Temporary or permanent, local or international, voluntary or forced, legal or illegal, registered or unregistered migrations of individuals, whole communities or individual groups are an important factor in constructing and modifying (modern) societies. The extent of international migrations is truly immense. At the time of the preparation of this publication more than 200 million people have been involved in migrations in a single year according to the United Nations. Furthermore, three times more wish to migrate, mostly from sub-Saharan Africa towards some of the most economically developed areas of the world according to the estimates by the Gallup Institute (Esipova, 2011). Some authors, although aware that it is not a new phenomenon, talk about the era of migration (Castles, Miller, 2009) or the globalization of migration (Friedman, 2004). The global dimensions of migration are definitely influenced also by the increasingly visible features of modern societies like constantly changing conditions, instability, fluidity, uncertainty etc. (Beck, 2009; Bauman, 2002).The extent, direction, type of migrations and their consequences are affected by many social and natural factors in the areas of emigration and immigration. In addition, researchers from many scientific disciplines who study migrations have raised a wide range of research questions (Boyle, 2009, 96), use a variety of methodological approaches and look for different interpretations in various spatial, temporal and contextual frameworks. The migrations are a complex, multi-layered, variable, contextual process that takes place at several levels. Because of this, research on migrations has become an increasingly interdisciplinary field, since the topics and problems are so complex that they cannot be grasped solely and exclusively from the perspective of a single discipline or theory. Therefore, we are witnessing a profusion of different "faces of migration", which is reflected and at the same time also contributed to by this thematic issue of the journal Ars & Humanitas.While mobility or migration are not new phenomena, as people have moved and migrated throughout the history of mankind, only recently, in the last few decades, has theoretical and research focus on them intensified considerably. In the last two decades a number of research projects, university programs and courses, research institutes, scientific conferences, seminars, magazines, books and other publications, involving research, academia as well as politics and various civil society organizations have emerged. This shows the recent exceptional interest in the issue of migration, both in terms of knowledge of the processes involved, their mapping in the history of mankind, as well as the theoretical development of migration studies and daily management of this politically sensitive issue.Migration affects many entities on many different levels: the individuals, their families and entire communities at the local level in the emigrant societies as well as in the receiving societies. The migration is changing not only the lives of individuals but whole communities and societies, as well as social relations; it is also shifting the cultural patterns and bringing important social transformations (Castles 2010). This of course raises a number of questions, problems and issues ranging from human rights violations to literary achievements. Some of these are addressed by the authors in this thematic issue.The title "Many faces of migration", connecting contributions in this special issue, is borrowed from the already mentioned Gallup Institute's report on global migration (Esipova, 2011). The guiding principle in the selection of the contributions has been their diversity, reflected also in the list of disciplines represented by the authors: sociology, geography, ethnology and cultural anthropology, history, art history, modern Mediterranean studies, gender studies and media studies. Such an approach necessarily leads not only to a diverse, but at least seemingly also incompatible, perhaps even opposing views "on a given topic. However, we did not want to silence the voices of "other" disciplines, but within the reviewing procedures actually invited scientists from the fields represented by the contributors to this volume. The wealth of the selected contributions lies therefore not only in their coherence and complementarity, but also in the diversity of views, stories and interpretations.The paper of Zora Žbontar deals with the attitudes towards foreigners in ancient Greece, where the hospitality to strangers was considered so worthy a virtue that everyone was expected to "demonstrate hospitality and protection to any foreigner who has knocked on their door". The contrast between the hospitality of ancient Greece and the modern emergence of xenophobia and ways of dealing with migration issues in economically developed countries is especially challenging. "In an open gesture of hospitality to strangers the ancient Greeks showed their civilization".Although the aforementioned research by the United Nations and Gallup Institute support some traditional stereotypes of the main global flows of migrants, and the areas about which the potential migrants "dream", Bojan Baskar stresses the coexistence of different migratory desires, migration flows and their interpretations. In his paper he specifically focuses on overcoming and relativising stereotypes as well as theories of immobile and non-enterprising (Alpine) mountain populations and migrations.The different strategies of the crossing borders adopted by migrant women are studied by Mirjana Morokvasic. She marks them as true social innovators, inventing different ways of transnational life resulting in a bottom-up contribution to the integrative processes across Europe. Some of their innovations go as far as to shift diverse real and symbolic boundaries of belonging to a nation, gender, profession.Elaine Burroughs and Zoë O'Reilly highlight the close relations between the otherwise well-established terminology used in statistics and science to label immigrants in Ireland and elsewhere in EU, and the negative representations of certain types of migrants in politics and the public. The discussion focusses particularly on asylum seekers and illegal immigrants who come from outside the EU. The use of language can quickly become a political means of exclusion, therefore the authors propose the development and use of more considerate and balanced migration terminology.Damir Josipovič proposes a change of the focal point for identifying and interpreting the well-studied migrations in the former Yugoslavia. The author suggests changing the dualistic view of these migrations to an integrated, holistic view. Instead of a simplified understanding of these migrations as either international or domestic, voluntary or forced, he proposes a concept of pseudo-voluntary migrations.Maja Korać-Sanderson's contribution highlights an interesting phenomenon in the shift in the traditional patterns of gender roles. The conclusions are derived from the study of the family life of Chinese traders in transitional Serbia. While many studies suggest that child care in recent decades in immigrant societies is generally performed by immigrants, her study reveals that in Serbia, the Chinese merchants entrust the care of their children mostly to local middle class women. The author finds this switch of roles in the "division of labour" in the child care favourable for both parties involved.Francesco Della Puppa focuses on a specific part of the mosaic of contemporary migrations in the Mediterranean: the Bangladeshi immigrant community in the highly industrialized North East of Italy. The results of his in-depth qualitative study reveal the factors that shape this segment of the Bangladeshi diaspora, the experiences of migrants and the effects of migration on their social and biographical trajectories.John A. Schembri and Maria Attard present a snippet of a more typical Mediterranean migration process - immigration to Malta. The authors highlight the reduction in migration between Malta and the United Kingdom, while there is an increase in immigration to Malta from the rest of Europe and sub-Saharan Africa. Amongst the various impacts of immigration to Malta the extraordinary concentration of immigrant populations is emphasized, since the population density of Malta far exceeds that of nearly all other European countries.Miha Kozorog studies the link between migration and constructing their places of their origin. On the basis of Ardener's theory the author expresses "remoteness" of the emigratory Slavia Friulana in terms of topology, in relation to other places, rather than in topography. "Remoteness" is formed in relation to the "outside world", to those who speak of "remote areas" from the privileged centres. The example of an artistic event, which organizers aim "to open a place like this to the outside world", "to encourage the production of more cosmopolitan place", shows only the temporary effect of such event on the reduction of the "remoteness".Jani Kozina presents a study of the basic temporal and spatial characteristics of migration "of people in creative occupations" in Slovenia. The definition of this specific segment of the population and approach to study its migrations are principally based on the work of Richard Florida. The author observes that people with creative occupations in Slovenia are very immobile and in this respect quite similar to other professional groups in Slovenia, but also to the people in creative professions in the Southern and Eastern Europe, which are considered to be among the least mobile in Europe. Detailed analyses show that the people in creative occupations from the more developed regions generally migrate more intensely and are also more willing to relocate.Mojca Pajnik and Veronika Bajt study the experiences of migrant women with the access to the labour market in Slovenia. Existing laws and policies push the migrants into a position where, if they want to get to work, have to accept less demanding work. In doing so, the migrant women are targets of stereotyped reactions and practices of discrimination on the basis of sex, age, attributed ethnic and religious affiliation, or some other circumstances, particularly the fact of being migrants. At the same time the latter results in the absence of any protection from the state.Migration studies often assume that the target countries are "modern" and countries of origin "traditional". Anıl Al- Rebholz argues that such a dichotomous conceptualization of modern and traditional further promotes stereotypical, essentialist and homogenizing images of Muslim women in the "western world". On the basis of biographical narratives of young Kurdish and Moroccan women as well as the relationships between mothers and daughters, the author illustrates a variety of strategies of empowerment of young women in the context of transnational migration.A specific face of migration is highlighted in the text of Svenka Savić, namely the face of artistic migration between Slovenia and Serbia after the Second World War. The author explains how more than thirty artists from Slovenia, with their pioneering work in three ensembles (opera, ballet and theatre), significantly contributed to the development of the performing arts in the Serbian National Theatre in Novi Sad.We believe that in the present thematic issue we have succeeded in capturing an important part of the modern European research dynamic in the field of migration. In addition to well-known scholars in this field several young authors at the beginning their research careers have been shortlisted for the publication. We are glad of their success as it bodes a vibrancy of this research area in the future. At the same time, we were pleased to receive responses to the invitation from representatives of so many disciplines, and that the number of papers received significantly exceeded the maximum volume of the journal. Recognising and understanding of the many faces of migration are important steps towards the comprehensive knowledge needed to successfully meet the challenges of migration issues today and even more so in the future. It is therefore of utmost importance that researchers find ways of transferring their academic knowledge into practice – to all levels of education, the media, the wider public and, of course, the decision makers in local, national and international institutions. The call also applies to all authors in this issue of the journal.
Temporary or permanent, local or international, voluntary or forced, legal or illegal, registered or unregistered migrations of individuals, whole communities or individual groups are an important factor in constructing and modifying (modern) societies. The extent of international migrations is truly immense. At the time of the preparation of this publication more than 200 million people have been involved in migrations in a single year according to the United Nations. Furthermore, three times more wish to migrate, mostly from sub-Saharan Africa towards some of the most economically developed areas of the world according to the estimates by the Gallup Institute (Esipova, 2011). Some authors, although aware that it is not a new phenomenon, talk about the era of migration (Castles, Miller, 2009) or the globalization of migration (Friedman, 2004). The global dimensions of migration are definitely influenced also by the increasingly visible features of modern societies like constantly changing conditions, instability, fluidity, uncertainty etc. (Beck, 2009; Bauman, 2002).The extent, direction, type of migrations and their consequences are affected by many social and natural factors in the areas of emigration and immigration. In addition, researchers from many scientific disciplines who study migrations have raised a wide range of research questions (Boyle, 2009, 96), use a variety of methodological approaches and look for different interpretations in various spatial, temporal and contextual frameworks. The migrations are a complex, multi-layered, variable, contextual process that takes place at several levels. Because of this, research on migrations has become an increasingly interdisciplinary field, since the topics and problems are so complex that they cannot be grasped solely and exclusively from the perspective of a single discipline or theory. Therefore, we are witnessing a profusion of different "faces of migration", which is reflected and at the same time also contributed to by this thematic issue of the journal Ars & Humanitas.While mobility or migration are not new phenomena, as people have moved and migrated throughout the history of mankind, only recently, in the last few decades, has theoretical and research focus on them intensified considerably. In the last two decades a number of research projects, university programs and courses, research institutes, scientific conferences, seminars, magazines, books and other publications, involving research, academia as well as politics and various civil society organizations have emerged. This shows the recent exceptional interest in the issue of migration, both in terms of knowledge of the processes involved, their mapping in the history of mankind, as well as the theoretical development of migration studies and daily management of this politically sensitive issue.Migration affects many entities on many different levels: the individuals, their families and entire communities at the local level in the emigrant societies as well as in the receiving societies. The migration is changing not only the lives of individuals but whole communities and societies, as well as social relations; it is also shifting the cultural patterns and bringing important social transformations (Castles 2010). This of course raises a number of questions, problems and issues ranging from human rights violations to literary achievements. Some of these are addressed by the authors in this thematic issue.The title "Many faces of migration", connecting contributions in this special issue, is borrowed from the already mentioned Gallup Institute's report on global migration (Esipova, 2011). The guiding principle in the selection of the contributions has been their diversity, reflected also in the list of disciplines represented by the authors: sociology, geography, ethnology and cultural anthropology, history, art history, modern Mediterranean studies, gender studies and media studies. Such an approach necessarily leads not only to a diverse, but at least seemingly also incompatible, perhaps even opposing views "on a given topic. However, we did not want to silence the voices of "other" disciplines, but within the reviewing procedures actually invited scientists from the fields represented by the contributors to this volume. The wealth of the selected contributions lies therefore not only in their coherence and complementarity, but also in the diversity of views, stories and interpretations.The paper of Zora Žbontar deals with the attitudes towards foreigners in ancient Greece, where the hospitality to strangers was considered so worthy a virtue that everyone was expected to "demonstrate hospitality and protection to any foreigner who has knocked on their door". The contrast between the hospitality of ancient Greece and the modern emergence of xenophobia and ways of dealing with migration issues in economically developed countries is especially challenging. "In an open gesture of hospitality to strangers the ancient Greeks showed their civilization".Although the aforementioned research by the United Nations and Gallup Institute support some traditional stereotypes of the main global flows of migrants, and the areas about which the potential migrants "dream", Bojan Baskar stresses the coexistence of different migratory desires, migration flows and their interpretations. In his paper he specifically focuses on overcoming and relativising stereotypes as well as theories of immobile and non-enterprising (Alpine) mountain populations and migrations.The different strategies of the crossing borders adopted by migrant women are studied by Mirjana Morokvasic. She marks them as true social innovators, inventing different ways of transnational life resulting in a bottom-up contribution to the integrative processes across Europe. Some of their innovations go as far as to shift diverse real and symbolic boundaries of belonging to a nation, gender, profession.Elaine Burroughs and Zoë O'Reilly highlight the close relations between the otherwise well-established terminology used in statistics and science to label immigrants in Ireland and elsewhere in EU, and the negative representations of certain types of migrants in politics and the public. The discussion focusses particularly on asylum seekers and illegal immigrants who come from outside the EU. The use of language can quickly become a political means of exclusion, therefore the authors propose the development and use of more considerate and balanced migration terminology.Damir Josipovič proposes a change of the focal point for identifying and interpreting the well-studied migrations in the former Yugoslavia. The author suggests changing the dualistic view of these migrations to an integrated, holistic view. Instead of a simplified understanding of these migrations as either international or domestic, voluntary or forced, he proposes a concept of pseudo-voluntary migrations.Maja Korać-Sanderson's contribution highlights an interesting phenomenon in the shift in the traditional patterns of gender roles. The conclusions are derived from the study of the family life of Chinese traders in transitional Serbia. While many studies suggest that child care in recent decades in immigrant societies is generally performed by immigrants, her study reveals that in Serbia, the Chinese merchants entrust the care of their children mostly to local middle class women. The author finds this switch of roles in the "division of labour" in the child care favourable for both parties involved.Francesco Della Puppa focuses on a specific part of the mosaic of contemporary migrations in the Mediterranean: the Bangladeshi immigrant community in the highly industrialized North East of Italy. The results of his in-depth qualitative study reveal the factors that shape this segment of the Bangladeshi diaspora, the experiences of migrants and the effects of migration on their social and biographical trajectories.John A. Schembri and Maria Attard present a snippet of a more typical Mediterranean migration process - immigration to Malta. The authors highlight the reduction in migration between Malta and the United Kingdom, while there is an increase in immigration to Malta from the rest of Europe and sub-Saharan Africa. Amongst the various impacts of immigration to Malta the extraordinary concentration of immigrant populations is emphasized, since the population density of Malta far exceeds that of nearly all other European countries.Miha Kozorog studies the link between migration and constructing their places of their origin. On the basis of Ardener's theory the author expresses "remoteness" of the emigratory Slavia Friulana in terms of topology, in relation to other places, rather than in topography. "Remoteness" is formed in relation to the "outside world", to those who speak of "remote areas" from the privileged centres. The example of an artistic event, which organizers aim "to open a place like this to the outside world", "to encourage the production of more cosmopolitan place", shows only the temporary effect of such event on the reduction of the "remoteness".Jani Kozina presents a study of the basic temporal and spatial characteristics of migration "of people in creative occupations" in Slovenia. The definition of this specific segment of the population and approach to study its migrations are principally based on the work of Richard Florida. The author observes that people with creative occupations in Slovenia are very immobile and in this respect quite similar to other professional groups in Slovenia, but also to the people in creative professions in the Southern and Eastern Europe, which are considered to be among the least mobile in Europe. Detailed analyses show that the people in creative occupations from the more developed regions generally migrate more intensely and are also more willing to relocate.Mojca Pajnik and Veronika Bajt study the experiences of migrant women with the access to the labour market in Slovenia. Existing laws and policies push the migrants into a position where, if they want to get to work, have to accept less demanding work. In doing so, the migrant women are targets of stereotyped reactions and practices of discrimination on the basis of sex, age, attributed ethnic and religious affiliation, or some other circumstances, particularly the fact of being migrants. At the same time the latter results in the absence of any protection from the state.Migration studies often assume that the target countries are "modern" and countries of origin "traditional". Anıl Al- Rebholz argues that such a dichotomous conceptualization of modern and traditional further promotes stereotypical, essentialist and homogenizing images of Muslim women in the "western world". On the basis of biographical narratives of young Kurdish and Moroccan women as well as the relationships between mothers and daughters, the author illustrates a variety of strategies of empowerment of young women in the context of transnational migration.A specific face of migration is highlighted in the text of Svenka Savić, namely the face of artistic migration between Slovenia and Serbia after the Second World War. The author explains how more than thirty artists from Slovenia, with their pioneering work in three ensembles (opera, ballet and theatre), significantly contributed to the development of the performing arts in the Serbian National Theatre in Novi Sad.We believe that in the present thematic issue we have succeeded in capturing an important part of the modern European research dynamic in the field of migration. In addition to well-known scholars in this field several young authors at the beginning their research careers have been shortlisted for the publication. We are glad of their success as it bodes a vibrancy of this research area in the future. At the same time, we were pleased to receive responses to the invitation from representatives of so many disciplines, and that the number of papers received significantly exceeded the maximum volume of the journal. Recognising and understanding of the many faces of migration are important steps towards the comprehensive knowledge needed to successfully meet the challenges of migration issues today and even more so in the future. It is therefore of utmost importance that researchers find ways of transferring their academic knowledge into practice – to all levels of education, the media, the wider public and, of course, the decision makers in local, national and international institutions. The call also applies to all authors in this issue of the journal.
[ES]Desde 1999, ocho países han iniciado formalmente procesos para hacer más permisiva la reelección presidencial, lo que constituye casi la mitad de los países latinoamericanos. Dentro de algunos de estos países se ha llevado a cabo más de un proceso de reforma durante el mismo período. Con lo cual puede afirmarse que, durante los últimos años, se ha asistido a una ampliación de los períodos de mandato del presidente. La mayoría de los casos han adoptado la reelección inmediata, aunque la novedad ha sido la flexibilización absoluta mediante la "reelección indefinida o ilimitada" que Venezuela y Nicaragua acogieron en sus reglas de juego. En este sentido, la investigación se plantea la pregunta: ¿Por qué en unos casos los presidentes que intentan modificar el status quo de la reelección presidencial -con el fin de hacerla más permisiva- consiguen sacar adelante la reforma y en otros no? En la estrategia de análisis se ha seleccionado todos los casos de presidentes o expresidentes que - durante 1999 y 2011- persiguieron la reforma constitucional para prolongar su estadía en el cargo como vía para asegurar su supervivencia política. Cabe resaltar que en los presidencialismos la reforma a los límites del mandato -siempre y cuando impliquen una mayor permisividad- es considerada como una condición necesaria para la supervivencia política de los líderes en el cargo. Trece casos presentan este tipo de intento de reforma. De ellos, siete resultaron exitosos (Venezuela 1999 y 2009, Costa Rica 2003, Colombia 2005, Bolivia 2009, Ecuador 2008 y Nicaragua 2009) y seis fracasaron (Costa Rica 2000a y 2000b, Venezuela 2007, Honduras 2009, Colombia 2010 y Panamá 2011). Durante el mismo período se pueden identificar dos casos en donde se limitó la cláusula reeleccionista constitucional que fueron Perú en 2000 y República Dominicana en 2010, ambos pasaron de la reelección inmediata a una con intervalos de espera. Estos dos casos obedecen a un fenómeno diferente del que se busca analizar en esta investigación, debido a que son procesos que demuestran el declive del líder reeleccionista y el impulso modificador de la oposición para abrir el paso a la alternancia en el poder. Por esta razón este tipo de procesos exceden los límites de la investigación. Se ha definido al presidente y expresidente como el actor individual que persigue el cambio. Con ello se reconoce la centralidad que amerita como figura clave en la investigación politológica, un rol que recientemente ha ido recobrando pero que, durante años, estuvo relegado . Es preciso señalar que el impulso continuista suele venir de la mano de presidentes de notable carisma, aunque con muy variado repertorio político e ideológico, de ahí que resulta difícil hacer una lectura general de los contextos en que se desarrollaron los procesos de reforma. Sin embargo, es posible afirmar que los programas de cambio de esta norma en unos casos sirven de fuente de inspiración para otros, al hacer visible el despliegue de las estrategias institucionales de cambio -aún en escenarios políticos e institucionales muy distintos-. Al contar con un número mediano de casos se ha privilegiado el análisis cualitativo comparado. Este método privilegia una concepción dinámica de los procesos y se orienta al análisis de los casos. De forma complementaria, los casos han sido construidos siguiendo una lógica histórico- comparada y las variables han sido analizadas mediante el establecimiento de conjuntos binarios. Es decir, se clasifican de acuerdo con categorías dicotómicas de ausencia o presencia de los atributos a los que se refieren las variables o condiciones causales. Se ha considerado que el proceso deriva en el éxito o fracaso de acuerdo con los recursos de poder -que constituyen las variables explicativas en la investigación- con que cuenta el presidente para hacer frente a las trayectorias de decisión. Así la popularidad, la formación de mayorías en el parlamento, la rigidez-flexibilidad de las provisiones constitucionales de enmienda y el control que el presidente ejerce sobre su partido; se convierten en los recursos clave con los que cuenta el presidente para sacar adelante su iniciativa de modificación del status quo. En la configuración de las estrategias se le da especial atención a los escenarios institucionales dentro de los que se desarrolla la reforma al convertirse en las arenas decisorias a las que recurren los líderes con el fin de lograr su cometido. Los marcos constitucionales hoy en día permiten casi de forma generalizada que referendos y cortes constitucionales funcionen como arenas con capacidad de decisión en materia constitucional, compitiendo con los parlamentos, que parecerían ser los órganos por excelencia para cumplir con tal misión. Al profundizar en la comprobación de las hipótesis se observa que los parlamentos son instancias sumamente costosas para los presidentes que buscan reformar los límites a la reelección presidencial. En general, los legisladores son hostiles a esta iniciativa que se comporta en una lógica claramente distinta a la de un proyecto de ley ordinario. Así, los parlamentos se convierten en un lastre para alterar el status quo en la materia, hasta el punto que no resulta beneficioso para el líder contar con mayoría legislativa. De modo que una estrategia más eficiente para el líder ha sido esquivar a los legisladores acudiendo directamente a otras arenas de decisión donde sus recursos en términos de popularidad y concentración del control partidista mantienen un fuerte impacto. De esta manera al abrir el abanico de los mecanismos decisorios, se abren las oportunidades para superar la estabilidad de la cláusula. Contrariamente a lo que ocurre con otras iniciativas de reforma, en la reelección presidencial el aumento de los actores con poder de veto, puede significar una ventaja para el éxito del líder, en la medida que la influencia del presidente puede ser más efectiva en donde la oposición es menor. Presidentes que en esos escenarios gozan de alta popularidad entre los ciudadanos y controlan las estructuras de sus partidos y de los espacios institucionales a donde este control llega, son proclives al éxito. ; [EN]Since 1999, eight countries have formally initiated processes to more permissive reelection , which is almost half of Latin American countries . In some of these countries have carried out more than a reform process during the same period. With which it can be said that , in recent years , we have witnessed an expansion of the terms of office of the president. Most cases have taken immediate reelection, but the development has been the absolute flexibility by "indefinite or unlimited reelection" to Venezuela and Nicaragua welcomed in their rules. In this sense, research the question arises: Why presidents in some cases attempting to change the status quo of the presidential election in order to make it more permissive - manage to take forward the reform and not others ? In the analysis strategy is selected all cases of presidents or presidents who - in 1999 and 2011 - pursued constitutional reform to extend his stay in office as a way to ensure their political survival. It is worth noting that presidentialism reform term limits - as long as implying a greater permissiveness - is regarded as a necessary condition for the political survival of leaders in office. Thirteen cases have attempted this type of reform. Of these, seven were successful ( Venezuela 1999 and 2009 , Costa Rica 2003 , Colombia 2005 , 2009 Bolivia , Ecuador and Nicaragua 2008 2009 ) and six failed ( 2000a and 2000b Costa Rica , Venezuela 2007 , 2009 Honduras , Colombia and Panama 2010 2011) . During the same period we can identify two cases where the constitutional clause reelection in 2000 were Peru and Dominican Republic in 2010, both went from immediate reelection to a waiting interval was limited . These two cases are due to a different phenomenon that seeks to analyze in this research, because they are processes that demonstrate the decline of reelection and the leader of the opposition momentum switch to open the way to the alternation in power . For this reason this type of process beyond the limits of the investigation. Defined and former president as individual actor pursuing change. This centrality it deserves as a key figure in the political science research, a role that recently has been recovering but for years was relegated recognized. It should be noted that the continuity impulse is coming from the very remarkable charisma presidents , although political and ideological varied repertoire , hence it is difficult to make a general reading of the contexts in which the reform processes were developed. However, it can be said that programs change this rule in some cases act as a source of inspiration to others, to make visible the deployment of institutional change strategies - even in very different political and institutional settings . By having a median number of cases has been privileged qualitative comparative analysis . This method favors a dynamic conception of the processes and aims to analyze the cases. In a complementary manner , the cases have been built following a historical-comparative logic and variables were analyzed by setting binary sets . I mean, are classified according to dichotomous categories of absence or presence of attributes to variables or causal conditions apply . It was felt that the process leads to the success or failure of the resources of power, which are the explanatory variables in the research available to the President to address decision paths . So popularity, the formation of majorities in parliament, the rigidity - flexibility , constitution amendment and control the president has over his party become the key resources that the President has to take forward its initiative change the status quo. In the configuration of the strategies is given special attention to the institutional settings within which reform takes place to become the decision-making arenas resorted to by the leaders in order to achieve its mission . Constitutional frameworks today allow almost across the board referendums and constitutional courts function as arenas with decision-making in constitutional matters , competing with parliaments , which appear to be the quintessential bodies to fulfill that mission. Rediscovering the testing of hypotheses shows that parliaments are extremely costly for presidents seeking to reform the presidential term limits instances. In general, legislators are hostile to this initiative that behaves in a clearly different from a regular bill logic. So , parliaments become a drag to alter the status quo in the matter, to the point that it is not beneficial to have legislative majority leader . So a more efficient strategy for the leader has been dodging the legislators by going directly to other arenas of decision where their resources in terms of popularity and partisan control concentration maintained a strong impact. Thus opening the range of decision-making mechanisms , opportunities open to overcome the stability of the clause. Contrary to what happens with other reform initiatives in reelection rising actors with veto power , it can be an advantage for the success of the leader, to the extent that the president's influence may be more effective where opposition is lower. Presidents in those scenarios enjoy high popularity among citizens and control their party structures and institutional spaces where this control comes, are prone to success.
Objective The limited scientific knowledge on relationship between exposure and health effects in relation to geothermal activity motivated an epidemiologic investigation in Tuscan geothermal area. The study aims to describe the health status of populations living in Tuscany municipalities where concessions for exploitation of geothermal resources were granted. Design This is an ecological study, so it is not useful to produce evidence to sustain a judgment on the cause-effect link. The major limits of this type of study are the use of the residence at municipal level as a proxy of exposure to both environmental and socioeconomic factors and the use of aggregated data of health outcomes that can lead to the well-known ecological fallacy. Setting and participants Sixteen municipalities were included in the study area: eight are part of the so-called "traditional" geothermal area, defined as Northern Geothermal Area (NGA) and eight located in the Amiata Mountain defined as Southern Geothermal Area (SGA). In 2000-2006, the average resident population in the overall area was approximately 43,000 inhabitants. Thirty-one geothermal power plants were active, with a production capacity of 811 MW, 5 of them with 88 MW located in the SGA. Statistical analyses on the entire geothermal area, NGA and SGA subareas, and the sixteen municipalities were performed. Main outcome measures Mortality data were obtained from Tuscany Regional Mortality Registry for the 1971-2006 period, analysing 60 causes of death, of interest for population health status or consistent with "Project SENTIERI" criteria. Hospital discharge records of residents in Tuscany Region in 2004-2006, anywhere admitted to hospital, were analyzed considering only the main diagnosis, excluding repeated admissions for the same cause. The causes taken into account are the same analysed for mortality were considered. Age-standardized mortality rates (TSDM) and the temporal trends of TSDM for four periods (1971-1979, 1980- 1989, 1990-1999, 2000-2006) were computed. Age-standardized mortality/hospitalization ratios (SMR/SHR), with and without adjustment for the deprivation index based on 2001 census data, were calculated: mortality in the years 2000-2006 and hospitalization in 2004-2006. The expected number of events were computed using rates of residents in neighbouring municipalities (municipalities included in 50 km radius circle centred on the study area). Bayesian estimates of mortality/hospitalization ratios (BMR/BHR) at municipal level only and relating maps of the Bayesian risk estimators were elaborated. Congenital malformations (MC) were analysed using data from Tuscan Registry of Birth Defect in 1992-2006 period, relative to outcomes of pregnancies in women resident in the municipalities of study area, wherever the birth or termination of pregnancy occurred. The ratio between observed and expected cases (O/A), with expected defined according to regional rate, were calculated and O/A Bayesian estimates (BMR) are showed only at municipal level . The low weight and the males/females ratio at birth were analysed using data from Tuscany Birth Certificates, covering period 2001-2007, excluding biths occurred in facilities outside Tuscany Region. For Low birth weight (<2,500 grams), very low birth weight (<1,500 grams), low birth weight in women with normal gestational age or greater than 36 weeks, gestational age less than 36 weeks, and the frequency of males, the observed/expected ratio was calculated, with the expected number defined according to regional rate. Results Environmental background High levels of arsenic in drinking water distribution emerges as a critical element, so that several municipalities resorted to granting exemptions for the parameters laid down by the Legislative Decree in force (DLgs 31/01). However, during the final phase of the study, new blast systems activated in the SGA decreased the arsenic levels in the water supply, reaching values not requiring derogations, which, instead, are still effective in some NGA municipalities. Air quality data, from Tuscany Regional Agency for Environmental Protection-ARPAT, show that geothermal activities are able to affect air quality, especially with hydrogen sulphide in NGA, and hydrogen sulphide and mercury in SGA. A significant contribution to the presence of mercury in air is due to previous metallurgical sites. Although mercury levels are belowWHO guideline values, in SGA nearby Siena, values were significantly higher than in other geothermal areas, because of power plant PC2 (turned off in July 2011) in Piancastagnaio municipality. The hydrogen sulphide concentration levels were generally lower than WHO reference values, with occasional excesses over guideline value for health protection (150 μg/m3 as average of the 24 hours). Olfactory pollution was more critic with values exceeding 7-10 μg/m3 range even in areas without geothermal plants. ; Obiettivo Le limitate conoscenze scientifiche sui rapporti tra esposizione a fattori ambientali correlati all'attivit? geotermica e lo stato di salute della popolazione esposta hanno motivato la conduzione di una indagine epidemiologica nell'area geotermica toscana basata sull'analisi dei dati ambientali e sanitari disponibili negli archivi regionali. Lo studio ha lo scopo di descrivere lo stato di salute delle popolazioni residenti nelle aree geotermiche toscane, identificate con i territori comunali per i quali sono state rilasciate concessioni di sfruttamento della risorsa geotermica. Disegno Lo studio ? di tipo ecologico e quindi non adatto a produrre evidenze che permettano di esprimere un giudizio sul nesso causa-effetto. I maggiori limiti degli studi ecologici derivano dall'assunzione che la residenza anagrafica a livello comunale rappresenti una valida misura di esposizione a fattori sia ambientali sia socioeconomici e dall'utilizzo di dati aggregati degli esiti sanitari che possono portare a risultati affetti da fallacia ecologica. Setting e partecipanti I comuni inclusi nell'area geotermica dello studio sono 16, di cui 8 compresi nell'area geotermica cosiddetta ?tradizionale?, che include le localit? di Larderello, Val di Cornia e Radicondoli-Travale (area geotermica Nord) e gli altri 8 situati nella zona dell'Amiata senese e grossetana (area geotemica Sud). Nel periodo 2000-2006 la popolazione media residente nell'area geotermica complessiva era di oltre 43.000 abitanti. Al momento dello studio erano attive 31 centrali geotermoelettriche con capacit? di produzione di 811 MW, di cui 5 con 88 MW totali nell'area geotermica Sud. Le analisi statistiche sono state effettuate a livello di intera area geotermica, delle due subaree geotermiche (Nord e Sud) e dei 16 comuni. Principali misure di outcome La mortalit? ? stata analizzata utilizzando i dati del Registro di mortalit? regionale della Toscana per l'intero periodo disponibile (1971-2006), con dettaglio per 60 cause, scelte in quanto di interesse generale per il profilo di salute della popolazione o perch? coerenti con i criteri adottati dal Progetto SENTIERI. L'ospedalizzazione ? stata valutata analizzando i dati delle schede di dimissione ospedaliera (SDO) della Re-gione Toscana nel periodo 2004-2006, includendo i ricoverati residenti in Toscana ovunque abbiano effettuato un ricovero, considerando solo la diagnosi principale di ricovero, escludendo i ricoveri ripetuti degli stessi soggetti per la stessa causa. Le cause di ospedalizzazione selezionate per l'analisi dei ricoveri sono le stesse utilizzate per l'analisi della mortalit?. Per la mortalit? sono stati calcolati i tassi di mortalit? standardizzati per et? (TSDM) e i trend temporali dei TSDM in quattro periodi (1971- 1979, 1980-1989, 1990-1999, 2000-2006). Sia per la mortalit? del periodo 2000-2006, sia per l'ospedalizzazione del periodo 2004-2006,sono stati calcolati: i rapporti di mortalit?/ospedalizzazione standardizzati per et? (SMR/SHR), con e senza aggiustamento per l'indice di deprivazione (ID), utilizzando per il calcolo dell'ID i dati del censimento 2001, con gli attesi calcolati usando il tasso di mortalit?/ospedalizzazione della popolazione residente nei comuni limitrofi (comuni con la coordinata geografica del municipio compresa in un cerchio con raggio di 50 km centrato sull'area in studio); le stime bayesiane dei rapporti di mortalit? (BMR) e di ospedalizzazione (BHR) a livello esclusivamente comunale; le mappe (disease mapping) dei rischi bayesiani di mortalit?/ospedalizzazione comunali. Le malformazioni congenite (MC) sono state analizzate utilizzando i dati del Registro toscano dei difetti congeniti (RTDC) nel periodo 1992-2006, relativi a esiti di gravidanze di donne residenti nei comuni dell'area in studio, ovunque sia avvenuto il parto o l'interruzione di gravidanza. Per le MC ? stato calcolato il rapporto tra casi osservati e casi attesi (O/A), con gli attesi definiti in base al tasso regionale e vengono fornite le stime bayesiane del rapporto O/A (BMR) a livello esclusivamente comunale. Per valutare il basso peso e il rapporto tra maschi e femmine alla nascita sono stati utilizzati i dati dei certificati di assistenza al parto della Regione Toscana, relativi al periodo 2001-2007, con esclusione degli eventi occorsi in presidi di altre regioni. L'analisi ? stata condotta considerando i nati con: basso peso alla nascita (LW: peso <2.500 grammi), bassissimo peso alla nascita (VLW: peso <1.500 grammi), basso peso alla nascita nelle donne con et? gestazionale normale e maggiore di 36 settimane (LW36), et? gestazionale inferiore a 36 settimane, e il numero di maschi osservato. Per tutti gli indicatori ? stato calcolato il rapporto osservato/atteso, con l'atteso definito in base al tasso regionale. Risultati Il contesto ambientale Dalla descrizione del contesto ambientale, per quanto riguarda l'acqua, emerge come elemento di criticit? il riscontro talvolta di elevati livelli di arsenico nelle acque della rete di distribuzione degli acquedotti, tanto che in diverse realt? comunali si ? dovuto far ricorso alla concessione di deroghe ai parametri previsti dal decreto legislativo vigente (DLgs 31/01). Comunque, durante la fase conclusiva dello studio, nell'area geotermica Sud i nuovi sistemi abbattitori hanno ridotto i livelli di arsenico nella rete idrica fino a valori tali da non dover pi? ricorrere alle deroghe, ancora attive, invece, in alcuni comuni dell'area geotermica Nord. Le informazioni dell'ARPAT sui dati dell'aria evidenziano che l'attivit? geotermica ? in grado di modificare la qualit? dell'aria, soprattutto per l'acido solfidrico nell'area geotermica Nord, e per l'acido solfidrico e il mercurio nell'area geotermica Sud, in particolare nel versante senese dell'Amiata. Per il mercurio nell'aria, un contributo rilevante ? legato anche alle emissioni dagli ex siti metallurgici. Sebbene i livelli di mercurio nelle postazioni di monitoraggio rientrino sempre al di sotto dei valori guida raccomandati dall'OMS, le concentrazioni riscontrate nell'aria dell'Amiata senese, e perlopi? legate alla centrale PC2 di Piancastagnaio (spenta nel luglio 2011), sono significativamente superiori a quelle rilevate nelle altre aree geotermiche che, al contrario, sono assestate sugli stessi livelli registrati nei territori non geotermici. I livelli di concentrazione di acido solfidrico sono inferiori ai valori di riferimento, con occasionali superamenti del valore guida di tutela sanitaria OMS (150 μg/m3 come media delle 24 ore). Pi? critici sono i dati di inquinamento olfattivo, che si verifica con il superamento del valore di 7-10 g/m3 di acido solfidrico nell'aria, riscontrato con vario grado di intensit? in tutte le postazioni di monitoraggio, anche in aree dove non sono presenti impianti geotermici. In alcune aree con insediamenti produttivi geotermici la frequenza, la persistenza e l'intensit? dei cattivi odori sono tali da comportare condizioni di qualit? dell'aria scadente.
In dieser Arbeit wird die Entwicklung eines bifunktionellen Biosensors nach dem Vorbild eines Baukastensystems beschrieben. Das Ziel wird durch die Kombination verschiedenster molekularer Erkennungselemente erreicht. Solche molekularen Erkennungselemente im verwendeten System sind: • Propidium und die periphere anionische Bindungsstelle der Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) • Organophosphate und das aktive Zentrum der AChE • ein an die AChE gekoppeltes Hapten und das Epitop eines Antikörpers • ein an die AChE gekoppeltes Hapten, das als Ligand ein weiteres Enzym bindet Neben dem molekularen Erkennungselement wird ein Biosensor ebenso durch die Art des Transducers charakterisiert. Hier werden Quarzplättchen mit Goldelektroden zur Signalumwandlung eingesetzt. Die Verwendung solcher Sensoren mit einem EQCM-Gerät (electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance) ermöglicht es zwei Messsignale gleichzeitig aufzunehmen: die piezoelektrische Bestimmung einer Massebeladung und die amperometrische Detektion von Enzymaktivität auf der Sensoroberfläche. Für die Analytik stehen somit zwei verschiedene Assay-Varianten zur Verfügung: die Bestimmung der Inhibition der ACHE-Aktivität und ein Bindungstest über das Hapten. Die Basis beider Tests ist die Modifizierung der piezoelektrischen Kristalle mit Propidium – einem reversiblen Inhibitor der Acetylcholinesterase. Dies ermöglicht die Beladung des Sensors mit AChE über die Wechselwirkung mit der peripheren anionischen Bindungsstelle des Enzyms. Die Aktivität der so immobilisierten AChE und die Inhibition durch Organophosphate (Pestizide) werden amperometrisch bestimmt. Durch die chemische Kopplung eines Hapten an die Cholinesterase wird ein weiteres Erkennungselement eingeführt. Das eröffnet die Möglichkeit, an die auf dem Propidium-modifizierten Sensor immobilisierte, haptenisierte Cholinesterase einen Antikörper zu binden. Als Voraussetzung für elektrochemische Bestimmung der AChE-Aktivität wurde zunächst die Optimierung der amperometrischen Messmethode vorgenommen. Die Oxidatationspotentiale für die Detektion von Thiocholin wurden im Bereich von 150 mV bis 300 mV variiert. Dabei wurde für die nachfolgenden Untersuchungen eine Arbeitspotential von 200 mV (vs. Ag/AgCl) festgelegt, da hier das beste Verhältnis von gemessenem Oxidationsstrom und Langzeitstabilität der Propidium-modifizierten Sensoren erzielt wurde. Dieses Potential war deutlich geringer als die bisher publizierten Mediator-freien AChE-Biosensoren. Es wurde ein Vergleich verschiedener Organophosphate über ihre Inhibitionskonstanten durchgeführt, um diejenigen herauszufinden, die möglichst schnell mit dem aktiven Zentrum der Acetylcholinesterase reagieren. Das verwendete Messsystem beruht nicht auf der Vorinkubation der AChE und damit einer Einstellung des Inhibitionsgleichgewichts. Stattdessen wurde die Inhibition der AChE direkt im Fließsystem verfolgt. Daher war eine schnelle Inhibitionskinetik für einen empfindlichen Organophosphat-Nachweis erforderlich. Da einige Inhibitoren nur als Phosphothionat vorlagen, wurde die Überführung dieser Substanzen in die entsprechenden Oxo-Formen mittels N-Bromsuccinimid untersucht. Die NBS-Aktivierung wurde erfolgreich durchgeführt, die erwartete Inhibitionsstärke konnte jedoch aufgrund hydrolytischer Vorgänge nicht erreicht werden. Untersuchungen mit Diisopropylfluorophosphat (DFP) und Chlorpyriphos-oxon (CPO) konnten die Voruntersuchungen über die Inhibitionskinetik in Bezug auf die erreichten Nachweisgrenzen von 2E-06 M für DFP und 5E-08 M für CPO bestätigen. Für die chemische Modifizierung der Acetylcholinesterase wurde zunächst 2,4-Dichlorphenoxyessigsäure (2,4-D) als Hapten ausgewählt. 2,4-D wird als Herbizid eingesetzt und in der EU über die Gewässerschutzrichtlinie reguliert. 2,4-D konnte in unterschiedlichen molaren Verhältnissen von 2,6 : 1 bis 260 : 1 (2,4-D : AChE) nach Aktivierung mit einem Norbornendicarboximido-Derivat an die AChE gekoppelt werden. Dabei konnte die spezifische Aktivität der Acetylcholinesterase erhalten und die Bindung eines anti-2,4-D-Antikörpers ermöglicht werden. Zur Verstärkung des piezolelektrischen Signals der Antikörperbindung wurden die Immunoglobuline zunächst an Goldnanopartikel gekoppelt. Damit konnte eine Verstärkung um den Faktor 10 erreicht werden. Allerdings waren die Antikörper-modifizierten Goldnanopartikel nicht langzeitstabil. Daher wurden auch Silica-Nanopartikel als Matrix für die Antikörperkopplung getestet. Mit diesem System konnte eine Verstärkung um den Faktor von 5 bis 13 je nach Grad der Beladung den Nanopartikel mit Antikörper bestimmt werden. Die hohe unspezifische Bindung der Antikörper-Nanopartikel-Konjugate an den Propidium-modifizierten QCM-Sensor konnte keinen empfindlichen 2,4-D-Nachweis ermöglichen. Als Alternative wurde Kokain (Benzoylecgonin, BZE) als Hapten an die Aceytlcholinesterase gekoppelt. Da Kokain selbst auch als Inhibitor im aktiven Zentrum der AChE binden kann, wurden zwei verschiedene Strategien zur Konjugatsynthese verfolgt. Durch Zugabe von Kokain während der Kopplung sollte die kovalente Fixierung des Kokain-Derivats BZE-DADOO im aktiven Zentrum verhindert werden (Konjugat B). In der Tat konnten mit dieser Synthesestrategie 67% der spezifischen Cholinesterase-Aktivität erhalten werden, während im Kokain-freien Ansatz (Konjugat A) nur 2% der Ausgangsaktivität wiedergefunden wurden. Das BZE-AChE-Konjugat ermöglichte auch die Untersuchung der Bindungskinetik der anti-BZE-Antikörper. Dabei konnte eine Assoziationsgeschwindigkeitskonstante ka von 12911 l/(mol•s) berechnet werden. Dieser Wert ist trotz der vergleichsweise geringen Oberflächenbeladung vergleichbar mit den in der Literatur angegebenen Werten. Die Dissoziationsgeschwindigkeitskonstante ist mit 2,89E−3 1/s um den Faktor 30 höher als der Literaturwert. Diese Abweichung ist auf Unterschiede im Bindungsmodell zurückzuführen. Mit beiden BZE-AChE-Konjugaten konnte ein kompetetiver Immunoassay mit Kokain im Fließsystem durchgeführt werden. Dabei zeigte sich für beide Konjugate ein ähnlicher Testmittelpunkt: IC50 = 4,40E−8 mol/l für Konjugat A bzw. IC50 = 1,77E−8 mol/l für Konjugat B. Diese Werte sind vergleichbar zu bereits publizierten Kokainassays im Fließsystem. Wie vorstehend beschrieben, bindet Kokain als Inhibitor auch im aktiven Zentrum von Cholinesterasen. Diese Eigenschaft wurde genutzt, um ein zweites Enzym – Butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) – an die BZE-AChE zu binden. Die Spezifität dieser Bindung konnte durch die Abwesenheit einer Affinität der BChE zum Propidium und durch die Blockierbarkeit der Bindung von BChE und BZE-AChE durch Kokain nachgewiesen werden. Damit konnte erfolgreich die Kombination mehrere molekularer Erkennungselemente demonstriert werden. Die Propidium-Plattform ermöglicht den Aufbau einer Architektur aus verschiedenen Cholinesterasen, die über unterschiedliche Bindungsstellen wechselwirken. Sowohl freie als auch BZE-modifizierte AChE können über die Affinität zum Propidium auf dem EQCM-Sensor immobilisiert werden. Mit Kokain als Substrat der Butyrylcholinesterase kann Benzoylecgonin nicht nur als Epitop für die Bindung eines Antikörpers, sondern auch als Erkennungselement für die BChE genutzt werden. Auf der anderen Seite erschwert die geringe Affinität der BChE im Gegensatz zum anti-BZE-Antikörper den Einsatz dieses Systems für analytische Zwecke. Durch die Verwendung anderer Ligand-Enzym-Kombinationen läßt sich das in dieser Arbeit vorgestellte Konzept noch weiter ausbauen und ermöglicht damit eine Entwicklung ausgehend von "einfachen" molekularen Erkennungselementen (MRE) hin zu "multifunktionellen" Erkennungselementsystemen. In dieser Arbeit konnte demonstriert werden, dass der Aufbau solch komplexe Systeme möglich ist, ohne Abstriche in Bezug auf die Empfindlichkeit der einzelnen Assays hinzunehmen. ; This work describes the development of a bifunctional biosensor following a modular assembly approach. This aim is reached through the combination of various molecular recognition elements. The system presented herein uses the following recognition elements: • propidium and the peripheral anionic site of the acetylcholinesterase (AChE) • an organophosphate and the active site of the AChE • a hapten – covalently coupled to the AChE – and the epitope of an antibody • a hapten – covalently coupled to the AChE – binding as a ligand to another enzyme A biosensor is not only characterized by the molecular recognition element, but also by the type of signal transducer. This work is based on an electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance (EQCM) device that uses gold-plated quartz sensors for the signal transduction. This allows monitoring two distinct signals at the same time: the piezoelectric determination of a mass loading and the amperometrical detection of enzymatic activity on the sensor surface. Thus two different assay systems are provided: the determination of the inhibition of the AChE activity and ligand binding assay via the hapten. Both tests are based on the modification of the piezoelectric crystals with propidium – a reversible AChE inhibitor. This allows the deposition of AChE on the sensor surface via the interaction with the enzyme's peripheral anionic site. The enzymatic activity of the in-situ immobilized AChE and the inhibition by organophosphates (pesticides) are measured amperometrically. Another recognition element is introduced by the chemical coupling of a hapten to the cholinesterase. This provides the opportunity bind an antibody to the haptenized cholinesterase that is immobilized on the propidium-modified sensor. Preliminary experiments were focussed on the improvement of the amperometric determination the AChE activity. The applied potential for the oxidation of thiocholine was changed over a range from 150 to 300 mV. The best results for the measured oxidation current and the long-term stability of the propidium-modified sensors were obtained at 200 mV (vs. Ag/AgCl). This potential was used throughout all subsequent experiments. This potential was also found to be lower as compared to mediator-free AChE-biosensors published hitherto. Different organophosphates were evaluated with regard to their inhibition constants to find those which react with active site of the acetylcholinesterase as fast as possible. The assay format used herein monitors the inhibition of the AChE directly in the flow-system. That is, it is not based preincubation of the enzyme with the inhibitor and therefore no inhibition equilibrium is reached. This approach requires fast inhibition kinetics in order to detect the organophosphates highly sensitively. Some of the inhibitors were only available in the phosphothionate form. Thus was necessary to convert these compounds to their respective oxon-forms by N-bromosuccinimide (NBS). The NBS-activation was performed successfully, though the expected inhibition potential could not be reached due to hydrolytic processes. Experiments with diisopropylfluorophosphate (DFP) und chlorpyriphos-oxon (CPO) could confirm the previous experiments on the inhibtion kinetics. Lower limits of detection of 2E-06 M for DFP and 5E-08 M for CPO could be reached with this approach. Initially 2,4-dichlorphenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) was chosen as a hapten for the chemical modification of the acetylcholinesterase. The use of 2,4-D as a herbicide is regulated by the water protection directive of the European Union. 2,4-D was coupled to AChE in different molar ratios from 2,6 : 1 to 260 : 1 (2,4-D : AChE) after activation with a norbornendicarboximido derivative. The chosen coupling method allowed to recover the complete specific activity of the acetylcholinesterase and to bind a specific anti-2,4-D-antibody. Furthermore, the coupling of the immunoglobulins to gold nanoparticles was tested to enhance the piezoelectric signal of the antibody binding. An amplification factor of 10 was reached with this system. However the antibody-coated gold nanoparticles show a very poor long-term stability. Therefore also silica nanoparticles were tested as a matrix for the coupling of the antibodies. This approach yielded an amplification factor from 5 to 13 depending amount of antibodies bound to the nanoparticles. Unfortunately the high non-specific binding of the antibody nanoparticle conjugates did not allow a sensitive 2,4-D detection assay. Cocaine (benzoylecgonine, BZE) was coupled as a hapten to Acetylcholinesterase in an alternative approach. Two different strategies for the synthesis of the conjugate were pursued, since cocaine can bind also bind as an inhibitor for the AChE's active site. The addition of excess cocaine during the coupling reaction should the covalent binding of the cocaine derivative BZE-DADOO at the active site (conjugate B). Indeed over two thirds of the original specific cholinesterase activity could be recovered with this strategy, while the cocaine-free batch (conjugate A) showed only 2% of the original activity. Furthermore the BZE-AChE conjugate allowed the evaluation of the binding kinetics of the anti-BZE-antibody. The association rate constant ka was calculated to 12911 l/(mol•s). Despite the low surface coverage this value is still comparable to other published results. The dissociation rate constant kd of 2,89E−3 1/s is thirty times higher than values found in the literature. This deviation is due to differences in the applied binding model. Both BZE-AChE conjugates could be applied in a competitive immunoassay for cocaine in the flow system. It was shown that for both conjugates a similar half maximal inhibitory concentration was reached: : IC50 = 4,40E−8 mol/l for conjugate A and IC50 = 1,77E−8 mol/l for conjugate B, respectively. These values are comparable to other published assay for cocaine in a flow system. As described earlier, cocaine is also able to bind to the active site of cholinesterases. This feature was used to examine the interaction of a second enzyme – butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) – with the BZE-AChE. Evidence for the specificity of this interaction was provided by two further experiments, i.e. BChE has no affinity towards Propidium and the binding of BChE towards BZE-AChE could be blocked by excess cocaine. Thus the successful integration of recognition elements on the molecular level could be demonstrated. The propidium-modifies sensor allowed the construction of a scaffold of cholinesterases that interact via different recognition sites. Unmodified and BZE-coupled AChE can be immobilized on the EQCM-sensor via the interaction with propidium. With cocaine being a substrate BChE this compound cannot only be used to capture anti-BZE-antibodies, but also as a recognition element for BChE. The affinity of the BChE towards is relatively low as compared to the antibody's binding strength, thus making it difficult to employ this system for analytical purposes. Still the concept presented herein can be extended by other ligand-enzyme-combinations. On the basis of "simple" molecular recognition elements this enables the development of "multifunctional" recognition element systems. This work could show that the construction of such complex systems is possible without cutting back with regard to the sensitivity of the individual assays.
Sata kuntaa riittää , Puolet pois! ja Lopulta kuntia voi olla vain 30. Tutkimuksen aiheena on 1990-luvun alusta 2000-luvun puoliväliin käyty kuntarakennetta koskeva julkinen keskustelu. Keskustelua näkökohtineen, vaatimuksineen ja osapuolineen tarkastellaan totuuden politiikan kautta. Kiinnostuksen kohteena on se, miten tuotetaan ne totuudet, joilla perustellaan kuntarakenteeseen kohdistuvia vaatimuksia. Tutkimuksen aineisto muodostuu kuntaliitoksia käsittelevistä sanomalehtikirjoituksista. Tutkimuksen perusteella kuntarakennekeskustelun solmukohdassa käydään kamppailua tehtävien, voimavarojen ja kuntarakenteiden keskinäisestä suhteesta. Kunnille osoitettujen tehtävien ja voimavarojen merkitys on kansantaloudellisesti ja jakopoliittisesti keskeinen. Voimavaroissa tai tehtävissä tunnistettu muutos käynnistää tarpeen sopeuttaa kahta muuta elementtiä. Muutosvaatimukset ovat kytkeytyneet myös poliittisen vallanjaon jännitteisiin eli puolueiden valtapoliittisiin asemiin kuntakentässä. Kamppailu oikeista tulkinnoista, määritelmistä ja näkökulmista eli totuudesta ilmenee puhe- ja ajattelutavoissa eli diskursseissa. Kuntarakennekeskustelua hallitsee puhetapa, joka on nimetty valtadiskurssiksi. Sen keskeisenä päämääränä on kuntarakenteen uudistaminen suurempien kuntien muodostamiseksi. Kysymys on kuntien toimintaedellytysten ja voimavarojen vahvistamisesta. Keskeiseksi muodostuu kuntien toimintaympäristön muutos. Valtadiskurssissa kuntarakenteen uudistaminen asetetaan rahoituksen tai tehtävien uudelleenmäärittelyn edelle. Kun kuntien tehtävissä tai voimavaroissa tapahtuu muutoksia, rakenteiden tulee sopeutua näihin muutoksiin. Kuntarakenne näyttäytyy hallittavana , sen piirteitä voidaan mitata, arvioida ja muuttaa. Vastadiskurssiksi nimetty diskurssi syntyy reaktiona vaatimukselle kuntarakenteen muutoksesta. Vastadiskurssin lähtökohdista käsin pyrkimys kuntarakenteen muutokseen ei ole perusteltu. Kunnat nähdään historialtaan ja identiteetiltään ainutkertaisina itsehallinnollisina yhteisöinä, joilla on alueellinen itsemääräämisoikeus. Kunnan kehittämistä ja palveluja koskeva päätöksenteko halutaan säilyttää mahdollisimman lähellä kuntalaisia. Kuntaliitosten nähdään johtavan kehittämistoimenpiteiden ja palveluiden keskittymiseen eli hyvinvointivaltion paikalliseen alasajoon. Toimintaympäristön muutos edellyttää sopeutumista, mutta kuntaliitosten sijaan ratkaisuksi esitetään kuntien voimavarojen lisäämistä, tehtävien vähentämistä, kuntien yhteistyön lisäämistä ja muita palvelutuotannon tehostamiseen tähtääviä toimenpiteitä. Nykyiset kunnat ovat muodostuneet useiden vuosisatojen aikana monien vaiheiden kautta. Kuntia on yhdistetty ja niitä on jaettu. Muutoksia on perusteltu eri aikoina ajankohtaisilla kuntien tehtäviin ja taloudellisiin voimavaroihin kohdistuvilla haasteilla. 1990-luvun alussa kuntarakenteen muutostarve kytkettiin byrokratiaan ja lamaa seuranneeseen kunnallistalouden kriisiin. Vaatimus palvelujen tehokkuudesta ja byrokratisoituneen hallinnon virtaviivaistamisesta muodostui hyvin keskeiseksi. 1990-luvulta 2000-luvulle tultaessa alkoi korostua seutuistuminen, kuntien keskinäinen riippuvuus ja yhteistyö elinkeinojen kehittämisessä sekä palvelujen turvaamisessa. Samalla omaksuttiin kaksi erilaista sopeutumisstrategiaa eli pyrkimys edistää sekä kuntaliitoksia että seutuyhteistyötä. Kaksikärkinen strategia edusti kompromissia tilanteessa, jossa kunnat eivät olleet halukkaita liitoksiin. 2000-luvun puoliväliin tultaessa kuntarakennekeskustelussa tapahtui kuitenkin diskursiivinen muutos. Kuntarakenteen muutosta vaadittiin entistä voimakkaammin nimenomaan palvelujen turvaamiseksi. Kuntien taloudellisen aseman eriytyminen kiihtyi muuttoliikkeestä ja kuntien rahoitusperusteiden muutosten seurauksena. Uhkana olivat myös väestön ikääntymisestä ja palveluvaatimusten muutoksista johtuva palvelukustannusten kohoaminen. Kunnat näyttivät jakautuvan menestyviin ja menettäviin. Monien kuntien edellytykset palvelujen järjestämiseen olivat merkittävästi heikentyneet. Kuntien taloudellinen vastuullistaminen ja vaatimus elinvoimaisuudesta korostuivat. Julkisen talouden sopeuttamistarpeen ja kuntien palvelukustannusten kasvun myötä tehokkuuden rinnalle nousi vaatimus tuottavuuden kohottamisesta. Toimintaympäristön muutoksiin varautumisen katsottiin edellyttävän myös elinvoimaisuutta. Aiempina vuosikymmeninä valtion rahoitusta ohjattiin voimakkaasti infrastruktuurin ja palveluverkon ylläpitämiseen syrjäseudulla ja heikosti toimeentulevissa kunnissa. Tapahtuneessa muutoksessa on kysymys siitä, että yksi totuuden politiikka korvautuu toisella. Kuntien odotetaan kantavan vastuunsa elinkelpoisuudestaan ja yhdistyvän väestö- ja elinkeinopohjaltaan ja sitä kautta entistä vahvemmiksi kokonaisuuksiksi. 2000-luvun edetessä kuntaliitoshankkeita on käynnistynyt kiihtyvällä tahdilla ja yhä useammissa niistä kunnat yhdistyvät. Kuntayhteisön historia, identiteetti ja ainutkertaisuus väistävät, kun yhdistyminen muodostuu yhden tai useamman kunnan taloudellisen aseman tai toiminnallisten edellytysten kannalta välttämättömäksi. Keskusteltaessa kuntarakenteesta keskustellaan samalla kuntien itsehallinnosta. Voimakas vaatimus kuntien elinvoimaisuudesta ja elinkelpoisuudesta merkitseekin itsehallintokäsityksen muuttumista. ; The topic of this study is the public discussion on desired local authority size and the need for municipal mergers. The study is based on the French philosopher Michel Foucault´s discoursive view of knowledge and power and an analytics of governmentality, which has evolved from Foucault´s research. The discussion on local government structure concerns information on local authorities, power and competing governmental rationalities. Governmental rationalities refer to different ways of producing truths and giving causes for social and political aims. The study is based on the conception that governmental rationalities are bound up with a discoursive struggle. This struggle is integrated into public discussion. The material of the study consists of newspaper articles on local government structure and municipal mergers. The discussion on local government structure is examined in contexts from the early 1990s and early 2000s. With regard to these two periods I analyse the changing historical conditions under which the discourses unfold. During the time that passed between the two periods the local authorities faced a major change in economic fluctuations, migration, internationalisation, the European integration and the effects of extensive public administration reforms. The discussion on local government structure is analysed in relation to the recent development of the operating environment, the metamorphosis of the welfare society and the changeable role of local authorities. An important issue in my study is what kind of discourses form the framework for public discussion on local government structure? And how do they regulate the governmental rationalities concerning the relations between the duties, resources and structures of local governments? According to my study, the debate on local government structure is in fact a defining struggle over the local authorities´ mission, resources and structure and how these are related to one another. A change detected in resources or duties triggers a need to adjust either one of the two other elements in question. The interpretations of adjustment in each case result in specific governmental rationalities of reform. There is also the question of how political power is distributed and the tensions arising from it, i.e. a struggle for political power in connection to the political parties´ differentiated position in local governments. A change in local government structure signifies new strategic positions and political strongholds. The positions of the traditional ruling parties, i.e. the Centre Party and the Social Democratic Party, produce opposite dispositions of how and on whose conditions the governmental models are outlined. The study shows that the discussion on local government structure is dominated by a power discourse that strongly emphasises a demand for restructuring in order to form larger municipalities. The power discourse strengthens a rationality that gives priority to restructuring local governments instead of financing or redefining duties. Within the power discourse the conception of local government structure turns into an instrument of governmentality and a perspective which sets aside other possible ways of representing local authorities. Local authorities are perceived as a part of the total structure of administrative units, the characteristics of which may be measured, assessed and changed. A counterdiscourse arises as a reaction to the power discourse and its demand for adjustment to the change of operational environment through a change of local government structure. This counterdiscourse questions the notion of local authorities as a structure that can be steered and governed. Local authorities are seen as unique, autonomous regional institutions where decisions on their development and services must be made as close to the local residents as possible. Thus the counterdiscourse emphasises the local authorities´ territorial autonomy, which secures preserve the unique history and identity of the present municipalities. In the 1990 s the interpretation that the operating environment developed towards regionalisation was characteristic for the change management. The aim to promote regionalisation and conditions influencing regionalisation was strengthened. Regional cooperation represented a compromise between reluctance to merge and securing of industrial development needs and services. The discussion concerning local authority structures was founded upon a two-peaked strategy of adjusting, i.e. the aim was to actively further the promotion of both municipal mergers and regional cooperation. Securing services is the topic in the core of the discussions on local government structures. And this topic is enwrapped in the discourse on equality. However, equality appears to be the ambivalent precondition for the reform. In the power discourse the equal status of citizens is threatened by the differentiation of the financial situation of local authorities. A change of the local government structure arises as the solution. The counterdiscourse emphasises one aspect above all others, i.e. to secure services as close to the local residents as possible. The pursuit of scale benefits, concentration of resources and development measures and cutting down on services are considered risks in the change of local government structures. The fear for the effects of concentrated powers and for the dismantlement of the welfare society at local level will be actualised in the counterdiscourse. From the beginning of the 1990 s to the mid-2000 s there is a discoursive change in the discussion on local government structures. The discussion starts increasingly to circle around the change of operating environments of local authorities. The prerequisites of local governments to secure the services are getting questioned due to migration, changes in the population s age structure and regional differentiation. There seems to be a division into winning and losing local authorities. The financial and operating prerequisites of small and remote local authorities are considered to have weakened. Making provisions for changes in the operating environment emphasises vitality and viability. A condition is that local authorities embrace their financial responsibilities. The responsibilisation in the discoursive change is similar to the responsibilisation frequently applied in connection with the management of welfare drawing on different neoliberal practices. The mentality of liberalisation and responsibilisation can be more widely acknowledged in the development of the relations between local authorities and the state. In political rationalisation the promotion of productivity has become the counterpart of the securing of services. The rhetoric of financial necessities is more strongly than before starting to regulate the discussion. In the 1990 s the emphasis was on effectivity and claims for the streamlining of the bureaucratised governance. In the 2000 s the talk focused on productivity and the demand that more should be achieved despite decreasing resources. The concept of productivity welling from the background assumptions of economic science is problematic for the public sector. It does not measure welfare and wellbeing. Consequently the dispute is not about measures but about goals. What kind of local authorities will be given the responsibility for the services to residents and the development of their close environment? The answer to this question also implies how resources and duties are allocated to local authorities. The discoursive change is all about a reorganisation of the mutual relations between knowledge and power. One politics of truth is replaced with another politics of truth with more explanatory power and penetrating effects than the former one. The responsibilisation of local authorities and the assessment based on financial processes come in the centre of the discussion on local government structures. The definitions of local authority duties, resources and structures also contribute to the revision of local self-government. The strong claim for vital and viable local authorities actually means the articulation of a new kind of basis for the self-government.
Ziele und Befunde der Arbeit Das durchgeführte Forschungsvorhaben zeigt durch einen holistischen, gleichzeitig politikwissenschaftlichen wie auch historischen Ansatz Folgendes: Nämlich, warum und wie das liberale, regelbasierte Weltordnungssystem im Untersuchungsraum der US-Präsidentschaften von Clinton bis Obama kontinuierlich durch ein System der realistischen, kurzfristig wirkenden Durchsetzung vitaler Interessen mittels militärischer Instrumentenpräferenz unter fortlaufender militärischer Optimierung ergänzt bzw. ersetzt wird. Dies erklärt auch, warum die "transaktionale Führung Trumps"(1), die nach dem Untersuchungsraum von 1993 bis 2017 mit Außenwirkung die Reduktion idealistischer "Grand Strategy"-Elemente bzw. wohlwollender Ordnungsmacht unter Kostenabwälzung und Vorteilsverringerung europäischer Nato-Verbündeter vornimmt, in Kontinuität zur ausgeübten Führungsmacht der Amtsvorgänger steht. Ergebnisse dieser Dissertation wie die sich ab 1993 immer nachdrücklicher abzeichnende Auflösung der multilateralen Grundordnung legen damit nahe, Trumps bisherige Außen- und Sicherheitspolitik als deutlich spürbares Krisensymptom und nicht als Ursache dieses Abbaus der nach 1945 eingerichteten Weltordnung einzustufen. Diese Auflösung ist mit einer Erosion des letztlich transatlantisch angestoßenen bipolaren "amerikanischen Systems" gleichzusetzen. Die Implementierung dieses Systems erfolgte als "Lernstunde zweier Weltkriege" auf Basis der mit der Aufklärung und den amerikanischen Gründungskennziffern eingeleiteten neuzeitlichen Ordnungskonzeptionen: Daher ist diese Auflösung auch ein Indikator für das Scheitern neuzeitlicher Ordnungskennziffern, die sich im "American way of life" entfalten konnten. Als ursächlich für die geschilderte Entwicklung wird eine von Clinton bis Obama konstant ansteigende Gesamtbedrohung nachgewiesen, mit der die konsequente Schwächung amerikanischer Vormacht verknüpft ist. Diese fußt u.a. auf der Basis von seit 1979 postulierten Klimawandeleffekten als Bedrohungsverstärker bei erreichter amerikanischer Förderspitze in fossilen Rohstoffen und ansteigendem Ressourcenbedarf im Kontext schrumpfender Rohstoffvorkommen. Weiter sind für den Untersuchungsraum die zunehmende Einwirkung der in den 1980er Jahren begonnenen "US-Konservativen Revolution" auf die Ausübung der Außen- und Sicherheitspolitik unter Einflusszugewinn von Konzernen und Lobbygruppen auf beispielsweise policy-Implementierung sowie die neuen Rahmenbedingungen zu addieren. Darunter fallen die sich ausformende Digitalisierung, die hohen Ressourcenverbrauch mit sich bringt, und die ansteigende Weltbevölkerung unter spezifischen demographischen Vorzeichen. Darüber hinaus sind beispielsweise die Beibehaltung des bipolar angewachsenen Rüstungssektors als ökonomische Basis militärischer Vormacht und das langsame Abbröckeln der Dollar-Hegemonie seit etwa 1973 zu berücksichtigen. Durch komplexes Zusammenspiel von "Grand Strategy"-Umsetzung gemäß der Prämisse amerikanischen Führungsmachtausbaus unter neokonservativem bzw. christlich-rechtem Einfluss mit asymmetrischen sowie reaktivierten konventionellen Bedrohungsgegenständen, Bedrohungsverstärkern und neuen Rahmenbedingungen wird der lineare Verlauf der Gesamtbedrohung im Zeitraum von 1993 bis 2017 verständlich: Im Kontext der "Grand Strategy"-Ausführungen erklären insbesondere das Bedrohungsabwehr-, Bedrohungsverstärker- und Marktwirtschaftsverständnis der US-Far Right in komplexer Wechselwirkung mit erstarkenden transnationalen Konzernen, Lobbygruppen, Individuen(2), informellen Netzwerken und staatlichen Akteuren in Bezug auf Bedrohungsgegenstände sowie Bedrohungsverstärker(3) im Zusammenhang mit der post-bipolaren, globalen Verankerung amerikanischer Wirtschafts- und Konsummuster das Folgende: Nämlich die Anpassung der amerikanischen Bedrohungsabwehr - unter Aufbau der "imperial presidency"(4) bzw. Einhegung des Systems von "checks and balances" - samt deren Implikationen auf das bipolare liberale Ordnungssystem. Sodann wird die notwendige Weiterführung in der Nato durch amerikanisch aufgeworfenen Nato-Umbau zur entsprechenden Umsetzung transformierter amerikanischer Bedrohungsabwehr bzw. Legitimierung der systemischen Anpassung begreifbar. Genauso wird nachvollziehbar, dass die so eingerichtete Bedrohungsabwehr nur kurzfristig abwehrt: Stattdessen verstärkt sie asymmetrische und konventionelle Bedrohung wie auch Bedrohungsverstärker - unter Einleitung von Rüstungsspiralen bzw. Demontierung der Rüstungskontrolle - und damit die Gesamtbedrohung. Dies lässt einen Konfliktausbruch jenseits des bisher Vorstellbaren konstant näher rücken. Gleichzeitig ist der dringende Bedarf an Mobilisierung der transatlantischen Zusammenarbeit im Hinblick auf Förderung der globalen Kooperation staatlicher, aber auch nichtstaatlicher Akteure hinsichtlich der Bedrohungswurzeln samt der sich verschlechternden Voraussetzungen illustriert: Denn mit jedem Anstieg der Gesamtbedrohung ist durch die eingeleitete amerikanische sicherheitspolitische Anpassung und deren Weiterführung in der Nato ein Abbau der regelbasierten Basiskennziffern im Untersuchungsraum verknüpft. Dies reduziert in fortlaufender Konsequenz die Grundlage für oben genannte, konstant zentraler werdende Zusammenarbeit, um eine sukzessive Erosion des bipolaren "amerikanischen Systems" unter künftigen Dystopien zu verhindern bzw. zumindest zu begrenzen. Durch die Forschungsergebnisse wird der bisherige Forschungsstand auf den Kopf gestellt, da so beispielsweise gezeigt werden kann, dass mittels der Transformation der Nato keine gleichberechtigte transatlantische Lastenteilung oder eine Weiterentwicklung der Nato gemäß der Nato-Gründungskennziffern erzeugt wird. Dies gilt auch für den europäischen Widerstand gegenüber der tatsächlichen Verankerung der Natotransformationspositionen(5), der auf die Erosion des bipolaren liberalen Ordnungssystems bzw. der US-Vorteilsgewährung sowie so begünstigter Partikularinteressensicherung abhebt. Außerdem wird deutlich, dass eine Kontinuitätslinie in der Bedrohungsabwehr von Clinton bis Obama unter unterschiedlicher Außenwirkung und dem Grundmuster "Battleship America" vorliegt - und eben nicht eine multilateral ausgerichtete Außen- und Sicherheitspolitik unter Clinton, die als Folge von 9/11 in einen unilateralen Pendelausschlag unter G. W. Bush 43 mündet, der durch die Obama-Administration wieder zurückgenommen wird. Die Arbeit basiert auf einer umfassenden Fülle an Literatur, die das aufwendige Literaturverzeichnis widerspiegelt: Darunter fallen vielfältige amerikanische und europäische Publikationen, Monographien und entsprechende Sekundärliteratur, wie Biographien, Veröffentlichungen unterschiedlichster Natur wichtiger Vertreter der transatlantischen Forschungselite, Akteure der entsprechenden Politikplanung und -ausführung und wissenschaftliche Artikel aus Fachzeitschriften zu allen Forschungsbereichen bzw. politikwissenschaftlicher Methodik und Theorie. Weiter wurden u.a. Veröffentlichungen bzw. relevante Dokumente von Regierungen, Außenministerien, Verteidigungsministerien, Regierungsorganen, Denkfabriken, universitären Forschungszentren sowie der Nato verwendet. Struktur der Arbeit Konkret ist die vorliegende Dissertation in zwei Bände sowie einen Anhangsband unterteilt: Band 1 umfasst Schwerpunkt 1, eine Prozessanalyse unter offensiver neorealistischer Verortung, Band 2 den darauf aufbauenden Schwerpunkt 2, einen Vergleich ("structured focussed comparison") unter defensiver neorealistischer Verortung. Im Anhangsband finden sich ergänzende Ausführungen zu Kapitel 1, Band 1 in Bezug auf den Forschungsstand, Literatur und Quellenlage, theoretische Verortung sowie Wahl des Untersuchungsraumes bzw. ausgewählter europäischer Nato-Partner. Weiter sind ein historisches Kapitel als Voraussetzung zum "process-tracing" in Kapitel 2, Band 1 und ein Abbildungs- und Abkürzungsverzeichnis wie auch ein Literaturverzeichnis enthalten. Insgesamt ermitteln die beiden aufeinander aufbauenden Schwerpunkte mittels qualitativer Methoden das Folgende: Nämlich die übergeordnete amerikanische sicherheitspolitische Reaktion auf eine neue Gesamtbedrohung sowie deren Weiterführung und Legitimierungschance in der Nato im Untersuchungsraum von Clinton bis Obama. Auf Basis des ersten Teils der Hypothese wird in Schwerpunkt 1, Band 1 ein Zusammenhang zwischen der Beibehaltung des bipolaren "US-Grand Strategy"-Ziels amerikanischer Führungs- und Ordnungsmacht sowie bipolarer außenpolitischer "Grand Strategy"-Kennziffern bzw. einer sich komplex entwickelnden neuen Gesamtbedrohung, amerikanischer sicherheitspolitischer Anpassung und der notwendigen Weiterführung in der Nato durch Natotransformation mittels amerikanisch aufgeworfener Natotransformationspositionen hergestellt. In Schwerpunkt 2, Band 2 wird auf Basis des zweiten Teils der Hypothese der transatlantische Aushandlungsprozess zur Etablierung der amerikanisch vorgeschlagenen Natotransformationspositionen in Augenschein genommen: Vor diesem Hintergrund wird überprüft, ob diese tatsächliche Verankerung bzw. Konkretisierung des Ausbaus amerikanischen Vormacht am Widerstand der ausgewählten europäischen Nato-Bündnispartner Frankreich, Deutschland und Großbritannien scheitert. Im Gesamtergebnis zeigt sich, dass aufgrund einer sich entwickelnden komplexen, linear ansteigenden Gesamtbedrohung die Chance zum Ausbau amerikanischer Führungsmacht konstant abnimmt. Dies muss mittels amerikanischer sicherheitspolitischer Anpassung kompensiert werden. Die daher erfolgende amerikanische sicherheitspolitische Neuausrichtung auf Basis der eingeleiteten "Revolution im Militärwesen" modifiziert wiederum die Kennziffern bipolarer kollektiver Sicherheitsgewährleistung. Alles wird mittels tatsächlicher Verankerung der amerikanischen Natotransformationspositionen ermöglicht bzw. legitimiert. Das tatsächliche Erreichen der - die sicherheitspolitische amerikanische Anpassung konsequent weiterführenden - Transformation der Nato ermöglicht eine missionsorientierte, reaktionsbeschleunigende, flexible und globale Sicherheitsprojektion. Außerdem ist die Voraussetzung für "alliances of choice" innerhalb der Nato geschaffen. Weiter zementiert die Modifikation der "bipolaren Nato" die mittels sicherheitspolitischer amerikanischer Anpassung eingeleitete Erosion zentraler zivilisatorischer Errungenschaften bzw. Aufgaben bipolarer kollektiver Sicherheitsgewährleistung unter Vorteilsverringerung europäischer Nato-Bündnispartner. Die tatsächliche Verankerung der Natotransformationspositionen erfolgt mittels der Reaktivierung konventioneller Bedrohung im Kontext der Ukraine-Krise von 2014 und der Erweiterung der Nato-Partnerschaftsringe auf globaler Ebene, ohne diesen den Status eines Nato-Mitgliedsstaates zu gewähren. Damit wird der Bündnisfall nicht globalisiert. Der ausgeübte deutsch-französische Widerstand wird besonders intensiv durch den Einbezug der europäischen Gründungsstaaten befördert, dagegen unterbleibt die Ausbildung einer europäischen Führungstroika durch Frankreich, Deutschland und Großbritannien. Darüber hinaus zeigt insbesondere die entsprechende Ursachenermittlung, dass trotz konstanter, aufeinander aufbauender amerikanischer sicherheitspolitischer Reaktion unter unterschiedlicher Außenwirkung sowie tatsächlicher Weiterführung in der Nato die Gesamtbedrohung nicht langfristig abgebremst wird: Dies führt zu einem konstanten Anstieg der Gesamtbedrohung unter fortlaufendem Einflussverlust staatlicher Akteure bzw. Machtdiffusion und -konzentration samt einer sukzessiven Chancenerhöhung reaktivierter konventioneller, nuklearer, Cyber- und ökologischer Zerstörungsszenarien. Auf dieser Basis entsteht die Konsequenz einer immer umfassenderen und die Reaktion beschleunigende Präzisionsabwehr unter ansteigender Versicherheitlichung, um die kontinuierliche Einengung amerikanischer Vormacht auszugleichen. Dies erzeugt im Fortlauf einen konstanten Abbau der Strahlungs- und Schlagkraft des liberalen, regelbasierten, bipolaren "amerikanischen Systems" sowie der Etablierung "idealistischer, liberaler" "Grand Strategy"-Elemente. Weiter ist damit - auf der Grundlage der aufeinander aufbauenden Natotransformationspositionen sowie Obamas "smart power"(6) im Untersuchungsraum - eine zunehmende Vorteilsverringerung der europäischen Nato-Verbündeten bzw. ein ansteigender Bedarf an US-Kostendämpfung verquickt. Zudem entwickelt sich eine immer geringer werdende Chance zur Entfaltung des postbipolar als "nicht verhandelbar" postulierten und global ausgebreiteten amerikanischen Lebensentwurfes in individueller, innerstaatlicher Ausprägung: Deren Artikulation erfolgt beispielsweise mittels zunehmendem Rechtspopulismus, Wahl von Außenseiterkandidaten, Zerfall traditioneller Parteiensysteme, isolationistischen Tendenzen unter ethnischer, regionaler Erstarkung, und Ablehnung von Supranationalität oder religiösem Fundamentalismus. Gleichzeitig ist die fortlaufende Erosion der globalen öffentlichen Güter identifizierbar. Damit ebnet all das oben Genannte den Boden für die Begrenzung amerikanischer wohlwollender Ordnungsmacht bzw. der Handlungsspielräume staatlicher Akteure - und für die Rückkehr zu klassischer Machtpolitik im Kontext entstandener Machtdiffusion bzw. -konzentration. Dies erschwert angesichts der Dringlichkeit einer langfristigen Eindämmung asymmetrischer bzw. konventioneller Sicherheitsbedrohungsgegenstände, -verstärker, -cluster und globalen Rahmenbedingungen folgende Chance: Nämlich die zu transatlantischer Zusammenarbeit in der Nato unter Wiederbelebung der politischen Organisation derselben sowie Erweiterung auf zusätzliche Ebenen und Akteure im Sinne von Vorbeugung bzw. vernetzter Sicherheit zur Erreichung entsprechender globaler Kooperation in Bezug auf Einhegen der Bedrohungswurzeln. Insgesamt wird durch diese Forschungsarbeit transparent, wie und warum die für den Untersuchungsraum von 1993 bis 2017 antizipierte "Friedensdividende" und das durch Präsident Clinton postulierte "age of hope" kaum spürbar wurden. Fußnoten (1) Vgl. Braml, Josef (2018), Trumps transaktionaler Transatlantizismus, in: Jäger, Thomas (Hrsg.), Zeitschrift für Außen- und Sicherheitspolitik, Oktober 2018, Volume 11, Ausgabe 4, S. 439-448, Wiesbaden. (2) Vgl. National Intelligence Council (Hrsg.) (2012), Global Trends 2013: Alternative Worlds (NIC 2012-001), https://publicintelligence.net/global-trends-2030/, letzter Zugriff: 12.04.19. Vgl. dazu auch das "international financial leadership, self-selected at Davos" bei McCoy, Alfred W. (2017), In the Shadows of the American Century. The Rise and Decline of US Global Power, Chicago. (3) Vgl. zu Bedrohungsverstärkern beispielsweise Mazo, Jeffrey (2010), Climate Conflict. How global warming threatens security and what to do about it, London, Abingdon. 1990 wurde bereits in Bezug auf den Bedrohungsverstärker Klimawandel für die entstehenden asymmetrischen bzw. konventionellen Bedrohungsgegenstände komplexe Cluster konstatiert: "Over the next half century, the global average temperature may increase by approximately 4 degrees C. (…) All nations will be affected. (…) How much time will there be to confirm the amount of change and then to act? (…) However, many believe that we will have waited too lang to avoid major dislocation, hardship and conflict - on a scale not as yet seen by man". Vgl. Kelley, Terry P. (1990), Global Climate Change. Implications For The United States Navy (The United States Naval War College, Newport, RI), http://documents.theblackvault.com/documents/weather/climatechange/globalclimatechange-navy.pdf, letzter Zugriff: 30.03.19. Dies lässt Hinweise auf die sich entwickelnde, konstant ansteigende Gesamtbedrohung im Untersuchungsraum von 1993-2017 zu. (4) Vgl. Schlesinger, Arthur M., Jr. (1973), The Imperial Presidency, Boston. (5) Die amerikanisch vorgeschlagenen Positionen zur Anpassung der Nato, die Nato Response Force sowie die Global Partnership Initiative, werden als "Natotransformationspositionen" bezeichnet: Mit deren tatsächlicher Etablierung war eine Transformation der Nato in konsequenter Weiterführung amerikanisch erfolgter sicherheitspolitischer Anpassung verknüpft. (6) Smart power geht auf Suzanne Nossel, Mitarbeiterin des UN-Botschafters Holbrooke während der Clinton-Administration, zurück: Vgl. Nossel, Suzanne (2004), Smart Power. Reclaiming Liberal Internationalism, http://www.democracyarsenal.org/SmartPowerFA.pdf, letzter Zugriff: 26.08.17. Weiter wird er Joseph Nye im Jahre 2003 als Reaktion auf die unilaterale Konzentration auf das militärische Instrument der G.W. Bush–Ära zugeschrieben. Vgl. Nye, Joseph S. Jr. (2011), The Future of Power, New York bzw. Nye, Joseph S. Jr. (2011), Macht im 21sten Jahrhundert. Politische Strategien für ein neues Zeitalter, München. Vgl. Rodham Clinton, Hillary (2010), Leading Through Civilan Power. Redefining American Diplomacy and Development, in: Foreign Affairs, November/December 2010, Vol. 89, No.6, S. 13-24. ; Aims and findings of the dissertation The completed research uses holistic, politological and historical approaches to present how, during the studied period of the administrations of Clinton to Obama, the liberal, rule-based world order system is gradually supplemented and replaced by a system of realist imposition of vital interests that have short-term effects, preferring military means combined with continuous military optimisation. This also explains a continuity between the leading-power policy of administrations in this study (1993-2017) and the subsequent period of the "transactional leadership of Trump"(1), with its recognizable, far-reaching effects of aiming to reduce idealistic Grand Strategy elements and measures of a benevolent order by passing on costs to and reducing the benefits of European NATO allies. The results of this dissertation, such as the increasingly evident dissolution of a multilateral fundamental order, therefore indicate that Trump's foreign and security policy to date should be regarded as a clearly noticeable crisis symptom, rather than the cause of a decline in the world order established after 1945. This decline is synonymous with the erosion of the transatlantically initiated bipolar "American system". Its implementation was the result of the "lesson of two world wars", based on modern concepts of order introduced by the Enlightenment and the founding criteria of the United States: thus its dissolution is also an indicator of the failure of contemporary criteria of order that thrive in the "American way of life". The cause of the described development is shown to be a constantly exacerbating overall threat, from Clinton to Obama, which is connected to the consistent erosion of US supremacy. Among other aspects, this is based on climate change effects postulated in 1979, which multiply the threat while coinciding with American peak production of fossil fuels and increased demand on resources in the context of dwindling raw material resources. Furthermore, during the period of this study, the "US conservative revolution", which began in the 1980s, increasingly affected foreign and security policy, combining with a consolidation in the influence of corporations and lobby groups in fields such as policy implementation and new underlying conditions. They include the onset of digitisation, entailing a high consumption of resources, and a growing world population faced with specific demographic indicators. Additionally, the maintenance of the armaments sector, originally a result of bipolar development, as the economic basis of military supremacy and the slow decline of the Dollar hegemony since around 1973, should also be taken into account. Complex interaction between Grand Strategy implementation according to the premise of expanding US-American dominance under neoconservative and Christian Right-wing influences, as well as asymmetrical and reactivated conventional security threats and threat multipliers clearly indicate the linear development of the overall threat in the period between 1993 and 2017: in the context of Grand Strategy statements, above all the understanding of defence against this threat, of the latter's multiplying factors and the market economy explains the following with respect to the US far-right in a complex interaction with the growth of transnational corporations, lobby groups, individuals(2), informal networks and state actors with respect to objects of threat and threat multipliers(3) in connection with the post-bipolar, global anchoring of US economic and consumer patterns: US adaptation of its reaction to this threat – while consolidating imperial presidency(4) and weakening the system of checks and balances – including its implications of a bipolar liberal order. In this way, the necessary continued leadership within NATO through the US-proposed NATO reform can be seen as an appropriate implementation of transformed threat-reaction measures and the legitimisation of systemic adaptation. It equally becomes clear that the established threat reaction measures only provide a short-term defence: instead, they enhance the asymmetric and conventional threat, as well as threat multipliers – by introducing arms races and breaking down arms control – thereby heightening the overall threat. The consequence is the consistently growing likelihood of a conflict of hitherto unimaginable proportions. At the same time, the urgent need to mobilise transatlantic cooperation with respect to supporting global cooperation between state and non-government actors is illustrated with respect to the roots of the threat and its deteriorating underlying conditions: each increase in the overall threat, the adapted US security policy and its continuation in NATO is connected to an erosion of rule-based underlying criteria during the studied period. This continuously and consistently undermines the basis of the above-stated, ever-increasingly important cooperation, to prevent or at least limit the successive erosion of the bipolar "American system" under future dystopias. The research results completely overturn the state of research to date, since for instance it is possible to show that, by means of NATO transformation findings, no transatlantic sharing of burdens on an equal footing and no NATO reform in accordance with its founding principles can be achieved. The same also applies to European opposition to the actual anchoring of NATO transformation positions(5), which is based on the erosion of the bipolar liberal order system and the maintenance of US advantages as well as the consolidation of particular interests they facilitate. Furthermore, it is apparent that a line of continuity in the threat-reaction measures from Clinton to Obama exists with varying external effects, along with an underlying pattern of "Battleship America" – as opposed to a multilaterally orientated foreign and security policy under Clinton, which merged into a unilateral, radical swing under G. W. Bush 43 following 9/11, but was reverted by the Obama administration. A comprehensive wealth of literature was used of the doctoral thesis, as reflected by the extensive bibliography: they firstly include diverse American and European publications, monographs and relevant secondary literature, including biographies, publications of various kinds of important political planning and implementation, as well as collected volumes and research articles from specialist journals on all fields of research and politological methodology and theory. The same applies to publications by leading European and American institutions, research centres and think tanks. Furthermore, this author used publications and documents by governments, foreign ministries, defence ministries, other government bodies and Nato. Dissertation structure This dissertation is divided into two volumes and one Appendix: Volume 1 discusses Focus 1, namely a process-tracing in the context of offensive neorealist positioning. Volume 2 presents Focus 2, which is based on the preceding focus in making a structured, focussed comparison in the context of defensive neorealist positioning. The Appendix volume contains further discussion of Chapter 1, Volume 1 with respect to the state of research, literature and sources, theoretical positioning and the choice of the region of study and selected European NATO partners. Furthermore, a historical chapter provides underlying information for process-tracing in Chapter 2, Volume 1, an index of images and abbreviations, and a bibliography. The entire dissertation uses qualitative methods to focus on these two mutually supporting, building on each other, themes to investigate the following from a US-perspective: firstly the overriding US security-policy reaction to a new overall threat and secondly, its continuation combined with the opportunity of for enabling and legitimising it within and through NATO during the studied period from Clinton to Obama. Based on the first part of this hypothesis, Focus 1 (Volume 1) establishes a connection between, on the one hand, maintaining the bipolar Grand Strategy target of consolidating the USA as a leading, regulating power, bipolar foreign-policy Grand Strategy indicators and a new overall threat that is developing in a complex way, and, on the other, the necessity of its continued leadership within NATO and the required NATO transformation according to US-proposed NATO transformation positions. Focus 2 (Volume 2) is based on the second part of the hypothesis, investigating the transatlantic negotiation process to establish these US-proposed NATO transformation positions: in this context, Volume 2 investigates whether the attempt to actually secure and consolidate such US supremacy was unsuccessful in the face of resistance from selected European NATO partners, namely France, Germany and the United Kingdom. The overall result shows that due to a complex, developing, linear increase in the overall threat, the chance for the USA to consolidate its status as a leading power is steadily diminishing. This must be compensated by adapting US security policy. The resulting American security-policy realignment based on the initiated "revolution in military affairs" in turn modifies the indicators of bipolar collective security guarantees. Everything is enabled and legitimised by means of actually securing US NATO-transformation positions. The actual implementation of such NATO transformation – representing the consistent adaptation of US security policy – enables a mission-orientated, rapid response, flexible, global security projection. It also creates conditions for "alliances of choice" within NATO. Furthermore, the modification of a "bipolar NATO" exacerbates the erosion of key achievements of civilisation as a result of adapted US security policy, as well as undermining the tasks of bipolar collective security guarantees through diminished benefits to European NATO partners. The actual anchoring of NATO transformation positions is achieved by reactivating the conventional threat in the context of the Ukraine crisis of 2014 and the extension of NATO partnership rings on a global level, without providing them with NATO membership status, thus avoiding globalisation in a mutual defence case. The German and French resistance is particularly intensive through the involvement of European founder states, while the formation of a European leadership triumvirate consisting of France, Germany and the United Kingdom does not take place. Moreover, a relevant investigation of causes particularly shows that despite constant mutually supporting US security reaction measures with varying international effects and actual continued leadership within NATO, the overall threat is not receding: this leads to a constant increase in the overall threat, a loss of influence of state actors, the diffusion and concentration of power and the increased probability of reactive conventional, nuclear, cyber and ecological destruction scenarios. On this basis, the consequence is an increasingly comprehensive and rapidly responding precision defence combined with growing securitization to compensate for the ongoing containment of US supremacy. This developing process steadily diminishes the reach and power of a liberal, rule-based, bipolar "American system" and the establishment of "idealistic, liberal" elements of US-Grand Strategy. This entails a further reduction in benefits for European NATO allies and increasing US cost-cutting demands – based on the successive NATO transformation positions that build on each other and Obama's "smart power"(6) during the period studied in this dissertation. Thus the chance is receding of developing the post-bipolar, globally adopted American way of life with individual national character, which is regarded as "non-negotiable": for instance its articulation is expressed through increasing right-wing populism, the election of outsider-candidates, the dissolution of traditional party systems, isolationist tendencies combined with burgeoning ethnic, regional movements, the rejection of supranationalism, and religious fundamentalism. At the same time, the ongoing erosion of global public goods is apparent. This all paves the way to limiting the benevolent American regulating power and state actors' leverage – and therefore to a return to classic power politics in the context of a resulting diffusion and concentration of power. In view of the urgency of a long-term containment of asymmetrical or conventional threats to security, or aspects that exacerbate such threats or clusters thereof, as well as underlying global conditions, this undermines the ability to achieve the following: to achieve transatlantic cooperation by broadening the range of levels and actors in the spirit of proactive and expanded, networked security to achieve according global cooperation with respect to containing the root causes of threats. Overall, this research work reveals how and why the anticipated "peace dividend" and the notion of an "age of hope", as postulated by President Clinton, were hardly perceptible during the period of study between 1993 and 2017. Notes (1) Cf. Braml, Josef (2018), Trumps transaktionaler Transatlantizismus, in: Jäger, Thomas (Hrsg.), Zeitschrift für Außen- und Sicherheitspolitik, Oktober 2018, Volume 11, Ausgabe 4, S. 439-448, Wiesbaden. (2) Cf. National Intelligence Council (Ed.) (2012), Global Trends 2013: Alternative Worlds (NIC 2012-001), https://publicintelligence.net/global-trends-2030/, last accessed: 12.04.19. See also the "international financial leadership, self-selected at Davos" cit. McCoy, Alfred W. (2017), In the Shadows of the American Century. The Rise and Decline of US Global Power, Chicago. (3) In 1990, the threat-enhancing nature of climate change was already postulated with respect to asymmetric objects of threat as well as conventional and complex clusters: "Over the next half century, the global average temperature may increase by approximately 4 degrees C. (…) All nations will be affected. (…) How much time will there be to confirm the amount of change and then to act? (…) However, many believe that we will have waited too long to avoid major dislocation, hardship and conflict – on a scale not as yet seen by man". Cf. Kelley, Terry P. (1990), Global Climate Change. Implications For The United States Navy (The United States Naval War College, Newport, RI), http://documents.theblackvault.com/documents/weather/climatechange/globalclimatechange-navy.pdf, last accessed: 30.03.19. Cf. Mazo, Jeffrey (2010), Climate Conflict. How global warming threatens security and what to do about it, London, Abingdon. This supports the thesis of a developing, constant overall threat during the period between 1993 and 2017. (4) Cf. Schlesinger, Arthur M., Jr. (1973), The Imperial Presidency, Boston. (5) In this dissertation, the proposed US positions on NATO adaptation, the NATO Response Force and the Global Partnership Initiative are described as "NATO transformation positions": Their actual establishment was connected to a NATO transformation with the consistent continuation of adapted US security policy. (6) Cf. Nossel, Suzanne (2004), Smart Power. Reclaiming Liberal Internationalism, http://www.democracyarsenal.org/SmartPowerFA.pdf, last accessed: 26.08.17, Nye, Joseph S. Jr. (2011), The Future of Power, New York, Nye, Joseph S. Jr. (2011), Macht im 21sten Jahrhundert. Politische Strategien für ein neues Zeitalter, München, Rodham Clinton, Hillary (2010), Leading Through Civilan Power. Redefining American Diplomacy and Development, in: Foreign Affairs, November/December 2010, Vol. 89, No.6, S. 13-24.
El resumen que a continuación se presenta, es el reflejo del trabajo de tesis doctoral realizado bajo el título «El Acoso Escolar en Educación Primaria en la Provincia de Huelva». En los últimos años ha existido una preocupación social en relación al tema de la violencia escolar, reconociéndose como un problema común. Los medios de comunicación se han ocupado de difundir situaciones límites relacionadas con e! comportamiento de escolares; a nivel internacional se ha afrontado la investigación en este campo; en Europa se han iniciado interesantes acciones, a fin de promover la investigación y la intervención educativa para paliar las dificultades de las relaciones, alentando a investigadores y educadores a llegar a definiciones, instrumentos y métodos comunes para el análisis de la convivencia y la práctica docente. En nuestro ámbito educativo comunitario, la Junta de Andalucía, en los últimos años, ha fomentado el desarrollo de Ia investigacióri y la intervención educativas a través de diversos prog ramas. Desde la inquietud, en el ámbito educativo, por solucionar los problemas de disciplina en las aulas, recreos, entre compañeros. en definitiva en ef medio escolar, al observarse una creciente evolución de los problemas de relaciones interpersonales entre los miembros de la Comunidad Educativa, ya sea entre iguales o entre miembros de distintos sectores, la investigación en torno a este problema viene estableciéndose en el análisis del mismo y en la búsqueda de las causas que lo produce, a fin de aportar modos de intervención para la mejora y normalización de las situaciones de relación. La preocupación de este trabajo es la de procurar un acercamiento al estudio del acoso escolar en la provincia de Huelva, impulsado por la inquietud que existe en los contextos educativos, en el que el profesorado, familia y alumnado muestran su preocupación por los problemas de interrelación que se producen,, promoviendo el análisis de la institución docente y aportando unas líneas generales que faciliten la conformación de una propuesta de intervención para la mejora de las capacidades socializadoras del alumnado. Por lo tanto, se ha establecido como objetivo general "determinar el nivel de incidencia del maltrato entre compañeros y compañeras en los centros de Educación Primaria en ia Provincia de Hueiva", que se puede desglosar en los siguientes objetivos específicos: - Elaborar, validar y administrar un cuestionario. - Valorar la incidencia dei acoso escolar en los centros de Educación Primaria en la Provincia de Hueiva. - Recabar la opinión y valoración de! alumnado en relación a los problemas de convivencia. - Describir la situación del contexto estudiado a partir de los datos aportados por los distintos instrumentos empleados para obtener la información. - Verificar si se dan o no diferencias en los datos aportados por género, edad, curso y comarcas. - Estudiar las diferencias de opinión del alumnado inmigrante y autóctono. - Dar cuenta, desde la opinión del alumnado, de las intervenciones que se llevan a cabo en los centros escolares para solucionar los problemas de acoso escolar. - Establecer las líneas generales para 1a elaboración de una propuesta de Programa de Intervención Psicopedagógíca para 1a mejora del clima escolar. El trabajo está estructurado en tres partes: En la primera de ellas, marco teórico sobre el acoso escolar, se hace un recorrido por distintos aspectos del estudio de la violencia escolar (bullying). Se exponen y comentan diferentes posicionamientos de autores sobre el concepto, en el que se han encontrado disparidad y falta de consenso; se reflexiona sobre los problemas de definición, realizando una aportación sobre ella; se estudian distintas contribuciones sobre los sujetos implicados en el acoso escolar, exponiendo, a su vez, [as causas que pueden producir maltrato entre iguales y las consecuencias derivadas; el estudio se acerca a la investigación, exponiéndose un número significativo de trabajos de autores estudiosos del tema y de distintos contextos y amplitud geográfica; por último, se realiza una aproximación a la intervención en el ámbito escolar para la mejora de la convivencia en los centros. Tomando como base las distintas contribuciones de los expertos, como se ha indicado, se realiza una propuesta de definición de maltrato escolar, previa reflexión sobre los componentes que debe reunir, a la que se denomina "aportación para el consenso: en busca de una definición", que pretende ser la primera conclusión de este trabajo de investigación. Previo repaso de los contenidos de las definiciones, se muestra la variedad existente y las peculiaridades que manifiestan cada una de ellas (Olweus, 1993; Smith y Sharp, 1994; Pain, 1998; Smith, 1989; Ortega, 1994; Rigby, 1996; Salmlvaili, 2004). En la segunda parte, se muestra el proceso de trabajo seguido para ia creación de ios distintos instrumentos a emplear en la recogida de información. Se elabora un cuestionario propio, que se ha denominado "Cuestionario para la Detección del Acoso Escolar en Educación Primaria". Se realiza un compendio de cuestionarios de evaluación del acoso escolar, propuestos por diversos autores, a fin de generar un estudio de las dimensiones que han orientado su producción. La exposición de las dimensiones de los cuestionarios, en total setenta, va a originar una reflexión sobre metacategorías, de donde se derivarán las dimensiones que ordenarán esta investigación. Se propone un cuestionario inicial y sus normas de aplicación, que se revisan con las aportaciones de expertos. Por último, aludir a la muestra piloto, que supuso la comprobación de la comprensión de cada apartado, el ritmo de ejecución y ia necesidad de apoyo para centrar algunos contenidos, alcanzándose un 0,838 en el Alfa de Cronbach. Por último, en la tercera parte, se presenta el proceso de investigación seguido para determinar la situación en la que se encuentran los centros Educación Primaria de la Provincia de Hueiva en relación con los conflictos convivenciales de los alumnos y alumnas, dando debida cuenta de los participantes en el estudio, los instrumentos utilizados y los resultados derivados tras el proceso de análisis de datos, estableciéndose las conclusiones del estudio, sus limitaciones e implicaciones y, como aportación final, unas líneas generales para la elaboración de un Programa de Intervención Psicopedagógíca, encaminado a establecer un proceso de trabajo que facilite a los centros escolares ia construcción del suyo propio para la mejora de la convivencia. La investigación, de enfoque interpretativo, persigue la comprensión dei problema en el contexto estudiado, para lo que este estudio se acerca al tipo de encuesta, apoyando ia descripción desde la consecución de datos cuantitativos y cualitativos. Es de destacar la muestra, que asciende a 2.156 sujetos, pertenecientes a treinta centros de Educación Infantil y Primaria de la provincia de Hueiva, correspondientes a las seis comarcas en que ésta se divide, distribuyéndose en veinticuatro localidades. La muestra supone un 10,32 % de la población, siendo equilibrada su distribución por sexo, la presencia de alumnado procedente de cada curso, por edad -que marca en los extremos la variación lógica dei alumnado que no ha cumplido la edad que corresponde a su grupo de compañeros y el alumnado repetidor que se encuentra en el último curso-, existiendo falta de coincidencia en la relación de la muestra y la población en ia distribución comarcal, debido a errores de dispersión o concentración no controlados. El estudio sobre inmigración se inicia con unas breves referencias sobre la temática y se pretende dar respuesta de la percepción que ambos grupos, autóctono e inmigrante, tienen sobre la convivencia en la escuela. Para establecer la muestra, se han seleccionado las aulas en las que, al menos, se encontraba integrado un alumno/a inmigrante. En total han participado 1.172 estudiantes, de los cuales 1.054 eran autóctonos (de nacionalidad española), representando el 89.9 % de la muestra total y 118 eran inmigrantes, suponiendo éstos el 10,1 % del alumnado participante. Las técnicas e instrumentos de recogida de datos utilizados, que se consideraron más útiles para esta investigación, fueron el cuestionario y el grupo de discusión. En cuanto al tratamiento de la información y análisis de datos se ha estructurado en dos partes, dedicando cada una de ellas a las aportaciones de los procedimientos empleados para la obtención de datos: resultados del cuestionario y análisis de los grupos de discusión. Los resultados obtenidos en la aplicación dei cuestionario se exponen en seis apartados diferentes, dando lugar a un extenso capítulo: tras los datos generales, se ha estudiado la incidencia del maltrato entre iguales en el ámbito escolar por sexos, cursos, edad, asf como por comarcalización geográfica. Por último, se ha realizado una reflexión de la visión del alumnado inmigrante comparada con la que tiene el alumnado autóctono, apoyado, como se ha indicado anteriormente, en los datos obtenidos en los centros en los que hay integrados niños y niñas procedentes de otros países. El análisis de los grupos de discusión proporciona opiniones del alumnado sobre los problemas de relación que se producen entre ellos, ¡os roles del alumnado implicado en acciones violentas, los lugares donde se producen y las intervenciones realizadas para dar solución a estas situaciones. La densidad de datos y comentarios expuestos ha exigido un planteamiento de concentración paulatina de las informaciones realizadas, acompañando éstas de gráficos y tablas, y concentrándolas en compendios recopiiatorios. La exposición de las reflexiones sobre los datos del cuestionario finaliza con la presentación de los datos relevantes que aporta al estudio, dando paso a la exposición de fos correspondientes a los grupos de discusión. Previa discusión, apoyada en los resultados de diversas investigaciones, se ofrecen (as siguientes conclusiones: - Desde la percepción del alumnado, se entiende que las relaciones entre compañeros son buenas o muy buenas, aunque se originan hechos contrarios a las normas de convivencia. - Se encuentran diferencias de percepción entre los más jóvenes y los mayores, siendo los más jóvenes quiénes valoran más positivamente las relaciones entre iguales. - En las relaciones del alumnado con sus compañeros y compañeras no se encuentran diferencias significativas de género, al igual que se puede considerar homogénea ia opinión por curso y en el estudio de inmigración se muestra una apreciación similar entre los dos grupos establecidos. - Las relaciones del alumnado con el profesorado son positivas, encontrándose diferencias a favor de la tutoría con respecto a los demás maestros. Las niñas estiman mejores las relaciones con tos docentes. El alumnado de sexto curso destaca en su valoración negativa. Se aprecian diferencias comarcales y dei alumnado inmigrante en la percepción de las relaciones de estudiantes y docentes. Planteadas las limitaciones de la investigación y las impiicaciones y propuestas para futuros estudios, se exponen ias ideas básicas para ia elaboración de un proyecto de intervención orientadora que persiga la formación socializadora del alumnado. Basándose en las aportaciones de Thompson y Smith (2013), Olweus y otros (2007), las orientaciones del Defensor del Pueblo (2000), Torrego (2008), Pantoja (2005), Salmivalli y Peets (2010), Kowalski y otros (2010), Ortega y Mora-Merchán (2000), Salmerón y otros (2010), Ortega, Rey y Córdoba (2010) y Ortega-Ruiz, Rey y Casas (2013), esta propuesta, para la realización de un proyecto de intervención para la prevención y ia intervención dei acoso escolar, debe considerarse como un modelo abierto, adaptable necesariamente al contexto y a las dificultades expresadas en la evaluación inicial y permanentemente acomodada a la evolución del centro en el que se desarrolle, y se configura alrededor de las siguientes premisas: - Se pueden establecer tres bloques de objetivos: por una parte los referidos a la formación del profesorado, por otra, los que desarrollan las Intenciones sobre la evaluación de la socialización en el centro y, por último, aquéllos que se refieren a la intervención psicopedagógica. - Realización de actuaciones dirigidas a facilitar la participación del alumnado en la organización de aula (confeccionando la constitución de aula) y espacios comunes y zonas de ocio (autogestión), y su formación en habilidades sociales, entrenamiento asertivo, fomento de la autoestima y empatia. - La consideración de aspectos cooperativos, que faciliten las interacciones grupales entre el alumnado (tutorización entre iguales, trabajo grupaí, asamblea de aula, desarrollo de juegos cooperativos). - La formación democrática de los niños y niñas, con especial incidencia en el respeto al análisis individual, al debate grupa! y a la toma de decisiones. - La transmisión de valores favorecedores de la convivencia. - La reflexión sobre lecturas relacionadas con los acuerdos comúnmente aceptados por la sociedad, como los derechos humanos, derechos de íos niños, derechos y deberes de los alumnos, comportamientos sociales. - El establecimiento de un foro de debate de padres cuyo tema central sea la convivencia y actividades de formación para ia familia (curso, talleres.,)- - La colaboración de la familia en el desarrollo de actividades curriculares. Por último, resaltar la importancia que en el impulso de estas y otras actuaciones tiene ia tutoría, convirtiéndose en plataforma desde la cual facilitar la tarea de desarrollo de programas y proyectos. ; The summary presented below is a reflection of the doctoral thesis work conducted under the title "The Bullying in Primary Education in the Province of Huelva". in recent years there has been a social concern on the issue of school violence, recognized as a common problem. The media have been busy spreading extreme situations related to school behavior and international research has been addressed in this field. In Europe interesting actions have been initiated in order to promote research and educational intervention to alleviate the difficulties of relationships, encouraging researchers and educators to reach definitions, common tools and methods for the analysis of coexistence and teaching practice. In recent years, our educational community of Andalusia has encouraged the development of research and educational intervention through various programs. Since the concern to solve discipline problems in the classroom, recess, peer . ultimately in the school, to observe a growing trend of interpersonal relationship problems between members of the educational community, either between equals or between members of different sectors, research on this problem is established in the analysis of same and the search for the causes that produced it, in order to provide methods of intervention for the improvement and normalization of relationship situations. The concern of this paper is to seek an approach to the study of bullying In the province of Huelva, driven by the concern that has been in educational contexts in which teachers, families and students are concerned about the problems of interrelation that occurs, promoting the analysis of the educational institution and providing some general guidelines that facilitate the formation of a proposed intervention to improve students' socialization skills. Therefore, it has been established as a general objective "to determine the level of incidence of bully among students in the Primary Schools in the Province of Huelva", which can be broken down into the following specific objectives: Develop, validate and administer a questionnaire. To assess the incidence of bullying in Primary Schools in the Province of Huelva. Seek feedback and assessment of students in relation to the problems of coexistence. Describe the situation of the context studied from data provided by the various instruments used to obtain the information. Check whether or not there are differences in the data provided by gender, age, grade and counties. To study the differences of opinion and indigenous Immigrant students. To report, from the students' view of the interventions carried out in schools to address bullying problems. Establish general guidelines for the preparation of a proposal for Behavioural Intervention Program to improve the school climate. The work is structured in three parts: In the first, theoretical framework about bullying, it is a journey through various aspects of the study of school violence (bullying). Presents and discusses different positions of authors on the concept, which found disparity and lack of consensus, we reflect on the problems of definition, making a contribution upon it discusses different contributions on the subjects involved in bullying exposing, in turn, causes that can cause bullying and the consequences, the study research approaches, exposing a significant number of works by authors and scholars from different backgrounds and geographical extent, and finally, is an approach to intervention in schools for improving behavior in schools. Based on the various contributions of the experts, as noted, there is a proposal for the definition of bully in schools, after reflection on the components to be met, which is called "contribution to the consensus: in search of a definition ", intended as the first conclusion of this research. Prior overview of the contents of the definitions, the existing variety shown and peculiarities those show each (Olweus, 1993, Smith and Sharp, 1994, Pain, 1998, Smith, 1989; Ortega, 1994, Rigby, 1996; Salmivalli, 2004). In the second part shows the working process followed for creating the various instruments used in the collection of information. It develops a self-administered questionnaire, which has been called "Questionnaire for Detection of Bullying in Elementary Education." It takes a compendium of assessment questionnaires bullying, proposed by various authors, in order to generate a study of the dimensions that have guided its production. Exposing the seventy dimensions of the questionnaires, will lead a reflection on meta-categories, from which derive the dimensions ordered this investigation. It proposes an initial questionnaire and it's implementing rules, which are reviewed with input from experts. Finally, alluding to the pilot sample, which involved checking the understanding of each section, the pace of implementation and support need to focus some content, reaching a 0.838 on Cronbach's alpha. Finally, the third part presents the research process followed to determine the situation where schools are. Primary Education of the Province of Huelva in relation to conflicts of coexistence of pupils, giving due regard to the participants in the study, the instruments used and the results derived after the data analysis process, establishing the study's findings, [imitations and implications and as a final contribution, some general guidelines for developing a Behavioral intervention Program, aimed to establish a process that facilitates working to build schools than their own to improve coexistence. The research, interpretive approach, seeks to understand the problem in the context studied, for which this study is about in the survey, bringing the description from the achievement of quantitative and qualitative data. It is noteworthy the sample, amounting to 2,156 subjects, belonging to thirty centers and Primary Education in the province of Huelva, corresponding to the six counties in which it is divided, distributed in twenty-four locations. The sample represents a 10.32% of the population, being balanced gender distribution, the presence of students from each course, by age-which marks extreme variation in the logic of student who has not attained the age corresponding to their peer group and students repeater is in the final year-mismatch exists in the relationship between the sample and the population distribution in the district, due to dispersion or concentration errors uncontrolled. The study on immigration begins with brief references on the subject and it is intended and is meant to address the perception that both, native and immigrant, have on living in school. To set the sample were selected classrooms in which at least one student was an immigrant child. A total of 1,172 students participated, of whom 1,054 were native (Spanish nationality), representing 89.9% of the total sample, 118 were immigrants, assuming these 10.1% of the students participating. The techniques and data collection instruments used, which were considered most useful for this investigation were the questionnaire and group discussion. In terms of information processing and data analysis is structured in two parts, each devoted to the contributions of the procedures used to obtain data: results of the questionnaire and analysis of the discussion groups. The results of the questionnaire are presented in six different sections, resulting in an extensive chapter: after the general data, we studied the incidence of bullying in schools by gender, training, age, and by geographical regionalization. Finally, there has been a reflection of the vision of immigrant students compared to native pupils having, supported, as indicated above in data from centers where children are integrated from other countries. The analysis of the discussion groups provides students' opinions about the relationship problems that happen between them, the roles of students involved in violence, the places where they occur and interventions to resolve these situations. The data density and comments made approach has required a gradual concentration of the information made, accompanying these graphs and tables, and abstracts concentrating on compilations. Exposure of reflections on questionnaire data ends with the presentation of the relevant data that contributes to the study, leading to the exposure of relevant discussion groups. After discussion, based on the results of various investigations, we offer the following conclusions: From the perception of students, it is understood that peer relationships are good or very good, although originating acts contrary to the rules of coexistence. They are differences in perception between younger and older, with the youngest who value more positive peer relationships. On the relations of students with their peers is not significant gender differences, as can be seen by current opinion homogeneous and immigration study shows a similar appreciation between the two groups established. The relationship of students with faculty is positive, differing in favor of mentoring over other teachers. Girls estimate better relationships with teachers. The sixth-grade students in their negative assessment highlights. County differences are appreciated and immigrant students in the perception of the relationship of students and teachers. Raised research limitations and implications and suggestions for future studies, basic ideas are presented for the preparation of a draft guidance intervention socializing pursuing training of students. Based on input from Thompson and Smith (2013), Olweus and others (2007), the orientations of the Ombudsman (2000), Torrego (2008), Pantoja (2005), Salmivalli and Peets (2010), Kowalski and others ( 2010), Ortega and Mora-Merchan (2000), Salmerón et al (2010), Ortega, King and Cordova (2010) and Ortega-Ruiz, Rey and Casas (2013), this proposal for conducting an intervention project for prevention and intervention of bullying, should be considered as an open model, necessarily adaptable to the context and the difficulties expressed in the initial evaluation and permanently accommodated to the evolution of the center in which it develops, and is set around the following premises: Three different blocks objectives: firstly those relating to teacher education, on the other, those who develop the intentions on the assessment of socialization in the center and, finally, those that relate to pedagogic intervention. - Carrying out activities aimed at facilitating the participation of students in classroom organization (tailoring classroom constitution) and common areas and amenities (self), and social skills training, assertiveness training, building self-esteem and empathy. - The consideration of cooperative aspects that facilitate group interactions among students (peer tutoring, group work, class assembly, cooperative game development), - The democratic training children, with special emphasis on respect for the individual analysis, the group discussion and decision-making. The transmission of values favoring coexistence. Reflection on readings related to the agreements commonly accepted by society, such as human rights, children's rights, rights and duties of students, social behavior. The establishment of a forum for discussion of parents whose central theme is the coexistence and training activities for the family (course, workshops.). Collaboration of the family in the development of curricular activities. Finally, highlight the importance of the promotion of these and other actions have tutoring, becoming platform from which to facilitate the task of developing programs and projects.
Inhaltsangabe: Introduction: This book covers policy proposals and interim contracts, assesses the positions of various Iraqi political actors and examines the potential significance for international foreign policy goals in Iraq. Despite a lack of progress in reaching agreements on the hydro-carbon sector and revenue sharing legislation to set new conditions for the management of the country's significant oil and gas resources, development in Iraq's oil and gas sector is moving forward. The passage of the oil and gas sector framework and revenue sharing legislation will be seen as significant milestones by International governments and International Oil Companies (IOC´s). This would provide evidence of the Iraqi government's dedication to promoting political reconciliation and providing a solid foundation for long term economic development in Iraq. Interim revenue sharing mechanisms have been introduced due to the lack of new legislation. Additionally, both the Federal Government (the Federal Oil Ministry-MoO) and the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG) (the Regional Ministry of Natural Resources and Energy) have made oil and gas development deals with foreign firms. The MoO is working with existing regulation from the previous political and administrational regime, while the Regional Ministry of Resource and Energy Kurdistan-Iraq has designed its own laws and regulations, which the Federal Government has not yet recognized. There is wide recognition among Iraqis of the importance of oil and gas revenue for the Iraqi economy. Most groups see the need for new legal and policy guidelines for the development of the country's oil and natural gas resources. However, Iraq's Council of Rrepresentatives (parliament) has not yet considered the proposed legislation due to ongoing political discord and general political instability. There are strong differences on key issues between Iraqi critics and supporters of various proposed solutions. These include the appropriate role and powers of federal and regional authorities in regulating oil and gas development; the conditions and degree of potential foreign participation in the oil and gas sectors; and proposed formulas and mechanisms for equitably sharing oil and gas revenue. Simultaneously, there are strong disagreements on related discussions about the administrative status of the city of Kirkuk and proposed amendments to articles of Iraq's constitution that outline federal and regional oil and gas rights. The U.S. and UK military strategy in Iraq seeks to lay the ground work for an environment in which Iraqis can resolve core political differences in order to ensure national stability and security. However, it is not yet certain whether the proposed oil and gas legislation and ongoing interim efforts to develop Iraq's energy resources will support harmony or create deeper political tension. The United States and its allies face difficult decisions regarding how to work with Iraqis on assorted policy proposals, related constitutional reforms and oil and gas development contracts, and at the same time encouraging their Iraqi counterparts to ensure that the content of proposed laws, amendments and contracts reflect acceptable political compromises. In the 1920s a wide-ranging concession was granted to a consortium of oil companies known as the Turkish Petroleum company and later as the Iraq Petroleum Company. This was the beginning of oil exploration in Iraq. The nationalization of Iraq's oil resources and production was finished by 1975. From 1975 to 2003, oil production and export operations were entirely state operated. However, from the early 1980s until the toppling of Saddam Hussein's government in 2003, the negative effects of war, international sanctions, a shortage of investments and technology and, in many cases, mismanagement caused difficulties for Iraq's hydrocarbon infrastructure. According to the Oil Ministry, Iraq has the third largest proven oil reserves in the world (115 billion barrels). Other estimates of Iraq's potential oil reserves vary. The U.S. Department of Energy's Energy Information Administration notes that current estimates "have not been revised since 2001 and are largely based on 2-D seismic data from nearly three decades ago." In April 2007, oil industry consultants IHS assessed that Iraq's proven and probable reserves tally 116 billion barrels, with a potential additional 100 billion barrels in largely unexplored western areas. The U.S. Geological Survey's median estimate for additional oil reserves in Iraq is around 45 billion barrels. In 2004, Iraq's then Oil Ministry claimed that Iraq had "unconfirmed or potential reserves" of 214 billion barrels. My Reservoir Engineering Estimation is that Iraq's reserves can reach more than 320 bn bbl oil. Approximately 65 percent of Iraq's current proven reserves are located in southern Iraq, with a concentration in the southern most province of Al Basrah. Large proven oil resources have also been found in the northern province of Al Ta´mim near the disputed city of Kirkuk At present, crude oil provides over 90% of Iraq's domestic energy consumption and oil exports produce over 98% of Iraq's government revenue. Due to decreases in global oil prices from their 2008 high and lower oil production, Iraqi leaders revised their 2009 revenue and budget assumptions from a projected surplus to a projected $15.9 billion deficit. According to official U.S. assessments continued fluctuations in oil prices and production could put at risk Iraq's fiscal stability and the sustainability of its reconstruction and development plans. The expansion of oil production to the level of four million barrels per day (m/d) by 2013 and then upward to six m/d by 2017 is called for by current Iraqi plans. Iraqi officials have begun an international bid process for service contracts and renegotiated a series of Saddam era oil production agreements in order to support these goals. These include the transformation of a production sharing agreement into a service contract for Ahdab oil field with China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC).Inhaltsverzeichnis:Table of contents: 1.Introduction1 2.Iraqi Constitution7 3.Contract Conditions15 4.State-owned Oil Companies27 5.Restructuring of the Iraqi Oil Institutions33 6.Revenue-Sharing and Equalization36 7.Potential Geography50 8.Present Organization and Development56 9.Hydrocarbon Legislation Draft and Contracts59 10.Revenue Sharing65 11.Crisis Management of the Oil Industry in Iraq88 12.U.S. Policy and Issues for Congress99 13.China Investment in the Energy Sector112 14.Conclusion119 15.References127 16.Attachments129Textprobe:Textsample: Revenues and Arrangements: Under current arrangements, the responsibility for the sale and export of Iraq's crude oil is appointed to Iraq's State Oil Marketing Organization (SOMO). The United Nations Security Council resolution (UNSCR) 1483 (and updated under subsequent Security Council resolutions) stipulates that revenue from Iraq's oil exports is to be deposited into an Iraq-controlled account held at the Federal Reserve Bank of New York (FRBNY). Five percent of the funds are put aside for a United Nations Compensation Fund for reparations to the victims of the 1990 Iraqi invasion and occupation of Kuwait. The remaining 95% are deposited into a Development Fund for Iraq (DFI) account at the FRBNY and then transferred to an Iraqi Ministry of Finance account at the Central Bank of Iraq for further distribution to Iraqi government ministries. The terms of UNSCR1546 and subsequent resolutions mandate that the DFI be monitored by an International Advisory and Monitoring Board (IAMB), which provides periodic reports on Iraq's oil export revenue, Iraq's use of its oil revenues, and its oil production practices. According to the IAMB, as of December 31, 2007, $23.43 billion had been disbursed from the United Nations Compensation Fund and Iraq owed $28.95 billion to the Fund. Iraq deposited another $3 billion. According to IAMB estimates in mid 2008 "at the present rate of Iraqi oil sales, it would take approximately 17 years for the compensation award to be fully paid."38 It is likely that this estimate is no longer current due to significant declines in the price of oil in the meantime. The IAMB has not yet announced a corrected date. Under U.N. Security Council Resolution 1859 (December 22, 2008) the IAMB authority ends on December 31, 2009. This refers to a 2009 "transition to successor arrangement" from the DFI and the IAMD to Iraqi-led auditing processes. In October 2006, the Committee of Financial Experts (COFE) was approved by the Iraqi cabinet. Its task is to oversee oil revenue collection and administration. The president of the COFE authorized its activities in April 2007, and it currently is working with the IAMB on audit procedures. The establishment of an audit oversight committee for the DFI and oil export revenues is a structural benchmark under Iraq's Stand-by Arrangement (SBA) with the International Monetary Fund currently satisfied by the extension of the IAMB arrangement and the creation of the COFE. Agreements with members of the Paris club made the approval of the SBA into a necessity.39 The IAMB said in 2009 that Iraq's Committee of Financial Experts "is ready and capable to succeed the IAMB and conduct competent and independent oversight of the DFI." Immunity provisions included in standing UN Security Council resolutions protect Iraqi funds in the DFI from property attachment motions instead of legal judgments rendered against the former Iraqi regime. President Bush extended the U.S. legal protections for the DFI and other Iraqi assets under Executive Order 13303 through May 20, 2009. President Obama prolonged the protections until May 2010.40 Iraq will receive continued support from the United States in its attempts to convince the UN to extend related protections for energy proceeds and the DFI under Article 26 of the U.S.-Iraq security agreement. Oversight of Oil Production and Revenue Management Between its creation in May 2003 until December 31, 2007, the DFI received over $121.7 billion in oil proceeds and other deposits. According to audit estimates, an additional $58.8 billion in net export proceeds were deposited in 2008. Intermittent audits done in conjunction with the IAMB have routinely found serious discrepancies in oil production and export figures and DFI account receipt and distribution amounts. The absence of reliable output measurements for oil has been a critical and ongoing problem. During the Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA) period, there was no metering equipment available for oil production and exports. According to a May 2007 GAO report, there have been no improvements in reliable metering in Iraq's oil fields. This has contributed to the shortage of reliable data on Iraq's oil production and related revenue.42. In January 2008, an IAMB report claimed that Iraq's Ministry of Oil "does not have in place a full operational loading and metering system at production and loading points in order to determine produced and loaded quantities [of oil] accurately." An IAMB report in June 2008 established that "some metering has been installed at oil terminals, but there continues to be no metering in the oil fields." In April 2009, the IAMB stated that "much remains to be done before a fully operational control and measurement system over the oil production, distribution and export sales, can be comprehensively implemented," and added that, "Indications from the Ministry of Oil point to implementation by 2011 at the earliest." Financial audits completed by December 2005 established that "no comprehensive financial and internal controls policies and procedures manuals" existed in the Iraqi ministries that were spending oil export proceeds delivered through the DFI system. On June 12, 2007, the IAMB commented on its 2006 findings, noting that the audits proved "the overall financial system of controls is deficient." The audits showed there was "no overall comprehensive system of controls over oil revenues," and that "basic administrative procedures" were "outdated and ineffective." These conditions may have contributed to widespread corruption. Several Iraqi ministries spending distributed oil export revenue have been accused of corruption which is often associated with weak contracting and cash management policies. The Iraqi government's attempts to respond to IAMB recommendations were noticed by the IAMB's preliminary findings for 2007, but also noted that "the overall financial system of controls in place in the spending ministries, the U.S. agencies in respect of outstanding commitments using DFI resources, and the Iraqi administration of DFI resources remain deficient." The 2008 preliminary assessment, released in April 2009, concluded that "much remains to be done before a sound financial management system is operating effectively in Iraq".
Verfügbarkeit an Ihrem Standort wird überprüft
Dieses Buch ist auch in Ihrer Bibliothek verfügbar:
Els compostos orgànics volàtils (COV) sorgeixen dels productes químics utilitzats en les diverses etapes del procés de fabricació del cuir. Un dels objectius de la industria del cuir es minimitzar o eliminar els COV, sense reduir la qualitat del cuir. Les emissions de COV estan controlades per la legislació mitjançant l'Annex VII de la Directiva 2010/75/UE, Activitat nº13; sent el límit de 75 a 150 g de dissolvent emes per m2 de cuir acabat. Els nivells d'emissió de COV per estar d'acord amb les Millors Tècniques Disponibles (MTD) per la producció de cuir a Europa estan entre 10-25 g/m2 expressats com valors promig anuals. Aquesta tesi té com a objectiu el desenvolupament de nous mètodes analítics per la identificació i quantificació de COV emesos per nous polímers dissenyats a escala pilot per l'acabat del cuir. Aquests, son resines de poliuretà formulades per reduir la concentració de COV durant el procés de síntesi. Els productes químics que son objecte d'estudi son els següents: dipropilenlicol monometil èter (DPGME), DBE-3 (una barreja d'esters dibàsics) i trimetilamina (TEA). Per portar a terme, les noves metodologies d'assaig, aquestes es divideixen segons la matriu de la mostra. Es a dir, que assagen les resines, el film resultant d'aquestes, el cuir acabat y també es realitza un estudi de l'ambient de treball quan l'operari esta manipulant les resines i aplicant l'acabat. La microextracció en fase sòlida (SPME), s'utilitza en mostres de resina i aquesta es una tècnica de preparació de mostres utilitzada per l'extracció de COV apta per moltes aplicacions, junt amb la cromatografia de gasos per eludir i determinar aquest tipus de compostos en mostres sòlides i líquides. Els avantatges principals d'aquesta tècnica son la velocitat i alta sensibilitat; no requereix de manipulació de les mostres o procediments d'extracció amb dissolvents, sent una tècnica d'extracció respectuosa amb el medi ambient, accelera la separació i augmenta el rendiment. A més a més, aquesta tècnica es rentable en comparació amb altres mètodes d'extracció alternatius. Es van analitzar 11 mostres de resines a escala de laboratori mitjançant HS-SPME seguit de cromatografia de gasos (GC-MS). S'han identificat amb èxit DPGME i DBE-3. Els compostos s'identifiquen mitjançant un mètode quantitatiu utilitzant corbes de calibratge extern pels components objectiu. La tècnica no es eficaç per determinar el compost TEA, ja que els cromatogrames van mostrar pics de baixa resolució pel patró. La Desorció Tèrmica (TD) acoblada a la GC-MS es la metodologia utilitzada per l'assaig de films i cuir acabat amb les resines poliuretaniques sintetitzades i l'aire de l'ambient de treball mentre es realitza el procés d'aplicació. Aquesta tècnica d'extracció d'analits es altament sensible el que implica una gran millora en aquest camp d'estudi. A més a més, aquesta tècnica també es respectuosa amb el medi ambient ja que minimitza l'ús de dissolvents orgànics per l'assaig de COV i la manipulació de la mostra es mínima. Es van assajar 11 mostres de films a nivell qualitatiu i es van identificar els 3 components objecte de l'estudi, per portar a terme això es van adaptar les normes ISO 12219-3 i ISO 16000-6. També es va assajar el cuir acabat a escala pilot amb el mètode d'adquisició de dades SCAN, tant a nivell qualitatiu como quantitatiu i com a resultat de l'estudi es va determinar que la metodologia es podia millorar realitzant un escombrat SIM, ja que un dels isòmers del dissolvent DPGME no va ser viable per l'assaig quantitatiu. Es van analitzar 4 mostres de cuir a escala industrial amb un escombrat SCAN- SIM amb el qual es van poder determinar amb èxit els analits d'interès. Pel que fa a l'anàlisi de COV en l'ambient de treball es va utilitzar la norma ISO 16017-2, es va realitzar a nivell qualitatiu utilitzant dos tipus diferents de tubs sorbents per la captació de COV. ; Los compuestos orgánicos volátiles (COV) surgen de los productos químicos utilizados en las diversas etapas del proceso de fabricación del cuero. Uno de los objetivos de la industria del curtido es minimizar o eliminar los COV, sin reducir la calidad del cuero. Las emisiones de COV están controladas por la legislación mediante el Anexo VII de la Directiva 2010/75/UE, Actividad nº 13; siendo el límite de 75 a 150 g de disolvente emitido por m2 de cuero acabado. Los niveles de emisión de COV para estar en conformidad con las Mejores Técnicas Disponibles (MTD) para la producción de cuero en Europa están entre 10-25 g / m2 expresados como valores promedio anuales. La presente tesis tiene como objetivo el desarrollo de nuevos métodos analíticos para la identificación y cuantificación de COV emitidos por nuevos polímeros diseñados a escala piloto para el acabado del cuero. Estos, son resinas de poliuretano formuladas para reducir la concentración de COV durante el proceso de síntesis. Los productos químicos que son objeto de estudio son los siguientes: dipropilenglicol monometil éter (DPGME), DBE-3 (una mezcla de ésteres dibásicos) y trimetilamina (TEA). Para llevar a cabo, las nuevas metodologías de ensayo, éstas se dividen según la matriz de la muestra. Es decir, que se ensayan las resinas, el film resultante de estas, el cuero acabado y también se realiza un estudio del ambiente de trabajo cuando el operario está manipulando las resinas y aplicando el acabado. La microextracción en fase sólida (SPME), se utiliza en las muestras de resina y ésta es una técnica de preparación de muestras utilizada para la extracción de COV apta para muchas aplicaciones, junto con la cromatografía de gases para eluir y determinar este tipo de compuestos en muestras sólidas y líquidas. Las principales ventajas de esta técnica son la velocidad y alta sensibilidad; no requiere manipulación de muestras o procedimientos de extracción con solventes, siendo una técnica de extracción respetuosa con el medio ambiente, acelera la separación y aumenta el rendimiento. Además, esta técnica es extremadamente rentable en comparación con los métodos de extracción alternativos. Se analizaron once muestras de resinas a escala de laboratorio mediante HS-SPME seguido de cromatografía de gases (GC-MS). Se han identificado eficazmente DPGME y DBE-3. Los compuestos se identifican mediante un método cuantitativo utilizando curvas de calibración externas para los compuestos objetivo. La técnica no es eficaz para determinar el compuesto TEA, ya que los cromatogramas mostraron picos de baja resolución para el estándar. La Desorción Térmica (TD) acoplada a la GC-MS es la metodología utilizada para el ensayo de films y cuero acabado con las resinas poliuretánicas sintetizadas y el aire del ambiente de trabajo mientras se realiza el proceso de aplicación. Esta técnica de extracción de analitos es altamente sensible por lo que conlleva una gran mejora en este campo de estudio. Además, esta técnica también es respetuosa con el medio ambiente ya que minimiza el uso de disolventes orgánicos para el ensayo de COV y la manipulación de la muestra es mínima. Se ensayaron 11 muestras de films a nivel cualitativo y se pudieron identificar los 3 componentes objeto del estudio, para ello se adaptaron las normas ISO 12219-3 e ISO 16000-6. También se ensayó cuero acabado a escala piloto con el método de adquisición de datos SCAN, tanto a nivel cualitativo como cuantitativo y como resultado del estudio se determinó que la metodología podía mejorar realizando un barrido SIM, ya que uno de los isómeros del disolvente DPGME no fue viable para el ensayo cuantitativo. Se analizaron 4 muestras de cuero a escala industrial con un barrido SCAN-SIM por lo que se pudieron determinar con éxito los analitos de interés. Por lo que se refiere al análisis de COV en el ambiente de trabajo se utilizó la norma ISO 16017-2, se realizó a nivel cualitativo utilizando dos tipos diferentes de tubos sorbentes para la captación de COV. ; Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and Semi-Volatile Organic Compounds (SVOCs) arises from the chemicals used in the various stages of the leather manufacturing process. An important aim of the tanning industry is to minimize or eliminate VOCs and SVOCs, without lowering the quality of leather. VOCs and SCOVs emissions are controlled by the legislation through the Annex VII of Directive 2010/75/EU, Activity No 13; being the limit from 75 to 150 g of solvent emitted per m2 of leather product produced. The VOC emission levels to be in conformity with the Best Available Techniques (BAT) for the leather production in Europe are between 10-25 g/m2 expressed as annual average values. The aim of this thesis is to develop new analytical methods for the identification and quantification of VOCs emitted by new polymers designed on a pilot scale for leather finishing. These are polyurethane resins formulated to reduce the concentration of VOCs during the synthesis process. The chemicals under study are the following: dipropyleneglycol monomethyl ether (DPGME), DBE-3 (a mixture of dibasic esters) and trimethylamine (TEA). To carry out the new test methodologies, these are divided according to the sample matrix. In other words, the resins, the film resulting of these resins, the finished leather are tested and a study of the work environment is also carried out when the operator is handling the resins and applying the finish. The solid phase micro extraction (SPME) is used in resin samples and this is a sample preparation technique used for the extraction of VOCs for many applications, coupled with gas chromatography to elute and determine these type of compounds in solid and liquid samples. The main advantages of this technique are speed, high sensitivity; it does not require sample handling or solvent extraction procedures being environmentally friendly extraction technique, speeds up the separation, and increases throughput. In addition, this technique is extremely cost-efficient in comparison to alternate extraction methods. Eleven samples of laboratory scale resins were tested by HS-SPME followed by gas chromatography (GC-MS). DPGME and DBE-3 have been identified effectively. The compounds are identified by a quantitative method using external calibration curves for the target compounds. The technique is not effective to determine the TEA compound, since the chromatograms shown poor resolution peaks for the standard. The Thermal Desorption (TD) coupled to GC-MS was the methodology used for testing films and finished leather with synthesized polyurethane resins and the air of the work environment while the application process is carried out. This analyte extraction technique is highly sensitive so it brings a great improvement in this field of study. Furthermore, this technique is also environmentally friendly as it minimizes the use of organic solvents for VOC testing and sample handling is minimal. Eleven film samples were tested at a qualitative level and the 3 components of the study could be identified, adapting the standards ISO 12219-3 and ISO 16000-6. Finished leather at pilot scale was also tested with SCAN data acquisition method, both qualitatively and quantitatively and as a result of the study it was determined that the methodology could be improved by performing a SIM acquisition method, since one of the isomers of the DPGME solvent wasn't viable for quantitative testing. Four leather samples were analyzed on an industrial scale with a SCAN-SIM acquisition method so that the analytes of interest could be successfully determined. Regarding the analysis of VOC in the work environment, the ISO 16017-2 standard was used, it was carried out at a qualitative level using two different types of sorbent tubes for the capture of VOCs.
With global emissions estimated at 7.1 Gt CO2 eq per annum, livestock represents 14.5% of all human-induced emissions and it is considered to be the largest source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the agricultural sector. However, livestock can contribute to convert nutrients from plant biomass into animal-sourced foods, which are rich in essential macro and micronutrients in the form of milk and meat, thereby utilizing resources that cannot otherwise be consumed by humans. Livestock also contributes to global food security and poverty reduction, providing regular income to producers. To achieve a sustainable supply of animal origin food, farmers need, therefore, to identify strategies, in terms of livestock management and feeding, forage systems and feed growing practices, that make the best use of available resources and minimize the potential environmental impact. The studies of the PhD thesis were mainly developed inside the Life project "Forage4Climate", a four years project, aimed at demonstrating that forage systems connected to milk production can promote climate change mitigation. The aim of the PhD thesis was the evaluation of GHG emission, related to dairy cattle milk production. Specific aims were: • to identify and evaluate the most common forage systems adopted in dairy cow farms in the Po plain, selecting the systems that can improve milk production and soil carbon (C) sequestration reducing emissions per kg of milk; • to evaluate commercial diets related to these different forage systems, in order to directly assess their digestibility, milk and methane (CH4) production; • to identify, through a survey analysis, the main ingredients used in the total mixed ration (TMR) of high producing lactating cows, in order to assess the best diet composition that can lead to high feed efficiency (FE) and low global warming potential (GWP) at commercial farms scale; • in a future perspective of circular economy, to study the exploitation of different inedible human by-products as growing substrates for Hermetia Illucens larvae, in order to substitute soybean meal (SBM) in the livestock diets with insect proteins. A total of 46 dairy cattle farms in Lombardy, Piedmont and Emilia-Romagna were visited, in order to map the main forage systems adopted in each area and to characterize them for GHG emission related to milk production (FPCM, fat and protein corrected milk), and soil organic C stock. The evaluation of environmental impact, in terms of GWP, related to the different forage systems was carried out though a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) method, using the Software SIMAPRO. Six forage systems based on different forages were identified. The main results in terms of GHG per unit milk were: - CONV - Conventional corn silage system: 1.37 kg CO2 eq/kg FPCM (SD 0.26) - HQFS - High quality forage system: 1.18 kg CO2 eq/kg FPCM (SD 0.13) - WICE - Winter cereal silage system: 1.44 kg CO2 eq/kg FPCM (SD 0.43) - MIXED - Mixed less intensive system: 1.36 kg CO2 eq/kg FPCM (SD 0.26) - PR FRESH- Hay and fresh forage system for Parmigiano Reggiano PDO cheese production: 1.51 kg CO2 eq/kg FPCM (SD 0.23) - PR DRY- Hay system for Parmigiano Reggiano PDO cheese production: 1.36 kg CO2 eq/kg FPCM (SD 0.19). The HQFS system registered the lowest value for GWP, mainly due to the higher milk production per cow (daily FPCM/head). More intensive systems, such as HQFS, confirmed that milk production per cow is negatively related to the impact per kilogram of product, as highlighted also by a PROC GLM analysis. The HQFS system also resulted to be more sustainable, in terms of feed self-sufficiency, as it provided a high amount of dry matter (DM) per hectare, consisting of high digestible forages. Despite the lowest value for GWP, the forage system identified as HQFS showed the lowest organic C soil density: 5.6 kg/m2 (SD 1.1). On the contrary, PR FRESH showed the highest value in terms of organic C density in the soil: 9.7 kg/m2 (SD 2.2), compared with an average of 6.7 kg/m2 (SD 0.88) for the other systems. Further investigations are needed to consider environmental sustainability over a wider spectrum. Enteric CH4 was the main contributor to GWP for all forage systems: on average 45.6% (SD 3.89). For this reason, an in vivo evaluation of CH4 and milk production of lactating dairy cows fed four different diets, obtained from the forage systems identified, was performed. Also digestibility of the diets, energy and nitrogen (N) balance were assessed. Four pairs of Italian Friesian lactating cows were used in a repeated Latin Square design, using individual open circuit respiration chambers to determine dry matter intake (DMI), milk production and CH4 emission and to allow total faeces and urine collection for the determination of N and energy balances. Four diets, based on the following main forages, were tested: corn silage (49.3% DM; CS), alfalfa silage (26.8% DM; AS), wheat silage (20.0% DM; WS), hay-based diet (25.3% DM of both alfalfa and Italian ryegrass hays; PR) typical of the area of Parmigiano Reggiano cheese production. Feeding cows with PR diet significantly increased DMI (23.4 kg/d; P=0.006), compared with the others (on average, 20.7 kg/d), while this diet resulted to be the least digestible (e.g. DM digestibility=64.9 vs 71.7% of the other diets, on average). This is probably the reason why, despite higher DMI of cows fed PR diet, the animals did not show higher production, both in terms of milk (kg/d) and energy corrected milk (ECM; kg/d), compared with the other treatments. The urea N concentration was higher in milk of cows fed WS diet (13.8) and lower for cows fed AS diet (9.24). This was also correlated to the highest urinary N excretion (g/d) for cows fed WS diet (189.5 vs 147.0 on average for the other diets). The protein digestibility was higher for cows fed CS and WS diets (on average 68.5%) than for cows fed AS and PR (on average 57.0%); the dietary soybean inclusion was higher for CS and WS than AS and PR. The higher values for aNDFom digestibility were obtained for CS (50.7%) and AS (47.4%) diets. The rumen fermentation pattern was affected by diet; in particular PR diet, characterized by a lower content of NFC and a higher content of aNDFom as compared to CS diet, determined a higher rumen pH and decreased propionate production as compared to CS. Feeding cows with PR diet increased the acetate:propionate ratio in comparison with CS (3.30 vs 2.44 for PR and CS, respectively). Ruminal environment characteristics (i.e higher pH and higher acetate: propionate ratio), together with increased DMI, led cows fed PR DRY diet to have greater (P=0.046) daily production of CH4 (413.4 g/d), compared to those fed CONV diet (378.2 g/d). However, no differences were observed when CH4 was expressed as g/kg DMI or g/kg milk. Hay based diet (PR) was characterized by the lowest digestible and metabolizable energy contents which overall determined a lower NEL content for PR than CS diet (1.36 vs 1.70 Mcal/kg DM respectively for PR and CS diets). In order to meet the high demand of nutrients needed to assure high milk production, in addition to fodder a lot of concentrates are also used in dairy cows' TMR. A survey analysis conducted in commercial farms was performed to evaluate the GWP of different lactating cow TMR and to identify the best dietary strategies to increase the FE and to reduce the enteric CH4 emission. A total of 171 dairy herds were selected: data about DMI, lactating cows TMR composition, milk production and composition were provided by farmers. Diet GWP (kg CO2 eq) was calculated as sum of GWP of each ingredient considering inputs needed at field level, feed processing and transport. For SBM, land use change was included in the assessment. Enteric CH4 production (g/d) was estimated using the equation of Hristov et al. (2013) in order to calculate CH4 emission for kg of FPCM. The dataset was analysed by GLM and logistic analysis using SAS 9.4. The results of frequency distribution showed that there was a wide variation among farms for the GWP of TMR: approximately 25% of the surveyed farms showed a diet GWP of 15 kg CO2 eq, 20% of 13 kg CO2 eq and 16.7% of 17 kg CO2 eq. The variation among farms is due to the feed used. Among feed, SBM had the highest correlation with the GWP of the TMR with the following equation: TMR GWP (kg CO2 eq) = 2.49*kg SBM + 6.9 (r2=0.547). Moreover, an inclusion of SBM >15% of diet DM did not result in higher milk production with respect to a lower inclusion (≤15%). Average daily milk production of cows was 29.8 (SD 4.83) kg with a fat and protein content (%) of 3.86 (SD 0.22) and 3.40 (SD 0.14), respectively. The average value of DMI (kg/d) of lactating cows was 22.3 (SD 2.23). The logistic analysis demonstrated that a level of corn silage ≤ 30% on diet DM was associated with higher FE. Almost 50% percent of the farms had an average value of 15.0 g CH4/kg FPCM and about 30% a value of 12.5 g CH4/kg FPCM. The results demonstrated that a lower enteric CH4 production was related to inclusion (% on diet DM) of less than 12% of alfalfa hay and more than 30% of corn silage. Diets with more than 34% of NDF determined higher CH4 production (≥14.0 g/kg FPCM) compared with diets with lower NDF content. On the contrary, a lower enteric CH4 production (<14.0 g/kg FPCM) was related to diets characterized by more than 1.61 NEl (Mcal/kg) and more than 4% of ether extract. The variability in the GWP of TMR shows a significant potential to reduce both the GWP of the diet through a correct choice and inclusion level in the ration of the ingredients (mainly SBM) and the possibility to decrease CH4 enteric emission associated to milk production. Looking forward, in order to evaluate the opportunity of alternative protein sources in the cow diet, to reduce SBM, waste production, and competition between animals and human for crops, a study on the effects of different by-products for Hermetia illucens rearing on the chemical composition of larvae and their environmental impact was conducted, even if, according to the European legislation, today the use of insects as feed source is not possible in ruminants. Regarding climate change, okara and brewer's grains were the most promising substrates: 0.197 and 0.228 kg CO2 eq/kg of larvae fresh weight, respectively. Results from these studies show the importance of adopting a holistic approach for the assessment of GHG emission from milk production. Therefore, any strategy aimed at mitigating CH4 emission of dairy cows must also take into account the possible effect on the other GHGs, as well as the effect on C sequestration. Based on the studies, it could also be worth evaluating novel feed as a new and useful solution for mitigation of GHG emission related to milk production. The thesis highlights essential differences among forage systems and among feed ingredients of cow ration, confirming that there is room for improvement in sustainability of milk production. These issues should be taken into consideration by farmers, technicians and policy makers, considering that sustainability of livestock production will be one of the priorities for humankind in next future.
Résumé : La présente thèse porte sur le développement d'un modèle d'intervention au profit des agents de développement économique méso dans un contexte de co-innovation et au niveau de l'entrepreneuriat technologique. Grâce à une expérience de plus de quinze ans comme agent de développement économique, une problématique managériale a émergé tranquillement. Les agents de développement économique n'avaient pas à leur disposition les outils d'intervention qui leur permettent de faire face aux nouvelles réalités du développement économique par l'innovation. Une première question peut se poser: qu'est-ce qui a changé dans l'innovation ? Tout d'abord, les savoirs sont de plus en plus complexes et diffus. En effet, les sciences et les technologies, surtout si elles ont atteint un certain degré de maturité, se développent de plus en plus en fonction d'usages qu'elles pourraient remplir (ces derniers étant fonction des besoins exprimés par les usagers). Par ailleurs, tout en se complexifiant à cause de leurs ramifications, les technologies sont de plus en plus accessibles aux usagers, ce qui leur permet de ne plus être seulement consommateurs de technologie, mais également producteurs et codéveloppeurs de produits et services. C'est en ce sens que l'on voit exploser le développement des applications mobiles. En définitive, on passe d'une innovation qui est linéaire, développée en vase clos ou en collaboration entre entreprises et centres de recherche triés sur le volet, qui est par la suite valorisée puis éventuellement commercialisée, à une innovation de nature systémique à la fois portée par des entreprises, des gouvernements et des usagers, ce qui est convenu d'appeler désormais la co-innovation. Par contre, les moyens dont disposent les agents de développement économique ne sont plus adaptés à cette nouvelle réalité. En effet, les outils dont bénéficient ces derniers sont basés sur les principes suivants : 1) la spécialisation sectorielle selon le modèle de Porter (1993), avec la stratégie des grappes où les agents de développement économique faisaient de la concertation et de l'animation du milieu ou 2) la diversité sectorielle et individuelle (Florida, 2005; Jacobs, 1969), où l'on s'est concentré sur la formation entrepreneuriale et sur les visites aux entreprises pour les aider dans leur croissance. Ces stratégies ont été payantes en termes de concertation et de développement hyperlocal, mais sont à la recherche d'un nouveau souffle, notamment en matière d'intergrappes et de cohérence supralocale. Au tournant des années 1990, on voit apparaître la notion de systèmes régionaux d'innovation, qui sont une première tentative de penser le développement économique sous forme systémique. En revanche, les aspects normatifs ont vite disparu des recherches universitaires, ce qui n'a pas permis aux agents de développement économique de s'approprier ces notions, la plupart les trouvant trop compliquées pour y voir de réelles applications en matière d'intervention en développement économique. Enfin, depuis les années 2000, la notion d'innovation ouverte apparaît et suscite beaucoup d'intérêt chez les agents de développement économique, mais ceux-ci manquent encore de modèle afin de pouvoir l'utiliser de façon plus structurée, au-delà de la simple stratégie de gestion de la propriété intellectuelle, comme véritable outil de co-innovation. Ainsi, la question de recherche suivante a été dégagée des éléments issus de la profession et d'une revue de littérature exhaustive: quel nouveau modèle de développement économique (DÉ) basé sur la co-innovation et au niveau de l'entrepreneuriat technologique peut-on développer et quelles seront alors les nouvelles méthodes d'intervention pour les agents de DÉ ? Pour répondre à cette question, la théorie enracinée est apparue comme une méthode de recherche appropriée, car elle permettait la théorisation, essentielle dans le développement d'un modèle. Vingt et une entrevues ont été menées entre août et décembre 2012 entre le Québec, les États-Unis et la France. Les résultats de cette recherche sont les suivants : 1) le niveau d'intervention adéquat en matière de développement économique par l'innovation est le niveau régional, soit les agents de développement économique de type méso (entre le macro et le micro), 2) le processus de développement économique par la co-innovation est un processus intermédié en deux temps. En effet, les agents de DÉ méso travaillent à identifier des problématiques et des besoins communs à différents écosystèmes, et ce, en comptant sur leur réseau. Grâce à ce mécanisme, les agents de DÉ créent des communautés (surtout technologiques) autour desquelles des opportunités intrapreneuriales apparaissent. Celles-ci pourront se transformer en projets structurants qui, à leur tour, pourront déboucher sur des opportunités entrepreneuriales. 3) L'agent de développement économique est à la fois un intrapreneur (qui défend ses projets dans sa propre structure organisationnelle) et un exopreneur (qui défend ses projets dans différentes communautés). Les résultats de cette recherche ont d'ores et déjà servi à la mise sur pied de nouvelles formes d'intervention au niveau méso avec le développement du programme de financement de la Ville de Montréal PR@M-Est, qui est basé directement sur les principes de co-innovation. Par ailleurs, les recherches suscitent de l'intérêt dans plusieurs agglomérations en France et auprès des professionnels en développement économique au Québec et en France. Enfin, des recherches subséquentes ont été identifiées afin de venir compléter le corpus de savoir en matière de développement économique par la co-innovation, notamment en ce qui concerne le partage de rente économique (monétisable ou non) entre les initiateurs de démarches co-innovantes et leurs contributeurs. ; Abstract : For a few years, economic developers have integrated innovation to their practice as the engine for economic development. It is now well understood that innovation and economic development are intertwined with the seminal work of Schumpeter more than a century ago. Many researches have been done since, but the very dynamic nature of innovation, and thus the economic developers' actions, needs constant reassessment. Innovation is changing from a linear perspective where firms, research centers and universities try to develop and commercialize new products and services, based on scientific researches, the so-called Public-Private Partnership, to a systemic form where firms, research centers and universities are still involved in the innovation process, but where more and more Public-Private-People Partnerships can occur. Why is innovation becoming a systemic process? One of the explanations lays in the greater complexity of knowledge and a greater distribution of it. In the meantime, more people can access technologies, as it is seen with the blooming of mobile applications. Since then, the way of innovation process occurs is dramatically changing, and more contributors can join the process, including as usual private companies or government, but also users. What is new with the users is that they are not only involved for commercialization purpose, but now also as co-developers and co-creators. By acknowledging those shifts, economic developers should also change the way they are acting to foster economic development and innovation. So, it is time to develop new forms of intervention in a context of co-innovation. They have to step back to see that their actions are done at the macro level (even if it has been practiced at the regional level) and generally based on industrial concentration with MAR and his industrial districts, on one side and specialization, on the other side with Porter and his clusters' strategy. The idea is to nourish innovation by geographical, cultural, institutional and social proximity. In doing so, it helps tacit knowledge to flow from one company to another and to bring to the market new products and services more rapidly. Economic developers works with geographic proximity and implements clusters strategies all over the world with different results. So the mechanistic aspect of the strategy is not that simple. Actually, clusters are now shifting to a systemic perspective and try to open-up collaboration between clusters and enhance cross sectorial projects. It also has been demonstrated that innovation is more about people than organizations. Since Jacobs, and later with Florida, the spotlight has been put on the individual as the engine of creativity and innovation. Jacobs thought that knowledge is embedded in the individual expertise, and Florida worked on the creative class which represent about 30% of the population, and who is made of people who promote creativity and changes in some place, generally cities. With Jacobs and Florida, the quality of place is critical because it can help to attract talents. At that micro level also, works on the entrepreneur-opportunity dyad is important. With the neo-classic theory, entrepreneurs can use information asymmetry to exploit opportunities and bring their creativity to the market. Entrepreneurs are very special in essence, even though it has not been establish that they have some special traits, it seems that they have in common a way to act creatively and transform this creativity into opportunities and economic development. For economic developers, it means to develop supportive actions towards entrepreneurs: training, entrepreneurs club, special funding for example. But, the difficulties lay in: how can economic developers develop a more structured model for their interventions to entrepreneurs? Moreover, some do believe that these micro levels approaches can be self-organized and that there is no need for public policy towards entrepreneurs. At the meso level, economic developers can improve, particularly regarding the Regional Innovation System (RIS), the way they can foster business serendipity across networks. Since Chesbrough has defined the concept of open innovation, a more systemic approach to innovation seems to be accepted by economic developers. But, once again, there is lot of work to do to better understand how economic developers can put into practice those new approaches. Thus, neither the macro level approach, which is too mechanistic, nor the meso approaches level, which is to complex, nor the micro level, which doesn't allow public policy, seem to offer a proper answer to economic developers with the systemic approach of innovation. This dissertation tries to answer the following question: What model can be developed for economic developers in context of co- innovation and technological entrepreneurship? Grounded theory as presented by Corbin and Strauss (2008) was the methodology in this survey. As it is permitted in grounded theory, the literacy has been completed by works on complexity theory, network theory and structural holes and co-innovation. Twenty-one interviews have been conducted in Montréal, the Province of Québec province, France and The United States between August and December 2012 with economic developers, scientific and technological parks managers, co-creation spaces organizers and entrepreneurs. The main conclusions of this research in an academic perspective are: 1. The correct level to support co-innovation is the meso level: this level allows macro and micro level actions to be coherent in a more interdependent perspective. The meso level is a medium term perspective at the regional level. The economic developers mostly use projects and communities of practice to do their actions regarding co-innovation; 2. The process for the economic development through co-innovation is intermediated and two-fold: a) Economic developers identify common needs in their ecosystems through their networks. In doing so, they create communities in which intrapreneurial opportunities occur. Some of these intrapreneurial opportunities lead to structuring projects. b) These projects open-up entrapreneurial opportunities that help regional economic development; 3. Finally, Economic developers are both intrapreneurs (leading project in their own organisations and exopreneurs (leading projects in communities). But as we want to develop something operational for economic developers, we also created an algorithm, which will help them to structure co-innovation actions (how to identify needs, communities, partners, etc.), but also a guide to use the right co-innovative tool at the right moment in their process of co-innovation. Some results of this research has been put into practice with the new program as PR@M-Est at the City of Montréal, this program is based on business serendipity and on co-innovation principles. This research shows some interest in France also. Of course this research has some limits, particularly with the size and the diversity of the sample, but we are confident it could open the way to further research in the field.
El sentir ciudadano en defensa de la calidad de vida es ya de preocupación e indignación global. Siguiendo a Mónica Araya (1), podemos decir que a menor contaminación, más espacios verdes y mayor energía limpia, y a medida que estas aspiraciones entran en el imaginario ciudadano, van creándose condiciones favorables para el reclamo masivo y uso global de energía renovable. La reconocida economista costarricense y negociadora en cambio climático por su país, destaca que la petición en línea planteada por los ciudadanos este año ha exigido a los gobiernos optar por la energía limpia al cien por ciento, reclamo apoyado por 2,2 millones de personas en el mundo, y que la Marcha Popular por el Clima del 21 de septiembre de 2014 ha marcado un hito. Más de 400 000 ciudadanos caminaron pacíficamente por las calles de Manhattan apoyados por 3 000 actos que iban desde Bogotá hasta Sydney. Hubo marchas en 166 países con lúcidas expresiones ciudadanas a favor de una economía que no dañe la salud de las personas, que crezca a través del uso de energía renovable y sea justa (1).Según una encuesta del Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo (BID), al ciudadano latinoamericano le preocupa el cambio climático (2). Sabe que es un problema real y que puede llegar a impactar su entorno. Ya el 2 de noviembre oímos a la comunidad científica internacional a través del Panel Intergubernamental de Cambio Climático (IPCC), al publicar su Quinto Informe –el más reciente-, en el que la realidad y urgencia de atender el fenómeno del cambio climático es impostergable (1).Establecida en la Cumbre de Río en 1992, la Convención Marco de las Naciones Unidas sobre el Cambio Climático (CMNUCC) entra en vigor en 1994 con el objetivo de reducir las concentraciones de gases de efecto invernadero (GEI) en la atmósfera, y en 1995 impulsa la Conferencia de las Partes (COP, por sus siglas en inglés) como órgano supremo de toma de decisiones. Los 195 países conformantes, que han presentado sus instrumentos de ratificación, se reúnen una vez al año, por dos semanas, para examinar la aplicación de la Convención y desarrollar el proceso de negociación entre las Partes ante nuevos compromisos.En virtud de la Convención, todas las Partes tienen responsabilidades comunes, aunque diferenciadas. Para el accionar diferenciado, toman en consideración, entre otros aspectos, el carácter específico de sus prioridades nacionales y regionales de desarrollo, de sus objetivos y circunstancias. Sus responsabilidades comunes, sin embargo, son: 1) recabar y compartir información sobre las emisiones de GEI, las políticas nacionales y las prácticas óptimas; 2) poner en marcha estrategias nacionales para abordar el problema de las emisiones de GEI y adaptarse a los impactos del cambio climático previstos, así como determinar la prestación de apoyo financiero y tecnológico a los países en desarrollo; y 3) cooperar para prepararse y adaptarse a los efectos del cambio climático.El Perú es miembro de la Convención y también forma parte del Protocolo de Kioto desde el 2002. Como tal, participa de las negociaciones internacionales y apoya decididamente el esfuerzo multilateral para alcanzar un resultado vinculante, ambicioso y eficaz mediante la búsqueda de consensos en el proceso negociador. Como país comprometido con el desarrollo nacional sostenible en un contexto global, promueve una dinámica económica baja en carbono y contribuye con el esfuerzo mundial de reducir las emisiones de GEI.El territorio peruano es altamente vulnerable a los efectos adversos del cambio climático y, por lo tanto, también su población, las actividades productivas y los ecosistemas naturales (3).La COP20, celebrada en Lima del 1 al 12 de diciembre del 2014, convocó a 195 países con la presencia de 14 mil representantes. Recibió la visita de siete jefes de Estado. "Voces por el Clima", un espacio para la población en general, acogió a más de 80 mil visitantes. Se organizaron más de 400 conferencias en las que fueron presentadas diversas iniciativas. "Pon de tu Parte", la campaña de movilización ciudadana, generó 330 mil compromisos a nivel nacional (4).La presencia de la COP20 en el nuestro país y las campañas de movilización en torno a ella, hará que el cambio climático, que no es tomado en cuenta como merece y solo es destacado en forma declarativa, hoy tenga otra prioridad en todo plan y discusión en las mesas de diálogo. La COP20 significa para muchos en el país un punto de inflexión en las agendas por la incorporación de la variable de cambio climático; de una parte, porque somos conscientes de la necesidad de insertar este tema en las agendas de desarrollo, y por otra, porque constituye una oportunidad para difundir los planes de acción frente al cambio climático desde cada sector y organización.El mayor logro de la COP20 es el entendimiento de todos los Estados participantes plasmado en el "Llamado de Lima para la acción climática" y en los grandes acuerdos como la incorporación del mecanismo "pérdidas y daños"; la aceptación de la estrategia de adaptación frente al cambio climático sobre todo para países en desarrollo; y el incremento del Fondo Verde del clima, que superó la cifra de 10 mil 200 millones de dólares, con el que fueron aprobadas nueve decisiones sobre finanzas climáticas para lograr la meta de los 10 mil millones de dólares al 2020.El secretario de Estado norteamericano, John Kerry, sostuvo que los emisores más grandes de GEI, incluyendo a Estados Unidos, tienen que contribuir mayormente a la solución, pero cada país tiene que poner su parte y resolver estos cambios también para llegar a la próxima generación con un planeta limpio. Manifestó que "nada más aquellas naciones que respondan podrán decir que son líderes en la responsabilidad global" y advirtió a los delegados de los países presentes que de fracasar en esta lucha, las generaciones no nos perdonarán y juzgarán nuestra acción como un "fracaso moral" (5).El secretario general de la ONU, Ban Ki-moon, valoró la elaboración de un nuevo tratado internacional en la materia, que entraría en vigor en el 2020, y mostró su esperanza que el acuerdo final sea adoptado en París en el 2015. Instó a todos los países de la COP20, en particular a las grandes economías, a que presenten compromisos nacionales ambiciosos para reducir los gases que dañan la atmósfera, con suficiente antelación a la Conferencia en París (6). ; The citizens´ reaction in defense of the quality of life is a global concern and indignation. Following Monica Araya (1), we can say that the aspiration for a lower pollution rate and greener and cleaner energy space, are becoming more prevalent among the citizens, thereby creating favorable conditions for mass claims and global use of renewable energy. The renowned Costa Rican economist and climate change negotiator for his country notes that the online petition raised by citizens this year has required governments to opt for one hundred percent clean energy, a claim supported by 2,2 million people around the world, and that the People's March for Climate September 21, 2014 was a milestone. More than 400 000 citizens marched peacefully through the streets of Manhattan supported by 3 000 events ranging from Bogota to Sydney. There were marches in 166 countries with well-informed citizens in favor of a fair economy that does not damage peoples´ health through the use of renewable energy.According to a survey by the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), the Latin American citizen is concerned about climate change (2). He knows this is a real problem that can impact your environment. On November 2, the international scientific community through the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) had its Fifth Report published, where it addresses the urgency to care about the climate change issue (1).Established at the Rio Summit in 1992, the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) entered into force in 1994 with the aim to reduce concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere, and in 1995 urged the Conference of the Parties (COP, by its acronym in English) as the supreme decision-making body. Participants of 195 countries, which have submitted their instruments of ratification, meet once a year for two weeks to review the implementation of the Convention and to develop the negotiation process between the parties before making new commitments.Under the rules of the Convention, all Parties have common responsibilities, but differentiated. These differentiated actions, take into account, inter alia, the specific character of their national and regional development, objectives and priorities circumstances. Their common responsibilities, however, are: 1) to collect and share information on GHG emissions, national policies and best practices; 2) to launch national strategies for addressing GHG emissions and adapting to expected impacts of climate change and determining the provision of financial and technological support to developing countries support; and 3) to cooperate to prepare for and adapt to the effects of climate change.Peru is a member of the Convention and also part of the Kyoto Protocol since 2002. As such, it participates in international negotiations and strongly supports the multilateral effort to reach a binding, ambitious and effective result by the search for consensus in the process negotiator. As a country committed to sustainable national development in a global context, it promotes low-carbon economic dynamics and contributes to the global effort to reduce GHG emissions.The Peruvian territory is highly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change and, therefore, so is its population, productive activities and its natural ecosystems (3).In the COP20, held in Lima from 1 to December 12, 2014, 195 countries convened with the presence of 14 000 representatives. It was visited by seven Heads of State. "Voices for Climate", a space for the population in general, welcomed over 80 000 visitors. More than 400 conferences were presented and several initiatives were organized. "Put your Party" citizen mobilization campaign generated 330 000 commitments at the national level (4).Thanks to the COP20 meeting carried out in our country and mobilization campaigns about it, climate change issues will get the priority they deserve in the dialogue table. The COP20 means a turning point in the agenda for the integration of climate change variable; on one hand, because we are aware of the need to include this issue in the development agenda, and secondly, because an opportunity to disseminate the plans of action on climate change from each sector and organization.The greatest achievement of the COP20 is the understanding of all participating States expressed in the "Lima Appeal for climate action" and major agreements such as the incorporation of the mechanism "losses and damages", and the acceptance of the adaptation strategy to climate change especially for developing countries. The Green Climate Fund, which exceeded the figure of 10 billion 200 million dollars, was a result of nine decisions on climate finance which aimed to achieve the target of 10 billion dollars by 2020.US Secretary of State John Kerry said that the biggest emitters of greenhouse gases, including the United States, have largely contribute to the solution, but each country has to do its part to address these changes in order to leave the next generation with a clean planet. He said that "only those nations that step up and respond to this threat can legitimately lay claim to any mantle of leadership and global responsibility." And warned delegates of the participating countries that should we fail in this struggle, future generations will not forgive us and judge our actions as a "moral failure" (5).Secretary General Ban Ki-moon, praised the development of a new international treaty on the subject, which would take effect in 2020, and expressed hope that the final agreement is adopted in Paris in 2015. He urged all countries in the COP20, especially the major economies, to submit ambitious national commitments to reduce the gases that damage the atmosphere, well in advance of the Conference in Paris (6).
If the expression new town is no longer in vogue in the discourse on urban policies ofwestern countries, the reverse is true in the case of countries with strong economic growth and/orthose called South countries. For twenty years, for reasons of various orders ads projects "new towns"are legion. In this profusion, Algeria and Morocco are no exception. In the mid-2000s, the moroccanministry for town planning and housing announced the implementation of a program of "new towns"cash fifteen projects including one called Tamansourt, located in the outskirts of Marrakech. InAlgeria, in 1987, the National planning scheme recommends the creation of new towns in the HautsPlateaux and South. Meanwhile, "new towns", local emanation are launched, that is the case of AliMendjeli, near Constantine. Starting from the premise that the concept of new town " exceeded ˮ, wequestion the reasons prompting the algerian and moroccan public action to still be seized . Why dogovernments continue to use this type of development policy? This first question leads to two othercomplementary policies: how are they conducted and what are their territorial effects ? According toour first hypothesis , the performative and iconic efficiencies that intellectual representation, overtheir feasibility that have guided these options. Our second hypothesis is that there was nocapitalization of foreign experiences in the context of redefining and adapting the concept. Studiedacting arrangements do not fall under the urban planning or urban planning project , this statement isour third hypothesis. Our fourth hypothesis is that these actions are vectors more or less powerfulreterritorialisation the outskirts of Constantine and Marrakech. It will check whether the emergenceof centralities and/or new urban margins is observable. We want to verify the idea of the existence ofa wide gap between the "new town" ideational , that the project leader, and the "new town" lived ,that is to say that the inhabitants of daily life. ; C'est depuis peu, selon une échelle de temps urbanistique, que les pouvoirs publics algériens et marocains ont engagé la réalisation de projets d'aménagement dits de « villes nouvelles », dans les périphéries de grandes villes maghrébines. C'est notamment le cas en Algérie, près de Constantine, avec le projet d'Ali Mendjeli lancé en 1993, et au Maroc avec celui de Tamansourt, amorcé en 2004 à proximité de Marrakech.Un bilan détaillé des publications scientifiques portant sur les divers essais d'application de ce type de politique menés ailleurs et antérieurement (Brésil, France, Grande Bretagne, Égypte, Finlande, Japon, ex-URSS, etc.), montre que la ville nouvelle, en tant qu'outil d'aménagement du territoire et d'urbanisme, est un objet polémique qui attise à la fois la critique et la fascination, une pratique urbanistique qui a ses tenants et ses opposants. Partant de cette observation notre thèse cherche à éclairer les motifs qui sous-tendent la mise en œuvre de telles politiques dans des territoires jusqu'alors non-concernés par la doxa ville nouvelle. À ce premier questionnement s'en ajoutent deux autres : selon quelles modalités sont menées ces politiques et quels sont leurs aboutissements territoriaux actuels ? Notre recherche doctorale permet de vérifier les hypothèses suivantes :1. Un usage éminemment performatif de la terminologie « ville nouvelle »Les projets d'aménagement d'Ali Mendjeli et de Tamansourt ont été officiellement labellisés « villes nouvelles » en vue de la charge symbolique et émotionnelle véhiculée par cette appellation et non pour le réalisme opérationnel afférant à un tel énoncé. Il est démontré que ces projets sont incompatibles avec l'idée communément admise, par les chercheurs et praticiens en urbanisme ou en aménagement du territoire, de ce qu'est une ville nouvelle – ce que, pour notre part, nous dénommons le concept de ville nouvelle. Si, toutefois, les actions spatiales étudiées peuvent correspondre à ce concept, c'est essentiellement à travers les discours de mise en valeur et de légitimation, autrement dit à travers la communication et le marketing de projet. La faiblesse des moyens financiers, institutionnels, économiques, législatifs et politiques développés par les gouvernements au regard de telles ambitions socio-spatiales, témoigne de cette inadéquation. Il ressort que ces « villes nouvelles » sont davantage guidées par des opportunismes fonciers et immobiliers.L'hypothèse d'un usage de ce terme plus pour sa forme que son contenu est validée par le vide théorique des options d'aménagement qui ont présidé à leur création. Il n'y a pas eu de capitalisation des expériences étrangères, ni dans la perspective d'actualiser un modèle opératoire ayant connu ses principaux développements entre les années 1950 et 1970, ni en vue d'une prise en compte des spécificités territoriales algériennes et marocaines quant à l'implémentation de tels projets. Il est mis en évidence l'insuffisance, tant quantitative que qualitative, des représentations conceptualisées consignées dans les documents spécifiquement consacrés aux projets (rapports, études de faisabilité).2. Des villes nouvelles en tant qu'aménagement hybrideLes modalités décisionnelles de ces projets, qu'elles concernent leur mise en œuvre ou leur maîtrise d'ouvrage, révèlent des permanences mais aussi des ruptures dans les logiques de l'action publique urbaine algérienne et marocaine. Bien qu'ils possèdent chacun leur singularité, les projets d'Ali Mendjeli et de Tamansourt s'inscrivent tous les deux dans une logique de projet. Ils ne relèvent pleinement ni de la planification urbaine, au sens d'un « urbanisme de plan-masse » (Lacaze, 1995), ni du projet urbain tel qu'on peut le connaître au nord de la Méditerranée. Toutefois, certaines composantes relatives à ces deux logiques sont employées par les porteurs des projets. C'est pourquoi nous qualifions les modalités d'agir qu'ils expriment d'« aménagement de l'entre-deux » ou encore d'aménagement hybride, au sens d'un aménagement qui « n'appartient à aucun type, genre, style particulier, [mais] est bizarrement composé d'éléments divers » (CNRTL, CNRS, 2014).3. Des projets vecteurs de reterritorialisation de périphéries de grandes villes maghrébinesLes effets territoriaux de ces projets sont multiples. En premier lieu, ils participent d'une redistribution spatiale de la population à l'échelle des agglomérations qui n'est pas anodine. Par ailleurs, ces politiques d'aménagement génèrent autant de nouvelles centralités que la relocalisation et la recomposition de nouvelles marges urbaines : des urbanités peinent à s'y développer.L'entrée par l'analyse de la reterritorialisation, en confrontant les villes nouvelles idéelles – pour ne pas dire « idéales » –, c'est-à-dire celles des porteurs de projets, et celles vécues, c'est-à-dire représentées, pratiquées et appropriées par certains de leurs habitants, met en évidence de fortes distorsions entre les deux. L'étude des espaces vécus de villes nouvelles réelles permet d'apprécier le passage de la performativité potentielle à la performance avérée ou la performativité réalisée effective (Lussault, 1997). Ces projets bouleversent de ce fait les territoires péri-urbains selon une acception politico-administrative. Ils mettent en question les modalités de gouvernance territoriale des espaces dans lesquels ils s'inscrivent à travers son caractère conflictuel.4. Des projets singuliers malgré un label communLes projets d'Ali Mendjeli et de Tamansourt, l'un algérien et l'autre marocain, concordent avec les trois propositions précédentes du fait de caractéristiques convergentes : dimension conflictuelle du projet durant toutes ses temporalités, conception évolutive, introduction dans les systèmes d'action d'acteurs privés, influence forte du pouvoir central et déconcentré, etc. Néanmoins, en dépit d'une appellation identique et de certaines composantes relativement similaires, ces projets présentent aussi des différences structurelles fondamentales. L'une des caractéristiques de cette thèse tient dans le fait de ne pas lisser ces contrastes, d'autant que ceux-ci ne vont pas à l'encontre des trois affirmations ci-dessus, mais permettent au contraire de les affiner.Ainsi, la thèse de l'aménagement hybride doit être pondérée dans la mesure où le cas marocain indique une plus grande inclination vers l'urbanisme de projet que l'algérien. Le contexte d'autorisation des projets indique que s'il est fait recours à l'urbanisme réglementaire, c'est pour l'essentiel à des fins de justification et/ou de légitimation du projet. L'utilisation des plans est révélatrice d'un usage de la logique d'urbanisme de projet loin d'être consommé. Le rôle toujours prédominant des acteurs déconcentrés et non décentralisés, plus précisément des walis, l'atteste aussi. Toutefois, le canal d'autorisation du projet de Tamansourt, qui dénote un caractère essentiellement commercial et d'investissement, s'approche d'une certaine définition du projet urbain. La « ville nouvelle » de Tamansourt peut être considérée comme un ensemble résidentiel à vendre qui s'insère dans une démarche économique libérale. En outre, l'ouverture significative de la maîtrise d'ouvrage de la ville nouvelle marocaine, via des partenariats public-privé, à des promoteurs immobiliers d'envergure nationale voire internationale, est un indicateur supplémentaire d'une démarche s'inscrivant dans une logique de projet. De plus, toujours pour ce cas, la mise en image très soutenue de l'action, dans des visées de valorisation et de communication, l'asseoit d'avantage dans cette logique. Ainsi, et toujours plus particulièrement pour le cas de Tamansourt, nos analyses confirment l'une des propositions du programme de recherche « Faire la ville en périphérie(s) ? au Maghreb » (Signoles [dir.], 2006-2009), selon laquelle : « Si on prend en considération l'importance attribuée à la médiatisation des mégaprojets maghrébins, leur mise en image peut se substituer carrément au projet lui-même. […] Peut se créer ainsi une sorte d'effet mirage des grands projets des métropoles maghrébines du XXIe siècle, lesquelles semblent s'engouffrer dans une voie où la confusion risque de s'établir entre les possibilités réelles et concrètes d'aménagement et le rêve virtuel des images en 3D ». À défaut de ville-mirage, la ville nouvelle de Tamansourt est dénommée ville-fantôme par une partie de ses habitants…10L'état de territorialisation des projets présente aussi des différences. Il ressort que l'espace d'Ali Mendjeli s'est constitué en plusieurs étapes qui ont vu se succéder différents processus : marginalisation-démarginalisation-développement de centralités-émergence d'urbanités. Mais au bout du compte, en 2014, la ville nouvelle d'Ali Mendjeli possède une réalité urbaine certaine, ce qui n'est pas le cas de celle de Tamansourt, laquelle constitue plutôt une nouvelle marge périphérique de Marrakech. Si le facteur temporel, c'est-à-dire le décalage de dix années qui sépare le lancement de chacun des deux projets, peut expliquer en partie cette différence, d'autres facteurs interviennent : l'économie de rente permet à l'État algérien de subventionner la production de logements sociaux en très grand nombre, ainsi que la réalisation d'équipements – dont certains de rayonnement régional, voire national –, ce qui contribue efficacement à l'attractivité de la ville nouvelle d'Ali Mendjeli, au développement de sentiments d'appartenances territoriales ainsi qu'à la cristallisation d'urbanités d'un ordre nouveau, ces deux caractéristiques n'étant pas sans rappeler l'idée de ville émergente (Chalas, 1997).5 D'un point de vue méthodologique, l'une des ambitions de cette thèse réside dans sa manière d'envisager la comparaison. A priori, les projets d'Ali Mendjeli et de Tamansourt disposent de caractéristiques communes : localisation dans la périphérie d'une métropole régionale intérieure maghrébine, qualification homonyme, projections. Toutefois, des différences tant contextuelles et substantielles ont été anticipées : économie de rente fortement centralisée versus économie libérale, concentration du pouvoir politique versus mouvement de décentralisation, etc. Cela nous a conduit à mener une forme de regard croisé, plus qu'une comparaison stricto sensu, c'est-à-dire termes à termes. Notre approche ressort d'une mise en perspective de la déconstruction et des effets territoriaux de ces actions d'aménagement. En fonction d'entrées analytiques communes (genèse, maitrise d'ouvrage urbaines, effets territoriaux), le cas de Tamansourt éclaire d'avantage celui d'Ali Mendjeli et inversement : « Il s'agit de procéder à une réflexion qui va et vient de l'un à l'autre » (Gervais-Lambony, 2003).6 Privilégiant une démarche pragmatique et critique, s'appuyant sur des données qualitatives, ce travail mobilise les outils théoriques du système d'action (Crozier, Friedberg, 1977), de la justification (Boltanski, Thévenot, 1991), de la sociologie de l'émancipation (Boltanski, 2009) et de la géographie sociale (Di Méo, 1991). Les méthodes d'enquêtes employées comprennent de nombreuses observations in situ échelonnées entre 2007 et 2010 ; une centaine entretiens semi-directifs avec des acteurs variés (opérateurs public de l'habitat régionaux, collectivités locales, services déconcentrés, départements ministériels, habitants) ; la collecte de documents de types divers (études d'aménagement et documents de planification, rapports et notes internes, contrats de PPP, plans, cartes schémas, plaquettes promotionnelles, etc.). Enfin nos résultats s'appuient sur des séjours qui m'ont conduit à résider plus d'un mois dans chaque ville nouvelle, afin d'apprécier les centralités et urbanités potentielles de ces espaces de villes nouvelles, en y vivant au quotidien et au plus proche de leurs habitants.
