. Il punto d'arrivo del percorso tracciato supra porterà a cercare di dare una risposta, da un lato, all'interrogativo inerente all'opportunità di intervenire, nell'ordinamento italiano, con una legge sindacale, per fornire certezza, chiarezza e stabilità al sistema contrattuale e, in seconda istanza, anche sulla base della riflessione comparata, ad una valutazione su quali potrebbero essere gli istituti più efficienti da adottare, nei termini anzidetti, per assicurare un'estensione generalizzata della contrattazione collettiva, idonea a permettere un armonico sviluppo anche degli accordi di secondo livello. ; In the Italian legal framework, the question concerning the regulation of procedures and contents of collective bargaining represents one of the major labour law issues, which has not found a satisfying solution yet. The abovementioned topic is, in addition, strictly connected to the selection of criteria aimed to determine the actors of the bargaining process. The purpose of the present dissertation is then to examine, first of all, the historical development of the debate on the aforementioned issues in the Italian context, to focus attention, afterwards, on the most recent instances to enact a clearer regulation of the bargaining process, in reason of the crisis of trade unions' cohesion and of the fragmentation of production originated by globalisation. Finally, the last part of the dissertation will be centred on a comparative analysis with the French regulative context that, in opposition to the Italian one, disciplined by law prerequisites and procedures to accede to collective bargaining process already at the beginning of XX Century. In particular, the first chapter starts from the matter of contention at the base of the whole national discussion referred to the regulative process of arrangements executed between employers' and workers' organizations: the incapability of the Italian legislator to enact a law concerning the collective bargaining proceeding respecting, in the meantime, the criteria set forth by Article 39 of the Constitution, that has been at the base of the consequential declaration of illegitimacy of all the legislative attempts to generalize the efficacy of the considered agreements, circumventing the provision of the Fundamental Chart. The analysis continues focusing on the evolution of collective agreements regulated by civil law in the national legal framework: highly centred during the Fifties, then organized on two ordered levels in the brief period of "contrattazione articolata" – introduced initially in public industries with the Protocol Intersind-Asap of 1962 and soon extended to the private field – until the total independence between company and sectorial bargaining level in the years between the end of the Sixties and the beginning of the Seventies, and to the particular characteristics assumed by the said agreements during the oil crisis and in the following years, when the practice of the three-side covenants executed between main trade unions, employers' organizations and the government, with different outcomes, perdured until the middle of 2000's. In this context, particular attention is devoted to the collective agreements executed at national level in July-December 1993 that, during the following twenty years, have been considered the fulcrum of the two-level collective bargaining system, and which attempted, in the meantime, with the introduction of Trade unions' Unitary Representative bodies (in Italian, Rappresentanze Sindacali Unitarie, RSU) to contrast the deep crisis of representativeness of workers' organizations, whose gravitas has been highlighted, several months after, by the national referendum held in 1995 on Article 19 of law no. 300 of 1970. The last section of the first chapter founds an ideal continuation in the second one. In this field, the main topic become the most recent issues concerning the Italian bargaining system, and significantly the one which moved social actors of the industrial sector – on the base of the crisis of the system of 1993, showed by the Fiat dispute of 2009-2011, followed by the connected judgment of Constitutional Court that in 2013 modified another time the interpretation of Article 19 of law no. 300 of 1970, expanding the criteria to admit workers' organization to benefits provided by the law, and by the enactment of Article 8 of law-decree no. 138 of 2011 – to affirm that is come the time to set new rules to try to govern the bargaining system. On this point, the dissertation focuses attention on the three national collective agreements held on 28 June 2011, 31 May 2013 and 10 January 2014 and on the further arrangement of 28 February-9 March 2018 and on the respective debate centred, in a perspective of reform, on the opportunity to introduce a bill able to completely fulfil the requirements of Article 39 of the Italian Constitution. The third chapter, finally, follows the scheme of the precedent ones, from the point of view of the French legal framework. Therefore, firstly is described the evolution of the said juridical context, from the loi of 1919 concerning collective agreements regulated by civil law and the regulations of 1936 and of 1950 on the extension erga omnes, through an administrative decree, of collective agreements signed by representative trade unions, until the new model of "citizenship in the company" promoted by the laws Auroux enacted in 1982 and to the fragmentation of the labour law system occurred between the 80s and 2000s, characterised by measures without a systematic approach and, sometimes, in contrast between each other. The attention is focused, then, on the reforms that, recently, heavily redefined the structure of the French labour law framework consisting in the introduction, in 2008, of objective criteria to select representative trade unions, in the extension of this model to employers' organizations in 2014-2016 and, with reference to the bargaining structure, in the disputed reform responding to the name of loi Travail, held in 2016, and in the ordonnances promoted by the new President Macron in the late 2017, towards the direction of a relevant and decisive expansion of company collective agreement, to the detriment of sectoral level. The arrival point of the path traced above regards the attempt to reply to the issue concerning the opportunity to provide or not, in the Italian context, for a law regulating collective bargaining and the related obligations and rights of social actors, to clarify and stabilize the arrangement system. Secondly, also on the base of the comparison with the French frame of reference, the dissertation is closed by a reflection on the possible legal institutes to be introduced in the Italian juridical framework, in order to assure a general extension of collective bargaining, in the light to allow an harmonious development also of the company level.

В статье анализируются монои мультилинейные концептуальные подходы к развитию человечества, представленные в трудах таких выдающихся интеллектуалов как Н.Я. Данилевский, О. Шпенглер, А.Дж. Тойнби, Т. Парсонс, И. Валлерстайн, Ф. Фукуяма, Л.Н. Гумилев, С. Хантингтон, Гж. Колодко, Л.С. Васильев, Ю.И. Семенов, М. Музилис, Б. Витрок и др. Подчеркивается, что разнообразие линий социально-экономического развития народов основывается на различиях двух доминирующих макротипов цивилизации «европейского» и «азиатского». В контексте этих и локальных цивилизационных различий рассматриваются модели социально-экономической трансформации постсоциалистических стран; при этом особое внимание уделяется российскому вектору посткоммунистического транзита, в основу анализа которого, по мнению автора, может быть положена теория евразийства Л. Гумилева, Н. Савицкого, Н. Трубецкого и концепции современных российских авторов С.Г. Кордонского, В.Б. Пастухова, О.Э. Бессоновой и других ученыхThe discussion of transformation outcomes has become increasingly tense in the recent years and is now challenging contemporary social sciences. Two major approaches can be distinguished today. According to one of them, transformation is a linear process and it refers to logical transition from non-market to market economy. Such understanding of social development constitutes the classic theory of modernization (W. Rostow, T. Parsons). Similar lack of alternativeness is also a characteristic of the increasingly popular world-system analysis (I. Wallerstain). Yet it can be argued that institutional structure and value systems, which determine the inner logics of social development, are not so universal in nature. The end of 1990s has seen the rise of new theories of non-European modernity, the variety of capitalisms and the trend towards distinguishing modernization from westernization. These ideas have received much support in developing countries. We too argue that the difference of transformation outcomes in European and Eurasian areas cannot be adequately explained in terms of single-vector deterministic model. The reason for the emerging variety of socio-economic developments may very well lie in the inner civilization differences between countries. We argue that both, Marxist and liberal unitarisms with their optionless evolutionary approaches to certain sociohistoric organisms, ignore the interconnection of common and particular in the human history and thus become a subject to discussion. Along with unitarian approach, according to which the development processes within particular sociohistoric organisms follow a single logic in human history, there also exists a pluralist multilinear approach. It implies, that humanity is represented by a set of relatively autonomous historic entities, each of which has a certain life cycle with its own stages of birth, development and decease. The concept of monolinearity has been criticized as far back as in the late XIXth century by a Russian historian N. Danilevsky, whose notion of civilization concurrency ('ryadopolozhennost' tsivilizatsiy') [Danilevsky 2003] suggests that along with some universal essentials civilizations may have very specific goals of development and their own criteria of civilization's successful reproduction. Danilevsky is also the author of the idea that among the factors, which stipulate multilinearity of historical process and the variety of options of social development, a special role belongs to the type of civilization we choose. He also produced his own theory of cultural-historical types: '…civilization is a notion far more extensive than science, art, religion, political, economic or social development taken alone. Civilization includes it all. I am saying that even religion itself is a notion inferior to that of civilization.' [Danilevsky 2003, p.129]. He reckoned that such analysis of history-dependent types of civilization can help explain many phenomena in the past, the present and the future of different peoples, especially since he had learned about the particularities of Russian culture and history. Although he never criticized the Romano-Germanic culture, Danilevsky completely denied its universality and perceived his native Russian civilization as its equal but essentially different counterpart. In XXth century the popularity has come to such advocates of historical pluralism as O. Spengler, A.J. Toynbee, L. Gumilyov, S. Huntington and others. By accepting the possibility of concurrent development for countries, which belong to different civilizations, one does not have to deny the universality of technologies of existence in the very broad sense of its meaning. Although what we must consider is that institutional structure and value systems, which regulate development processes within certain social organisms, may not, and usually are not, universal in nature. Thus it makes sense, that different civilizations and, consequently, national states, which fall under these civilizations, are very likely to develop along different vectors. The institutional theory has also produced a hypothesis, according to which there exist different institutional matrices that can be regarded as latent mechanisms of functioning and reproduction of sociohistoric organisms. The matrix acts as a stable and historically dependent set of interacting institutions that are specific for particular civilizations. By applying this logics in comparative analysis of Eastern and Western macrocivilizations some Russian economists argue that in historical perspective Eastern matrix persistently features non-market mechanisms of distribution, centralized state and the priority of collective values over individual ones. The existing variety of development paths can generally be reduced to the differences that arise between two dominating types of civilization, which contingently can be referred to as European and Asiatic. The first one emerged from ancient polises and, basically, represents the chain of societies with private property, the balance between civil society and civil institutions, advanced personality and the priority of individual values. The latter type Asiatic one is historically connected to Asian despotisms, the domination of state property, all-powerful government institutional structures, the lack of civil society and so forth. We rely on the explanatory concept of basic institutional structures, which distinguish Eastern civilizations from Western ones the so called relations of power-property. This concept has been developed by an outstanding Russian orientalist L. Vasiliev in his works from 1960s 1990s. It is peculiar that in the course of human history this type of civilization has been dominating geographically as well as historically. And it also explains why in the XXth century etacratism (in other terms, etatism or statism) has developed in the countries, which fall under the Asiatic civilization area. Yet it should be underlined that there is no such necessity as to draw the dividing line between monolinear and multilinear approaches. We cannot as well ignore the experience of the previous centuries, which has been institutionalized in verifiable sources. This experience provides evidence of completely different options of social development not only for the organisms that have literally become history, but for those which survived until today. Some of them progressed from savagery feudalism and then onto capitalism; some have initially turned to the Asian mode of production and have only recently developed the advanced forms of capitalism (postindustrialism); the others got 'stuck' in a non-market phase of development and adapted it to the circumstances of contemporary global system. Yet we are only able to speculate within a definite historical horizon, that is measured by the life of a few nearest generations. The point is: there is no sense in crossing swords regarding the future of humanity beyond the XXIst century. Starting from the end of 1990s the Western literature brings an increasingly bigger number of publications, which support theories of non-European modernity and variability of development and attempt to separate modernization concept from westernization. These ideas have gained a lot of support in developing countries, where authors draw attention to the lack of explanatory power of existing social theories, which are incompatible with non-Western forms of contemporary society. According to multilinear approach in the modern world there coexist several main civilizations with distinct institutional, axiological and behavioral characteristics. These civilizations are connected with dominating religious systems. As applied to Central European, Southern European and Eurasian areas (post-communist countries, which are in the process of transformation) these religious systems are Catholicism, Protestantism, Orthodoxy, Islam. The social, economic and political situation in the corresponding countries is essentially different in a number of aspects. Moreover it explains the variation of development paths and the outcomes of liberal reforms in many post-socialist countries of Central and Eastern Europe. Consequently we argue that these civilization particularities must be closely studied. Even today many European researchers and analysts are still convinced that social and economic order of contemporary Russia is not essentially different from that of the developed European countries a still another type of capitalism. One of the most popular approaches is the so called variety of capitalisms approach [Drahokoupil 2009]. According to this approach the variety of social and economic systems, which exist in contemporary Europe, may be reduced to several fundamental forms (e.g. 'liberal market economies', 'controlled market economies' or even 'dependent market economies'). So it, basically, reduces the problem of determining the outcomes of various policies to the problem of diagnosing various states of capitalism in different countries depending on the structure of its economic institutions and the presence of foreign capital. Yet it is never discussed how and why Russia and its predominantly 'orthodox' post-socialist neighbours deviate from any of these classifications. Etacratism in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe was enforced from the USSR. The ones that resisted most were the countries which already had the most experience of market economy, some forms of civil society and the rule of law in the course of their history. During the 45 years of Soviet domination these countries have always been the most unreliable periphery of the 'true socialism'. All of them belonged to Catholic and Protestant Christian cultures. At the same time, etacratism voluntarily and rather autonomously developed in countries, which have never known capitalist relations and had a different history China, Vietnam and Mongolia. The contemporary societal system, which formed in CEE countries, was a result of a single anti-communist revolution of 1989 -1991, which according to V. Ilin had a system nature. These revolutions were encouraged by the idea of catch-up modernization. In CEE and Baltia the original goal of transformation, which included higher standards of mass consumption, social state and technological modernization was rather quickly reduced to two basics which represent the idea of progress market economy and competitive democracy (political pluralism along with democratic freedom) [Ilin 2006, p. 262-266]. The development in Russia, as well as some other countries of the former USSR, went in a different manner. The achievements of market economy and liberal democracy were far more modest than in the CEE neighborhood. We hold the following conceptual viewpoint on Russia's development. The contemporary Russian society, as well as Soviet, belongs to a particular civilization (Eurasian), which is essentially different from European (Atlantic) in relation to its institutional structure and system of values. Thus, in the social space of Europe there actually exist at least two substantially distinct 'Europes'.