Корупција представља једну од најважнијих тема међународне политике сузбијања криминалитета. Управо нас она упућује, заједно са савременим облицима коруптивног деловања, на потребу увођења одговорности правних лица за дела корупције. Дуго година владајућа максима societas delinquere non potest, која је одбацивала идеју о кривичној одговорности правних лица, у савременом кривичном законодавству је доведена у питање. О неопходности законског уређења проблематике одговорности правних лица за кривична дела говоре многобројни међународни документи које је наша земља ратификовала и на тај начин преузела обавезу имплементације норми међународног права. Овом приликом проблематизујемо питање које се односи на одговорност правних лица за кривична дела и кривичноправно сузбијање корупције. На овом месту размотрићемо да ли је потребно да се говори о кривичној одговорности правних лица, или је примереније терминолошки и са становишта теорије говорити о казненој одговорности правних лица. ; Corruption is considered a social problem not only in Serbia. This phenomenon is given more and more attention at the international level as well. This primarily means coordinated efforts in opposing this obstacle and threat to the development of every country. It is surprising how material-criminal legal norms were narrowly determined in the field of one of the most important topics of international and national policy of crime suppression. For decades, and particularly thanks to sensations of the last years, the practitioners, especially those in the field of judiciary and police, have been warning of corruption and the need of its suppression and limiting. The connection between corruption and organized crime has intensified even more the discussions on counter measures that could be incorporated into the existing laws and remove their weaknesses. Every country should undertake a number of measures and activities in the field of battle against corruption taking into account the international standards in this field. These measures may be of preventive or repressive character. This paper deals with criminal legal intervention that represents ultima ratio, i.e. the last resort that should not be used until all other means and manners to protect someone have been exhausted. Our legislator has responded in the meantime, removed the most important flaws that distort the picture about our criminal legal regulations and incriminated corruptive behaviour, taking into account at that the obligations undertaken based on international conventions. Very delicate field of the responsibility of legal persons for criminal act remains unregulated. In this paper we point out to the need and state the reasons, with parallel study of the achieved solutions in some countries and Anglo-Saxon and continental legal culture, why the issue of responsibilities of legal persons for acts of corruption and even more widely should be regulated by a separate law.
The ultimate goal of game theory is to provide a theoretical model for strategic situations' analysis, i.e. for situations where one actor's choice depends on the behavior of other players in the game. As a concept, game theory is also applicable to the legal context. Legal dialectics and processes are often conducted in some form of strategic interactions. Game theory is a way to see how legal rules affect particular actors' behavior. International Economic Law has its own dynamics which makes the process similar to the analysis through the game theoretical tools. Therefore, the rules of international law are considered as the rules of the game that are taking place among different actors. Game theoretical considerations clarify the substance of the interaction and cooperation of players involved (states, international organizations and other actors). Game theory provides a basis for normative analysis of the issue of implementation of the rules of international law and improves understanding of those rules. The topic of the paper is the application of the game theory in the context of the legal framework established by the World Trade Organization. The member states' dilemma between using the advantages and liberalization options provided by the WTO on the one hand, and joining the regional trade agreements, on the other one, is strategic by nature. Therefore, game theory can contribute to understanding and resolving, using the game of 'prisoner's dilemma' as a model. It is the game which clearly shows that a group of rational egoists can end up worse than a group of actors that acts prima facie contrary to their own interests. 'Prisoner's dilemma' demonstrates why society and law has the need for coordination as well as mechanisms for co-operation. WTO member states put emphasis on the process of liberalization conducted in the framework of regional trade agreements (RTAs); at the same time, their participation in WTO negotiations is not effective and efficient enough to make a breakthrough in the multilateral framework. A solution of the game for Member States is not to cooperate: i. e, liberalization is primarily achieved through regional agreements rather than within the WTO. The rational decision of the Member States (opting for a regional approach) has resulted in a suboptimal result, which is a basic characteristic of the game model based on a prisoner's dilemma: in this case, the optimal solution would be cooperation through a multilateral framework (World Trade Organization).
Завештање представља пример утицаја законских прописа на комплекс обичајног права. Такав правац утицаја није неуобичајан, али је свакако ређи у односу на утицај обичајног на грађанско право, поготово ако посматрамо њихову интеракцију код наслеђивања. Стога настојим да објасни овај пример правне осмозе, и то на нивоу праксе. Међутим, то није једини циљ овог рада. Наиме, пракса показује да код тестаменталног наслеђивања долази и до утицаја обичајног права на легислатуру. Подстакнута поменутим сазнањима, проблематизујем питање природе односа обичајног и грађанског права, са намером да укажем на неке од проблема који се јављају код наслеђивања, како на нивоу појединца тако и на нивоу друштва. ; Bequeath, a dispose of personal property by the last will is an example of intervention of legislation within the complex of customary law. This influence is not unusual but certainly is less frequent than the influence of customary into civil law, especially so in their interaction within inheritance. This paper therefore tries to explain this example of legal osmosis in practice. In addition, the practice in testament inheritance shows also an influence of customary law into legislation. Hence, the paper will also try to discuss a relationship between customary and civil laws and succeeding problems in inheritance at the levels of individual and that of the society.
Борба против корупције спада у најважније задатке сваког друштва и државе, због чега се предузимају бројне активности усмерене у правцу адекватне превенције и сузбијања корупције. Најзначајније активности посвећене су изградњи свеобухватног нормативног оквира у борби против корупције, дефинисању корупције, инкриминацији коурптивних дела, успостављању специјализованих органа за борбу против корупције и изградњи оперативних и техничких капацитета тих органа у циљу успешне борбе против корупције. Мада појам корупције још увек није на јединствен начин дефинисан, корупција се може одредити као злоупотреба овлашћења ради личнекористи. Имајући у виду чињеницу да корупција води осиромашењу друштва и државе и губитку поверења грађана у демократске институције, Република Србија је донела нови Закон о организацији и надлежности државних органа у сузбијању организованог криминала, тероризма и корупције, којим су прописана коруптивна кривична дела и предвиђена је специјализација државних органа ради кривичног гоњења и суђења за та кривична дела. Такође, овим законом прописано је увођење финансијске форензике, службеника за везу са Тужилаштвом за организовани криминал и посебним одељењима за сузбијање корупције и формирање ударних група при надлежним тужилаштивма, а све у циљу успешног истраживања и доказивања коруптивних кривичних дела. У раду су представљени резултати рада Посебног одељења за сузбијање корупције при Вишем јавном тужилаштву у Београду у првој години рада, односно анализирана су: коруптивна кривична дела која су процесуирана, практична имплементација нових законских одредаба којима се унапређује истраживање и доказивање коруптивних кривичних дела и број судски окончаних поступака. Посебно је указано на одређене недостатке у законским решењима који отежавају ефикасну борбу против корупције. ; The fight against corruption is the overriding task of every society and state because of which many activities are undertaken that are directed towards adequate prevention and suppression of corruption. The most important activities are dedicated to building comprehensive normative framework in the suppression of corruption, through defining corruption, incrimination of the corruption offenses, establishment of specialized state bodies for the suppression of corruption and defining operational and technical capacities of these bodies in order to successfully fight against corruption. Although the concept of corruption has not yet been uniquely defined, corruption can be defined as abuse of power for private gain. Bearing in mind the fact that corruption leads to impoverishment of the society and state and loss of citizens` confidence in democratic institutions, the Republic of Serbia adopted the new Law on Organisation and Jurisdiction of Government Authorities in the Suppression of Organised Crime, Terrorism and Corruption that prescribes corruptive criminal offenses and foresees specialization of state bodies in order to prosecute and try such criminal offenses. Also, the law provides for the establishment of financial forensics units, connecting officials within the Prosecutor`s Office for Organised Crime and the Special Department of the Public Prosecutor`s Offices for the Suppression of Corruption and establishment of task forces within mentioned Public Prosecutor`s Offices, in order to successfully investigate and prove corruptive criminal offenses. Since more than one year has passed from the beginning of the application of this law, we will present the work results of the Special Department for the Suppression of Corruption within the Higher Public Prosecution Office in Belgrade. Therefore, in this paper we will analyse: corruptive criminal offenses prosecuted during the first year; practical implementation of the new legal provisions which improve investigation and proving of corruptive criminal offenses and the number of court-terminated proceedings. Special attention will be paid to cooperation between specialized bodies for the suppression of corruption. In addition to the practical application analysis of the Law on Organisation and Jurisdiction of Government Authorities in the Suppression of Organised Crime, Terrorism and Corruption focusing on the example of the Special Department for the Suppression of Corruption in Belgrade, we will point out certain deficiencies in the legal provisions that make it difficult to efficiently fight against corruption.
Background and Aim: About one-third of Iranian children mortality is caused by injuries from which 36% occur due to road traffic injuries. Using child restraint embedded in vehicles can reduce road traffic fatalities by 71% for neonates and 54% for children. Based on its effectiveness in reduction of fatality and prevention of injury severity, child restraint usage mandatory law is a priority. Therefore, this study was conducted to assess opportunities and threats to mandatory law of child restraint usage in Iran. Materials and Methods: Initially, a mixed methods research is carried out by a phenomenological qualitative study, a discussion session by traffic injuries' stakeholders was performed to assess & discuss the opportunities and threats to mandatory law of child restraint usage in Iran, by brain storming method to find the themes in the related topic. A structured questionnaire is later prepared and completed by the stakeholders in the area of road traffic injuries. Assigned scores of 0-100 were considered for each response and analysis of results was performed according to target themes & the total score of the filled questionnaires.Results: Overall, 28 stakeholders participated in the study. According to the stakeholders, traffic police department obtained the highest score of 90 (from 0-100) as an organization to establish the mandatory law of child restraint usage, and acquired the score of 100 for future enforcement and monitoring. As threats and obstacle to the mandatory law of child restraint usage, lack of television and media campaigns and child restraint law and legislation, obtained the highest scores of 85 & 70 respectively. And family sensitivity to their children's health, officials' support and national facilities for broadcasting, and community awareness to use child restraints had the highest scores among existing opportunities and facilities in the country, by scores of 83, 69 and 68 respectively.Conclusion: Due to sensitivity of the family about their children's health & safety, and officials' support to safety establishment through media campaigns, implementation and applicability of child restraint usage laws and legislations, and subsequent enforcement and monitoring seem practical. ReferencesIsna.ir/fa, 13th May 2012.National Center for Statistics and Analysis. 2003, www.nhtsa.dot.gov.Global status report on road safety: time for action. Geneva, World Health Organization, 2009. (www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/road_safety_status date of access 12 September 2012.Jacobs G, AaronThomas A, Astrop A. Estimating global road fatalities. London: Transport Research Laboratory, (TRL Report 445), First Published 2000, ISSN 0968-4107. Nantulya VM, Reich MR. The neglected epidemic: road traffic injuries in developing countries. BMJ 2002; 324:1139.Ameratunga S, Hijar M, Norton R. Road traffic injuries: confronting disparities to address a global health problem. Lancet 2004; 367:1533-1540.Kopits E, Cropper M. Traffic fatalities and economic growth. Policy Research Working Paper No. 3035. Washington, DC: World Bank; 2003. Available at: http://www.ntl.bts.gov/Lib/24000/24400/24490/25935_wps3 035.pdf. Data of access June 2012.Montazeri A. Road-traffic-related mortality in Iran: A descriptive study. Public Health 2004; 118: 110- 3.Soori H, Masoudinegad M R. Azari R M. Analysis of opportunities and legal obstacle in control of road traffic injury in Iran. Final report. Safety Promotion and Injury Prevention research center of Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, 2008.Kahane, C. An Evaluation of Child Passenger Safety: The Effectiveness and Benefits of Safety Seats, Washington, DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation1986.World report on child injury prevention, World Health Organization 2008. Global Status Report on Road Safety. www.who.int/entity/violence safety./state of road_safety_en.pdf , access28 August.Phyllis F. AGRAN, PAuL F. WEHRL E. Injury Reduction by Mandatory Child Passenger Safety Laws. AJPH 1985; 75(2): 129.Najafi H. Research methodology in educational science and psychology, Tehran, Ahsan, 2007, first edition, page 62.Zaza S, Sleet D A, Thompson R S, Sosin DM , Bolen J C. Reviews of evidence regarding interventions to increase use of child safety seats. Am J Prev Med 2001; 21(4 Suppl), 31-47.Desapriya E B, Iwase N, Pike I, Brussoni M, Papsdorf M. Child motor vehicle occupant and pedestrian casualties before and after enactment of child restraint seats legislation in Japan. 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Archives of Pediatric Adolescent Medicine 2007; 161:270-275.NHTSA. Preliminary Data Indicate That Booster Seat Laws Increase Child Safety Seat Use.Traffic Safety Facts. Traffic Tech, 331. Washington, DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2007.Robertson L. Automobile seat belt use in selected countries, states and provinces with and without laws requiring belt use. Accid Anal and Prev 1978; 10:5-10.Stulginskas J V, Pless B. Effects of a seat belt law on child restraint use. Am J Dis Child 1983; 137:582-585. Wagenaar A C, Webster D W. Preventing Injuries to Children Through Compulsory Automobile Safety Seat Use, Pediatrics 1986; 78 (4) : 662-672.Decina LE, Lococo KH, Ashburn W, William B, Rose H J. Identifying Strategies to Improve the Effectiveness of Booster Seat Laws, Draft Final Report, May 2008, www.nhtsa.dot.gov.Connell P M M. An evaluation of the Virginia 2002, Child passenger safety law: determining if the law reduced motor vehicle crash injuries and fatality. Virginia Common wealth University Richmond April, 2009.Seat-belts and child restraints: a road safety manual for decision-makers and practitioners London, FIA Foundation for the Automobile and Society, 2009.Istre G R, Stowe M, McCoy M A, Moore B, Culica D, Womack K N, Anderson R J. Anna B. Preventing unintentional injuries in Indigenous children and youth in Canada .Paediatr Child Health 2012; 17(7):393.
The Republic of Serbia has introduced special circumstances for the determination of sentence for hate crime in the Criminal Code amended in December 2012. If a criminal offence is committed through hate based on race or religion, national or ethnic affiliation, sex, sexual orientation or gender identity of another, the court shall consider any aggravating factors except when it is not stipulated as a feature of the criminal offence. However, the State still neglects to consider mitigating factors. Moreover, it does not pay sufficient attention to eliminating verbal expressions of hatred and discrimination that often precede crimes motivated by hate. The paper discusses the possibility of improving education and coordinated activities of the State, particularly of courts, prosecutors, police and local self-governments, to combat hate speech and hate crimes. The aim of the paper is to present mechanisms of improving institutional capacities to prevent these phenomena that have been implemented within the project "Implementation of Anti-Discrimination Policies in Serbia" financed by the European Union. The paper concludes that central to the success of this process are the education of state actors, and the development of a value system based on equality and acceptance of diversity.
The development of both conventional and written legal rules that were governing the roots of the administration, has run in parallel with the development of the country. The development of legal state was going parallel with the development of constitutional state. The legal state can not be imagined without pandering Administration under the law, but precisely because of it stems judicial control of management, which is necessary for the full realization of the principle of legality and the protection of rights and legal interests of citizens. Administrative action presents a means to protect the rights and interests of citizens, but on the other hand it is also an effective tool for ensuring the legality of administrative operations. Pandering administration under the law is linked to the French Revolution from 1789, in this respect, France is a country that is the first to introduce an administrative dispute. The development of an administrative dispute in France can be followed through the occurrence and development of the State Council, which was formed during Napoleon time in 1799. The legal institutionalization of the administration is not done in the same way everywhere, in that sense we distinguish two big legal systems, Anglo-Saxon and European-continental. In Anglo- Saxon law legal institutionalization of the administration included the procuring administration under the legal norms of general law, management control exercised by courts of general jurisdiction. In the European-continental law legal institutionalization of the administration departs from pandering Administration under the legal standards that belong to a specific branch of law administrative law. In the European- continental system there is a difference between private and public law, and an important part of the legal regime are special administrative courts. The development of an administrative dispute actually juridical control of administration in Serbia can be traced back to the second half of the 19th century. Although Serbia has created very early the State Council following the example of France, in a formal sense the administrative dispute in Serbia was fully introduced by the Constitution from 1869. At our place administrative activities are controlled by the courts, which are an integral part of the judiciary and acting under special rules, rules of administrative law. Depending on the positive law of certain countries, the subject of administrative dispute is defined broadly or narrowly. According to French positive law the subject of administrative dispute may be not only single authoritative legal acts of administration, but also the general acts of administration - implementing regulations issued by the administration, as well as administrative objections. According to French positive law the subject of administrative dispute is defined very broadly, unlike the German and Austrian positive law, where an administrative dispute can not be conducted against all acts of general administration. Regarding that in the comparative law we meet a number of different solutions, we believe that in our country we should choose the one that would be the best way to provide protection for the rights of citizens. We lead the administrative dispute in the first place about the legality of final administrative act against other individual legal acts because of the silence of administration, and it may be decided on the request for the return of items and damages. The results of scientific studies will confirm the importance of the need that the subject of the administrative procedure should be complied with the case of an administrative dispute. All acts adopted in the administrative procedure should have directly open the way so the control of legality can be accomplished in administrative proceedings in front of the competent administrative court. What is certainly a major challenge is a control of the legality of administrative contracts. Extended subject of administrative dispute will strengthen the position of the parties in the administrative procedure, in order to guarantee them the quality of court protection in front of the Administrative Court.
The modern state administration and its bodies and special organizations should act in the field of the rule of law. It is a term that originates from the Anglo-Saxon legal world, but it is also a category and a principle of the Constitution of Serbia from 2006. The paper points out the different understandings of the rule of law and briefly looks at the position of the administration or the phase in its historical course until its subsumption under the principle of legality. In Serbia, state administration bodies consist of ministries, administrative bodies within the ministry and special organizations. Administrative or special organizations are formed by the state in order to perform professional and related administrative tasks. In order to permanently and unhinderedly perform the professional work of these organizations, they can act authoritatively. Special organizations have numerous and diverse administrative powers. The paper points out both the similarities and differences of special organizations in relation to administrative bodies. A review of the activities and organizational structure of all special organizations (secretariats, institutes, directorates and one center) established by the Law on Ministries from 2020 was performed. It was also pointed out that all institutes: the Republic Institute of Statistics, the Republic Hydrometeorological Institute, the Republic Geodetic Institute and the Intellectual Property Institute are special organizations that provide services to interested parties. In one part of the final considerations, the author states that for special organizations (as part of the state administration) it could be concluded that they really operate in the field of rule of law as an order with positive properties as characterized by the Constitution, it is necessary to strictly respect the principles organization of state administration prescribed by the Law on State Administration: independence and legality; expertise, impartiality and political neutrality, effectiveness in exercising the rights of the parties, proportionality and respect for the parties; publicity of work. ; Published
The subject matter of the paper includes criminal legal (theoretical, normative and practical) issues of financial investigation as an increasingly important instrument of adequacy of the state response to property crime. A lot of issues have been analysed and particular attention has been paid to the following issues: the notion and assumptions of the adequacy of the state response to property crime; criminal and political reasons for the necessity of conducting a financial investigation, as well as the most important features of its standardization and practical realization (conditions, subject matter and objectives, as well as the basic principles of its implementation – urgency and timeliness of the procedure, exclusion of the possibility of invoking confidentiality of data, transfer of burden of proof to the suspect, confidentiality of the collected data, etc.) At the end of the paper, the authors' position regarding the adequacy of the analysed legal norms in terms of the desired degree of success in detecting, proving and confiscating property acquired through the commission of criminal offenses is presented. ; Предмет анализе у раду су кривичноправна (теоретска, нормативна и практича) питања финансијске истраге као све значајнијег инструмента адекватности државне реакције на криминалитет с имовинским обележјем. Међу немалим бројем анализираних питања посебна пажња је посвећена питањима која се тичу: појма и претпоставки адекватности државне реакције на криминалитет с имовинским обележјем; криминално-политичких разлога неопходности спровођења финансијске истраге као и најважнијих особености њеног нормирања и практичне реализације (услова, предмета и циља, као и основних начела њеног спровођења - хитност и благовременост поступања, искључење могућности позивања на тајност података, пребацивање терета доказивања на осумњиченог, поверљивост прикупљених података и др). На крају рада изнет је став аутора по питању адекватности анализираних законских норми за жељени степен успешности откривања, доказивања и одузимања имовине стечене вршењем кривичних дела.
This paper show why the standardization of administrative procedure is important for the state legal system that, in the last two decades, the administrative procedure codes were adopted in almost all of the European states. Afterwards author analyzed main driving forces for development of administrative procedural law at the level of the European Union and the Council of Europe. The most important legal sources of European administrative procedural law (basic standards, principles, recommendations and guidelines in this area) are concisely presented but it is clearly indicated that there are certain ambiguities, that these sources don't apply equally to all institutions of the Union, and that they still don't make finished, complete and forever given system that can be automatically transferred to jurisprudence of the member states and candidate countries. Moreover, often administrative process laws of the member states contain rules that are not existing in this kind of regulation at European Union level and that is why the process of adopting the first European Union general law on administrative procedure was initiated, which would further improve the standards of European administrative process in general. When it comes to the general administrative procedure of the Republic of Serbia it has been shown that in spite of the strategic orientation towards the reform of the Law on Administrative Procedure expressed in numerous strategies, our executive authorities in this area have not yet moved beyond the development of the third version of the Draft Law on General administrative Procedure which was afterward adopted by the Government as the Bill. In his final remarks the author concludes stating that the largest number of European standards of administrative process are included in the final version of the Draft, but without eliminating the shortcomings of the existing Law, and without normative adjusting to the circumstances in which the Serbian administration operates, and with unnecessary abandonment of some solutions that have proved to be right in the decades-long practice of administrative authorities.
The overall progress of society, as well as socially damaging phenomena which society confronts in an institutional manner, is increasing and complicating the police apparatus. However, in the context of dealing with activities aimed at gathering information and evidence related to criminal offenses, including offenses in the sphere of organized crime and corruption, and research trends of property acquired with those works, takes special attention to the role of the Criminal Investigation Department, or its organizational units specialized in the fight against organized crime, or other specialized bodies. The interactions of various factors within the police service and outside, which find the origin of activity in the same mission, are a potential source of disagreement, and it emphasizes the characteristics of the police profession, and the associated subculture. This paper analyzes the general characteristics of the police profession that can have repercussions on the efficiency of financial investigations and the necessary conditions that favor their success, and processes in which police officers involved in financial investigations are exposed to, in order to improve efficiency. Also, the paper identifies other circumstances, at the strategic and operational level, which can significantly affect the results achieved in the investigation process. Good cooperation among the subjects of criminal and financial investigations, starting financial investigations immediately after getting information about the crime and the assets obtained, and specialization of investigative subjects are only basic elements needed for success in financial investigations. Besides these, it is possible to identify a number of objective or subjective factors, which may affect the success of the implementation of financial investigations, which are mentioned in the paper. Special attention, especially in the context of societies with underdeveloped institutions and the questionable rule of law, deserves the will factor. Aforementioned factor emerges as a key element that can significantly affect the success of the research team, and indeed the expected results. It is therefore desirable that the general interest, presented in the normative framework, is consistent with the prevailing beliefs of research subjects, i.e. it is essential that these entities have a high degree of belief in the purpose and validity of what they do. Otherwise, the results will be absent, and the regulatory framework will appear as an empty form, without meaning and content.
In this paper, the author points to the outdated textbook classification of states into three groups, according to whether they have carried out the codification of administrative procedure or not. The first group includes the states that have administrative procedures fully codified. The second group comprises the states with the so-called mixed systems, which have uncodified procedural regulations related to the administration, while the third group contains a few states that do not have administrative procedural regulations at all. The author analyzes recent changes in this highly dynamic field in order to specify general patterns, common characteristics and peculiarities of regulations of general administrative procedure in contemporary states. The paper especially points to the general acceptance of the concept of administrative act but also underscores the differences in its content in various legal systems. The author has identified and analyzed some smaller standalone trends, such as: the increasing complexity of administrative procedures along the lines of judicial procedures, and the most recent deviations from this trend; the increasing presence of administrative contracting and other forms of alternative dispute resolutions of administrative matters; and the growing insistence on the principle of citizens' participation in administrative proceedings. The goal of the analysis is to determine the degree of influence of the Global and European administrative law on the national regulations, to explore the activities of certain expert organizations bringing together a number of experts in the field of comparative administrative law, and to discuss the course of the latest regulations in this area.
Freedom of expression enjoys a particular protection in the case-law of the European Court of Human Rights. According to the Court, freedom of expression constitutes one of the essential foundations of a democratic society, and one of the basic conditions for its progress and for the development of every man. Moreover, it is applicable not only to 'information' or 'ideas' that are favorably received or regarded as inoffensive or as a matter of indifference, but also to those that offend, shock or disturb the State or any sector of the population, since these are the demands of that pluralism, tolerance and broadmindedness without which there is no 'democratic society'. This high valuing of freedom of expression is particularly striking when it comes to the political speech, the free political debate being a distinctive feature of a democratic society. Nevertheless, the European Court considers that whoever exercises his freedom of expression undertakes 'duties and responsibilities', and that the freedom of political debate is undoubtedly not absolute in nature. More concretely, when the hate speech is at issue the Court underlines that the tolerance and respect of equal dignity of all human beings constitutes one of the essential foundations of a democratic and pluralist society, and that in a democratic society, in principle, it may be considered necessary to punish and even to prevent all forms of expression which propagate, incite, promote, or justify the hate based on intolerance. Taking into account the notion of prohibition of hate speech in the constitutional system of the Republic of Serbia, and the place of the European Convention on Human Rights in its hierarchy of legal sources, this paper follows the evolution of the European Court's case-law as to the understanding and definition of conditions under which it may be considered necessary in a democratic society to restrict freedom of expression because of hate speech. This legal standard - necessary in a democratic society, is then compared to the clear and present danger test, which has been developed for almost a century in the case-law of the Supreme Court of the United States of America, and which application is sometimes recommended in Europe.
زمینه و هدف: آموزش علاوه بر اینکه یکی از مصادیق مهم حقوق بشر است، ابزاری مهم برای تحقق سایر مصادیق حقوق بشر نیز به شمار میرود. تضمین و اجرای حق آموزش مقدمه تضمین و اجرای سایر مصادیق حقوق بشر میباشد. حق بر آموزش ابتدعاً در قامت یک اصل کلی و منعطف که فاقد تعهدات حقوقی مشخص و الزامآور بود، در قالب اعلامیه جهانی حقوق بشر پذیرفته شد. به علت تفاوتهای بنیادینی که در نظامهای حقوقی ـ سیاسی دولتها وجود داشت، توسعه و تقویت حق مزبور به نظامهای حقوقی منطقهای و داخلی سپرده شد. مواد و روشها: در این مطالعه با روش تحلیلی ـ توصیفی، ابتدا مفهوم شهروندی و اهمیت آموزش بحث و بررسی خواهد شد. پس از مشخصشدن وضعیت متغیر مزبور، اهداف فرآیند آموزشی و مفهوم «حق بر آموزش» برای تبیین دقیقتر چارچوب کلی مسأله اصلی پژوهش حاضر و سپس آموزش دموکراسی، تسامح و تساهل به عنوان معیار اصلی برای ترویج شهروندی دموکراتیک مورد بحث و بررسی قرار خواهد گرفت. ملاحظات اخلاقی: در تمام مراحل نگارش پژوهش حاضر، ضمن رعایت اصالت متون، صداقت و امانتداری رعایت شده است. یافتهها: در چارچوب حق بر توانمندسازی، آموزش سازکاری است که با استفاده از آن، افراد میتوانند ابزارهای لازم را برای مشارکت کامل در جوامع به دست آورند. آموزش نقش بسیار مهمی را در توانمندسازی اقشار آسیبپذیر، ترویج حقوق بشر و دموکراسی، فراهم کردن زمینههای لازم برای توسعه پایدار و. ایفا میکند، در نتیجه آموزش به عنوان یکی از بهترین سرمایهگذاریهای مادی و معنوی محسوب میشود که یک دولت میتواند در راستای توسعه، پیشرفت و رفاه شهروندان خود، انجام دهد. نتیجهگیری: تحولات حق بر آموزش و اجرا و تضمین آن در چارچوب دکترین شهروندی دموکراتیک و در نتیجه، ارتباط آن با توسعه و تقویت مفهوم حکومت قانون و عناصر تشکیلدهنده آن، در فرآیند تربیت شهروندان پایبند به دموکراسی و ایجاد یک نظام حقوقی ـ سیاسی که اصلیترین و کارآمدترین ضمانت اجرای آن فشار واقعی افکار عمومی و مطالبهگری عموم مردم خواهد بود، نقش اساسی ایفا کند. ; Background and Aim: Education is not only one of the important examples of human rights but also an important tool for the realization of other examples of human rights. The guarantee and enforcement of this right is a prelude to the guarantee and enforcement of other instances of human rights. The right to education was initially recognized as a general and flexible principle that had no clear and binding legal obligations under the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Due to the fundamental differences that existed in the legal-political systems of governments, the development and strengthening of this right was entrusted to regional and domestic legal systems. Materials and Methods: In this study with analytical-descriptive method, first the concept of citizenship and the importance of education will be discussed. After determining the status of this variable, the objectives of the educational process and the concept of "right to education" will be considered to explain more precisely the general framework of the main issue of the present study. In the third step, the teaching of democracy, tolerance and tolerance as the main criteria for promoting democratic citizenship will be discussed. Ethical Considerations: In order to organize this research, while observing the authenticity of the texts, honesty and fidelity have been observed. Findings: Within the framework of the right to empowerment, education is a mechanism by which individuals can acquire the tools necessary for full participation in society. Education plays a very important role in empowering the vulnerable, promoting human rights and democracy, providing the necessary conditions for sustainable development, and so on. As a result, education is considered as one of the best materials and spiritual investments that a government can make for the development, progress and welfare of its citizens. Conclusion: Developments in the right to education and implementation and its guarantee within the framework of the doctrine of democratic citizenship and, consequently, its relationship with the development and strengthening of the concept of rule of law and its constituent elements can in the process of educating citizens committed to democracy and creating a legal-political system. The main and most effective guarantee of its implementation will be the real pressure of public opinion and public demand, to play a key role. Please cite this article as: Rostami S, Soleymanzadeh T. A Rethinking of the Concept of Right to Education in the Light of Democratic Citizenship. Bioethics Journal, Special Issue on Bioethics and Citizenship Rights 2020; 173-186.
Јавна управа, као и начин на који она обавља своје послове, доживела је велику трансформацију у последњих тридесет година услед значајних глобалних политичких, правних и економских промена. Важан аспект управних реформи представља широко распрострањено коришћење јавних агенција као облика организације управе, у циљу обављања растућег броја послова који захтевају висок ниво специјализованих знања. ; Public administration organisation and the performance of public tasks have significantly altered over the past 30 years through global political, legal and economic change. An important aspect of the administrative reforms is the widespread use of public agencies as a model of administrative organisation to perform an increasing number of specific tasks requiring high levels of expertise. This PhD thesis analyses the agencification of public administration and the specificities of the process in the field of environmental protection at the European level and in Serbia. The main focus of the research is on the legal aspects of the phenomenon, namely the regulatory functions of agencies at the European level: their interaction with other relevant bodies and actors in the regulatory process; their performance of different administrative tasks (including inspections); and their decision-making roles. The thesis examines specific aspects of the agencification process, the transformation of Serbian public administration in the context of European integration, and the influence this transformation has had on environmental governance. The goal of the research is to examine the evolution and current position of environmental agencies in the European Union's and Serbia's legal orders, to analyse the agencies' interaction with complex administrative arrangements developed at the supranational level, and to argue for enhancing their independence and (regulatory) competencies. The further goal is to contribute to legal scholarship on agencification at national and supranational levels, and especially in the field of environmental protection. The thesis consists of the introduction, three parts and the conclusion. The introduction frames and contextualises the research topic, goals and scientific relevance, and it provides a methodological framework. Part one examines the agencification process primarily at the European level but also nationally. The thesis draws attention to EU-level agency position, typology and administrative decision-making, which are highlighted as challenging issues for legal analysis.
