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在香港,若逝世者生前沒有宗教信仰或指定的喪葬儀式,家人通常都會為他舉行道教葬禮。黎志添教授認為道教葬儀在香港已經習俗化。事實上,在一般情況下,進行道教葬儀根本不能反映死者生前信奉的宗教信仰。為何道教葬儀在香港會成為大部份香港人的習俗?我認為,道教葬儀音樂已成為香港人不言而喻的一種身份。 ; 港人一般不會關心葬儀,就算舉辦也不會深究儀式內容。但他們卻認為儀式中的音樂代表了他們的身份。在實地考察中,我發現道教葬儀音樂包含了不少廣東音樂的元素,曲牌《一錠金》就是其中的例子;事實上,採用道教儀式是香港人認同本土中國人身份的表現。 ; 在實地考察中,我發現研究道教殯儀音樂可有多個視角,其音樂及宗教元素更蘊含多層意義。本文以樂師的活動為切入點,以政治身份角力的角度,研究香港道教殯儀音樂。 ; In Hong Kong, a Taoist funeral is usually held for a deceased person by his or her family if the deceased did not have any religious belief or preference. In most cases, a Taoist funeral is a mere convention rather than a reflection of choice or religious affiliation of the deceased. To explore the reason of this ritual popularized in this particular region, I would like to suggest that the music played in a Taoist funeral is part of Hong Kong people's identities. ; Most Hong Kong people, in fact, would avoid the idea of death, not to mention death rituals. When they do, they usually have little knowledge of the Taoist ritual. Most, however, consider the music to be an essential part of the ritual, which reflects to a great extent, their identity. They do, however, consider that the music played represent their identity. ; During the fieldwork for this thesis, I identified a number of traditional Cantonese music pieces in the ritual. For example, the Cantonese tune "Yi-ding jin"一錠金has been playing a significant role. Ordinary Chinese people, as a matter of fact, accept that the music in Taoist funeral rituals represent their identity. ; I have come to understand that there are many layers in a Taoist funeral. The musicians, the ritual, and the Taoist philosophy are part and parcel of the funeral other than the music. Through extensive fieldwork and interviews, I attempt to draw a clear picture of Taoist funeral music activities in the Hong Kong community and explore the entwined relationship between politics and identity dynamics within Hong Kong Taoist funeral music. For a long time, perhaps even today, the identity of the Hong Kong people has remained a controversial ...

Раздел "Международное право" - рубрика "Международное частное право" ; Контрафакция и пиратство в области авторского и смежных прав представляют серьезную не только национальную, но и международную проблему, решение которой может быть более успешным, если правообладатели будут иметь закрепленные законом эффективные меры таможенной защиты. Многие современные законы об авторском праве содержат в себе условия, при которых таможенные органы могут по своей инициативе либо по просьбе правообладателей отказать в таможенной очистке продукции, которая производит впечатление несанкционированных копий защищенной продукции. Соответствующие нормы содержатся в Бернской конвенции и особенно развиты в Соглашении по ТРИПС. В Республике Беларусь возможность пресечения таможенными органами распространения контрафактных товаров появилась с момента вступления в силу соответствующих дополнений в Таможенный кодекс Республики Беларусь 14 июня 2002 г. Анализ нормативных актов, принятых в дальнейшем, позволяет выделить несколько этапов в процессе таможенной защиты авторского и смежных прав: подачу заявления правообладателем (его представителем), рассмотрение заявления таможенными органами, осуществление защитных мер таможенными органами при выявлении возможной контрафактности товара, определение контрафактности товара. Действующая процедура осуществления таможенными органами Республики Беларусь защиты прав на объекты авторского и смежных прав соответствует Соглашению по ТРИПС, хотя и содержит определенные пробелы. Представляется, что ряд мер — внесение в законодательство Республики Беларуси регламентации процедуры определения контрафактности товаров; обеспечение законодательной защиты прав лица, необоснованно обвиненного во ввозе контрафактной продукции; законодательное закрепление возможности приостановления таможенными органами выпуска товаров, не внесенных в реестр, в случае обнаружения их контрафактности без заявления правообладателя о защите своих прав и др. — позволит повысить эффективность и уровень таможенной защиты прав на объекты авторского права и смежных прав. = Counterfeiting and piracy in the field of authors' rights and related rights represent a serious problem, not only national, but also international, the solution of which decision can be more successful if legal owners have the effectual measures of customs protection fixed by the law. Many modern laws on the copyright comprise the conditions at which customs authorities can, on their own initiative or on the request of legal owners, refuse to give customs clearing to products which look like unauthorized copies of protected products. The corresponding norms are contained in the Berne Convention, and are specially developed in the Agreement on TRIPS. In Belarus the opportunity of suppression by customs authorities of distribution of the counterfeit goods appeared on coming into force of the corresponding addenda to the Customs Code of Belarus on June 14th, 2002. The analysis of the normative acts allows to define some stages in the procedure of customs protection of copyright and related rights: submission of the application by the legal owner (his representative), consideration of the application by customs authorities, realization of protective measures by customs authorities in explosing possible counterfeiting of the goods, definition of the counterfeit nature of the goods. The existing procedure of the customs authorities realizing the protection of the copyright and related rights to the objects produced corresponds to the TRIPS Agreement though it contains several gaps. It seems that a number of measures — introducing into the legislation of Belarus of a regulation of procedure of definition of the counterfeit goods; legislative guaranteeing of the rights of the person unreasonably accused of counterfeit products import; legislative fixing of hte possibility for the customs authorities to suspend the production of the goods not on the register without the legal owners' application in case their counterfeit character is detected — will allow to raise the efficiency and the level of customs protection of copyright and related rights.

Раздел "Международные отношения" ; В статье рассматривается взаимодействие Управления Верховного комиссара ООН по делам беженцев с белорусскими органами государственной власти в вопросе формирования национальной системы защиты беженцев. Показан процесс эволюции законодательства о беженцах, а также рассмотрена техническая помощь со стороны данной международной структуры, оказанная белорусскому государству. Автор считает, что деятельность УВКБ ООН в Республике Беларусь может быть разделена на три этапа. На первом этапе (1992 г.—сентябрь 1995 г.) в нашей стране данная структура системы ООН не была непосредственно представлена. Ее деятельность проводилась через Представительство ООН, в штате которого работал один человек, отвечавший за гуманитарные вопросы и осуществлявший контакты со штаб-квартирой УВКБ ООН в Женеве. Но это не помешало Управлению играть активную роль в формировании системы защиты беженцев в Республике Беларусь. Такая деятельность способствовала началу формирования национальной законодательной базы, что вылилось в принятие первой редакции Закона Республики Беларусь «О беженцах» в 1995 г. и открытие Представительства УВКБ ООН в Республике Беларусь. Выделяя второй этап (сентябрь 1995 г.—май 2001 г.), отметим, что в этот период приоритетными направлениями работы УВКБ ООН в Республике Беларусь стало оказание помощи в разработке и внедрении национального законодательства, содействие в формировании эффективной системы определения статуса беженца, оказания прямой социальной и правовой помощи благодаря партнерам УВКБ ООН из числа общественных организаций, оказание финансовой и технической помощи белорусским органам государственной власти и общественным организациям. Завершающим аккордом такой поддержки белорусской системы защиты беженцев стало присоединение государства к Конвенции 1951 г. и Протоколу 1967 г. Третий этап деятельности УВКБ ООН в Республике Беларусь (май 2001 г.—2003 г.) заключался в помощи белорусскому государству в завершении формирования системы защиты беженцев, приведении национального законодательства, а также процедур в области предоставления статуса в соответствии с международными стандартами; поддержке их реализации с целью обеспечения реальной защиты и адаптации в белорусском обществе. = The article reviews the cooperation between the UNHCR and Belarusian state authority bodies to form the national system of refugee protection, shows the process of evolution of the law on regugees and also describes technical assistance to the Belarusian state rendered by the UNHCR. The author believes that the UNHCR activities in Belarus can be divided into three stages: At the first stage (1992—September 1995) this structure of the UN system had no direct representation in the country. Its activities were carried out by the the UN Office in Belarus. However, this fact did not prevent the Office from playing an active role in the formation of the Belarusian system of refugee protection. This contributed to the adoption of the Law of the Republic of Belarus «On Refugees» in 1995 and opening of the UNHCR Office in the Republic of Belarus. The second stage (September 1995—May 2001) is noted for the priorities which included assistance to development and introduction of national legislation as well as to the formation of an efficient system of refugee status definition, rendering of direct social and legal assistance owing to NGOs as the UNHCR partners, financial and technical support to Belarusian state authority bodies and public institutions. This culminated in Belarus acceding to the 1951 Convention and the 1967 Protocol. The third stage of the UNHCR activities in the Republic of Belarus (May 2001—2003) was marked by the support to the Belarusian state in the completion of the system of refugee protection, harmonising national legislation and procedures in the sphere of granting the status with international standards, the support of their implementation aiming to provide real protection and adaptation in Belarusian society.

The role played by the student movement in the political events of the late 20thearly 21st centuries should encourage researchers to carry out a more detailed analysis of similar events in the preceding century. The student community was one of the actors involved in the modernisation process which ultimately led to the three Russian revolutions. It is important to consider the events that occurred prior to the start of the Russian Revolution in 1905 and to clarify the extent to which the students were instigators of the revolution. Particular attention should be paid to the events that took place on 5–6 December 1904: the mass student demonstrations in Moscow, accompanied by violent clashes with the police. The analysis of police surveillance reports and documents from the Ministry of Education shows that one of the factors motivating the student movement was the propaganda campaign launched by liberal newspapers in connection with the convention of the Provincial Congress and the subsequent 'banquet campaign'. The students were influenced by the mood which then captivated society; they listened to criticisms of the autocratic regime being spread by liberal professors and liberal newspapers. The students were moved by the enthusiasm inherent in youth: they eagerly took up the slogans advanced by the older generation and brought them onto the streets. The underground political parties, the Social Democrats and the Socialist Revolutionaries, had no significant impact on the students. The student movement was mainly spontaneous: the students independently joined the demonstration on 16 October and then made the Socialist Revolutionaries join the demonstration on 5 December. The participation of the SRs made this demonstration aggressive and provocative. The protesters themselves provoked the police to use force; thus, the police responded appropriately. The battles that erupted on the streets of Russia's capitals did not bring any benefits to the struggle for liberal reforms. These clashes were interpreted by Nicholas II as a consequence of the 'policy of trust' and opened the frightening prospect of growing instability. As a result, the unbridled desire of students for reform forced the government to give up the idea of making any changes. ; Роль, которую играет студенческое движение в политических событиях конца XX – начала XXI в., побуждает исследователей к более детальному анализу аналогичных событий предшествующего столетия. Студенчество было одним из акторов процесса модернизации, которая в конечном итоге привела к трем русским революциям. Автор рассматривает события, происходившие перед началом Первой русской революции 1905 г., и пытается прояснить вопрос о том, в какой степени студенчество исполняло роль ее застрельщика. Особого внимания, по его мнению, заслуживают события 5–6 декабря 1904 г. – массовые демонстрации студентов Москвы, сопровождавшиеся ожесточенными столкновениями с полицией. Анализ сводок полицейского надзора, а также документов Министерства народного просвещения показывает, что одним из стимулов студенческого движения была пропагандистская кампания, развернутая либеральными газетами в связи с созывом Земского съезда и последующей «банкетной кампанией». Студенты подчинялись охватившему общество настроению, прислушивались к той критике самодержавного режима, которая раздавалась на лекциях либеральных профессоров и в либеральных газетах. Ими двигал свойственный молодости энтузиазм, они с горячностью подхватывали лозунги, выдвигавшиеся старшим поколением, и шли с ними на улицу. Подпольные политические партии – социал-демократы и эсеры – не оказывали существенного влияния на студентов. Студенческое движение было в основном стихийным, студенты самостоятельно вышли на демонстрацию 16 октября, а потом фактически заставили эсеров присоединиться к демонстрации 5 декабря. Участие эсеров придало этой демонстрации агрессивный и провокационный характер; демонстранты сами спровоцировали полицию на применение силы, и полиция ответила соответствующим образом. Настоящие сражения, разразившиеся на улицах столиц как в Москве, так и в Петербурге, не принесли пользы делу либеральных реформ. Эти столкновения были истолкованы Николаем II и его окружением как следствие «политики доверия» и открыли пугающую перспективу нарастающей дестабилизации. В итоге необузданное стремление студенчества к переменам привелок отказу правительства от каких-либо перемен.

The study of problems that are associated with the realization of human rights and freedoms is always relevant since their implementation affects the immediate vital interests of the individual. A special role is played by ensuring human rights and freedoms, mechanisms and procedures for their protection, that is corresponding positive and negative obligations of the state. We believe that civil and political rights of a person, usually characterized as negative rights, cannot be ensured only by negative obligations of the state. To ensure them, States still need to assume corresponding positive obligations, the proper fulfillment of which directly affects the effectiveness of ensuring guaranteed human rights and fundamental freedoms. In this regard the study of the positive obligations of the states of the European Union in the field of ensuring political and civil rights is relevant. The object of the master's work is public relations that arise in connection with the implementation of positive obligations of the states of the European Union in the field of ensuring political and civil rights at the international level and the level of European Union law. The purpose of the master's work is to analyze the peculiarities of the positive obligations of the states of the European Union in the field of ensuring political and civil rights at the international level and the level of the European Union law. Tasks of the master's work: 1) to analyze the sources of the main political and civil rights of citizens of the European Union; 2) to characterize the system and content of basic political and civil rights; 3) to give a definition and to consider the ratio of positive and negative obligations of states; 4) to give a definition and to characterize the scope of application of the positive obligations of a state in the field of ensuring the political and civil rights of citizens under the European Convention; 5) to analyze the problem of ensuring the political and civil rights of citizens of the European Union and their judicial protection; 6) to determine the responsibility of states for violation of obligations in the field of human rights protection in European law. There were used dialectical, historical methods, the methods of formal logic, the comparative legal method, the system method and other methods of cognition. The sources of the basic political and civil rights of citizens of the European Union have been established. Among them there are the documents adopted before the creation of the European Union and the documents of the European Union. The problem of the implementation of modern legal standards in the field of human rights has been revealed. The system and content of the basic political and civil rights of citizens of the European Union are considered. The ratio of positive and negative obligations of states is considered. It has been revealed that not only negative, but also positive obligations of states are required to ensure negative rights. The specific positive obligations of states to ensure civil and political rights are considered, the examples are supported by judicial practice. It has been revealed that the state has a triad of obligations in the field of human rights: obligations to respect, obligations to provide and obligations to protect. The principle of the responsibility to protect includes the following obligations: the obligation to prevent; the obligation to respond; the obligation to recover. Some scholars add the obligation to punish the guilty. It has been established that the responsibility of a state for harsh and massive violations of human rights arises before the international community as a whole. On this basis all states can demand the cessation of these violations and the provision of appropriate compensation to their victims making appropriate claims against the violating state. The scientific novelty of the study lies in the fact that it is a complex scientific work, in which a theoretical study of the relationship between positive and negative obligations of states is carried out, as well as specific positive obligations of states to ensure civil and political rights. The master's work can be useful to researchers, lecturers, lawyers and students.

The study of problems that are associated with the realization of human rights and freedoms is always relevant since their implementation affects the immediate vital interests of the individual. A special role is played by ensuring human rights and freedoms, mechanisms and procedures for their protection, that is corresponding positive and negative obligations of the state. We believe that civil and political rights of a person, usually characterized as negative rights, cannot be ensured only by negative obligations of the state. To ensure them, States still need to assume corresponding positive obligations, the proper fulfillment of which directly affects the effectiveness of ensuring guaranteed human rights and fundamental freedoms. In this regard the study of the positive obligations of the states of the European Union in the field of ensuring political and civil rights is relevant. The object of the master's work is public relations that arise in connection with the implementation of positive obligations of the states of the European Union in the field of ensuring political and civil rights at the international level and the level of European Union law. The purpose of the master's work is to analyze the peculiarities of the positive obligations of the states of the European Union in the field of ensuring political and civil rights at the international level and the level of the European Union law. Tasks of the master's work: 1) to analyze the sources of the main political and civil rights of citizens of the European Union; 2) to characterize the system and content of basic political and civil rights; 3) to give a definition and to consider the ratio of positive and negative obligations of states; 4) to give a definition and to characterize the scope of application of the positive obligations of a state in the field of ensuring the political and civil rights of citizens under the European Convention; 5) to analyze the problem of ensuring the political and civil rights of citizens of the European Union and their judicial protection; 6) to determine the responsibility of states for violation of obligations in the field of human rights protection in European law. There were used dialectical, historical methods, the methods of formal logic, the comparative legal method, the system method and other methods of cognition. The sources of the basic political and civil rights of citizens of the European Union have been established. Among them there are the documents adopted before the creation of the European Union and the documents of the European Union. The problem of the implementation of modern legal standards in the field of human rights has been revealed. The system and content of the basic political and civil rights of citizens of the European Union are considered. The ratio of positive and negative obligations of states is considered. It has been revealed that not only negative, but also positive obligations of states are required to ensure negative rights. The specific positive obligations of states to ensure civil and political rights are considered, the examples are supported by judicial practice. It has been revealed that the state has a triad of obligations in the field of human rights: obligations to respect, obligations to provide and obligations to protect. The principle of the responsibility to protect includes the following obligations: the obligation to prevent; the obligation to respond; the obligation to recover. Some scholars add the obligation to punish the guilty. It has been established that the responsibility of a state for harsh and massive violations of human rights arises before the international community as a whole. On this basis all states can demand the cessation of these violations and the provision of appropriate compensation to their victims making appropriate claims against the violating state. The scientific novelty of the study lies in the fact that it is a complex scientific work, in which a theoretical study of the relationship between positive and negative obligations of states is carried out, as well as specific positive obligations of states to ensure civil and political rights. The master's work can be useful to researchers, lecturers, lawyers and students.

The harmful impact of criminalization on social and economic institutions, violence that tends to increase both in the real world and cyberspace as well as growing transnational crime produce the demand for reliable data on the current state and statistical assessment of this phenomenon for comprehensive understanding of the factors contributing to its sustainability. So, intensive international efforts aimed at developing common approaches to confront crime are of paramount importance. It is argued that the problem solution requires the international preventive cooperation for the urgent creation of the UNO-sponsored information resources – a data bank on the crime rates in the world, its separate regions and countries, and the appropriate judiciary activities on the basis of the comparable international classification of crimes for statistical purposes. Having analyzed the international statistical conventions, regulations and our predecessors' research results, we found out that initially the issue of comparable crime statistics in different countries was referred to as both theoretical and practical. The growing urgency of this problem was acknowledged by the United Nations, and in 1951 the idea to develop a «standard classification of offenses» was put forward. The UNO Social Commission stressed the importance of its preparation, so that «the governments could submit statistical reports on crime within the standard timeframe». The demand for methodological standards such as the international classification of crimes for statistical purposes (the classifier) unanimously recognized by the international community became relevant. With the set invariance of the quantitative component of the statistical method taken into account, the objective (qualitative) component lays a cornerstone for the development of a standard classifier of crimes followed by its practical implementation in the UNO member states. The concluding issues cover the notion of classification both as a core element in the development of the statistical data program that ensures comparability of statistical data, and its properties in relation to the international classification of crimes for statistical purposes, as well as its qualitative features, goals, objectives and principles. Attention is drawn to the fact that the countries are required to consider the same version of the standard classifier for adjusting their national classifications to the draft classifier which is under discussion by the international community. Specific proposals are made to improve the draft classifier taking into account the peculiarities of national criminal law and legal acts that regulate the organization of statistical activities. ; Угрожающая криминализация социально-экономических институтов, неблагоприятные тенденции роста насилия в реальном и виртуальном мире, преступность, имеющая транснациональный характер, обусловливают потребность знания подлинного состояния дел, оценки статистических параметров этого явления, представления целостной картины факторов его несокрушимости. В силу этого активизация интернациональной деятельности, направленной на выработку общих подходов противостояния преступности, приобретает первостепенное значение. Обосновывается тезис о том, что разрешение обозначенной проблемы требует профильного сотрудничества, объединения усилий всех стран в целях безотлагательного формирования под эгидой ООН информационного ресурса (Банка данных) о показателях преступности в мире, его отдельных регионах и странах, и деятельности органов правосудия на этом направлении, на основе адекватно сопоставимой международной классификации преступлений для статистических целей. На основе анализа материалов Международных статистических конгрессов, нормативных правовых актов и результатов научных исследований наших предшественников установлено, что изначально вопрос сопоставимости статистических данных о преступности разных стран решался не только теоретически, но и практически. Растущая актуальность данной проблемы привлекла внимание ООН. В 1951 г. появилась идея разработки «стандартной классификации правонарушений». Социальная комиссия ООН подчеркнула важность ее подготовки с тем, чтобы «правительства могли представлять статистические отчеты о преступности в стандартные сроки». Актуализировалась востребованность методологических стандартов, в частности, международной классификации преступлений для статистических целей (классификатора), необходимость разработки которой сегодня безоговорочно признается международным сообществом. Учитывая заданную инвариантность количественной составляющей статистического метода, краеугольным камнем разработки стандартного классификатора преступлений, его последующей имплементации в практику государств – членов ООН, является предметная (качественная) составляющая. В завершение рассматриваются содержательные вопросы классификации вообще как важнейшей составной части программы разработки статистических материалов, обеспечивающей сопоставимость статистических данных, так и ее особенностей применительно к международной классификации преступлений для статистических целей; ее признаки (качественные), цели, задачи, принципы. Обращается внимание на то, что гармонизация национальных классификаторов в целях их унификации с обсуждаемым мировым сообществом его проектом вызывает настоятельную необходимость рассмотрения указанными странами одинаковых версий стандартного классификатора. Вносятся конкретные предложения, направленные на совершенствование проекта классификатора с учетом особенностей национального уголовного законодательства и нормативных правовых актов, регулирующих организацию статистической деятельности.

МЕСТО И РОЛЬ МЕЖДУНАРОДНОГО ДОГОВОРА В СИСТЕМЕ ИСТОЧНИКОВ ТРУДОВОГО ПРАВА ДОНЕЦКОЙ НАРОДНОЙ РЕСПУБЛИКИ / Н. А. Прокофьев, К. Э. Богославская ; ГОУ ВПО "ДОНАУИГС" // Сборник научных работ серии «Право». Вып. 22:Правовое обеспечение деятельности органов государственной власти и местного самоуправления в современных условиях. – Донецк : ГОУ ВПО «ДОНАУИГС», 2021. – С.105-114. В статье изучаются ключевые вопросы места и роли международных договоров в системе источников трудового права. Отмечена ключевая роль ООН и Международной организации труда в международно-правовом регулировании отношений в этой сфере. Акцентировано внимание на необходимости выработки действенных и конструктивных механизмов гармонизации международных договоров и внутреннего трудового законодательства Донецкой Народной Республики. PLACE AND ROLE OF THE INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENT IN THE SYSTEM OF LABOR LAW SOURCES OF THE DONETSK PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC / N. A. Prokofiev, К. Е. Bogoslavskaya ; SEE HPE "DAMPA" // Collection of scientific works of the series "Public administration". Issue 22: Legal support of the activities of state authorities and local self-government in modern conditions. – Donetsk : SEE HPE "DAMPA", 2021. - S.105-114. The article examines the key issues of the place and role of international treaties in the system of sources of labor law. The key role of the UN and the International Labor Organization in the international legal regulation of relations in this area was noted. Attention is focused on the need to develop effective and constructive mechanisms for the harmonization of international treaties and internal labor legislation of the Donetsk People's Republic.

Naš rad predstavlja monografsku analizu ciklusa pripovetaka autora Fazila Abduloviča Iskandera pod naslovom "Čikovo detinjstvo", (naslov u originalu: "Детство Чика"); rad ima tematsku kompozicionu strukturu i podeljen je u 6 celina: 1) junak, 2) hronotop, 3) teme, 4) tehnike pisanja, 5) struktura ciklusa i 6) Iskander i savremena 18 književnost, čemu se dodaju uvod i zaključak. Poglavlja našeg rada pružaju dubinsku analizu svega onoga što se smatra bitnim za potpuno razumevanje ciklusa priča − od književnih tehnika pisanja do tematskih istraživanja u vezi s motivima koji se pojavljuju u ciklusu priča, itd.; u tome se prepliću različiti rakursi iz koijh se sagledavaju istorijski period, koji će biti pozadina u ciklusu priča, lični doživljaj kniževnosti od strane autora (koji ćemo rekonstruisati preko intervijua s njim), stvaralačka ličnost autora i paralele s drugim književnim delovima. U našem radu posebno obrađeni biće ključni pojmovi ciklusa priča, kao na primer: detinjstvo (značenje koje ovaj period života dobija u ciklusu priča kao piščevom stvaralačkom svetu) i veze između književnosti i realnosti (činjenica da autora inspirišu sopstveni život, iskustva), koji, po našem mišljenju, igraju važnu ulogu u procesu tumačenja priča. Cilj našeg rada jeste da pruži kompletnu analizu priča Iskandera, koje predstvaljaju jedan od najvažnijih proznih žanrova datog autora, pored njegovih romana: "Sandro iz Čegema" i "Zečevi i pitoni". Naš rad biće potkrepljen mnogobrojinim primerima iz dela, živom rečju autora koju ćemo preuzeti iz intervijua, najnovijim kritičkim člancima dostupnim na internetu, paralelama, i svim onim što pomaže boljem razumevanju ciklusa priča. Što se tiče metoda našeg istraživanja, izabrali smo monografsku analizu priča jer se nama čini da to predstavlja najefikasniji postupak ka delu, ukoliko dozvoljava kompletno i dubinsko sagledavanje ciklusa priča. Prva tematska celina našeg rada biće posvećena junaku kratkih priča: dečaku Čiku. U ovoj celini biće ukratko razrađena geneza junaka: ima dokaza da materija koji je inspirisao Iskandera i koji je ovaj autor koristio za stvaranje junaka, proizlazi iz ličnog života samog autora, iz njegove sopstvene biografije. Tema je proširena razmišljanjima u vezi s rađanjem Iskanderovih junaka uopšte, a koja polaze od autorovih reči: "Moji junaci su uzeti iz realnog života, ponekad čak i previše"; analiziraćemo činjenicu da ne samo glavni junak, već i drugi junaci ciklusa priča jesu realni ljudi, često rođaci, prijatelji, autorovi poznanici i posebno ćemo objasniti zašto je realni, konkretni svet toliko bitan autoru; ovo ćemo pokazati preplićući rakurse iz intervijua, članaka koje je napisao sam autor, itd. Pored geneze junaka, posebna pažnja biće posvećena razmišljanju o tome, šta implicira činjenica da je glavni junak priča dete. U stvaralačkom svetu Iskander kroz lik dečaka ne pokušava da pruži samo naivni, već i zdrav pogled na svet: pošto dete još nije naučeno konvencijama, zakonima, klišeima. ; Our study about Iskander's cycle of short stories collected under the title of: " Chik's Childhood" provides a deep monographic analysis of these stories; the whole analysis is enriched with parallelisms with other Iskander's works and with works of other writers and with contributes, which Iskander's himself gives about is own works, in interviews and so on. Our work is subdivided into 6 chapters ( each one of these chapters is provided with a conclusion): 1) Iskander's hero, 2) The background of the cycle " Chik's Childhood", 3) Iskander's world, 4) About narratives techniques, 5) About the structure of the cycle " Chik's Childhood", 6) Iskander and contemporary literature and a final conclusion. Iskander's main character of short stories is the subject of the analysis of chapter one. The chapter begins with some considerations about Iskander's choice to write about facts from his own childhood, to describe people that really existed, that are his own relatives, friend and so on, distancing himself from all that by introducing a fictional hero, Chik. In Chik's cycle may be recognized evidences from Iskander's own biography, but Iskander does not write about himself in the first person, he writes by introducing the fictional character of Chik, this allows him to distance himself as an adult from himself as a child and to avoid, in some way, censure. The fact that Chik is a child is also very important because through the child's view of the world Iskander succeeds first of all in underlining the contradiction of an époque and of the whole society of adults and also in depicting the beauty of the world, in fact child' first sight of reality bring us back the amazement of first discovers and so on. The chapter is enriched with a parallelism between the character of Chik and the character of Chick's fool uncle Kolja; we underline how in Iskander's work fool people and children are the real wise people: their role of " outsider" in social relationships allows them to see things in the right perspective and not in the distorted ( by political conventions and so on) perspective.

The author of the article considers communication strategies, which are an important part of communication political discourse. As a rule, in political discourse, communication strategies come down to presentations with elements of manipulation and conventions, which are built into the presentation as an aid to realize the purpose and intentions of communication. Since the process of communication and communication decisions is of particular importance for identifying the characteristics of presentation strategies in political discourse, it seems advisable to comprehensively consider the purpose of these strategies in the communicative space of modern international relations.Purpose: consideration of language strategies and tools in the English-language mass media political discourse and their further study. Communicative strategies and their typology will be examined using headlines, which will reveal the political component and reflect the role of headlines in the political struggle of power structures, their importance in the process of shaping world politics, as well as in the struggle of the Anglo-Saxon world to maintain a leading position in international relations.Methods and methodology of the work. Analysis of practical material was carried out using the method of semantic analysis, definition analysis, and interpretation analysis.The research results can be used in teaching such courses as "Theory of Communication", "Political Crisis Management and Communication", "Linguopolitology and Analysis of Political Discourse" and others. The results allow us to reveal the political component, and reflect the role of headlines in the political struggle of power structures, their importance in the process of shaping world politics, as well as in the struggle of the Anglo-Saxon world to maintain a leading position in international relations.Considering the use of headings in the implementation of communicative strategies as an example of political debate allows us to formulate the following conclusions:– Political communication involves the formulation of a discourse and its heading, which both reflect the specifics of the subject of political debate and play a key role in the implementation of the struggle for power. To achieve these goals, the debate acts as a platform for the necessary negotiation process, which will not only identify the subjects of this struggle, their motivation and intentions, but also determines the immediate processes of the state's internal political development.– Being a conflicting genre of communication, political debate involves a whole range of strategies used. The specifics of their organization are associated with the presence of listeners and observers, as well as with the recording and recording of the entire process using video materials and transcripts.– The main communication strategies are aimed at manipulating both opponents and listeners and at the same time at self-presentation. A huge role in this process is given to the media, which, using the appropriate wording of the headings, instantly disseminate information with an already defined message that lies in the heading itself.Practical implications. The research results can be used in university courses on lexicology, intercultural communication, semantics. ; Автор статьи рассматривает коммуникативные стратегии, являющиеся важной частью коммуникационного политического дискурса. Как правило, в политическом дискурсе коммуникационные стратегии сводятся к презентациям с элементами манипулирования и условности, которые встроены в презентацию в качестве помощи для реализации цели и намерений общения. Поскольку процесс коммуникационных и коммуникативных решений имеет особое значение для выявления особенностей презентационных стратегий в политическом дискурсе, представляется целесообразным всесторонне рассмотреть назначение этих стратегий в коммуникативном пространстве современных международных отношений.Цель: рассмотрение языковых стратегий и средств в англоязычном масс-медийном политическом дискурсе и их дальнейшее изучение. Коммуникативные стратегии и их типология будут рассматриваться на примерах заголовков, что позволит раскрыть политическую составляющую, и отобразить роль заголовков в политической борьбе властных структур, их значимость в процессе формирования мировой политики, а также в борьбе англосаконского мира за удержание лидирующих позиций в международных отношениях.Методы и методология проведения работы. Анализ практического материала осуществлялся путем использования метода семантического анализа, дефиниционного анализа, интерпретационного анализа.Результаты исследования могут быть использованы в преподавании таких курсов как «теория коммуникации», «политическое управление кризисами и коммуникация», «лингвополитология и анализ политического дискурса» и других. Результаты позволяют раскрыть политическую составляющую, и отобразить роль заголовков в политической борьбе властных структур, их значимость в процессе формирования мировой политики, а также в борьбе англосаконского мира за удержание лидирующих позиций в международных отношениях.Рассмотрение использования заголовков в реализации коммуникативных стратегий на примере политических дебатов позволяет нам сформулировать следующие выводы:– Политическая коммуникация предполагает формулировку дискурса и его заголовка, которые отражают специфику тематики политических дебатов и играют ключевую роль в реализации борьбы за власть. Для осуществления поставленных целей дебаты выступают в качестве площадки необходимого переговорного процесса, которые не просто выявят субъектов этой борьбы, их мотивацию и намерения, но и определят ближайшие процессы внутриполитического развития государства.– Будучи конфликтным жанром коммуникации, политические дебаты предполагают целый спектр используемых стратегий. Особая специфика их организации связана с присутствием на них слушателей и наблюдателей, а также с записью и фиксацией всего процесса при помощи видеоматериалов и стенограмм.– Основные коммуникационные стратегии направлены не только на манипуляцию как оппонентов, так и слушателей, но и в то же время на самопрезентацию. Огромная роль в этом процессе отводится СМИ, которые с помощью соответствующей формулировки заголовков молниеносно распространяют информацию с уже определенным посылом, который лежит в самом заголовке.Практическое применение. Результаты исследования могут найти применение в вузовских курсах по лексикологии, межкультурной коммуникации, семантике.

BACKGROUND: In 2005, Belarus ratified the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC) and then adopted several governmental documents aimed to decrease the population tobacco use. The aim of the paper is to review available data to estimate trends of smoking prevalence and tobacco market in Belarus and to evaluate impact of policies implemented since 2005 on population tobacco use. METHODS: The explorative study was conducted including online search of data on tobacco use and tobacco market and estimation of the revealed indicators dynamics by year. RESULTS: Surveys conducted by the National Statistical Committee and by the Institute of Sociology provide rather different levels of smoking rates, especially in women. However, both groups of surveys indicate that in 1995-2011 smoking prevalence in men and women had the opposite trends: an increase among women and a decrease among men. Both groups of surveys also indicate that for the adult population in general the current smoking rates were increasing in early 2000s and decreasing in late 2000s, having returned by the end of the decade to the rates observed at its beginning. However, the sales of cigarettes increased by 59% in 2005-2010 and continued to grow in 2011. DISCUSSION: The differences of smoking prevalence indicators of various survey agencies are caused by differences in sampling, interviewing procedure, questionnaires and other methodological features. The tobacco control policies introduced since 2005 resulted in a decrease of total population smoking prevalence by about 5% in 2006-2010. For further tobacco use decline, all tobacco control policies should be implemented in line with the FCTC provisions and guidelines. The steep increase of cigarette sales in Belarus in 2005-2010 cannot be explained by tobacco use increase within the country. A probable cause of sales increase is smuggling of large amounts of Belarus-produced cigarettes to other countries. ; АКТУАЛЬНОСТЬ: Беларусь ратифицировала Рамочную конвенцию ВОЗ по борьбе против табака (РКБТ) в 2005 году и во исполнение ее одобрила ряд правительственных документов, нацеленных на снижение распространенности потребления табака среди населения. Целью настоящей работы является обзор имеющихся данных для анализа тенденций распространенности курения и рынка табачных изделий в Беларуси и оценки того, как предпринятые с 2005 года меры отразились на потреблении табака среди населения страны. МЕТОДЫ: Для достижения поставленной цели было проведено разведывательное исследование, включающее поиск данных о потреблении табака и рынке табачных изделий в онлайн-ресурсах с оценкой динамики найденных показателей по годам. РЕЗУЛЬТАТЫ: Опросы, проводившиеся Национальным статистическим комитетом и Институтом социологии, обнаруживают существенно различающиеся показатели уровней распространенности курения, особенно среди женщин. Однако обе группы опросов выявили, что распространенность курения среди мужчин и женщин в 1995-2011 годах в Беларуси имела противоположные тенденции: среди женщин росла, а среди мужчин снижалась. Также обе группы опросов показали, что среди взрослого населения в целом уровни нынешнего курения в первой половине 2000-х годов несколько повысились, а во второй половине 2000-х годов начали снижаться, вернувшись к концу десятилетия к уровням, которые были в его начале. При этом продажа сигарет в Беларуси в 2005-2010 годах выросла на 59% и продолжала расти в 2011 году. ОБСУЖДЕНИЕ: Различия результатов опросов о курении, проводимых разными агентствами, обусловлены особенностями выборки и проведения опросов, формулировками вопросов и другими методологическими различиями. Принятые в Беларуси после ратификации РКБТ меры позволили добиться снижения распространенности курения среди населения в целом в 2006-2010 годах примерно на 5%. Для дальнейшего снижения распространенности курения необходимо осуществление всех мер, предусмотренных положениями и руководящими принципами РКБТ. Резкий рост продаж табачных изделий в Беларуси в 2005-2010 годах не может объясняться ростом потребления табачных изделий внутри страны. Вероятной причиной наблюдаемого роста продаж является незаконный вывоз больших объемов произведенных в Беларуси сигарет в другие страны. КЛЮЧЕВЫЕ СЛОВА: Беларусь, курение, табак, распространенность. ; АКТУАЛЬНІСТЬ: Білорусь в 2005 році ратифікувала Рамкову конвенцію ВООЗ із боротьби проти тютюну (РКБТ) і у її виконання схвалила ряд урядових документів, націлених на зниження поширеності споживання тютюну серед населення. Метою даної роботи є огляд наявних даних для аналізу тенденцій поширеності куріння і ринку тютюнових виробів у Білорусі та оцінки того, яким чином заходи, втілені з 2005 року, позначилися на споживанні тютюну серед населення країни. МЕТОДИ: Для досягнення поставленої мети було проведено розвідувальне дослідження, яке включало пошук даних про споживання тютюну і ринок тютюнових виробів в онлайн-ресурсах з оцінкою динаміки знайдених показників за роками. РЕЗУЛЬТАТИ: Опитування, проведені Національним статистичним комітетом і Інститутом соціології, демонструють показники рівнів куріння, що істотно розрізняються, особливо для жінок. Проте обидві групи опитувань виявили, що поширеність куріння серед чоловіків і жінок в 1995-2011 роках в Білорусі мала протилежні тенденції: серед жінок зростала, а серед чоловіків знижувалася. Також обидві групи опитувань показали, що для дорослого населення в цілому рівні нинішнього куріння в першій половині 2000-х років дещо підвищилися, а в другій половині 2000-х років почали знижуватися, повернувшися до кінця десятиріччя до рівнів, які були на його початку. При цьому продаж сигарет у Білорусі в 2005-2010 роках зріс на 59% і надалі зростає в 2011 році. ОБГОВОРЕННЯ: Відмінності у результатах опитувань про куріння, проведених різними агенціями, зумовлені особливостями вибірки і проведення опитувань, формулюванням питань та іншими методологічними відмінностями. Втілені в Білорусі після ратифікації РКБТ заходи дозволили досягти зниження поширеності куріння серед населення в цілому в 2006-2010 роках приблизно на 5%. Для подальшого зниження поширеності куріння потрібне здійснення всіх заходів, передбачених положеннями і керівними принципами РКБТ. Різке зростання продажу тютюнових виробів у Білорусі в 2005-2010 роках не можна пояснити зростанням споживання тютюнових виробів усередині країни. Ймовірною причиною спостережуваного зростання продажів є незаконний вивіз великих обсягів вироблених у Білорусі сигарет в інші країни. КЛЮЧОВІ СЛОВА: Білорусь, куріння, тютюн, поширеність.

This study is based on the twin exigencies of introducing the concept of abstract author into the scheme of narrative construction, and distinguishing sharply between this object of analysis and the concepts of concrete author and narrator. In accordance with the definition advanced by Wolf Schmid, whose vision on the issues of narrative instances appears most judicious, the abstract author ('der abstrakte Autor') can be defined as 'the principle that, in a work, determines the articulatory layer, the semantic layer, and the layer of the objectivity deployed, as well as the aesthetic organisation and the hierarchy of these layers in the total structure in one specific way' ('dasjenige Prinzip, das in einem Werk die sprachlautliche Schicht, die Bedeutungsschicht und die Schicht der dargestellten Gegenständlichkeiten sowie die ästhetische Organisation und Hierarchie dieser Schichten in der Gesamtstruktur so und nicht anders beschaffen sein lässt', Schmid 1973. S.24). More succinctly and generally, the abstract author (henceforth: AA) is the principle according to which the meaning of a literary work is constructed. If we wish to switch from phenomenological to structuralist terminology, we can define the AA as the construction principle of the paradigmatic elements of the work. Thus the AA is fundamentally distinguished from both the concrete author and from the narrator in whose name (voice) the story is being told – itself a creation of the AA. This means that the latter is not directly represented in the text, in view of the fact that it is a reconstructed virtual construction. Naturally, this aspect of the AA considerably complicates a study devoted to the reconstruction of various types of AAs as regards concrete literary texts (in our case, great Russian prose forms from the 1920s and 1930s) in view of the fact that it cannot be based on the principle of the reconstruction according to which the AA must be reconstructed. Taking into account that a) no single reconstruction principle could ever be exhaustively explained, and b) various interpretations of facts and motives are possible even within a single analytical doctrine, the final result of this kind of reconstruction will unavoidably contain fairly controversial or debatable aspects. In principle, a certain objectivity could be achieved by blending a large number of different analytical strategies in order to arrive at a reconstruction of the AA, but in view of the fact that this kind of undertaking is not able to be carried out within the framework of a dissertation project, one is obliged to accept a priori a certain sketchiness in the results obtained. As regards methodology, we considered it better to base our undertaking on a structuralistic approach. This does not mean, however, that we regard structuralism as a methodological panacea. Our choice was ultimately determined by the fact that the conclusions reached on the basis of structuralistic analysis are highly illustrative, in the sense that the mechanism of deduction can be represented in the form of logically unambiguous causality. At points where the conclusions of the structuralistic approach appeared to us to be incomplete representations of a work's meaning, we resorted to other approaches. In order to analyse texts from the period in question (the 1920s and 1930s) we applied an analysis model first presented by B. A. Uspensky, and subsequently elaborated by W. Schmid, albeit it with a few specifications, which will be discussed shortly. The Uspensky-Schmid model is based on the division and analysis of the narrative into five levels: spatial, temporal, phraseological, psychological and ideological. It is a rather economic and practical scheme which provides a thorough analysis. Our refinement refers only to the last, ideological, level. We recognize J. Lintvelt's view (Lintvelt 1981) which does not see this as a separate layer, basing his argument on its intertwining with other levels. However, W. Schmid insisted on its retention, indicating that it could also manifest itself independently of the other levels, namely, as a direct, explicit evaluation. In this case the ideological level is then a facultative phenomenon only functional in the narrative scheme of the text when there are explicit ideological utterances. We propose using an old definition of ideology set down by A. J. Greimas and J. Courtés, who, in Sémiotique. Dictionnaire raisonné de la théorie du langue (1979), define ideology as the syntagmatic aspect of the taxonomic concept of axiology. The acceptance of this definition brings with it a number of important consequences: 1) In view of the fact that the narrative text, a product of subjective consciousness, inevitably consists of axiologically meaningful relationships, the axiological level is an immanent element of every narrative text, independent of explicitly manifested ideological rhetoric. 2a) Regardless of its intertwining with the syntagmatics of other narrative levels, there is still the possibility of a paradigmatic reconstruction of the ideology, based on the axiomatics of these narrative levels. 2b) If the analysis of the other four levels is correctly executed, the ideology component will inevitably be the most concise, since it merely summarises all the conclusions that are drawn from analyses of the other levels and brings them into the required equilibrium. After all, to formulate it slightly differently, analysis means the exposure of the axiologically meaningful relationships that have been imposed on the text by the abstract author. Additionally, the mutual hierarchy of the narrative instances must be further determined, a specification one must consistently take into account as one reconstructs the AA. The point at issue here is the more detailed determination of the hierarchical dispositions of instances of abstract author and abstract reader due to Bely's death? Should Moscow be supplemented by the novel Petersburg by the same author because it is apparently symmetrical to Moscow? In that case, should we not also expand the notion of the analysed text to include the novel The silver dove, the first part of an unwritten trilogy of which the novel Petersburg is the second part, etc.? Such questions are allied to the concept of text itself and can arise in infinite shapes and quantities; it is clear that the AA's structure depends on how we respond to them. In our opinion the answers to such questions fall within the competency of the abstract reader who is, par excellence, sensitive to the literary work's nuances in meaning. For this reason we suggest representing the relationship between the abstract author and the abstract reader as an opposition between the principle to be reconstructed and the reconstructing principle, which presupposes a corresponding hierarchical disposition between both. Furthermore, more precision is needed with respect to the analytical methods used in this study. Taking into account the fact that, ideally, the perfectly accurate researcher should concur with the abstract reader, as outlined above, it is useful to call to mind the following aspects: a) the infinitely great competency of the abstract reader with regard to all intertextual connections of a given work and with regard to all meaningful connections, in all their variations, of the work with the extra-literary world – from social-political realia to the psychic circumstances of the concrete author. b) the infinite analytical flexibility of the abstract reader who uses the greatest possible quantity of analytical methods in his interpretative strategy, aiming at the most complete reconstruction of the AA. In view of the fact that, within the framework of a rather restricted study, it is not possible to present a more or less complete description of the AA of even a single work by means of the methodology of even a single analytical approach, it is advisable to limit the analysis to a single feature, albeit one that is shared by the majority of the chosen texts. This means we have mainly confined our efforts to the particular construction which governed the generation of the selected individual texts and which we could provisionally indicate as the abstract meta-author. We believe that the principle of negative anthropology, which – at least regarding Russian literature – was new in the first third of the twentieth century and which contains the denial or explicit 'denigration' of all manifestations of the specifically human, constitutes this kind of integral concept. We must emphasis that this concept – at least in its basic features – is not a twentieth-century invention. However, it does form a sharp contrast with literature of the nineteenth century imbued with humanism. For the analysis of this attitude, large-scale works of prose (novels, short stories) were chosen as the most representative for the 1920s and 1930s. The basis of the selection was the pursuit of maximum diversity with regard to ideology (in the narrowest sense of the word), genre and stylistics, and pragmatics. Taking their fundamental principles into account, the texts were chosen from the following literary movements or paradigms: (post)symbolism (Bely, Moscow), skaz (Klyèkov, Èertuxinskij balakir'), (post)modernism (Nabokov, The Gift), socialist realism (Gaidar, The Tale of the Military Secret). During the course of the analysis it became clear that the following two fundamental constructive principles that nourish the concept of negative anthropology could be identified in the above-mentioned texts. The essence of the matter is that W. Booth (Booth 1961) recognised the usefulness of designing a system of narrative hierarchy within communicative interaction. He defined a receptive side for each of the positions: in his scheme, the concrete author (Flesh-and-Blood Author) was correlated to the concrete reader (Fleshand- Blood Re-Creator), the narrator (or, in his terminology, Teller of This Story) was correlated to the fictive reader (Credulous Listener), and, finally, the abstract author (Implied Author) was correlated to the Postulated Reader, or the 'abstract reader', as Wolf Schmid would refer to him later. In Schmid's view, the abstract reader is the 'ideal recipient of the author', a definition with which we entirely agree. In our opinion, however, this does not apply to the phylogenetic constituent of this concept as Schmid tends to present it. In his view, the picture of the abstract reader seems to be determined in advance by the corresponding structural configurations of the work; in other words, it is a more or less passive communicative duplication of the AA. However, further examination indicates that in the reasoning in question the objectivity of the semantic configurations in the text is implicitly postulated; in other words, there is a presumption that the full (all-embracing) meaning of the work is not only given a priori but is also materially present in the text components themselves. In reality, however, the full meaning (and here we concur with W. Iser) is realised by the reader who fills in, as it were, the gaps in meaning intentionally or unintentionally embedded in the work by the author. In theory, there are an infinitely large number of such gaps and, correspondingly, every time a reader fills in a different number or group of gaps one can speak of a different structure of the total meaning of the work. Only God is capable of filling in all the gaps, making Him the most ideal recipient to figure in all models of narrative instances according to the communicative model. Nonetheless, we must also take into consideration the possibly less obvious fact that the text whose meaning is to be reconstructed in the analysis is not a protoplasmic entity but the product of certain conventions or analytic procedures. Both the conventions and the analytic procedures applied to the text belong to the competencies of the abstract reader. We shall explain this in more detail below. When dealing with, for example, Pushkin's novel Yevgeny Onegin, it is clear that the text itself provides no answer to the question whether this work has been completed. Our decision to regard this work as finished or unfinished affects its significance and, correspondingly, the picture of the AA. In our opinion, the instance of the abstract reader is responsible for the decision concerning the boundaries of the text; in other words, the decision to limit interpretative activity to eight chapters, or ten, or to state, as a matter of principle, that the work has only one boundary – a beginning. In each of these cases, the complete meaning of the work will have a different structure. The same argument can be applied with regard to varying editions of one and the same work. Consider the case of collected stories. How can one correctly determine this text's boundaries? Should we reconstruct each story's AA, so that something like a portrait gallery is created, or is it more sensible to regard a collection of stories as a single text and to reconstruct an integral AA on the basis of all the stories? Or, as in the case of the novel Moscow by Andrei Bely analysed in this dissertation: is it valid to regard the three sections of this work as separate texts – after all, they were published as separate books at different times, and the stylistic variations are evident? Is it valid to speak about an AA as a self-contained concept in view of the fact that the novel actually remained unfinished 1. Space destabilisation In view of the fact that it is only through history that man realises himself as an intrinsic integrity, he is most easily marginalised in the most unequivocal, i.e., most effective, way in a universe in which history in the usual sense of the term is seriously problematised by spatio-temporal ambivalence. The spatio-temporal continuum evaporates in this set-up, which may manifest itself in various ways but essentially involves the same mechanism. In some texts, normally seen as belonging to the modernistic paradigms (in our case, Moscow, Èertuxinskij balakir', The Gift), a destabilisation of the normal world view has occurred and this is more or less evident to the reader: the attributes of a certain point in space can easily belong to a different point, just as the attributes of a certain object can turn out to be the attributes of a different object. One spatial area can be projected upon a different spatial area, and, in such cases, the boundaries between the areas become so transparent that distinction between them is no longer possible. All objects and points in this kind of space enter, as it were, into relationships of mutual equivalence, or if we regard it in semiotic terms, all objects enter into relationships of crosswise reference without having an unambiguously phraseable singular denotation. Another way to destabilise space, however paradoxical it may sound, is by structuring space by means of mythopoetic patterns. We believe that mythopoetic structures occur in every narrative text, which seems largely self-evident. In view of the fact that in narrative texts we deal with subjectivity pur sang, it is perfectly logical that this subjectivity will lend varying axiological colour to the different segments of space. In conjunction with our cognitive schemes, i.e., the structure of our brains, this colour is generated according to the principle of binary opposition. In this way each narrative space has an axiological marking on the basis of duality (high-low, here-there, citycountry, etc.), for which in historical terms the priority lies with the myth as the first (spontaneous) project in human history to be given structure. The issue is merely one concerning the extent to which this mythopoetic – or as one may prefer, quasimythopoetic – scheme becomes manifest, and even the rather confined analysis we have performed demonstrates that this is largely the situation in Russian prose of the 1920s and 1930s. It is understandable that in both cases space destabilisation results in the elimination of the human subject. In the former case, when space is characterised by a high degree of relativity, man adopts in a metonymic way space's capacity to undergo all kinds of metamorphoses whose degree of radicalness can vary: from the possibility of metempsychosis, as in the case of the reincarnated protagonists in Nabokov's The Gift, to the division of protagonists in a synchronous system of look-alikes, of which each one has a role in the distinction of meaning and which only begin to acquire consolidated meaning when they have been conceptually united (cf. the Korobkin brothers, Mandro – Dromarden, Lizaša – Leonora, and Kierko – Titelev in Moscow; Ul'jana – Maria in Èertuxinskij balakir'; the whole herd of doubles in The Gift). In the latter case, when space has been structured according to the myth, for a number of reasons man is also eliminated: a) man, as we know him, necessarily realises himself in history (only God realises himself in infinity), whereas myth knows no linearity and therefore no history. Thus only a certain notion of man or a model of subjectivity can possibly realise itself in myth, but not man as such b) the concept of realisation itself (of man or of other objects that occupy mythical space) is weakened here by virtue of the fact that determinism rules in myth – a genuine paradigmatic formation – which substantially weakens the independence and the responsibility of the protagonists somehow engaged in realising themselves c) which also directly combines points a) and b): myth, which does not recognise the singularity of here and now, does not accommodate the aspect of subjectivity, which is a constitutive element of man (and without this relationship, there can be no subjectivity). 2. Theatricalisation of narrative space An important factor in the construction of the great narrative forms of this period is the theatricalisation of space: in some cases the accent is placed on an analogous segmentation of space (Gaidar) when, for example, the entire adventurous part of the narrative is linked to a concrete topos, while the lyrical part, as a whole, is connected to another area, etc.; in other words, the narrative space, just as in theatre space, is divided into semiologically clearly delineated segments. In other cases the theatricalisation can be achieved by assigning purely dramatic characteristics to the protagonists. In this latter case there is a strikingly varied list of procedures that can be applied to create a 'theatrical text' in which the majority of the protagonists, or even all of them, are assigned a role. The most prominent technique is the construction of a character on the basis of a marionette or automatic dummy (Bely) with the corresponding imitation of its expressiveness and speech which become isomorphous with the discrete, emphatically affected expressiveness of a doll, where the character disintegrates into disassociated sememes and is only held together by the context. In such cases, to emphasise the artificiality a complicated, deviating syntax and an extremely extensive vocabulary of occasionalisms is employed. A less conspicuous strategy (as in Gaidar and also in many social-realist authors of the 1920s and 1930s) consists of a return to the constructive configurations of pre-realistic theatre in which the only possible actors are masks or, to use a more recent term, types, whose dynamics are determined entirely by fable and not by any intrinsic structure or stratification of character. Each of them has an ontologically determined role (of course, this concerns only the ontology of that specific space) and the mode of existence here is such that there are no a priori opportunities to switch roles; this space simply does not enable this kind of transformation. A strictly natural effect of this type of situation is the extremely normative behaviour of the characters in both their actions and their verbal expressions. Another method of desecrating narrative space is rooted in the symbolistic paradigm (or to be more precise, in the paradigm of early Russian symbolism) which is typified by the representation of this world as a close-knit semiotic universe whose characters refer to a supratextual substance that governs this world. A consequence of this worldview is the acceptance of fairly strict definitions of determinism and its unavoidable companion destiny. The concept of destiny assumes a certain marked role for each of the characters; after all, a complete behavioural paradigm (as regards destiny) can be created for a (marked) role, whereas this is impossible for the vital realisation of a person in his existence: in this latter case only the syntagmatic logical coherence can be determined, and that coherence is incomplete by definition. The narrative in The Gift (as in several other of Nabokov's novels) is constructed in this way, i.e., in functional-behavioural terms of destiny. This is also the case in Èertuxinskij balakir' by Klyèkov, in which the centre of the narrative is occupied by a kind of minus type: a character that not only lacks psychology (in as much as this kind of reduction is possible for humans), but also every manifestation of his own will which could testify to even an illusory independence from the functional universe. We must consider that a person's dramatic accessories (e.g., a person on stage) are essentially emancipated from existence and as a result revealingly attest to the nature of the processes that eliminate humans from the prose of the era. The observation of AA structures in 1920s and 1930s Russian prose thus offers the opportunity to bring to light a collection of these texts' implicit features, which manifest themselves in the first third of the twentieth century and which consequently enabled radical qualitative change in the entire structure of Russian prose. If executed with sufficient accuracy, the reconstruction of AAs in works from different periods can offer new insight into the history of literature. In more precise terms, it can open a new history of literature, a history engaged in the diachronous modification of the models according to which creative texts are generated at a certain points in time.