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International audience ; Although nuclear energy forms an important and controversial part of polar history, its uses and misuses have so far received little attention from professional historians. Especially mobile nuclear reactors, as deployed for instance on the Antarctic continent, played an important role in the conquest of the polar regions. The Antarctic case presented here allows to illustrate the large diversity of issues involved in the American mobile nuclear reactor programme, ranging from economic considerations, over military strategy, to environmental and health concerns. During several decades, mobile nuclear power reactors were considered a cheap and clean solution, yet as this essay shows, history proved otherwise. None of the economic targets were met and in the case of the Antarctic reactor, repeated failures and even radioactive leakages lead finally to the shutdown of the whole programme. ; Même si l'énergie nucléaire joue un rôle important et controversé dans l'histoire polaire, son usage et son mésusage ont reçu très peu d'attention de la part des historiens. Les réacteurs nucléaires mobiles en particulier, tels qu'ils ont été mis en oeuvre sur le continent antarctique, ont occupé une fonction cruciale dans la conquête des régions polaires. Le cas antarctique présenté ici permet d'illustrer la grande diversité des éléments invoqués dans le programme étatsunien de réacteurs nucléaires mobiles, allant de considérations économiques, en passant par la stratégie militaire, à des inquiétudes environnementales et de santé publique. Pendant plusieurs décennies, les réacteurs nucléaires mobiles ont été considérés une solution peu couteuse et propre, mais comme nous allons arguer ci-dessous, l'histoire en a voulu autrement. Aucun des objectifs économiques ne fut atteint et dans le cas du réacteur en Antarctique, de nombreuses coupures et même des fuites radioactives ont amené enfin à l'abandon du programme.

On the basis of the conducted research on the directions of the criminal and penal–executive policy with regard to minors, the author of the article draws the following conclusions. The processes of humanization of criminal and penal enforcement laws affect under–age criminals, adjusting the procedure for appointing and executing criminal punishment, including deprivation of liberty. Despite these trends in recent years, the problem of juvenile delinquency is a fairly massive social and legal phenomenon. Thus, the analysis of statistical data has shown that juvenile delinquency grows 7 times faster than the total number of the population of this age group changes, and in some regions, minors determine the crime situation as a whole. The reason for repeated crimes committed by former juvenile convicts is that returning part of this category of people to the society is predisposed to spreading and propagating criminal "prison" traditions and customs among their peers, as well as among younger people, which contributes to the support and growth of criminogenic the potential of society. One of the directions of the criminal and penitentiary policy of Russia is the penitentiary and post-penitentiary resocialization of persons serving sentences in the form of deprivation of liberty, in particular minors. Thus, the process of training juveniles sentenced to release and creating conditions for their full integration into society is the most important task not only of educational colonies, but also of government bodies and civil society institutions. The absence of a federal law on the social adaptation of persons released from places of deprivation of liberty creates difficulties for minors in the process of resocialization. Adoption of this law is an important component and the main content of the law should be the establishment of strict control over the behavior of these individuals, and mainly the guarantee of state aid to them in the process of returning to normal life in society.

Das Strafrecht fungiert immer häufiger als Steuerungsinstrument der Wirtschaft. Auch Unternehmen können zur Verantwortung gezogen und in manchen Rechtsordnungen auch "bestraft" werden. Bei der Criminal Compliance geht es darum, unternehmensinterne präventive Maßnahmen zu treffen, um Strafbarkeitsrisiken zu vermeiden. Die repressive Criminal Compliance wiederum betrifft das nachtatliche Verhalten von Unternehmen. Das Buch bietet einzigartige Einblicke in die einschlägigen gesetzlichen Regelungen in 30 Ländern

The article examines the key aspects of sentencing Japanese war criminals. Particular attention is paid to the study of the Tokyo process and its results. The paper also details the participation of the Soviet Union in the investigation of crimes committed by Japanese soldiers during the Second World War.

Still in Russia and abroad, questions about implementation of the right to life and right to death are controversial, and as a consequence, the threat of killing the person by the use of euthanasia does not cease to be relevant. Russian criminal law provides criminal responsibility for the murder, which is a variety of ways, however, standards meeting the requirements of the safe existence of terminally ill people, including those not able to be fully aware of the incurability of the disease, is not provided. The legislator attempted criminal prohibitions of the use of euthanasia, however, in the current criminal law of the Russian Federation the data of rules. In this connection, many questions of law enforcement practice in the sphere of criminal-law protection of the safety of life and human health remain uncertain. The given circumstances testify to the fact that the study of issues of qualification of crimes against life and health becomes more fundamental. The article analyzes the problematic issues of demarcation of euthanasia from murder and suicide, and the author's article, providing for the criminal-legal prohibition of the use of euthanasia that will contribute to the improvement of law enforcement practice.

УДК 343.2A new institute of repressive measures applied outside the criminal liability in criminal law (including as a condition for exemption from criminal liability) is forming now in Russian legislation. The author concludes that the provisions of the criminal law on monetary compensation and a court fine should be deleted because of the following reasons. 1) By their nature, and monetary compensation and a court fine, not being a formal punishment (and, therefore, a form of realization of criminal responsibility) is a monetary penalty, i.e., penalty-punishment. Moreover, the rules of court fine destination identical rules of criminal sentencing. 2) Quantitatively court fine may exceed the minimum limits of criminal punish-ment in the form of fines. The dimensions of monetary compensation in the order of hours. Pt. 2, Art. 76.1 of the Criminal Code and at all close to the maximum values of fine-punishment. 3) Exemption from criminal liability requires states to refrain from prosecuting the person alleged to have committed a crime, which means that the nonuse of criminal repression. Regulatory standards analyzed, on the other hand, require mandatory use of repression, ie, virtually no exemption from criminal liability does not occur at all. 4) The use of a quasi-penalty in the form of monetary compensation and court fines are not an exemption from criminal responsibility, but on the contrary, the use of criminal repression (of responsibility), and in a simplified manner. 5) Contrary to the requirements of the Constitution and the Criminal Code of criminal repression is applied to persons whose guilt has not been established in the commission of a crime. Thus, in criminal law introduced a presumption of guilt. 6) Customization repression (in fact – of criminal responsibility) in the application of the judicial penalty is substantially limited, and the application of monetary compensation is excluded at all, contrary to the requirement that the rough justice (Pt. 1, Art. 6 of the Criminal Code). 7) Rules of court fine actually allow re-use of penalties and, moreover, consistent application of the two main types of punishment, although no one can be held criminally responsible twice for the same offense (Pt. 2, Art. 6 of the Criminal Code). ; УДК 343.2В уголовном законодательстве формируется новый институт репрессивных мер, применяемых вне уголовной ответственности, в том числе в качестве условия освобождения от уголовной ответственности. Этот процесс свидетельствует о глубоком кризисе современного уголовного права. Предписания уголовного закона о денежном возмещении и судебном штрафе следует исключить.

Статья посвящена вопросам уголовной ответственности несовершеннолетних в соответствии с российским законодательством и эффективности уголовного наказания как формального инструмента предупреждения подростковой преступности. Уделено внимание практическому применению отдельных видов наказаний в отношении лиц, не достигших 18-ти лет. Рассмотрены последствия эмансипации несовершеннолетних, противоречия в законодательстве по защите прав несовершеннолетних и вопросы назначения несовершеннолетним наказаний в виде штрафа и лишения заниматься определённой деятельностью. Внесены предложения по совершенствованию главы 14 Уголовного кодекса Российской Федерации. Устанавливается, что лишение права заниматься определённой деятельностью как вид наказания, не связанный с лишением свободы, является мерой уголовно-правового воздействия, установленной законом по отношению к эмансипированным несовершеннолетним. ; The article discusses the criminal liability of minors in accordance with Russian legislation and the issue of the effectiveness of criminal sanctions as a formal tool for the prevention of juvenile delinquency. Author pays attention to current issues of practical application of punishment assignments in respect of the persons under eighteen. Article has view about consequences of the minors' emancipation, the existent contradictions in the legislation on minors' right protection and questions of setting a fine punishment and deprivation of the right to engage in certain activities to minors. The author makes proposal on improvement of Chapter 14 of the Criminal Code of the RF.

The subject of the research is the criminal community, its characteristics, and features within the framework of criminology.The purpose of the research is to confirm or disprove hypothesis that a criminal community as a criminological phenomenon is nor equal to a criminal organization or an organized criminal groupMethodology. The author uses general theoretical methods (comparative analysis, generalization, deduction) and specific methods (formal legal interpretation of legal acts, questionnaires).The main results, scope of application. A criminal organization and a criminal community are different criminological phenomena that differ from each other in significant ways. The differences are both in the degree of criminal organization, and the complexity of the structure of internal and external interaction. From the point of view of a systematic approach, a criminal community is not only a more complex system compared to a criminal organization. It is characterized by an improved structure of internal interaction, in which the hierarchical structure is either complicated, or replaced or supplemented by a network structure. The peculiarity is to complement the system approach with a synergistic one: in the criminal community, the pooling of criminal efforts is carried out more effectively, mainly in the sphere of external relations. The criminal community is a more open system compared to the criminal organization. Certain features can be identified in the contacts of criminal community members with the external environment. The most important feature is a symbiosis of criminal and legal practices that affects the life of entire regions or relatively large masses of the population. The criminal community is a purposeful system with its own specifics. And this specificity is seen in the fact that the criminal community pursues (secretly or openly, at the moment or in the foreseeable future) the achievement of political goals, namely: the possession of power, infiltration into power, undermining power, its capture and retention. It is power, not wealth, that is the real goal of the criminal community, and not just because it is easily converted into wealth. Power is valuable in itself, because it also gives a lot of other advantages.Conclusions. A criminal community cannot be reduced to a criminal organization, much less – to an organized criminal group, and this conclusion requires to be included into legislation. ; Статья посвящена изучению особенностей преступных сообществ с позиций криминологической науки. Отмечается, что преступная организация и преступное сообщество – это различные криминологические феномены, отличающиеся друг от друга по существенным признакам. Преступное сообщество преследует достижение политических целей, а именно: обладания властью, инфильтрации во власть, подрыва власти, ее захвата и удержания. Подчеркивается, что именно власть, а не богатство является настоящей целью деятельности преступного сообщества. При этом, наряду с легальной властью существует криминальная власть, а также симбиоз между ними. Сделан вывод о том, что преступное сообщество не может быть сведено к преступной орга-низации и тем более – к организованной преступной группе.

В статье рассматриваются некоторые исторические аспекты российского законодательства о вовлечении несовершеннолетнего в совершение преступно - наказуемого деяния, анализируются объективные, субъективные и квалифицирующие признаки данного состава преступления, сложившаяся судебная практика и официальные данные ведомственной статистики Судебного Департамента при Верховном суде Российской федерации и Министерства Внутренних Дел Российской Федерации, в целях разработки предложений по внесению изменений и дополнений в действующее законодательство Российской Федерации, касающегося ответственности за вовлечение несовершеннолетнего в совершение преступления. ; The article discusses some historical aspects of Russian legislation on involving a minor in the commission of a criminal offense, analyzes the objective, subjective and qualifying features of this crime, the prevailing judicial practice and official data of departmental statistics of the Judicial Department under the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation and the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the Russian Federation, in order to develop proposals for amendments and additions to the current legislation of the Russian Federation regarding liability for involving a minor in a crime.

Le phénomène du « brouillard de guerre » n'est pas réservé aux seuls militaires. Les sapeurs-pompiers connaissent eux aussi cette incertitude qui caractérise la prise de décision dans l'action, rendue terrible dans leur domaine car elle engage la vie des hommes. Fondamentalement confrontés à la « mise en danger d'autrui » par les ordres qu'ils donnent sur le terrain, les commandants d'opérations de secours ( cos ) évoluent désormais dans un contexte juridique tout aussi incertain, compliqué et mouvant que leurs interventions. Qu'ils soient sapeurs-pompiers militaires ou civils, ils devront trouver dans leurs forces morales la détermination à assurer sans faiblir leurs responsabilités de chef au combat tout en assumant humblement les conséquences judiciaires de leurs décisions, au moment où la société qu'ils défendent semble récuser l'idée même de toute fatalité dans l'exercice de l'action des secours.