Introduction. A wide range of valuable and active aspects related to citizenship remain not relevant, which leads to the atomisation of society, weakening of the institutional foundations of the state. Today, the development of the civic education system is an important social issue. Therefore, turning to the experience of other countries, including in terms of building their priorities in this area, contributes to the solution of both theoretical and practical problems in national education. It is customary to associate the civic component in the Russian educational system with the implementation of state educational standards aimed at obtaining formal knowledge about society and the state by schoolchildren, as well as with the systematic educational work carried out in educational institutions, focusing on the development of patriotism. As a result, the structure of youth civic orientations is dominated by intentions to consciously distance oneself from politics, the state, a narrowly formalised understanding of citizenship as a set of rights and obligations fixed by law, and patriotism mainly in its protective-military form.The aim of the present research was to comparatively study the opinions of teachers in 22 countries (including Russia) on the priorities of civic education in schools.Methodology and research methods. A secondary analysis of the data of the International Civic and Citizenship Education Study, implemented under the auspices of the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievements (IEA), serves as a research method. The empirical base of the study is a questionnaire survey of teachers from 22 countries (including Russia). The total sample size was 36674 respondents - 8849 teachers (24% of the sample size), implementing programmes of social sciences, 27825 teachers (76% of the sample size) not directly involved in civic education.Results and scientific novelty. As a result of the comparative study undertaken, the specificity of the opinion of teachers in Russia and other countries regarding the importance of certain areas of civic education in schools was revealed. The answers to a special question were analysed, suggesting the choice of the most priority options from the proposed ones. At the first stage, a ranking procedure was implemented, which allowed to identify the structure of priorities in each country. In most of them, the formation among students of independent, critical thinking occupies the first position in the ranking. This goal is especially significant in the Scandinavian countries, as well as in Finland. In Russia, the level of support for this priority is one of the lowest (36%) - less than only in South Korea (24%). At the second stage, the target settings of teachers involved in civic education are classified. Using cluster analysis, the types of orientations are determined, that is, a combination of various combinations of answers, and their prevalence among civilian educators. Seven types of orientations have been identified and described: critical, socialisation, social studies, participatory, environmental, conflictological, particularistic. The features of their representation in different countries are described.Practical significance. The results and conclusions presented in the article, the proposed typology can be used in the process of further development of the issues of civic education, training and education of citizenship, including in other empirical studies. The quantitative data provided can be used as an information base for the development of civic education programmes at various levels, as well as the design of curricula and content of disciplines of civic studies. ; Введение. Широкий спектр ценностных и деятельных аспектов, связанных с гражданством, остаются неактуализированными, что ведёт к атомизации общества, ослаблению институциональных основ государства. Развитие системы гражданского образования является сегодня важной социальной задачей. Поэтому обращение к опыту разных стран, в том числе в части выстраивания ими приоритетов в этой области, способствует решению как теоретических, так и практических задач отечественного образования. В российской системе образования гражданскую составляющую принято связывать с реализацией государственных образовательных стандартов, направленных на получение школьниками формальных знаний об обществе и государстве, а также c проводимой в учебных заведениях систематической воспитательной работой по формированию патриотизма. В результате в структуре гражданских ориентаций молодежи превалируют установки на сознательное дистанцирование от политики, государства, узко-формализованное понимание гражданства как совокупности закрепленных законодательно прав и обязанностей, а патриотизма преимущественно в его защитно-военной ипостаси. Цель изложенного в статье исследования состояла в сравнительном изучении мнения учителей 22 стран (включая Россию) о функциях гражданского образования в школе.Методология, методы и методики. В качестве метода исследования выступает вторичный анализ данных Международного сравнительного исследования гражданственности и гражданского образования, реализованного под эгидой Международной ассоциации по оценке образовательных достижений. Эмпирической базой исследования являются данные анкетного опроса учителей из 22 стран (включая Россию). Общий объем анализируемой выборки составил 36 674 респондента - 8 849 учителей, реализующих программы дисциплин обществоведческого цикла (24 % от объема выборки), 27 825 учителей не участвующих непосредственно в гражданском образовании (76 % от объема выборки). Результаты и научная новизна. В результате предпринятого сравнительного исследования выявлена специфика мнения учителей России и других стран относительно значимости тех или иных направлений гражданского образования в школах. Были проанализированы ответы на специальный вопрос, предполагающий выбор из предложенных вариантов наиболее приоритетных. На первом этапе реализована процедура ранжирования, которая позволила выявить структуру приоритетов в каждой стране. В большинстве из них формирование среди учеников независимого, критического мышления занимает первую позицию в рейтинге. Особо значима эта цель в скандинавских странах, а также в Финляндии. В России уровень поддержки данного приоритета один из самых низких (36 %) - меньше только в Южной Корее (24 %). На втором этапе проведена классификация целевых установок учителей, задействованных в гражданском образовании. С помощью кластерного анализа определены типы ориентаций, то есть сочетание различных комбинаций ответов, и их распространенность среди гражданских педагогов. Выделены и описаны семь типов ориентаций: критический, социализационный, обществоведческий, партиципаторный, энвайронменталистский, конфликтологический, партикуляристский. Описаны особенности их репрезентации в разных странах. Практическая значимость. Результаты и выводы, изложенные в статье, предложенная типология могут использоваться в процессе дальнейшей разработки проблематики гражданского образования, обучения и воспитания гражданственности, в том числе в других эмпирических исследованиях. Представленные количественные данные могут быть востребованы в качестве информационной базы при разработке программ развития гражданского образования разного уровня, проектировании учебных планов и содержания дисциплин граждановедческого профиля. ; The reported study was funded by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (RFBR), project No. 19-011-00632 "Civic-Political Orientations of the Post-Soviet Generation: Models and Types". ; Статья печатается при финансовой поддержке РФФИ в рамках научного проекта № 19-011-00632 «Гражданско-политические ориентации постсоветского поколения: модели и типы».
The pursuit of a happy and good life is gaining importance increasingly. In today's world the orientation towards traditional values, such as religion or politics, has taken a back seat. In this context, art-of-living can provide assistance. It aims to instill a conscious way of living which leads to a fullfiling and happy life. In philosophy, the construct is defined as a mindful and self-determined way of dealing with one's self and way of life and it suggests a continuous critical reflection on one's own life. Consequently, it is important to recognize one's own abilities, strengths, and weaknesses and to be aware of the opportunities in life to obtain subjective well-being through mindful effort. Art-of-living can be assigned to positive psychology, which applies in this context, because it deals with the conditions and processes that enable self-development of the individual. The focus is on the systematic development of what is beneficial for well-being, such as human strengths, savoring, or optimism. It has been pointed out that this bundle acts to buffer stressful situations and can lead to a fulfilled life, which is also the aim of art-of-living. Research has shown that positive psychology does not only deal with adults. It has pointed out that positive psychology is also important for children and adolescents and so the study of positive psychology is alive and well in children and youth. Already young children have to deal with numerous life stressors. For this reason, the preventive use of positive action like dealing with one's self and dealing with life stressors is advocated by proponents of positive education. Hence, interventions of positive psychology have shown their effectiveness in numerous studies. Especially those who are developed for young children are promising. One context in which a lot of research on children and adolescents takes place is the scholastic context. There are numerous of intervention studies in the field of positive psychology dealing with different aspects, like well-being, resilience or mental health. In summary, to deal with children's positive psychology is of great interest for today's society. Nevertheless, there is no research that deals with the art-of-living of children and adolescents as of yet. Neither are there many instruments to measure art-of-living of children and adolescents as well as constructs of positive psychology. A huge number of instruments already exists but mainly developed for adults. It is common that researchers in the field of psychology for children and adolescents use instruments for adults and modify them. A lot of adult instruments consist of a huge number of items and so they cannot easily be used for studies with young children. Therefore, for some studies only a selection of items is made. It is uncertain whether complex constructs can be described with only a selection of items. Furthermore, there is an even smaller number of measurements in German. This is a limitation for cross-cultural studies and for research in Germany where young students are not familiar with the English language. In light of the described research gaps, the present doctoral thesis addresses the (1) development of interventions to improve art-of-living of children and adolescents, (2) training children and adolescents from different contexts, (3) the validation of child-adapted questionnaires, and (4) the translation of a common instrument in the field of positive psychology into German. The purpose of Study 1 was to develop an intervention to improve art-of-living of children and adolescents in the scholastic context for students of different age groups - primary school students and students from higher grades. Study 1.1 dealt with the initial examination of whether it is possible to enhance the art-of-living by training selected art-of-living strategies. Therefore, training with three conditions was developed and conducted with secondary school students (ages 16–19). For Study 1.2, a second art-of-living training was developed and conducted with children from primary school (ages 8–11). In summary, the training successfully enhanced art-of-living. In Study 1.1, the art-of-living measures increased significantly for the training conditions compared to a control group. In addition, Study 1.2 showed that higher levels of the art-of-living lead to a better quality of life. The aim of Study 2 was to transfer the art-of-living into the clinical-therapeutic context. Again, two studies were conducted. Study 2.1 aimed at identifying those art-of-living components that show differences for adolescents who are suffering from anxiety or depression by using a pre-experimental comparative design. The results could show significant differences of the art-of-living subscales in the comparison to a clinical and a nonclinical sample. A specific pattern was identified for the clinical sample. In Study 2.2, need-oriented and predefined art-of-living interventions were developed, implemented and evaluated based on a randomized two factors multivariate 3x3 design with repeated measures. The main outcome measures are art-of-living, life satisfaction, depression and anxiety. The results show that the developed training improved the art-of-living as well as the satisfaction with life, and reduced depression. Study 3 aimed at translating instruments for children and adolescents measuring constructs of positive psychology into German. Therefore, the Satisfaction with Life Scale - child version (SWLS-C), which is one of the most commonly used questionnaires in the field of positive psychology, was translated with the use of a backtranslation-proceeding (Study 3.1) and validated by a sample of 1099 students aged 8 to 17 (Study 3.2). The analyses included retesting of reliability, concurrent and discriminant validity by additionally measuring several established constructs of positive psychology. Model fit indices, internal consistencies, retest-reliability as well as concurrent and discriminant validity evidence were satisfying. In conclusion, this doctoral thesis makes an important contribution to research on the topic of the art-of-living of children and adolescents, particularly in the improvement by training art-of-living strategies. Moreover, the results allow implications for intervention programs for different contexts, i.e. school and clinical-therapeutic context, as well as different age groups. Furthermore, instruments to measure the effects on life satisfaction for children and adolescents were developed and can be used for the systematic evaluation of interventions in future studies for German speaking countries. As a consequence, SWLS-C data of children and adolescents of different nationalities can be compared and in addition as cross-cultural measurement invariance studies can be conducted.
Human reasoning research using probability problem tasks offer a novel and exciting approach to understanding executive function impairments from a new perspective, such as with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). ADHD is widely associated with lowered academic performance thought to arise from executive function deficits relating to inhibition, impulsivity, and attention.1 A wealth of research in executive function tasks and neurobiological fMRI studies cite impairments with executive inhibitory control as the origin of cognitive and behavioural deficits associated with ADHD.2,3,4 By integrating research from cognitive psychology on the science of reasoning, together with knowledge of ADHD and educational psychology, this research may offer new insight into the cognitive mechanisms of executive function impairments, such as with ADHD, to better prepare educators to instruct the 5% of children diagnosed with ADHD.5 Individuals typically implement a narrow range of procedural heuristics to simplify the process of problem-solving and decision-making, rather than systematically analyzing a problem through tedious rule-based approaches.6 Heuristic short-cuts are often based on prior experiences or beliefs that, while crucial to human survival, may sometimes be erroneous in nature.7,8 According to one account of dual process theories (DPT), our early judgments are considered to be drawn from fast, experiential, intuitive processes that conform to a belief bias (or the tendency to judge conclusions according to belief, regardless of validity).9 A central feature of these faster reasoning processes is autonomy; thus, beliefs generate a rapid default response, regardless of need, which must be suppressed for deeper analysis.10 Slower secondary processes enable analytic judgments that are effortful and taxing on working memory.11 As analytic reasoning must be deliberately engaged to override the quicker belief-based appraisals, it is assumed that slower logical evaluations do not interfere with intuitive responses. However, the autonomously produced and faster belief-based judgments are able to interfere with slower, more rational thinking operations.12This master's research examined and compared the reasoning abilities of university educated adults with and without ADHD. Both groups solved 24 base-rate problems in free time that asked for the likelihood of group membership for an individual (e.g., what is the likelihood that Paul is a doctor?) when offered two pieces of conflicting information: salient base-rates (3 doctors vs. 997 nurses) and a luring, but opposing, stereotypical description (Paul lives in a beautiful home in a posh suburb, is well spoken, interested in politics, and invests a lot of time in his career). The task was coupled with an instructional manipulation that asked reasoners to respond either with beliefs (cued by the stereotypical description) or to respond statistically by way of presented base-rates. For 12 randomly generated problems, base-rates and descriptions conflicted, cueing opposing judgements. Another 12 randomly generated problems had matching base-rates and descriptions that cued identical judgements. ADHD is broadly associated difficulties in inattention and impulsivity thought to originate from primordial deficits of executive inhibition.13 Thus, it was expected that ADHD participants would perform poorly on conflict problems when deciding with statistics, as inhibitory control is required to suppress the autonomously produced intuitive response derived from beliefs. It was very surprising to observe that ADHD reasoners were superior to controls at judging with statistics and on par with controls when deciding with beliefs. This is both startling and counterintuitive, considering ADHD is predominantly linked to difficulties in inhibition, attention to necessary tasks, and using working memory effectively.14, 15, 16The literature supporting disinhibition theories of ADHD is solid, and yet ADHD participants did not demonstrate poorer reasoning abilities on a base-rate task widely assumed to require inhibitory control. This leads to the conclusion that perhaps base-rate problems do not measure inhibitory control, as is assumed.17 The fact that both groups were better at reasoning with statistics relative to beliefs challenges the assumption that base-rate processing even requires deeper analytic processing. It may be that humans have a probabilistic intuition for processing base-rates spontaneously; 18 thus, suppression of an early, yet unfavourable response is not required. A second finding is that ADHD reasoners were on par with controls in solving problems with beliefs. This reveals that ADHD reasoners are just as capable of encoding lengthy and ambiguous information as their non-ADHD peers, despite recognized cognitive deficits. The third and most important finding is that ADHD reasoners were significantly better than controls when solving base-rate problems with statistics. This unexpected result raises the question of why this pattern emerged for ADHD thinkers. One hypothesis is that ADHD thinkers implemented a cost-effective cognitive strategy when clear, salient numerical information (base-rates) was offered that could be easily extracted for problem-solving. This strategy, however, was ineffective when resolving problems under the belief instruction that entailed the decoding of lengthy descriptive information.The hypothesis of strategy use by ADHD reasoners was confirmed by comparing response latencies for both groups. For conflict problems, both groups required similarly longer response latencies to resolve problems with beliefs as compared to statistics. This corroborates that solving with statistics was easier than with beliefs, which contradicts serial models of DPTs. However, when solving non-conflict problems with beliefs – a task that should have been relatively easy as base-rates and descriptions cue the same response – the ADHD group required significantly more time than controls. This clearly evidences that ADHD participants have developed cost-efficient problem-solving strategy when clear, salient information is offered that can be easily extracted to solve the problem. However, they misapply this strategy to non-conflict problems when simple shortcuts could be used much more effectively. The over-application of this strategy on non-conflict problems resulted in longer latencies for the more difficult belief instruction.The results evidence that ADHD university students are able to implement problem-solving strategies to overcome cognitive deficits when salient and easily extractable information is presented. This finding is vital for developing effective pedagogies relating to classroom instruction for students with ADHD. However, students must also be educated on the appropriate application of these strategies. Further comparative investigations related to ADHD and reasoning are vital to better understand the capacity for strategic learning in individuals with ADHD, leading to better more informed instructional approaches.
The study on vocational training policy and employment in Haiti focuses on the tourism industry taking into account the strengths and geographic position. Join in the tradition of human capital theory of Becker G. and linking the issues of training and low level of development, the work explores the main brake material and immaterial acts negatively on the tourism sector and subsequently the country's socioeconomic development. Adopting an approach based on systems analysis of Mélèze J. supplemented by the analysis Strategic Crozier M. and Friedberg E., the study highlights the challenges that the actors face in the context of efforts to boost tourism industry in Haiti. The survey data and interviews with personalities who worked in the areas of training and development have revealed that the resources allocated to the national system of vocational training are largely inadequate to meet the social demand for training. It was also revealed that the public offer for training is historically low and geographically unequal. This problem affects the stock of human capital that the country needs for its economic development.The efforts put forth in recent years to mitigate the devastating effects of crises within the country have not been accompanied by the application of a vocational training policy in support of industries in which one hoped to have investments. The economics data of the region and the country's geographical location that suggest an ambitious training policy might play a role in attracting industries with high added value requiring less investment in which the country has comparative advantages including tourism. The study reveals that Haitian vocational education is disconnected from the apparatus of economic output that invests. This problem leads some companies to satisfy their needs by appealing to foreign labor, while the country has a high unemployment rate. Under-funded, technical education and vocational training are victims of the traditional representation some make about apprenticeship. Moreover, there is no space for formal discussion and dialogue among those responsible for the educational system and business leaders. These dialogues are necessary and acclaimed in a quest for support, anticipation of investment and the implementation of employment policies, in rare cases where they exist, are more personal than institutional. Competition for personal contacts outweighs public interest. The mutualisation of forces in place seems necessary in order to reach a common view of the economic environment, establish a privileged and enlightened partnership between the production apparatus and that of education to better the politics of the State in the field of vocational training. Finally, as a priority sector of development, the industry of tourism providers of employment will not benefit Haiti if it does not make a substantial effort to innovate, to create new businesses and to acquire the skills and qualifications required in an economy based on tourism. The profitability of the tourism sector also means creating a business climate conducive to foreign direct investment (FDI) by removing the main obstacles to economic growth, through targeted activities relating to operations and marketing by improving the country's image abroad. ; L'étude sur la politique de formation professionnelle et d'emploi en Haïti met l'accent sur l"industrie touristique en tenant compte des atouts et de la position géographique du pays. Inscrit dans la lignée théorique du capital humain de Becker G. et faisant le lien entre les problèmes de la formation et le faible niveau de développement, le travail explore les principaux freins matériels et immatériels agissant négativement sur le secteur touristique et subséquemment sur le développement socioéconomique du pays. Adoptant une approche inspirée de l"analyse systémique de Mélèze J. complétée par l"analyse stratégique de Crozier M. et de Friedberg E., l"étude met en évidence les enjeux des acteurs dans le cadre des démarches visant à dynamiser l"industrie du tourisme en Haïti. Les données de l'enquête et les entretiens réalisés avec des personnalités ayant travaillé dans les secteurs de la formation et du développement ont permis de constater que les moyens alloués au système national de formation professionnelle sont largement insuffisants pour répondre à la demande sociale de la formation. Il a été permis de constater aussi que l'offre publique de formation professionnelle est historiquement faible et géographiquement inégalitaire. Ce problème affecte le stock de capital humain dont le pays a besoin pour assurer son développement socioéconomique.Les efforts déployés au cours de ces dernières années en vue d'atténuer les effets dévastateurs des crises qu'a connues le pays n'ont pas été accompagnés de l'application d'une politique de formation professionnelle en appui aux secteurs dans lesquels on espérait avoir des investissements. Les données économiques de la région et le positionnement géographique du pays autorisent à penser qu'une politique de formation ambitieuse aurait pu remplir une fonction attractive dans les branches d'activité à haute valeur ajoutée demandant moins d'investissement dans lesquelles le pays a des avantages comparatifs, notamment le tourisme. L'étude révèle que l'enseignement professionnel haïtien est déconnecté de l'appareil de production économique qui investit. Ce problème pousse certaines entreprises, pour répondre à leurs besoins, à faire appel à la main-d'oeuvre étrangère tandis que le pays connaît un taux de chômage important. Sous-financés, l'enseignement technique et la formation professionnelle sont victimes de la représentation traditionnelle que certains ont de l'apprentissage. De plus, il n'existe pas un espace formel de concertation et de dialogue entre les responsables des organismes de formation et les dirigeants des entreprises. Ces dialogues, nécessaires et réclamés dans une démarche d'accompagnement, d'anticipation des investissements et de mise en oeuvre des politiques de l'emploi, dans les rares cas où ils existent, sont plus personnels qu'institutionnels. La concurrence pour avoir des contactspersonnels prime sur l'intérêt général. La mutualisation des forces en présence paraît nécessaire afin d'arriver à une lecture partagée de l"environnement économique, établir un partenariat privilégié et éclairé entre l'appareil de production et celui de l'enseignement pour mieux orienter la politique de l'État dans le champ de la formation professionnelle. Enfin, comme secteur prioritaire de développement, le tourisme, industrie pourvoyeuse d'emplois, ne sera pas profitable à Haïti s'il n'y a pas un effort substantiel pour innover, créer des entreprises nouvelles et les doter des compétences et des qualifications que requiert une économie fondée sur les activités touristiques. La rentabilité du secteur touristique passe également par la création d"un climat d'affaire propice à l"investissement direct étranger (IDE), par la levée des principaux freins à la croissance économique, par des actions ciblées relatives aux opérations de marketing et par l'amélioration de l'image du pays à l'étranger.
The study on vocational training policy and employment in Haiti focuses on the tourism industry taking into account the strengths and geographic position. Join in the tradition of human capital theory of Becker G. and linking the issues of training and low level of development, the work explores the main brake material and immaterial acts negatively on the tourism sector and subsequently the country's socioeconomic development. Adopting an approach based on systems analysis of Mélèze J. supplemented by the analysis Strategic Crozier M. and Friedberg E., the study highlights the challenges that the actors face in the context of efforts to boost tourism industry in Haiti. The survey data and interviews with personalities who worked in the areas of training and development have revealed that the resources allocated to the national system of vocational training are largely inadequate to meet the social demand for training. It was also revealed that the public offer for training is historically low and geographically unequal. This problem affects the stock of human capital that the country needs for its economic development.The efforts put forth in recent years to mitigate the devastating effects of crises within the country have not been accompanied by the application of a vocational training policy in support of industries in which one hoped to have investments. The economics data of the region and the country's geographical location that suggest an ambitious training policy might play a role in attracting industries with high added value requiring less investment in which the country has comparative advantages including tourism. The study reveals that Haitian vocational education is disconnected from the apparatus of economic output that invests. This problem leads some companies to satisfy their needs by appealing to foreign labor, while the country has a high unemployment rate. Under-funded, technical education and vocational training are victims of the traditional representation some make about apprenticeship. Moreover, there is no space for formal discussion and dialogue among those responsible for the educational system and business leaders. These dialogues are necessary and acclaimed in a quest for support, anticipation of investment and the implementation of employment policies, in rare cases where they exist, are more personal than institutional. Competition for personal contacts outweighs public interest. The mutualisation of forces in place seems necessary in order to reach a common view of the economic environment, establish a privileged and enlightened partnership between the production apparatus and that of education to better the politics of the State in the field of vocational training. Finally, as a priority sector of development, the industry of tourism providers of employment will not benefit Haiti if it does not make a substantial effort to innovate, to create new businesses and to acquire the skills and qualifications required in an economy based on tourism. The profitability of the tourism sector also means creating a business climate conducive to foreign direct investment (FDI) by removing the main obstacles to economic growth, through targeted activities relating to operations and marketing by improving the country's image abroad. ; L'étude sur la politique de formation professionnelle et d'emploi en Haïti met l'accent sur l"industrie touristique en tenant compte des atouts et de la position géographique du pays. Inscrit dans la lignée théorique du capital humain de Becker G. et faisant le lien entre les problèmes de la formation et le faible niveau de développement, le travail explore les principaux freins matériels et immatériels agissant négativement sur le secteur touristique et subséquemment sur le développement socioéconomique du pays. Adoptant une approche inspirée de l"analyse systémique de Mélèze J. complétée par l"analyse stratégique de Crozier M. et de Friedberg E., l"étude met en évidence les enjeux des acteurs dans le cadre des démarches visant à dynamiser l"industrie du tourisme en Haïti. Les données de l'enquête et les entretiens réalisés avec des personnalités ayant travaillé dans les secteurs de la formation et du développement ont permis de constater que les moyens alloués au système national de formation professionnelle sont largement insuffisants pour répondre à la demande sociale de la formation. Il a été permis de constater aussi que l'offre publique de formation professionnelle est historiquement faible et géographiquement inégalitaire. Ce problème affecte le stock de capital humain dont le pays a besoin pour assurer son développement socioéconomique.Les efforts déployés au cours de ces dernières années en vue d'atténuer les effets dévastateurs des crises qu'a connues le pays n'ont pas été accompagnés de l'application d'une politique de formation professionnelle en appui aux secteurs dans lesquels on espérait avoir des investissements. Les données économiques de la région et le positionnement géographique du pays autorisent à penser qu'une politique de formation ambitieuse aurait pu remplir une fonction attractive dans les branches d'activité à haute valeur ajoutée demandant moins d'investissement dans lesquelles le pays a des avantages comparatifs, notamment le tourisme. L'étude révèle que l'enseignement professionnel haïtien est déconnecté de l'appareil de production économique qui investit. Ce problème pousse certaines entreprises, pour répondre à leurs besoins, à faire appel à la main-d'oeuvre étrangère tandis que le pays connaît un taux de chômage important. Sous-financés, l'enseignement technique et la formation professionnelle sont victimes de la représentation traditionnelle que certains ont de l'apprentissage. De plus, il n'existe pas un espace formel de concertation et de dialogue entre les responsables des organismes de formation et les dirigeants des entreprises. Ces dialogues, nécessaires et réclamés dans une démarche d'accompagnement, d'anticipation des investissements et de mise en oeuvre des politiques de l'emploi, dans les rares cas où ils existent, sont plus personnels qu'institutionnels. La concurrence pour avoir des contactspersonnels prime sur l'intérêt général. La mutualisation des forces en présence paraît nécessaire afin d'arriver à une lecture partagée de l"environnement économique, établir un partenariat privilégié et éclairé entre l'appareil de production et celui de l'enseignement pour mieux orienter la politique de l'État dans le champ de la formation professionnelle. Enfin, comme secteur prioritaire de développement, le tourisme, industrie pourvoyeuse d'emplois, ne sera pas profitable à Haïti s'il n'y a pas un effort substantiel pour innover, créer des entreprises nouvelles et les doter des compétences et des qualifications que requiert une économie fondée sur les activités touristiques. La rentabilité du secteur touristique passe également par la création d"un climat d'affaire propice à l"investissement direct étranger (IDE), par la levée des principaux freins à la croissance économique, par des actions ciblées relatives aux opérations de marketing et par l'amélioration de l'image du pays à l'étranger.
Este libro es considerado como un aporte significativo al entendimiento de la historia económica de Colombia en la primera mitad del siglo XX. Los principales analistas que han examinado el período 1900-1940 lo citan como una fuente importante para sus investigaciones. A pesar de su relevancia, este texto no se consigue en las librerías hace varias décadas y las personas interesadas en leerlo tienen que buscar un ejemplar en las grandes bibliotecas públicas o en las universitarias. Esta circunstancia motivó al Comité Editorial de esta colección a recomendar su reedición. Debo confesar que la primera vez que tuve la oportunidad de examinar con detenimiento un ejemplar de esta magnífica publicación fue en 1973, en una de las oficinas de la Federación de Cafeteros. Quedé gratamente sorprendido por la riqueza de su información sobre el país y por la alta calidad de su edición. Muchos años más tarde logré conseguir un ejemplar, con un librero especializado en este tipo de joyas históricas.
Die Inhalte der verlinkten Blogs und Blog Beiträge unterliegen in vielen Fällen keiner redaktionellen Kontrolle.
Warnung zur Verfügbarkeit
Eine dauerhafte Verfügbarkeit ist nicht garantiert und liegt vollumfänglich in den Händen der Blogbetreiber:innen. Bitte erstellen Sie sich selbständig eine Kopie falls Sie einen Blog Beitrag zitieren möchten.
Ned Lebow on Drivers of War, Cultural Theory, and IR of Foxes and Hedgehogs
Drawing on classical political theories, International Relations is dominated by theories that presuppose interests or fear as dominant drivers for foreign policy. Richard Ned Lebow looks further back into the history of ideas to conjure up a more varied set of drives that underpin political action. In this Talk, Lebow, among others, elaborates on the underpinnings of political action, discusses how war drives innovations in IR theorizing in the 20th century, and likens himself to a fox, rather than a hedgehog.
Print version of this Talk (pdf)
What is, according to you, the biggest challenge / principal debate in current IR? What is your position or answer to this challenge / in this debate?
Well, the big challenge in international politics is always how do we keep from destroying one another and that's the negative question. But it is mirrored by a positive question which is, how do we build community and tolerance and peace? And that's not exactly the flip side, but that's always been the big question in IR. And part of that, I think, is how we learn to manage threatening change. Because in my perspective, that's the driving force of conflict: ultimately, both World Wars can be attributed to modernization and its destabilizing consequences. That is also the reason why it is a falsehood to base theory on that little select slice of history during the World Wars, extrapolate it, and try to think its universal. Yet that is what IR theory does: so many theorists, and so many of the people you recently interviewed, are guilty of doing that. So that's the big question and certainly, that's what drove me to study IR in the hope that I could make some small contribution to figuring out some of the answers or partial answers to these questions.
If we turn to what the central debate should be in International Theory, well, I would frame this in two parts: the first should be 'what are the different ways in which we can conceive of international theory and how, by all of us pursuing it the way we feel comfortable with, we can enrich the field without throwing bric-a-brac at each other and find ways of learning from each other?'
A few years ago, I edited a book with Mark Lichbach (Theory and Evidence in Comparative Politics and International Relations) as a rejoinder to King, Keohane and Verba's book, which we found deeply offensive. It has the narrowest framework and then they base their understanding on the Vienna school yet they seem to have forgotten that Hempel and Popper would disavow the positions that King, Keohane and Verba (KKV) are anchoring themselves in as epistemologically primitive. And the very examples they give to illustrate 'good science'—Alvarez and his groupaddressing the problem of dinosaur extinction—they fail to see that what these people did was in fact code on the dependent variable, which is the big no-no for KKV! And the reason why Alvarez et al were taken seriously, was not because they went through the order of research that KKV promoted, but rather because they came up with an explanation for a phenomenon that people have long known about—yet explanations don't figure at all in KKV's take; they had no interest in mechanisms, it was all narrow correlations. It's absurd! So we edited the book, and we invited people who represented different perspectives, but all of whom had evidence and struggled to make sense of the evidence, to talk to one another and to look at the problems they themselves find in their positions and how one could learn broadly from considering this. That's the kind of debate that seems to me is a useful one. Not who is right or wrong, but how can we learn collectively. And secondly, I think maybe we need fewer debates, and more good research.
How did you arrive at where you currently are in your thinking about IR?
I suppose it's a combination of people, books, and events, and being a dog that constantly gnaws on bones and works it through. Very clearly the Second World War and the Cold War were what brought me to the study of IR. I'm sure in their absence, considering the counterfactual, I would have gone into Astrophysics, which was the other field that really interested me.
I think the first concrete influence was as an undergraduate and then as a graduate, being struck by certain individuals whose minds seemed to sparkle; and I admired them for that and they became role models. And I would make myself, intellectually, a little Hans Morgenthau, a little Karl Deutsch; see the world through their eyes, and play with it. I never really wanted to make myself into them, but rather to benefit by seeing what the world was like when seen through their eyes. So in this sense, let me go back and draw on Boswell, Hughes, and Mill for my answer. They all conceived of identity as something that's a process of self-fashioning in which we mix and match the characteristics that we observe in other people. And the purpose of society is to throw up these role models and provide interaction with them so that we can constantly be engaging in self-fashioning. And ultimately, we create something that's novel that other people want to emulate or reject, as the case may be. And I think that mixing and matching, and ultimately creating a synthesis of my own, I developed my own approach to things.
The second element of this is to pick problems that engage me, and stick with them. My first book in IR was about international crises and I worked on this, it must have been 8, possibly even 9 years. I started out initially convinced that deterrence theory made sense but wouldn't fit the historical evidence. Then one day, while playing around, I realized the theory was wrong and by reversing it, I could understand why it didn't work and see there were very different dynamics at play. So working on a problem constantly and going back and forth between theory and empirical findings, you gradually develop your own sense of the field.
It also helps, over the course of an intellectual lifetime, to work on different kinds of problems: I've just finished a book on the politics and ethics of identity; I finished a manuscript up for review on the nature of causation and different takes on cause; and the previous two books were on counterfactuals and the origins of war. And I learned something theoretically and methodologically by throwing myself into these problems and also, in some cases, by going beyond what one would normally consider the domain of IR to look for answers. I've often done philosophy and literature in the identity book. I also go to musical texts: I have a reading of the Mozart Da Ponte Operas as a deliberate thought experiment to test out ancient regime and enlightenment identities under varying circumstances to expose what's wrong with them and to work toward a better approach of Così fantutte. And I read the music, not only the libretti, to get at an answer. Of course, when you've been doing it a long time, it keeps you alive and alert when you look at something new. I'm just finishing my 46th year of University teaching. It's a long time!
Thirdly, there were a few pivotal books. I read George Orwell's 1984 and Aldous Huxley's Brave New World in the early 50s. Both of those were very powerful books. I also read in about 1950 - Life Magazine produced a large volume on WWII and it had fabulous photographs and of course Life was famous, Robert Capa's photographs, and the text by John Dos Passos. A big big book that I read and re-read and that was a powerful influence on me. I'd say the Diary of Anne Frank, when it came out, which was not all that dissimilar but had a different ending from my own war experience, and then in high school I read, or struggled to read—I don't think I understood it—Ideology and Utopia (full text here) by Karl Mannheim, and then I read Politics among Nations and the Twenty Year's Crisis. And both those books made enormous sense to me at the time. But I think the book that over the course of my lifetime has had the most influence on me of anything is Thucydides' The History of the Peloponnesian War (read full text here).
What would a student need to become a specialist in IR or understand the world in a global way?
I am tempted to give you a flippant answer that an expert is somebody from out of town; what used to be with slides would now be with a PowerPoint presentation. I think frankly you need to do two things: you need to be analytically sophisticated and original on the one hand, but to do it well, you have to have an empirical base. There has to be some problem or set of problems that you've rolled up your sleeves, looked at the data, talk to the people who are on the ground doing these things, and you need to go back and forth between that empirical knowledge and conceptual one. That's success as a social scientist.
And traditionally, there's always been another key. You must have one foot in society in which you belong and another foot outside so you can do it as an outsider as well as an insider. That's terribly important. I think, in this sense, that Americans are more parochial than other people. They are good insiders but they are not very good outsiders and they just don't understand the rest of the world and when you read what they write about the rest of the world, you wonder what planet they are living on. If you don't see the rest of the world, you can't look at the America from another perspective. It's like people who take hegemony seriously; it's like believing in Santa Claus, except Santa Claus is benign. To gain a deep experience of the world in itself is a pre-requisite. Do a year abroad in some other culture. Learn a language. Have a relationship with someone from a different culture—you begin to learn the languages and all the rest will come. That's the way to start.
You are most famous to most people for your Cultural Theory of International Relations (2008). What does it comprise and can you say something about its classical roots?
I return to classical theory of conflict and cooperation because I find that in modern theory, all drives of human action have been reduced to appetite, and reason to mere instrumentality. The Greeks, by contrast, believed there were several fundamental drives—drives that affected politics—and while these included appetite, they weren't just appetite. Reason was more than instrumentality; it also had the goal of understanding what led to a happy life; then, next to reason and appetite, the third drive was spirit or self-esteem (the Greek thumos), which is very different and often opposed to appetite. It is about winning the approbation of others to feel good about ourselves. The difference between honor and standing—two variants of self-esteem—is that honor is status achieved within a fixed set of rules, while standing is whenever you achieve status by whatever means.
Now most existing IR theories are either only built on appetites—as liberalism and Marxism—or fear. And for the Greeks fear is not a human drive but a powerful emotion which can become a motive. And when reason loses control over either appetite or spirit, people begin to worry about their own ability to satisfy their appetites, their spirit, or even protect themselves physically. That's when fear becomes a powerful motive. Realism is of course the paradigm developed around fear. I differ in that my theory recognizes multiple motives, that are active to varying degrees at different times. They don't blend the way a solution does in chemistry, but they retain their own characteristics, even if jumbled together. So my theory expects to see quite diverse and often conflicting behavior, whereas other theories only pay attention to state behavior that seems to support their theory, and feel the need to explain away other behavior inconsistent with their theory. I revel in these variations. Second, I vary in describing what derives from these motives as (Weberian) ideal types—which means, something you don't encounter in the real world, but rather, an abstraction, a fictional or analytical description, that helps to make sense of the real world but never maps onto it exactly. So, a fear-based world gives you a very nice description of a foundation of anarchy. But of course this is an ideal-type world. Fear is only one motive. You have go to a place where civil order has broken down, like Somalia or the trenches in WWII, to see fear-based models compete.
Starting from these three motives and the emotion of fear, I argue that each of these generates a very different logic of cooperation, conflict and risk-taking; and each is associated with a different kind of hierarchy. And all of them except fear rely on a different principle of justice. Just to give an example: for actors—whether individuals or states—driven by self-esteem, they tend to be risk prone (because honor has to be won by successfully overcoming ordeals and challenges); it leads to a conflictual logic because you are competing with others for honor; and it can be rule-based (although the rules can brake down and move into fear); and the principle is one of fairness, in contrast to interest or appetite which has a principle of equality. The hierarchy is one of clientelism, where people honor those at the top, which, in return, provides practical benefits for those on the bottom. The Greeks called this hegemonia; the Chinese had a similar system.
But because any actual system is not an ideal type, we have to figure out what that mixture is and we can begin to understand foreign policies. And I try to give numerous examples in the book. And the big turning point, I argue, is modernity, where it becomes more difficult to untangle the motives and their discourses. Because in modernity both Rousseau and Adam Smith try to understand why we want material things, so the two become connected. You could argue that even in Egyptian times they were connected, in the pyramids, which are nothing if not erections of self-esteem. But it becomes more difficult and so, rather than saying, using literary texts, artistic works and political speeches as a way of determining the relationship, I approached the problem differently with the examples of the World Wars, the Cold War, and the Anglo-American Invasion of Iraq. I said let's run a test of seeing how carefully we can explain the origins and the dynamics of these conflicts on the basis of interest, on the basis of fear, on the basis of self-esteem. And I think that's methodologically defensible.
Now the interesting point is that the honor or self-esteem explanation is gone completely from modern IR explanations but does at least just a good a job—if not better—at explaining these conflicts I mention above. There is an important sense—and this is my latest book—in which going to war was the dominant way to get recognized as a great power, and I feel that the example of the war in Iraq illustrates that that principle is on the retreat.
I obviously use Greek thinking as a source here of—again, I wouldn't use the word knowledge—but as a source of insight into human nature and the recurring problems regardless of society. Some of the great writers and thinkers cannot be surpassed as sources of knowledge that we as social scientists are shadows on the cave by comparison. And I find the Greeks particularly interesting for several reasons. One, they had a richer understanding of the psyche that moderns who have adduced everything to appetite and reason to a mere instrumentality, this is, to me, an incredibly narrow, crude way of thinking of the human mind. And, for whatever reason, they were gifted with tragedians who pierced to the core of things. So I find them as a source of inspiration but it's by no way limited to the Greeks. You can pick great authors from any culture, in any century, and read them and learn a lot.
How should we understand your cultural theory of international relations in relation to the 'big' paradigms?
My theory is constructivist, at every level. I can go even further and claim that my theory is the only constructivist theory. Alexander Wendt is not a constructivist. If anything, he's a structural liberal. It did have preexisting identities and has a teleology as he believes a Kantian world is inevitable— that's quite a statement to make! And I hope he's right. On the other hand, I define constructivists in a broader way. Most constructivists start with identities and identities are certainly an important feature of my work, but my theory rests on a different premise, and that is the notion of there being certain core values which are germane to politics, and they vary in relative importance from society to society, and they find expression in different ways. So it is constructivist, I think, in the Weberian sense: we have to understand from within the culture what makes things meaningful. And, in that sense, you could bring in the notion of inter-subjective reality, but I go beyond it, because other values are always present in this mix and therefore there's behavior that appears contradictory that is often misunderstood if you apply the wrong lens to it. So there's a lack of interdisciplinary understanding as well: you have to look at both to see how the world works. So cultural theory is constructivist and it allows us to reframe and expand what constructivism means.
If I apply this constructivist thinking to one of the core principles in our approach to world politics: what is a cause? I start by asking, what does 'cause' mean, in physics? Why physics? Because physics is always the field that political scientists look at, we have 'physics envy', so to speak. And interestingly, in physics, there is no consensus about what cause means. Some physicists think that very notion of cause is unhelpful to what they do. Others are happy with regularities and subscribe to causal thinking. Still others thing that you need to have mechanisms to explain anything. Still others, and here statistical mechanics can be taken as a case in point, invoke Kantian understandings of cause. Within physics there's no argument between people adhering to these different understandings of 'cause', because you should do what works! They don't criticize one another. So if they have this diversity, why shouldn't we? Why shouldn't we develop understandings of cause that are most appropriate to what we do? So I develop an understanding I call 'inefficient causation' (download full paper here), sort of playing off of Aristotle. And it is a constructivist understanding, but it also incorporates elements that are distinctively non-constructivist. And identities are only a small piece of the puzzle.
Is there any sense to make of the way IR has evolved over the 20th century?
I think if you look at some of the central figures, it's quite easy. There are 2 great cohorts of International Relations theorists. Those born in the early years of the 20th century comprise Hans Morgenthau, John Hertz, E.H. Carr, Harold Lasswell, Nicholas Spykman, Frederick Schuman, and Karl Deutsch—who was on my dissertation committee together with Isaiah Berlin and John Hertz. The second cohort is born between about 1939 and 1945, and it comprises Robert Jervis (Theory Talk #12), Joseph Nye (Theory Talk #7), Robert Keohane (Theory Talk #9), Oren Young, Peter Katzenstein (Theory Talk #15), Stephen Krasner (Theory Talk#21), Janice Steinberg… And I'll tell you what I think the reasons are for these groups to emerge at these particular moments: the first cohort lived through World War I. And did so, fortunately, in at an age where they were too young to be combatants for the most part, but they certainly had to deal intellectually and personally with its consequences and then watch the horrors unfold of the 1930s.
And the second, my own, cohort was born at the outset of the Second World War. I think, in that group, I may be the only one of them born in Europe (France). The rest of them were born in the US. And we came of age during the most acute crisis of the cohort. So I was either in university or graduate school during the Berlin crisis, during the Cuba crisis, and certainly had an interest first in the consequences of WWII and how something like this could happen, and then living through the horrors of the Cold War, not knowing if indeed one would live through them. And that created a very strong incentive and focus for our group of people. Now a surprising number of this second group did their graduate studies at Yale: Janice Stein, I, Oren Young, Bruce Russet, Krasner, later all at Yale with Karl Deutsch. The rest, Jervis, Keohane and Krasner at Harvard with Samuel Huntington. I think you have the odd person who's born somewhere in between – so, Ken Waltz (Theory Talk #40), for instance, is younger. He must be a 1920 person, almost exactly in between these two, just as Ernst Haas.
And I wouldn't be surprised now if there is another cohort emerging, the people of around the age of Stefano Guzinni, Jens Bartelson, Patrick Jackson (Theory Talk #44). What ties this third cohort together is that they all watched the end of the Cold War and are coping with its aftermath. So I believe that it's probably two things: the external environment and the extent to which you're in an intellectually nurturing institution. And of course for our cohort, it certainly helped that there were jobs. That was not true of the earlier cohort. Almost all of them, except E.H. Carr, ended up in the US as refugees. Did you know Morgenthau started as an elevator boy in New York? Then he got a job teaching part-time at Brooklyn College because someone fell ill. His wife cleaned other people's apartments to supplement their income. Then he got a job at the University of Kansas City, which was a hellhole, and finally Harold Lasswell got called to Washington for some war work and got Chicago to hire Morgenthau to replace him.
What is the issue with the discipline today if, as you noted before, we fail to ask the most interesting questions and instead focus on method?
Well, it of course depends on which side of the pond you sit. On the American side of the pond, positivist or game-theoretical behaviorist or rationalist modeling approaches dominate the literature; it's just silly, from my perspective. It's based on assumptions which bear no relationship to the real world. People like it because it's intellectually elegant: they don't have to learn any languages, they don't have to read any history, and they can pretend they're scientists discussing universals. Intellectually, it's ridiculous. Bruce Bueno de Mesquita (Theory Talk #31) is a classic case in point. He's made a huge reputation for himself with The War Trap (1981). That book and the corresponding theory are based on a simple assumption, namely, that there's a war trap compelling states into war, because initiators win wars. But just look at the empirical record from 1945 to the present—initiators lose between 80-90% of the wars they start. And that really depends on the definition of victory. If you use the real definition, the Clausewitzian one, you have to ask: do they achieve their political goals through violence? Then the answer is, even fewer "victories". Well, let's cut them some slack, use a more relaxed definition: did they beat the other side militarily? Initiators still lose 78 or 82%—I forget exactly which percentage of their wars. And the profession right now is so ignorant of history that nobody said 'Wait a minute!' the day the book came out. Instead IR scholars all focus on this model and fine-tuning it—it's ridiculous! And well, I don't want to go on with a critique, but this is a serious problem, for it concerns a huge misunderstanding regarding one of the most important problems out there.
But what happens now is this kind of thinking metastasizes throughout the discipline because what students in International Relations or Political Science more generally are taught are calculus, statistics—and I'm not against this, one should learn them; I use them myself when I wear my psychologist hat and do quantitative research and statistical analysis—but they don't learn languages, they don't learn history, they don't learn philosophy. They are so narrow! Much of this of course has to do with the reward structure in the United States. It's clear that the statistical scientists are at the top of the hill. So, economists transform themselves into scientists; but the social scientists copy them because there are clear institutional rewards. If you look at our salaries in comparison to the salaries of anthropologists, historians—then if you sit at the edge of your chair and look over the abyss you might see the humanists down there in terms of what they get. So very clearly, there are strong institutional rewards. Once the positivist crowd got a lock on various foundations and journals, if you want a job, if you want to rise up through the profession, students tell me you have to do this stuff. IR graduate students are bricklayers that get turned out of these universities. That's the tragedy! It's no longer a serious intellectual enterprise. It's not connected to anything terribly meaningful.
And mind you, I must say, while on the other, European, side of the pond there is more diversity (one of the reasons I feel more comfortable here), at the same time there is a strong tendency to go for a certain heavy-handed brand of post-modernism. If you don't start an article with a genuflection to Foucault or De Saussure or Derrida, you don't get published. And by not looking beyond these 20th century thinkers, people in Europe are often given credit for inventing things which were common knowledge for hundreds and hundreds of years. Utterly ridiculous. But in between, there are of course people who are trying to make sense of the world, including many people in the positivist tradition who are doing good quantitative research and trying to address serious problems in the world. The difficulty is that these two extremes are often people who approach IR as a religion and they think that their way of doing research is the only way and they have no respect for others. And that's a kind of arrogance to which, to me, is a violation of what the university is all about.
Ultimately, what is good theory? One approach would be to say that a good theory is one that appears to order a domain in a way that is conceptually rigorous - to the extent that that's even possible - that is original and that raises a series of interesting questions which haven't been asked before, but which are amenable to empirical research and finally it should have normative implications. This is what Hans Morgenthau meant when he said that the purpose of IR theory is not to justify what policymakers did, but to educate them to act in ways that would lead to a better and more peaceful world. And that, I think, is the ultimate goal of IR theory that we should not lose sight of.
You indicated that Isaiah Berlin was on your dissertation committee. He famously tries to explain Tolstoy's philosophy of history (in War and Peace) through the parable of the hedgehog and the fox. If theorists constraining themselves to one drive underpinning policy choices would be hedgehogs, how would you see yourself? A fox or a hedgehog?
I am clearly a fox! I do different things. Whether I do them well is debatable. But I certainly think that I'm a man of many tricks. Of course the distinction also implies not believing in an overarching truth, and indeed, I try hard not to think about truth because I don't think you can get very far when you do. Epistemologically and eclectically, I'm a great believer that we can never really establish a cause, truth, and knowledge. One of the great problems here goes back to Plato who was shocked that craftsmen equated technical ability to produce things with knowledge—Sofia, which is wisdom. And today you have the problem one step up, so another category of knowledge for the Greeks was episteme. Aristotle would describe it as 'conceptual knowledge' or that which might even be represented mathematically. And the people who would be 'expert' in episteme think they have sofia and their claim to being a hedgehog is the same kind of conceit, a form of hubris. Berlin's distinction between hedgehogs and foxes is a very useful and nice concept to play around with.
Yet it's a bit much to reduce Tolstoy to that tension. You could do it as a game but it doesn't do much justice because there is so much else in Tolstoy. He's tilting against the French historians of the 19th century who have erected Napoleon into this strategic genius. And he does a very convincing job of showing that what goes on on the battlefield has nothing whatsoever to do with what Napoleon or anyone else who is wearing a general's ebullience or theorists hat says. And also, and in this sense, one could see him as the beginning of subaltern history of social science, he's telling the story—admittedly about aristocrats, not commoners—but he's telling the story of ordinary people on the battlefield, not the people making the decisions. So the war is in a way a background to the lives of the people, focusing our attention a very humanist way, on people. This, too, is revolutionary for his time.
Professor Richard Ned Lebow Professor of International Political Theory at the Department of War Studies, King's College London and James O. Freedman Presidential Professor Emeritus at Dartmouth College. He is also a Bye-Fellow of Pembroke College, University of Cambridge. He has taught strategy and the National and Naval War Colleges and served as a scholar-in-residence in the Central Intelligence Agency during the Carter administration. He has authored and edited 28 books and nearly 200 peer reviewed articles.
Related links
Read the first chapter of Lebow's The Tragic Vision of Politics (2003) here (pdf) Read Lebow & Kelly's Thucydides and Hegemony: Athens and the United States (Review of International Studies 2001), here (pdf) Read Lebow's Deterrence and Reassurance: Lessons from the Cold War (Global Dialogue 2001) here (pdf) Read Lebow's The Long Peace, the End of the Cold War, and the Failure of Realism (International Organization, 1994) here (pdf) Read Lebow's The Cuban Missile Crisis: Reading the Lessons Correctly (Political Science Quarterly 1983) here (pdf)
The purpose of this article is to set out the multiannual process for establishing the European Ombudsman's office and the reasons for its establishment. It presents the history of the first European Ombudsmen and the history of the European Communities from a legal perspective. The author goes back to the reasons for setting up the European Ombudsman's body, which were the lack of legitimacy in the European Union. The role of bodies such as the European Ombudsman is to ensure that citizens' rights are actually respected. The European Ombudsman strengthens the rule of law in the European Union and complements the role of the courts by providing a cheap, accessible individual remedy and, on the other hand, complements the representative function of the European Parliament by becoming the centre of independent critical assessment and improvement of the quality of European administration. The rule of law serves to maintain the EU system as a supranational system. It is the construction of the axis of integration. If there is a lack of trust in the community in this respect, it begins to be treated differently. It is therefore important that the European Ombudsman fulfils his Treaty obligations as a body of the European Union effectively. ; p.zawadzki@uwb.edu.pl ; Uniwersytet w Białymstoku ; Arcimowicz J., Rzecznik Praw Obywatelskich: aktor sceny publicznej, Warszawa 2003. ; Barcz J. (red.), Prawo Unii Europejskiej, Warszawa 2004. ; Doliwa-Klepacka A., Doliwa-Klepacki Z.M., Struktura organizacyjna (instytucjonalna) Unii Europejskiej, Białystok 2009. ; Dubowski T., Wysoki przedstawiciel unii do spraw zagranicznych i polityki bezpieczeństwa, Białystok 2017. ; Garlicki L., Ewolucja instytucji Rzecznika Praw Obywatelskich w świecie współczesnym, [w:] Rzecznik Praw Obywatelskich, red. L. Garlicki, Warszawa 1989. ; Grzybowski M., Ombudsman w państwach nordyckich. Geneza, ewolucja i współczesne oblicze instytucji, [w:] Rzecznik Praw Obywatelskich, red. L. Garlicki, Warszawa 1989. ; Gillingham J., Coal, Steel, and the Rebirth of Europe, 1945-1955: The Germans and French from Ruhr Conflict to economic community, Univeristy of Missouri, St. Louis 1997. ; Ipsen H.P, Europäisches Gemeinschaftsrecht, Verlag 1972. ; Jackiewicz A., Prawo do dobrej administracji w świetle Karty Praw Podstawowych, "Państwo i Prawo" 2003, nr 7. ; Klepacki K., Instytucja ombudsmana na szczeblu lokalnym na przykładzie Wielkiej Brytanii – wybrane aspekty, "Internetowy Przegląd Nauk o Administracji" 2018, nr 1(1). ; Lenaerts K, Van Nuffel P., Constitutional law of the European Union, London 2005. ; Legrand A., Une institution universelle : L'ombudsman?, "Revue internationale de droit compare" 1973, vol. 25 no 4. ; Liber M., Duński Rzecznik Praw Obywatelskich, "Studia Politicae Universitatis Silesiensis" 2005, nr 1. ; Mielnik B., Obywatelstwo Unii Europejskiej, Wrocław 2000. ; Nugent N., The Government and Politics of the European Union, Macmillan Education UK 2017. ; Sadowski P., Skarga do Rzecznika Praw Obywatelskich Unii Europejskiej, "Studia Iuridica Lublinensia" 2006, nr 7. ; Söderman J., A Thousand and One Complaints: The European Ombudsman en Route, "European Public Law" 1997, vol. 3. ; Söderman J., Good Administration: a Fundamental Right, [in:] Justice and Home Affairs in the EU. Liberty and Security Issues after Enlargement, ed. J. Apap, Northampton 2004. ; Söderman J., Le citoyen, l'État de droit et le principe de transparence, "Revue du droit de l'Union européenne" 2001, vol. 4. ; Söderman J., Convention on the Future of Europe, "European Ombudsman Newsletter" 2003, nr 23. ; Söderman J., The Early Years of the European Ombudsman, [in:] The European Ombudsman. Origins, Establishment, Evolution, Luxembourg 2006. ; Söderman J., The role and the impact of the European Ombudsman in access to documentation and transparency of decisionmaking, [w:] Opennes and Transparency in the European Union, ed. V. Deckmyn, I. Thompson, Maastricht 1998. ; Weiler J.H.H, The Jean Monnet Program, European Union Jean Monnet Chair in cooperation with the Max Planck Institute for Comparative Public Law and International Law, Heidelberg 2003. ; Opello W.C., Portugal's New Ombudsman: A Preliminary Evaluation, "Luso-Brazilian Review" 1981, Vol. 18, No. 2. ; Zdanowicz M., Wybór orzeczeń Trybunału Sprawiedliwości Wspólnot Europejskich, Białystok 2007. ; Zubik M., Księga XX-lecia Rzecznika Praw Obywatelskich w Polsce, Biuro Rzecznika Praw Obywatelskich, Warszawa 2008. ; Jednolity Akt Europejski, Dziennik Urzędowy, L 169 z 29 czerwca 1987 r. ; Traktat o Unii Europejskiej, Dziennik Urzędowy Unii Europejskiej, C 202, 7 czerwca 2016 r. ; Traktat o Funkcjonowaniu Unii Europejskiej, Dziennik Urzędowy Unii Europejskiej, C 202, 7 czerwca 2016 r. ; Karta praw podstawowych Unii Europejskiej, Dziennik Urzędowy Unii Europejskiej, C 202 z 7 czerwca 2016 r. ; Traktat z Lizbony, Dziennik Urzędowy Unii Europejskiej, C 306 z 17 grudnia 2007 r. ; Sprawa 53/81 D. M. Levin v. Staatseckretaris van Justitie. ; Wyrok Trybunału z dnia 12 listopada 1969 r., Erich Stauder przeciwko Stadt Ulm - Sozialamt. Wniosek o wydanie orzeczenia w trybie prejudycjalnym Verwaltungsgericht Stuttgart - Niemcy. ; Sprawa 29-69. ECLI identifier: ECLI:EU:C:1969:57. ; Wyrok Trybunału z dnia 4 grudnia 1974 r., Yvonne van Duyn przeciwko Home Office. Wniosek o wydanie orzeczenia w trybie prejudycjalnym: High Court of Justice, Chancery Division – Zjednoczone Królestwo. ; Sprawa 41/74. ECLI identifier: ECLI:EU:C:1974:133. ; Dyrektywa 90/364/EWG w sprawie prawa pobytu, Dz.U. L 180, 26. ; Dyrektywa 90/365/EWG w sprawie prawa pobytu. ; Dyrektywa 90/366/EWG w sprawie prawa pobytu dla studentów. ; EUROPEAN COUNCIL, ROME, 14 and 15 DECEMBER 1990 r., PRESIDENCY CONClUSIONS Part 1,2,3,4. ; The European Ombudsman, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. ; Luxembourg, Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2005 ISBN 92-95022-85-8 Printed in Belgium. ; Ley Orgánica 3/1981, de 6 de abril, del Defensor del Pueblo., Publicado en BOE de 07 de Mayo de 1981. ; Lov om Stortingets ombudsmann for forvaltningen sivilombudsmannsloven., Justis- og beredskapsdepartementet 1962. ; Meeting of the Heads of State or Government the Hague 1-2 december 1969 r. ; The Netherlands National Ombudsman Act., Act of 4 February 1981 (Bulletin of Acts and Decrees 1981, 35), most recently amended by Act of Parliament of 12 May 1999 (Bulletin of Acts and Decrees 1999, 214). ; Towards European citizenship, Implementation of point 10 of the final communique issued at the European Summit held in Paris on 9 and 10 December 1974 r., Report presented by the Commission to the Council on 3 July 1975 r. Bulletin of the European Communities, Supplement 7/75. ; Organy ochrony prawnej w wybranych krajach Unii Europejskiej, Biuro Analiz i Dokumentacji, Zespół Analiz i Opracowań Tematycznych, Kancelaria Senatu, Marzec 2011 r. ; On 2 December 1969, in the Final Communiqué from the Hague Summit, the Heads of State or Government of the Six declare their determination to pursue the aim of the unification of Europe and to strengthen the European Communities. ; Report drawn up on behalf of the Legal Affairs Committee on the appointment of a Community Ombudsman by the European Parliament, 6 April 1979 (PE 57.508/fin.). Rapporteur: Sir Derek Walker-Smith ; Rezolucja projektu Traktatu ustanawiającego Unię Europejską, Dz.U. 1984 nr C 77. ; Säädösmuutosten hakemisto: Suomen Hallitusmuoto (94/1919), Helsingissä 17 päivänä heinäkuuta 1919 r. ; Suomen perustuslaki., Eduskunnan päätöksen mukaisesti, joka on tehty valtiopäiväjärjestyksen 67 §: ssä määrätyllä tavalla, säädetään: 11.6.1999/731. ; Sweriges rikes grundlagar och konstitutionella institutioner [1809-1841], samt Norriges grundlag [1814]. Med. ett fullständigt register öfwer Swenska Grundlagarne och Riks-Akten, Örebro 1842 r. ; Vigencia desde 27 de Mayo de 1981. Revisión vigente desde 05 de Noviembre de 2009. ; 19 ; 1 ; 443 ; 459
The article takes stock of the historical development of the notion of the right of a people to self-determination in international law. It provides a coherent review of the main international treaties, customary rules, and legal rulings that shaped the evolution of the term over the course of the twentieth century. In doing so, it focuses on the main historical and political events, which had an impact on that process as well as the preconditions that have to be met in order for a people to have the legal capacity to execute the right to self-determination. Three main processes, which it focuses on are: decolonization, the establishment of a number of new countries following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, and the recent developments following ICJ's Advisory Opinion on Accordance with International Law of the Unilateral Declaration of Independence in Respect of Kosovo. It also delineates the subject of the legal definition of a "people" as opposed to a "minority", describes the legal tension between the right to self-determination and the principle of territorial continuity in international law, and discusses potential further development of the term. ; pawelchamiercieminski@gmail.com ; Paweł von Chamier Cieminski – PhD student in law at the Faculty of Law and Administration of the University of Warsaw (Poland). His main area of research is international law, in particular the right to self-determination and the legal status of international electronic interferences. ; University of Warsaw, Poland ; Advisory Opinion of the ICJ on the case of accordance with international law of the unilateral declaration of independence in respect of Kosovo, 2010, Rep. 2010. ; Advisory Opinion of the ICJ on the case of Legal Consequences of the Construction of a wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, 2004. ; Advisory Opinion of the ICJ on the case of Western Sahara, 1975. ; Antonowicz L., O zmianach mapy politycznej świata w XX w. (kilka uwag ze stanowiska prawa międzynarodowego), Studia Iuridica Lublinensia 19, Lublin 2013. ; Antonowicz L., Rzecz o państwach i prawie międzynarodowym, Lublin 2012. ; Antonowicz L., Zagadnienie podmiotowości prawa międzynarodowego, "Annales UMCS" 1998, Vol. XLV. ; Appendix: Opinions of the Arbitration Committee of the Peace Conference on Yugoslavia, Council of Ministers of the European Economic Community, 11 January 1992. ; Augestad Knudsen R., Moments of self-determination: the concept of 'self-determination' and the idea of freedom in 20th- and 21st century international discourse. PhD thesis, The London School of Economics and Political Science, London 2013. ; Aukerman M., Definitions and Justifications: Minority and Indigenous Rights in a Central/East European Context, "Human Rights Quarterly", Vol. 22, 2000. ; Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (Belgium v Spain), Judgement, 1964, the ICJ. ; Caplan R. and Wolff S., Some Implications of the Advisory Opinion for Resolution of the Serbia-Kosovo Conflict, The Law and Politics of The Kosovo Advisory Opinion. ; Case Concerning East Timor (Portugal v Australia), Judgment, 1995, the ICJ Rep. 90. ; Charter of the United Nations, 1 UNTS XVI, United Nations, 1945. ; Conference On Security And Co-Operation In Europe Final Act, Conference On Security And Co-Operation In Europe, Helsinki August 1st 1975. ; Crawford J., The Creation of States in International Law, New York 2007. ; Czapliński W., Zmiany terytorialne w Europie Środkowo-Wschodniej i ich skutki międzynarodowoprawne, Warsaw 1998. ; Declaration on the Inadmissibility of Intervention and Interference in the Internal Affairs of States, UN GA, Res. 21 December 1965, A/RES/36/103, UN Doc. A/36/51. ; Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples, UN GA, Res. December 14 1960, 1514 (XV). ; Declaration on Principles of International Law concerning Friendly Relations and Cooperation among States in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations, UN GA, Res. 24 October 1970, A/RES/2625(XXV), UN Doc. A/5217. ; Frowein J., De Facto Regime, Max Planck Encyclopedias of International Law, March 2013. ; Gross L., The Peace of Westphalia, 1648–1948, The American Journal of International Law, vol. 42, no. 1, 1948. ; International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, UN GA, Res. 16 December 1966, A/RES/2200. ; International meeting of experts on further study of the concept of the rights of peoples, UNESCO, SHS-89/CONF. 602/7, Paris, 22 February 1990. ; Judgment of the ICJ on case South West Africa, Second Phase, 1966. ; Legal Consequences of the Construction of a wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Advisory Opinion, 2004, the ICJ Rep. 136. ; Legal Advisory Committee to the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Poland, The incorporation of Crimea into Russian Federation in light of international law, 2014. ; Łaski P., Dezintegracja Związku Radzieckiego i Jugosławii w świetle prawa międzynarodowego, "Annales Universitatis Mariae Curie-Skłodowska" 1992. ; Vaccaro-Incisa G., Crimea's Secession from Ukraine and Accession to the Russian Federation as an Instance of North(-West) v. South(-East) Divide in the Understanding of International Law, 15 Santa Clara Journal of International Law. ; Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States, Seventh International Conference of American States, December 26 1933. ; Navari C., Territoriality, self-determination and Crimea after Badinter, International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs 1944-) 90(6). ; Kirgis Jr. F., The Degrees of Self-determination in the United Nations Era, ,,American Journal or International Law" 1994. ; Perkowski M., Samostanowienie narodów w prawie międzynarodowym, Warszawa 2001. ; Pomerance M., The Badinter Commission: The Use and Misuse of the International Court of Justice's Jurisprudence, 20 Michigan Journal of International Law 31(1998), p.31. ; Recognition of States and Governments, Switzerland's Ministry of Foreign Affairs, DFA, Directorate of International Law. ; Reference re Secession of Quebec 2 SCR 217, Supreme Court of Canada, 1998. ; Resolution 2005/1 - Obligations erga omnes in International Law, Institut de Droit International, 2005. ; Shaw M., International Law, Cambridge 2008. ; Simpson G., Great Powers and Outlaw State: Unequal Sovereigns in the International Legal Order, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2004. ; The Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe Helsinki, 1 August 1975. ; The ICJ Judgement on Case Concerning East Timor (Portugal v Australia), 1995, Rep. 90. ; The incorporation of Crimea into Russian Federation in light of international law, Legal Advisory Committee to the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Poland, 14.12.2014. ; The League of Nations, The National Archives of the UK Government, Section Credibility and end of the League, November 2020. ; The Opinions of the Badinter Arbitration Committee A Second Breath for the Self-Determination of Peoples, 3 EJIL (1992). ; Tyranowski J., Integralność terytorialna, nienaruszalność granic i samostanowienie w prawie międzynarodowym, Warszawa – Poznań 1990. ; United Nations General Assembly Resolution 68/262, 27 March 2014. ; United Nations Security Council, Res. 550, 11 May 1984. ; Vidmar J., Explaining The Legal Effects Of Recognition, The International and Comparative Law Quarterly 61(2). ; Walter Ch. and von Ungern-Sternberg A. and Abushov K., Self-Determination and Secession in International Law, Oxford University Press, 2014. ; 25 ; 3 ; 117 ; 132
The present article generalizes the arguments and counterarguments within the scholarly discussion of creating the value of enterprise through the intensification of efforts of the innovative development of enterprises and searching for the better organizational forms of the innovative politics realization both on the national and on the regional levels. Special focus is on the possibility of adapting the international experience of the innovations-active countries.Main objective of the research is the grounding of the new formation of the innovation center within the cluster formation of enterprises for the purpose of creating their value.Systematization of the literature sources and approaches to the solution of the problem of creating the value of enterprises through the use of the innovation centers in the cluster formations proved that such a suggestion is reasonable, since the existence of clusters in Ukraine is already traditional and has certain economic effects, but their direction towards the realization of the innovative priorities of the development will stipulate the growth of their value both at the national and on the international markets.The topicality of the solution of present scholarly issue is constituted by the fact that the realization of the innovative development strategy in Ukraine is impossible without searching for the better form of the enterprise innovative activity realization, studying the foreign experience of the countries which have successfully overcome the crisis and realize the innovative development programs both on the macro and micro-levels.The issue of the enterprises value creation through the realization of the innovation centers in the cluster formations was studied in the article in the following logical order: The forms, functions and results of the international models of the innovative development management are analyzed with the allocation of the standards of the United States of America, some EU states (Great Britain, Switzerland and Poland) and the East Asian standards in the context of the experience of Japan, Singapore and South Korea) for the purpose of finding the best forms of the innovative development management for the possible adaptation at the international enterprises; the positions of the world community countries are studied according to the Global innovation index, business facility rating and index of the information and communication technologies, the rating of the countries is analyzed according to the innovative activity level.The methodological tools of the research are constituted by the methods of the scientific abstraction, in the aspect of finding the forms of the innovative development, economic modeling acceptable for realization in Ukraine, when constructing the cluster formation model by the innovation centers, economic experiment during the suggestion of the business-plan of the innovative project, the analysis and synthesis methods, comparative advantages, statistical and logical methods, etc.The period from 1989 to 2018 inclusive was selected as a research period. The research object is constituted by the innovations-active countries of the world economic area, since they successfully realize the principles of the enterprises value creation through the innovative development management. The article presents the results of empirical analysis of the national conditions and foreign experience of the enterprises values creation due to the realization of the innovative development priorities which proved that the experience of using the cluster formations with the innovation center in each region of Ukraine is one of the most topical and possible ones for the implementation.The results of the conducted research may be useful for the formation of priorities of the regional innovative policy and for the enterprises, institutions, organizations which together with the educational institutions will create the condition for the successful innovative partnership and growth of the value of each component. ; Узагальнено аргументи і контраргументи в межах наукової дискусії з питання креації вартості підприємства через інтенсифікацію зусиль інноваційного розвитку підприємств і пошуку кращих організаційних форм реалізації інноваційної політики як на національному, так і на регіональному рівнях. Особливу увагу надано можливості адаптації зарубіжного досвіду інноваційно активних країн.Основною метою проведеного дослідження є аргументування формування нової формації інноваційних центрів у межах кластерного утворення підприємств з метою креації їхньої вартості.Систематизація літературних джерел і підходів до розв'язання роблеми креації вартості підприємств через використання інноваційних центрів у кластерних утвореннях засвідчила, що така пропозиція є доцільною, оскільки існування кластерів в Україні вже має свою традицію і приносить певні економічні ефекти, але спрямування їх саме на реалізацію інноваційних пріоритетів розвитку зумовить зростання їхньої вартості як на національному, так і на міжнародному ринках.Актуальність розв'язання цієї наукової проблеми полягає в тому, що реалізація стратегії інноваційного розвитку України неможлива без пошуку кращих форм реалізації інноваційної діяльності підприємств, вивчення зарубіжного досвіду країн, що успішно вийшли з кризового стану і реалізовують програми інноваційного розвитку як на макро-, так на мікрорівні.Дослідження питання креації вартості підприємств через реалізацію інноваційних центрів у кластерних утвореннях здійснено в такій логічній послідовності: проаналізовано форми, функції та результати закордонних моделей управління інноваційним розвитком із виокремленням моделей Сполучених Штатів Америки, деяких країн Європейського Союзу (Великобританії, Швейцарії та Польщі) і східноазійських моделей у розрізі досвіду Японії, Сінгапуру і Південної Кореї) з метою виявлення найкращих для можливої адаптації на вітчизняних підприємствах форм управління інноваційним розвитком; досліджено позиції країн світового співтовариства за Глобальним інноваційним індексом, рейтингом легкості бізнесу та індексом інформаційно-комунікаційних технологій, проаналізовано рейтинг країн за рівнем інноваційної активності.Методичним інструментарієм проведеного дослідження стали методи наукової абстракції, в аспекті виявлення прийнятних для реалізації в Україні форм інноваційного розвитку, економічного моделювання при побудові моделі кластерного утворення інноваційним центром економічного експерименту за запропонованого бізнес-плану інноваційного проекту, методи аналізу та синтезу, порівняльних переваг, статистичний і логічний методи тощо.Періодом дослідження обрано роки з 1989 до 2018 рр. включно. Об'єктом дослідження обрано інноваційно активні країни світового економічного простору, оскільки саме вони успішно реалізують принципи креації вартості підприємств через управління інноваційним розвитком. Представлено результати емпіричного аналізу вітчизняних умов і зарубіжного досвіду креації вартості підприємств унаслідок реалізації пріоритетів інноваційного розвитку, який засвідчив, що одним із найбільш актуальних і можливих для впровадження є досвід використання кластерних утворень з інноваційним центром у кожному регіоні України.Результати проведеного дослідження можуть бути корисними для формування пріоритетів регіональної інноваційної політики і для підприємств, установ, організацій, що разом із навчальними закладами створять умову для успішного інноваційного партнерства та зростання вартості кожної складової. ; Обобщены аргументы и контраргументы в научной дискуссии по вопросу креации стоимости предприятия через интенсификацию усилий инновационного развития предприятий и поиска лучших организационных форм реализации инновационной политики как на национальном, так и на региональном уровнях. Особое внимание уделяется возможности адаптации зарубежного опыта инновационно активных стран.Основной целью проведенного исследования является аргументация формирования новой формации инновационных центров в пределах кластерного образования предприятий с целью креации их стоимости.Систематизация литературных источников и подходов к решению проблемы креации стоимости предприятий через использование инновационных центров в кластерных образованиях показала, что такое предложение является целесообразным, поскольку существование кластеров в Украине уже имеет свою традицию и приносит определенные экономические эффекты, но направление их именно на реализацию инновационных приоритетов развития приведет к росту их стоимости как на национальном, так и на международном рынках.
The present article generalizes the arguments and counterarguments within the scholarly discussion of creating the value of enterprise through the intensification of efforts of the innovative development of enterprises and searching for the better organizational forms of the innovative politics realization both on the national and on the regional levels. Special focus is on the possibility of adapting the international experience of the innovations-active countries.Main objective of the research is the grounding of the new formation of the innovation center within the cluster formation of enterprises for the purpose of creating their value.Systematization of the literature sources and approaches to the solution of the problem of creating the value of enterprises through the use of the innovation centers in the cluster formations proved that such a suggestion is reasonable, since the existence of clusters in Ukraine is already traditional and has certain economic effects, but their direction towards the realization of the innovative priorities of the development will stipulate the growth of their value both at the national and on the international markets.The topicality of the solution of present scholarly issue is constituted by the fact that the realization of the innovative development strategy in Ukraine is impossible without searching for the better form of the enterprise innovative activity realization, studying the foreign experience of the countries which have successfully overcome the crisis and realize the innovative development programs both on the macro and micro-levels.The issue of the enterprises value creation through the realization of the innovation centers in the cluster formations was studied in the article in the following logical order: The forms, functions and results of the international models of the innovative development management are analyzed with the allocation of the standards of the United States of America, some EU states (Great Britain, Switzerland and Poland) and the East Asian standards in the context of the experience of Japan, Singapore and South Korea) for the purpose of finding the best forms of the innovative development management for the possible adaptation at the international enterprises; the positions of the world community countries are studied according to the Global innovation index, business facility rating and index of the information and communication technologies, the rating of the countries is analyzed according to the innovative activity level.The methodological tools of the research are constituted by the methods of the scientific abstraction, in the aspect of finding the forms of the innovative development, economic modeling acceptable for realization in Ukraine, when constructing the cluster formation model by the innovation centers, economic experiment during the suggestion of the business-plan of the innovative project, the analysis and synthesis methods, comparative advantages, statistical and logical methods, etc.The period from 1989 to 2018 inclusive was selected as a research period. The research object is constituted by the innovations-active countries of the world economic area, since they successfully realize the principles of the enterprises value creation through the innovative development management. The article presents the results of empirical analysis of the national conditions and foreign experience of the enterprises values creation due to the realization of the innovative development priorities which proved that the experience of using the cluster formations with the innovation center in each region of Ukraine is one of the most topical and possible ones for the implementation.The results of the conducted research may be useful for the formation of priorities of the regional innovative policy and for the enterprises, institutions, organizations which together with the educational institutions will create the condition for the successful innovative partnership and growth of the value of each component. ; Узагальнено аргументи і контраргументи в межах наукової дискусії з питання креації вартості підприємства через інтенсифікацію зусиль інноваційного розвитку підприємств і пошуку кращих організаційних форм реалізації інноваційної політики як на національному, так і на регіональному рівнях. Особливу увагу надано можливості адаптації зарубіжного досвіду інноваційно активних країн.Основною метою проведеного дослідження є аргументування формування нової формації інноваційних центрів у межах кластерного утворення підприємств з метою креації їхньої вартості.Систематизація літературних джерел і підходів до розв'язання роблеми креації вартості підприємств через використання інноваційних центрів у кластерних утвореннях засвідчила, що така пропозиція є доцільною, оскільки існування кластерів в Україні вже має свою традицію і приносить певні економічні ефекти, але спрямування їх саме на реалізацію інноваційних пріоритетів розвитку зумовить зростання їхньої вартості як на національному, так і на міжнародному ринках.Актуальність розв'язання цієї наукової проблеми полягає в тому, що реалізація стратегії інноваційного розвитку України неможлива без пошуку кращих форм реалізації інноваційної діяльності підприємств, вивчення зарубіжного досвіду країн, що успішно вийшли з кризового стану і реалізовують програми інноваційного розвитку як на макро-, так на мікрорівні.Дослідження питання креації вартості підприємств через реалізацію інноваційних центрів у кластерних утвореннях здійснено в такій логічній послідовності: проаналізовано форми, функції та результати закордонних моделей управління інноваційним розвитком із виокремленням моделей Сполучених Штатів Америки, деяких країн Європейського Союзу (Великобританії, Швейцарії та Польщі) і східноазійських моделей у розрізі досвіду Японії, Сінгапуру і Південної Кореї) з метою виявлення найкращих для можливої адаптації на вітчизняних підприємствах форм управління інноваційним розвитком; досліджено позиції країн світового співтовариства за Глобальним інноваційним індексом, рейтингом легкості бізнесу та індексом інформаційно-комунікаційних технологій, проаналізовано рейтинг країн за рівнем інноваційної активності.Методичним інструментарієм проведеного дослідження стали методи наукової абстракції, в аспекті виявлення прийнятних для реалізації в Україні форм інноваційного розвитку, економічного моделювання при побудові моделі кластерного утворення інноваційним центром економічного експерименту за запропонованого бізнес-плану інноваційного проекту, методи аналізу та синтезу, порівняльних переваг, статистичний і логічний методи тощо.Періодом дослідження обрано роки з 1989 до 2018 рр. включно. Об'єктом дослідження обрано інноваційно активні країни світового економічного простору, оскільки саме вони успішно реалізують принципи креації вартості підприємств через управління інноваційним розвитком. Представлено результати емпіричного аналізу вітчизняних умов і зарубіжного досвіду креації вартості підприємств унаслідок реалізації пріоритетів інноваційного розвитку, який засвідчив, що одним із найбільш актуальних і можливих для впровадження є досвід використання кластерних утворень з інноваційним центром у кожному регіоні України.Результати проведеного дослідження можуть бути корисними для формування пріоритетів регіональної інноваційної політики і для підприємств, установ, організацій, що разом із навчальними закладами створять умову для успішного інноваційного партнерства та зростання вартості кожної складової. ; Обобщены аргументы и контраргументы в научной дискуссии по вопросу креации стоимости предприятия через интенсификацию усилий инновационного развития предприятий и поиска лучших организационных форм реализации инновационной политики как на национальном, так и на региональном уровнях. Особое внимание уделяется возможности адаптации зарубежного опыта инновационно активных стран.Основной целью проведенного исследования является аргументация формирования новой формации инновационных центров в пределах кластерного образования предприятий с целью креации их стоимости.Систематизация литературных источников и подходов к решению проблемы креации стоимости предприятий через использование инновационных центров в кластерных образованиях показала, что такое предложение является целесообразным, поскольку существование кластеров в Украине уже имеет свою традицию и приносит определенные экономические эффекты, но направление их именно на реализацию инновационных приоритетов развития приведет к росту их стоимости как на национальном, так и на международном рынках.
The relevance of the study lies in the fact that in modern conditions globalization acts as the main trend in the development of the modern world; this is noted at the Davos forum in 2019. Development of all spheres of society, the state and the person - from politics, economics - to sports and gender equality. The problem of the research - globalization in sport - is transformation of sport into a global phenomenon, universal in nature, which has significant impact on all aspects of society. Therefore, the scope of dispute and sports culture act as an object of scientific research. Sport stimulates and forms social and cultural reflection on a world scale, reviving the idea of interdependence of humankind in sport and through sport. Unity is formed due to a variety of factors, including a network of communication technologies of financial, political and cultural interdependencies, new cultural forms of interaction that give impetus to sports interactions, forming a single global market for goods, services, behavioral standards, models of sociality, formation of modern values achieving sports success. Problem of globalization in sports is associated with Eurocentric's, based on formation of European values of sports, sports culture and sports success, and in general sports management. The object of the research is sports management as a condition for the development of sports culture in the context of globalization 4.0. The objectives of the research are to analyze new trends in the global mankind development that influence sports development and culture, contribute to self-fulfillment of a person from the physical and spiritual side as a priority of creative person. Methods - analysis and synthesis, abstraction, cross-cultural analysis, logical and historical, comparative analysis contribute the penetration into complex phenomena and processes of modern reality associated with sports in context of globalization. Results. Globalization is changing usual way people in sports, along with many advantages, has number of negative, painful problems associated with overt commercialization. Globalization has entered single microsystem structure as a process of integration and economic (sports) exchange; global artifacts are present in sports management, to extent that sport is institutionalized on the scale of global sports communities. The form of sports globalization refers to specific way that structuring problems of sports take place and their transfer to the globalization level of (regional) problem solving, that is, global and local integration takes place. Conclusion. Globalization means increase in available methods of organizing sport events, which requires formation of sports concept management - transnational, international, interregional, macro-rational, regional municipal, local organizations require improvement of sports management. This ladder of administrative levels is cut through the functional networks of corporations, international organizations and non-governmental organizations, as well as number of professional international organizations. Internationalization of sports is being determined by globalization. ; Актуальность исследования заключается в том, что в современных условиях глобализация выступает как основная тенденция развития современного мира; это отмечено на Давосском форуме в 2019 году. Приобретают развитие все сферы жизнедеятельности общества, государства и человека - от политики, экономики - к спорту и гендерного равенства. Проблема исследования - глобализация в спорте - это превращение спорта в явление глобального, общечеловеческого характера, которое оказывает существенное влияние на все стороны жизнедеятельности общества. Поэтому сфера спорта и спортивной культуры выступают как объект научного исследования. Спорт стимулирует и формирует социальную и культурную рефлексию мирового масштаба, возрождая идею взаимозависимости человечества в спорте и через спорт. Единство формируется благодаря множеству факторов, среди которых сеть коммуникационных технологий, финансовых, политических и культурных взаимозависимостей, новых культурных форм взаимодействия, которые дают толчок спортивным взаимодействиям, формируя единый мировой рынок товаров, услуг, поведенческих стандартов, моделей социальности, современных ценностей в достижении спортивного успеха . Проблема глобализации в спорте связана с евроцентризмом, в основе которого - формирование европейских ценностей спорта, спортивной культуры и спортивного успеха, а в целом спортивного менеджмента. Объект исследования - спортивный менеджмент как условие развития спортивной культуры в условиях глобализации 4.0. Цели исследования - проанализировать новые тенденции глобального развития человечества, которые влияют на развитие спорта и спортивной культуры, способствуют самосовершенствованию человека физически и духовно, поднимают приоритет личности. Методы - анализа и синтеза, абстрагирования, кросскультурного, логического, исторического, сравнительного анализа- способствуют проникновению в сложные феномены и процессы современной действительности, связанные со спортом в условиях глобализации. Результаты. Глобализация меняет обычный образ людей в спорте, вместе со многими плюсами имеет ряд негативных, болезненных проблем, связанных с откровенной коммерциализацией. Глобализация вошла в единую структуру микросистемы как процесс интеграции и экономического (спортивного) обмена; глобальные артефакты присутствуют в спортивном менеджменте, поскольку спорт институционализирован в масштабах глобальных спортивных сообществ. Под формой спортивной глобализации имеется в виду конкретный способ, в котором происходит структурирование проблем спорта и перевода их на уровень глокализации (регионального) решения проблем, то есть происходит единение глобального и глокальном. Вывод. Глобализация означает увеличение доступных способов организации спортивных мероприятий, требует формирования концепции спортивного менеджмента, - транснациональных, международных, межрегиональных, макронациональных, региональных муниципальных, локальных организаций, которые нуждаются в совершенствовании спортивного менеджмента. Эта лестница административных уровней рассекают функциональные сети корпораций, международных и неправительственных организаций, а также ряд профессиональных международных организаций. Формируется интернационализация спорта, которая детерминируется глобализацией. ; Актуальність дослідження полягає в тому, що в сучасних умовах глобалізація виступає як основна тенденція розвитку сучасного світу; це відзначено на Давоському форумі в 2019 році. Набувають розвиток всі сфери життєдіяльності суспільства, держави і людини - від політики, економіки - до спорту і гендерної рівності. Проблема дослідження - глобалізація в спорті - це перетворення спорту в явище глобального, загальнолюдського характеру, яке має суттєвий вплив на всі сторони життєдіяльності суспільства. Тому сфера спорту і спортивної культури виступають як об'єкт наукового дослідження. Спорт стимулює і формує соціальну та культурну рефлексію світового масштабу, відроджуючи ідею взаємозалежності людства в спорті і через спорт. Єдність формується завдяки безлічі чинників, серед яких мережа комунікаційних технологій, фінансових, політичних і культурних взаємозалежностей, нових культурних форм взаємодії, які дають поштовх спортивним взаємодіям, формуючи єдиний світовий ринок товарів, послуг, поведінкових стандартів, моделей соціальності, модерних цінностей у досягненні спортивного успіху. Проблема глобалізації у спорті пов'язана з європоцентризмом, в основі якого - формування європейських цінностей спорту, спортивної культури та спортивного успіху, а в цілому-спортивного менеджменту. Об'єкт дослідження - спортивний менеджмент як умова розвитку спортивної культури в умовах глобалізації 4.0. Цілі дослідження - проаналізувати нові тенденції глобального розвитку людства, які впливають на розвиток спорту та спортивної культури, сприяють самовдосконаленню людини фізично та духовно, піднімають пріоритет творчої особистості. Методи - аналізу і синтезу, абстрагування, кроскультурного, логічного, історичного, порівняльного аналізу- сприяють проникненню в складні феномени і процеси сучасної дійсності, пов'язані зі спортом в умовах глобалізації. Результати. Глобалізація змінює звичайний спосіб людей в спорті, разом з багатьма плюсами має низку негативних, хворобливих проблем, пов'язаних з відвертою комерціалізацією. Глобалізація увійшла в єдину структуру мікросистеми як процес інтеграції і економічного (спортивного) обміну; глобальні артефакти присутні в спортивному менеджменті, остільки спорт інституціоналізований в масштабах глобальних спортивних спільнот. Під формою спортивної глобалізації мається на увазі конкретний спосіб, в якому відбувається структурування проблем спорту і переведення їх на рівень глокалізації (регіонального) вирішення проблем, тобто відбувається єднання глобального і глокального. Висновок. Глобалізація означає збільшення доступних способів організації спортивних заходів, що вимагає формування концепції спортивного менеджменту, - транснаціональних, інтернаціональних, міжрегіональних, макронаціональних, регіональних муніципальних, локальних організацій, які потребують вдосконалення спортивного менеджменту. Ці сходи адміністративних рівнів розсікають функціональні мережі корпорацій, міжнародних та неурядових організацій, а також ряд професійних міжнародних організацій. Формується інтернаціоналізація спорту, яка детермінується глобалізацією.
The relevance of the study lies in the fact that in modern conditions globalization acts as the main trend in the development of the modern world; this is noted at the Davos forum in 2019. Development of all spheres of society, the state and the person - from politics, economics - to sports and gender equality. The problem of the research - globalization in sport - is transformation of sport into a global phenomenon, universal in nature, which has significant impact on all aspects of society. Therefore, the scope of dispute and sports culture act as an object of scientific research. Sport stimulates and forms social and cultural reflection on a world scale, reviving the idea of interdependence of humankind in sport and through sport. Unity is formed due to a variety of factors, including a network of communication technologies of financial, political and cultural interdependencies, new cultural forms of interaction that give impetus to sports interactions, forming a single global market for goods, services, behavioral standards, models of sociality, formation of modern values achieving sports success. Problem of globalization in sports is associated with Eurocentric's, based on formation of European values of sports, sports culture and sports success, and in general sports management. The object of the research is sports management as a condition for the development of sports culture in the context of globalization 4.0. The objectives of the research are to analyze new trends in the global mankind development that influence sports development and culture, contribute to self-fulfillment of a person from the physical and spiritual side as a priority of creative person. Methods - analysis and synthesis, abstraction, cross-cultural analysis, logical and historical, comparative analysis contribute the penetration into complex phenomena and processes of modern reality associated with sports in context of globalization. Results. Globalization is changing usual way people in sports, along with many advantages, has number of negative, painful problems associated with overt commercialization. Globalization has entered single microsystem structure as a process of integration and economic (sports) exchange; global artifacts are present in sports management, to extent that sport is institutionalized on the scale of global sports communities. The form of sports globalization refers to specific way that structuring problems of sports take place and their transfer to the globalization level of (regional) problem solving, that is, global and local integration takes place. Conclusion. Globalization means increase in available methods of organizing sport events, which requires formation of sports concept management - transnational, international, interregional, macro-rational, regional municipal, local organizations require improvement of sports management. This ladder of administrative levels is cut through the functional networks of corporations, international organizations and non-governmental organizations, as well as number of professional international organizations. Internationalization of sports is being determined by globalization. ; Актуальность исследования заключается в том, что в современных условиях глобализация выступает как основная тенденция развития современного мира; это отмечено на Давосском форуме в 2019 году. Приобретают развитие все сферы жизнедеятельности общества, государства и человека - от политики, экономики - к спорту и гендерного равенства. Проблема исследования - глобализация в спорте - это превращение спорта в явление глобального, общечеловеческого характера, которое оказывает существенное влияние на все стороны жизнедеятельности общества. Поэтому сфера спорта и спортивной культуры выступают как объект научного исследования. Спорт стимулирует и формирует социальную и культурную рефлексию мирового масштаба, возрождая идею взаимозависимости человечества в спорте и через спорт. Единство формируется благодаря множеству факторов, среди которых сеть коммуникационных технологий, финансовых, политических и культурных взаимозависимостей, новых культурных форм взаимодействия, которые дают толчок спортивным взаимодействиям, формируя единый мировой рынок товаров, услуг, поведенческих стандартов, моделей социальности, современных ценностей в достижении спортивного успеха . Проблема глобализации в спорте связана с евроцентризмом, в основе которого - формирование европейских ценностей спорта, спортивной культуры и спортивного успеха, а в целом спортивного менеджмента. Объект исследования - спортивный менеджмент как условие развития спортивной культуры в условиях глобализации 4.0. Цели исследования - проанализировать новые тенденции глобального развития человечества, которые влияют на развитие спорта и спортивной культуры, способствуют самосовершенствованию человека физически и духовно, поднимают приоритет личности. Методы - анализа и синтеза, абстрагирования, кросскультурного, логического, исторического, сравнительного анализа- способствуют проникновению в сложные феномены и процессы современной действительности, связанные со спортом в условиях глобализации. Результаты. Глобализация меняет обычный образ людей в спорте, вместе со многими плюсами имеет ряд негативных, болезненных проблем, связанных с откровенной коммерциализацией. Глобализация вошла в единую структуру микросистемы как процесс интеграции и экономического (спортивного) обмена; глобальные артефакты присутствуют в спортивном менеджменте, поскольку спорт институционализирован в масштабах глобальных спортивных сообществ. Под формой спортивной глобализации имеется в виду конкретный способ, в котором происходит структурирование проблем спорта и перевода их на уровень глокализации (регионального) решения проблем, то есть происходит единение глобального и глокальном. Вывод. Глобализация означает увеличение доступных способов организации спортивных мероприятий, требует формирования концепции спортивного менеджмента, - транснациональных, международных, межрегиональных, макронациональных, региональных муниципальных, локальных организаций, которые нуждаются в совершенствовании спортивного менеджмента. Эта лестница административных уровней рассекают функциональные сети корпораций, международных и неправительственных организаций, а также ряд профессиональных международных организаций. Формируется интернационализация спорта, которая детерминируется глобализацией. ; Актуальність дослідження полягає в тому, що в сучасних умовах глобалізація виступає як основна тенденція розвитку сучасного світу; це відзначено на Давоському форумі в 2019 році. Набувають розвиток всі сфери життєдіяльності суспільства, держави і людини - від політики, економіки - до спорту і гендерної рівності. Проблема дослідження - глобалізація в спорті - це перетворення спорту в явище глобального, загальнолюдського характеру, яке має суттєвий вплив на всі сторони життєдіяльності суспільства. Тому сфера спорту і спортивної культури виступають як об'єкт наукового дослідження. Спорт стимулює і формує соціальну та культурну рефлексію світового масштабу, відроджуючи ідею взаємозалежності людства в спорті і через спорт. Єдність формується завдяки безлічі чинників, серед яких мережа комунікаційних технологій, фінансових, політичних і культурних взаємозалежностей, нових культурних форм взаємодії, які дають поштовх спортивним взаємодіям, формуючи єдиний світовий ринок товарів, послуг, поведінкових стандартів, моделей соціальності, модерних цінностей у досягненні спортивного успіху. Проблема глобалізації у спорті пов'язана з європоцентризмом, в основі якого - формування європейських цінностей спорту, спортивної культури та спортивного успіху, а в цілому-спортивного менеджменту. Об'єкт дослідження - спортивний менеджмент як умова розвитку спортивної культури в умовах глобалізації 4.0. Цілі дослідження - проаналізувати нові тенденції глобального розвитку людства, які впливають на розвиток спорту та спортивної культури, сприяють самовдосконаленню людини фізично та духовно, піднімають пріоритет творчої особистості. Методи - аналізу і синтезу, абстрагування, кроскультурного, логічного, історичного, порівняльного аналізу- сприяють проникненню в складні феномени і процеси сучасної дійсності, пов'язані зі спортом в умовах глобалізації. Результати. Глобалізація змінює звичайний спосіб людей в спорті, разом з багатьма плюсами має низку негативних, хворобливих проблем, пов'язаних з відвертою комерціалізацією. Глобалізація увійшла в єдину структуру мікросистеми як процес інтеграції і економічного (спортивного) обміну; глобальні артефакти присутні в спортивному менеджменті, остільки спорт інституціоналізований в масштабах глобальних спортивних спільнот. Під формою спортивної глобалізації мається на увазі конкретний спосіб, в якому відбувається структурування проблем спорту і переведення їх на рівень глокалізації (регіонального) вирішення проблем, тобто відбувається єднання глобального і глокального. Висновок. Глобалізація означає збільшення доступних способів організації спортивних заходів, що вимагає формування концепції спортивного менеджменту, - транснаціональних, інтернаціональних, міжрегіональних, макронаціональних, регіональних муніципальних, локальних організацій, які потребують вдосконалення спортивного менеджменту. Ці сходи адміністративних рівнів розсікають функціональні мережі корпорацій, міжнародних та неурядових організацій, а також ряд професійних міжнародних організацій. Формується інтернаціоналізація спорту, яка детермінується глобалізацією.
My dissertation is concerned with uneven economic adaptation and adaptability of old industrial areas in an evolutionary and institutional, as well as a human agency perspective. There is a considerable literature in economic geography (EG), focusing on the role of firms and industry dynamics in affecting the evolution of old industrial areas (OIAs). However, little work has been done, both empirically and theoretically, on the role of state, multi-scalar institutions, politics and policies. Moreover, the majority of the re-search on the topic is very much based on single-case studies, whose evidence and knowledge is mainly derived from European and American contexts. Therefore, the key aim of the doctoral dissertation are to: 1) theoretically, integrate an institutional and geographical political economy perspective with the Evolutionary Economic Geography (EEG) approach, in order to give a better understanding of the evolutionary processes and mechanisms of OIAs. And 2) empirically, to examine the nature of uneven regional economic evolution, based on an in-depth comparison of two coal-mining regions in a post-crisis and non-western context. My book pays more attention to how the state, more precisely, how the people within the state and state owned enterprises (SOEs) of OIAs, response and enact to changing environment for long-run industrial adaptation and adaptability. It does not simply focus on the micro behaviors of firms, states and people, but more on their embedded posi-tions and relationships of multi-scalar political-institutional frameworks and policy fields. The empirical research is based on in-depth case studies on two Chinese coal-mining re-gions (Zaozhuang in Shandong Province and Fuxin in Liaoning Province) both facing the 'slow burn' crisis of local coal resource exhaustion since 2000. The findings are mainly derived from a qualitative method of semi-structured interviews and evaluated by con-text analysis and statistical data description. In this book, first and foremost, the concepts of path dependence, path creation and lock-ins are critically examined. The empirical evidence suggests that the effects of lock-ins in Chinese contexts are more politically constituted, due to the Chinese-specific ad-ministrative hierarchy system among SOEs and governments. Despite strong industrial path dependence and negative regional lock-ins, new paths are not restricted to emerge. Based on the notion of path plasticity, I conclude that the Chinese local state and its state leaders in OIAs are aware of how to balance the interests among multi-scalar polit-ical economies, and of how to flexibly read and enact locally according to multi-scalar institutional and policy conditions for potential industrial change. Secondly, given the ubiquitous influences of state elites in China, the book takes a closer look at how state officials mold specific institutional environment for industrial dynamics. The notion of place leadership has been critically adopted in the Chinese authoritarian context. It well explains the micro-level dynamics and characteristics of people on the evolution of Chinese OIAs. The book finds that although Chinese state elites do have formal power to effectively make and implement fast economic decisions and policy-fix, local institutional change still critically calls for informal leadership, such as interpretive and network leadership. New paths might be created quickly by local state leaders. But, without forming solid new supporting institutions, they may not generate positive im-pact for long-term regional development. The most important contribution of the book is the comparison of two Chinese mining regions. A new conceptual framework on analyzing and understanding uneven resilience of regions has been developed. It is built upon an in-depth conceptualization that de-constructs the dualism idea between adaptation and adaptability. And it redefines them in an interactive, dialectical and evolutionary way. The comparative study in China high-lights the importance of multi-scalar institutions and national political economy change in coordinating the behaviors of firms, local states and, the micro dynamics of their con-stitutive human agents in OIAs. The historically conditioned political distance between localities and the central state is essential. It can help to fundamentally understand the differen-tiated resilience of China's OIAs. It should be placed at the core to explore the question of why some regions in China are able to manage endogenous place-based development of economies, while others fail to do such but mostly at the mercy of exogenous forces and assets. In the end, this book provides new evidence that EEG needs to be integrated into other related paradigms in EG, when it comes to understand the complex restructuring of OIAs. Besides the theoretical contributions, the book also put several policy recommendations for future development of OIAs in China and beyond. ; Die vorliegende Dissertation befasst sich mit ungleicher ökonomischer Anpassung und Anpassungsfähigkeit altindustrieller Gebiete aus einer evolutionären, institutionellen und akteurszentrierten Perspektive. In der wirtschaftsgeographischen Literatur gibt es bereits zahlreiche Beiträge die sich mit den Rollen von Unternehmen und industriellen Dynamiken für den Aufstieg und Niedergang altindustrieller Gebiete befassen. Wenige Beiträge haben sich allerdings sowohl empirisch als auch konzeptionell mit den Einflüssen von Staaten, multiskalaren Institutionen oder unterschiedlichen Strategien und Politiken befasst. Zudem fokussiert der Großteil der bisherigen Arbeiten Einzelfälle in Europa oder Nordamerika. Daraus ergeben sich die zwei Hauptziele dieser Doktorarbeit. 1) Theoretisch werden eine institutionelle Perspektive und Ansätzen der Politischen Ökonomie mit der Evolutionären Wirtschaftsgeographie in Verbindung gebracht, um zu einem tieferen Verständnis evolutionärer Prozesse und Mechanismen in altindustriellen Gebieten zu kommen. 2) Empirisch werden Facetten ungleicher regionaler Wirtschaftsentwicklung am Beispiel zweier Kohlebergbaugebiete untersucht, die sich beide in einer Nachkrisensituation befinden und einem nicht-westlichen Kontext zugehören. Die Arbeit beleuchtet, wie der Staat - verstanden als handelnde Akteure in Staat und staatlichen Betrieben in altindustriellen Regionen - auf Umfeldänderungen reagiert, um langfristige industrielle Anpassung zu erreichen. Dabei geht die Arbeit über einen Fokus auf unternehmerische, staatliche oder individuelle Einzelhandlungen hinaus und konzentriert sich auf deren Einbettung und Beziehungen in einem multiskalaren, politisch-institutionellen Rahmen und Politikfeld. Die empirische Untersuchung basiert auf Tiefenstudien zweier chinesischer Kohlebergbauregionen (Zaozhuang in der Provinz Shandong und Fuxin in der Provinz Liaoning), die beide vom schleichenden Niedergang der lokalen Kohlereserven seit dem Jahr 2000 geprägt sind. Die Forschungsergebnisse beruhen größtenteils auf qualitativen Daten (halbstandardisierte Interviews), die durch eine Kontextanalyse ausgewertet und um eine deskriptive Analyse sekundärstatistischer Daten ergänzt wurden. Der erste Beitrag dieser Doktorarbeit liegt in einer kritischen Bestandsaufnahme der Konzepte von Pfadabhängigkeiten, Pfadentstehungen und Lock-Ins. Die empirischen Einblicke deuten darauf hin, dass Lock-Ins im chinesischen Kontext stark politisch bedingt sind. Dies ist auf das spezifische administrative Hierarchiesystem zwischen staatseigenen Betrieben und Staaten zurückzuführen. Trotz starker industrieller Pfadabhängigkeit und negativer regionaler Lock-In-Effekte steht der Entstehung neuer Pfade nichts entgegen. Aufbauend auf dem Konzept der Pfadplastizität kommt die Arbeit zu dem Ergebnis, dass sich die chinesischen lokalen Staatsbehörden und die staatliche Führung in staatseigenen Betrieben der Interessenkonflikte zwischen den multiskalaren politischen Ökonomien bewusst sind, diese flexibel auslegen und gemäß der multiskalaren institutionellen und politischen Bedingungen hinsichtlich potentieller lokaler industrieller Veränderung auslegen. Der zweite Beitrag liegt darin, dass der ubiquitäre Einfluss staatlicher Eliten in China auf industrielle Dynamiken genauer analysiert wird. Dazu wird untersucht, wie Staatsbeamte und lokale Führungspersönlichkeiten die entsprechenden institutionellen Kontexte formen. Der Gedanke der "Place Leadership" wird kritisch an den autoritären chinesischen Kontext angepasst. So können die kleinmaßstäblichen Dynamiken und Charakteristika im Zusammenhang mit der Entstehung altindustrieller Regionen in China erläutert werden. Wie sich zeigt, verfügen die staatlichen Eliten über ein hohes Maß an formeller und exekutiver Macht, um wirtschaftliche und politische Entscheidungen zu fällen. Dennoch verdeutlichen die empirischen Ergebnisse, dass für institutionellen Wandel informelle Führungsformen wie interpretative oder netzwerkartige Führung nötig sind. Neue Pfade können zwar von lokalen staatlichen Anführern schneller erzeugt werden, aber ohne neue, unterstützende Institutionen bestehen kaum Aussichten darauf, langfristige Veränderungspotenziale der regionalen Entwicklung aufrechtzuerhalte. Der Hauptbeitrag der Arbeit liegt im Vergleich der zwei chinesischen Bergbauregionen. Um deren ungleiche regionale Resilienz zur analysieren und zu verstehen wird ein neuartiger konzeptuelle Ansatz vorgeschlagen. In einer interaktiven, dialektischen und evolutionären Art überwindet dieser den Dualismus von Anpassung und Anpassungsfähigkeit und hebt die Rolle von multiskalaren Institutionen sowie von nationalem politisch-ökonomnischem Wandel für die Koordination unternehmerischen und lokal-staatlichen Handelns und derer Akteure in staatseigenen Betrieben hervor. Die historisch bedingte politische Distanz zwischen lokaler und nationaler Verwaltung und Regierung ist dabei grundlegend, um die verschiedenen Resilienzen und Anpassungsfähigkeiten chinesischer staatseigener Betriebe zu verstehen. Diese werden in das Zentrum der vergleichenden Fallstudie gerückt, um besser zu verstehen, warum einige Regionen in China dazu in der Lage sind endogene wirtschaftliche Entwicklungspotenziale zu steuern, während andere daran – zumeist aufgrund exogener Kräfte – scheitern. Insgesamt leistet die vorliegende Dissertation einen Beitrag zur Erweiterung der Evolutionären Wirtschaftsgeographie, indem andere wirtschaftsgeographische Paradigmen und Perspektiven eingebunden werden und somit komplexe Restrukturierungsprozesse staatseigener Betriebe verstanden werden können. Neben diesem theoretischen Beitrag liefert die Arbeit politische Empfehlungen für die zukünftige Entwicklung altindustrieller Industrieregionen in China und andernorts.
The period between the end of 19th century – the first half of the 20th century had been very important for Lithuanians and Latvians as a time, when the rights of the national language and culture had been strengthened and fortified. The rich sociocultural context, which appears in the children's periodicals of that time, allows to evaluate the efforts of the nation in order to define and keep the borders of traditional culture. The investigation of children's periodicals also helps to reconstruct the field of national literature of that time. The aim of the paper is to investigate, what changes of the traditional culture appear in the Lithuanian and Latvian children's periodicals, published before 1940. Some aspects of the nation's location in the time and space are being stressed, such as: marking of the nation's culture and territory borders, institutionalization of the national calendar and construction of the historical memory. The investigation is based on the comparative analysis of the main Lithuanian and Latvian children's periodicals, which were published before 1940: Lithuanian – "Šaltinėlis" ('a little spring', 1906–1914; 1928–1940), "Žiburėlis" ('a little torch', 1920–1944), "Žvaigždutė" ('a little star', 1923–1940), "Kregždutė" ('a little swallow', 1934–1940), "Vyturys" ('a lark' 1931, 1935–1940); Latvian – "Bērnu Pastnieks" ('children's postman', 1866–1869), "Jaunības Draugs" ('the friend of the youth', 1901–1904), "Jaunības Tekas" ('the paths of the youth', 1910–1915; 1920–1930), "Bitīte" ('a little bee', 1912–1916), "Latvijas Jaunatne" ('the youth of Latvia', 1924–1940), "Cīrulītis" ('a little lark', 1923–1940), "Jaunais Cīrulītis" ('the new little lark', 1926–1934). Due to the confessional and some historical similarities between Lithuanians and Latgalians, there are also two Catholic Latgalian magazines –"Sauleite" ('the little sun', 1926–1940) and "Katōļu Dzeive" ('the life of Catholics', 1926–1940) – analyzed, despite the fact, that they were aimed at both children and youth. The theoretical background of the research is based on the works of sociologists and anthropologists of culture (Benedict Anderson, Anthony D. Smith, Orvar Löfgren), as well as on some theories of media (Denis McQuail, Herbert Marshall McLuhan). The binary opposition of the the self and the other (Löfgren 1991: 105, Smith 1994: 20–22) is being used as a border marker of the traditional culture in the texts of children's periodicals. The borders of traditional culture in the children's periodicals change depending on the fact, who and when is talking in the name of the nation – priests, teachers, supporters of the different ideological or confessional camps. As a result of the individually made or institutionary censored editorial selection of textual material, the national culture is being institutionalized and subordinated for the realization of different purposes. The language of the ethnic group is the first thing the national press institutionalizes, and that helps the community to imagine itself (Anderson 1999). The symbolic value of the language is absent in such Latvian children's magazines as "Bērnu Pastnieks" and "Bitīte", which were edited by the priests of German origin and were published only for the purpose of religious education. The language, as well as nation's territorial location, had mostly been emphasized in the Lithuanian children's periodicals. The declarative tendency of self-defining (names of periodicals, maps, lists of the readers', collective photos of the children, explanations about nationality and the state) indicates the existing mechanism of the nation's territory and culture defense. The defensive politics in Lithuania was established as a result of the traumatic experience of the long-lasting repressive actions (Lithuanian press ban (1864–1904), the occupation of Vilnius district by Polish nationalists (1919–1939) etc.). The Latvian language as the national symbol was presented in the Latvian children's magazines "Jaunības Draugs", "Jaunības Tekas" and "Cīrulītis", but its symbolic capital was being increased by the actualization of traditional culture (folklore), native literature and national historic memory (the biographies of distinguished Latvians, nation's relations with antiquity, nobles or saints). The periodicity and cyclic recurrence of the periodicals had institutionalized the time and the rhythm of the readers' life. In the context of nation's efforts of self- determination in time and space, the changes of the traditional culture borders are best seen in the traditions of commemoration of the dead. The interpretations of the commemoration of the dead depend on, what is being emphasized – the end of the individual person's life or the death in the context of nations history. The discourse of death and the commemoration of the dead have been actualized mostly in the issues of children's periodicals, published during the period between October and December. This period according to folkloristic Baltic tradition was called as a period of souls and was celebrated with the rituals of soul-feeding and gratitude to the souls of forefathers. The Christian liturgical day of the Commemoration of All the Faithful Departed (in Catholic tradition) or the Day of all Souls (in the Protestant tradition) were not directly included in the calendar of children's periodicals until 1918. But there were a lot of published texts, actualizing the theme of orphans as well as a lot of traditional genres, which were characteristic to that period of the year, e. g., tales about orphans and beggars, mythological stories about roaming souls etc. In the independent Latvia the traditional mood of the period in Latvian children's periodicals was covered by the celebration of proclamation of the state (November 18) and the commemoration of the perished in the battles for independence. In Lithuanian and Latgalian periodicals of that time ("Šaltinėlis", "Žvaigždutė", "Kregždutė", "Sauleite") the Catholic liturgical celebration of Commemoration of All the Faithful Departed was institutionalized (the very name of it appeared in the titles of publications, children were asked to pray for the souls of the dead relatives, etc.), which helped to keep the traditional themes and genres. The necessity to construct historical memory of the children and to educate them in patriotic mood widened the meaning of the commemoration day (children were asked to pray for national heroes and to look after graves of buried soldiers). The tendency to organize official ceremonial commemoration of the dead had influenced traditions in the private field – in the middle of the 30s the children are encouraged not only to pray for the souls of their dead relatives, but also to look after their graves and to take part in the mass celebrations – all that indicated the nations efforts to inscribe history of individuals in the history of the nation. The representation and explanation of the national traditions and rituals in the children's periodicals not only constructed the national identity of the young readers, but also strengthened their place in the national community and supplemented the understanding of the nation's whole, its history and future. Children in the periodicals of the time were shown as ones, who inherit and pass on the traditions to the future generations.
