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The present state of the social sciences in Latin America goes back to the foundation of the Organization of American States & to the Cold War begun during the Truman administration. From 1945 to 1959, a neopositivist & neoempiricist sociology, inspired by conservative North American sociologists, dominated the field. Nevertheless, starting with the Cuban revolution (1959), a sociology directly committed to popular movements & in favor of a renovation of Marxist & revolutionary thinking emerged & confronted the reformist approach to social sciences. In the 1970s, the critique took position mainly against the "developmentalist" thinking of the ECLA (acronym not defined), the traditional theory of dependency, denouncing as an illusion the notion of independence & development under the leadership of the national bourgeoisie. In Chile, Salvador Allende's government & its overthrow (1970-1973) demonstrated the relationship between power & politics, while the revolutionary struggles in Central America drew emphasis to the problems of SC & coalitions, SC struggle, & national & international negotiation. In the 1980s, the dominant preoccupations in the countries with a constitutional regime centered on tensions between democracy & crisis. Latin American social thinking & the social sciences investigations must confront the "Second Cold War," which has bases for legitimation not only in the US but also in Europe, & not only in neoliberal thinking, but in neo-Marxist thinking as well. Modified AA

The policies of the Federal Republic of Germany towards the Third World are strongly determined by its peculiar history; public opinion is prepared to make certain sacrifices, but the development community is skeptical of traditional measures; the formulation of policies from below follows quite conservative guidelines, hence the response of the main politicians is of vital importance. On the other hand, in recent years German interests have been defined quite narrowly, in terms of export promotion, ensuring access to commodities and achieving a "good climate" for investments, leaving aside long-term interests to promote a new international order. ; Las políticas de la República Federal Alemana hacia el Tercer Mundo están fuertemente determinadas por su peculiar historia; la opinión pública está preparada para hacer ciertos sacrificios, pero la comunidad de desarrollo es escéptica frente a las medidas tradicionales; la formulación de políticas desde abajo sigue pautas bastante conservadoras, de allí que la respuesta de los principales políticos sea de vital importancia. Por otra parte, en los últimos años los intereses alemanes han sido definidos en forma bastante estrecha, en términos de promoción de exportaciones, de asegurar el acceso a las materias primas y lograr un "buen clima" para las inversiones, dejando de lado intereses esclarecidos a largo plazo para promover un nuevo orden internacional.

With the flight of the dissident General Calles to the United States in July 1935, there began a period of instability in Mexico, marked by political infighting & large-scale strikes. A major clash occurred between leftist organizations & the fascist Golden Shirt movement which further exacerbated the tensions. In that atmosphere, the working class began to organize politically; its first umbrella organization was the National Committee for Proletarian defense (founded 1935/36). At the same time, efforts were made to unify trade unions in various industries. These activities culminated in Feb 1936 with the unification congress in Monterrey. The aims of this meeting were twofold: (1) to unite the labor movement under a single command & strengthen the Cardenist faction in the government; & (2) to encourage the tactical formation of a popular front, gathering all democratic forces in an alliance against fascism. The Cardenist regime's two important projects were to successfully rebuff the conservative faction of General Calles, & to establish an alliance with the working class, particularly in its conflict with the industrialists in Monterrey, the immediate cause of which was the industrialists' insistence on the provincial governor's discharge for allegedly favoring procommunist workers. The crisis resulted in a mass demonstration by workers in favor of Cardenas & the collapse of the opposition. Cardenas demonstrated his political maturity by formulating his famous fourteen-point labor policy, which stressed that the government & the producing classes should cooperate, that employers should not interfere in union affairs, & that the main cause of instability was not the agitation of the communist minority but the failure of social institutions to conform to the needs & aspirations of the people. S. Karganovic.

SUMMARIUM Factio Liberalis hispana introducit in sua causa quaestionem religiosam anno 1899. Probabiliter sibi est unica subsistendi possibilitas impulsui Factionis Conservatoris, propinqui traditionalismo alphonsino a Leone XIII alito. Quapropter proponit legislationem quae praesertim privatae docentiae, fere exclusive rellgiosae, . vegilantiam statalem refert, ac maxime et vigilantiam institutorum perfectionis evangelicae. Haec omnia faciunt quaestionem iuridicam interpretationis articuli 29 in Concordato anno 1851 facto, qui ad litterum statum ad sustinendus institutos tres masculinos determinatos cogit, non ceterorum futuro constituto. Disputatio, primum inter liberales et traditionalistas, pervenit deinde diplomatica septembre anni 1901. Prosequitur non confecta post annos nunc examinatos. Pero hos annos novissima res publica, Sagasta praeside, ad vigilandos institutos quasdam promulgat cautiones, praesertim dispositionem regiam septembre anni 1901. Aplicatione autem ulteriori monstrat intentionem duntaxat politicam. Sunt cautiones quae ad opinionem destinantur, secreto autem cum Vaticano negotiatae. Ad hoc auctor consultavit fundos Archivi Generalis Ministerii Rerum Exteriorum, quod includit partem Archivi Legationis hispanae apud Vaticanum. Consultavit etiam documenta Archivi Aedis Regiae Matritensis, et litteras cottidianas varie intentionis, et annales rerum gestarum at que recentem bibliographiam. --- ABSTRAT The Spanish Liberal Party introduced the religious question to its program in 1899. This measure was probably considered necessary for subsistence, given the strenght of the Conservative Party, which favoured to Sorne extent, the Alphonsine traditionalism fostered by Leo XIII. Consequently it proposed legislation affecting, aboye aH,. state supervision of private teaching -almost exclusively religious- and especiaHy the control of Institutes of christian perfection, aH of this gave rise to the juridical problem of the interpretation of Article 29 of the Spanish Concordat which literaHy obliges the State to defend three specüicaHy-named male Institutes without special mention of other cases. Discussion between the Liberals and Traditionalists at a diplomatic level first occurred in September 1901 and still continued, without definite conclusions having been reached, at the end of the period which is studied here. In this period, the last I.iberal Government with Sagasta as President, promulgated sorne measures relating to the control of the Institutes, and, especially, the Royal Decree of 19-9-1901. But the manner of its posterior application clearly shows that it was merely intended as apurely political measure. It was intended to placate public opinion and had, in fact, been secretly negotiated with the Holy See. The following sources were consulted for purposes of thls present study: the General Archives of the Spanish Foreign Office, the documents of the Spanish Embassy to the Holy See,. the Archives of the Royal Palace in Madrid, the daily press of various tendencies, historiography and recent bibliography.

El estudio analiza el ambiente en que se desarrolló el proceso de transformación de dominios en la Extremadura del siglo XIX. Se presentan los de la provincia de Cáceres aunque este tipo de incidencias y arbitrariedades pueden ser trasladadas a otras zonas del país. Para su descripción se agrupan en diferentes tipologías. En el fondo de toda esa mala gestión pericial se encontraba, casi siempre, el deseo desenfrenado de algunos personajes influyentes de adquirir por cualquier medio las propiedades subastadas. Así, cuando no actúan ellos mismos como tasadores ejercen un sin fin de presiones para satisfacer su apetencia de tierras. La ignorancia sobre la titularidad jurídica de algunas propiedades explica que en algunos pueblos se subastaran bienes cuyos derechos pertenecían a particulares, así como otro tipo de irregularidades. Son muchos los casos que ejemplifican acerca de los errores, vicios y deficiencias existentes a lo largo del proceso desamortizador. Tal vez el mayor conjunto de irregularidades se encuadren en el bloque calificado como enajenación de bienes de aprovechamiento común y dehesas boyales. Uno de los objetivos básicos del proceso desamortizador consistía en «crear una copiosa familia de propietarios»; uno de los principios básicos del sistema liberal decimonónico; el más firme apoyo de los gobiernos en el siglo XIX, ya fueran moderados o progresistas, conservadores o liberales, se encontraba en los propietarios; hasta la implantación del sufragio universal, muy avanzado ya el siglo pasado, los derechos políticos e individuales en general eran sólo los derechos de los propietarios. En consecuencia, no puede considerarse como una absoluta novedad el hecho de que la actitud más generalizada del Estado tendiese a proteger la seguridad jurídica y los intereses de los compradores, convertidos en dueños/propietarios de las fincas tras su participación en las subastas. ; The study analyzes the environment in which the transformation of domains in the Extremadura nineteenth century is developed. We present the province of Cáceres although such incidents and arbitrariness can be moved to other areas. For description is grouped into different types. At the bottom of all this bad management expert has almost always found the unbridled desire of some influential people to acquire by any means auctioned properties. One of the basic objectives of paying back process was to "create a copious family of owners'; one of the basic principles of nineteenth-century liberal system; the strongest support from governments in the nineteenth century, whether moderate or liberal, conservative or liberal, was in the owners; until the implementation of universal suffrage, very advanced and the past century, political and individual rights in general were only the rights of the owners. Therefore can not be regarded as an absolute novelty that the general attitude of the state would tend to protect the legal certainty and the interests of buyers, converted to owner / owners of farms after participating in auctions.