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This paper attempts to evaluate some conceptual and methodological issues in research on field dependence-independence. Problems of the definition and measurement of "psychological differentiation" and "cognitive restructuring" are examined. Difficulties arising from the profusion of measures, inadequate control of intelligence and insufficient construct validation of tests are also considered. The paper concludes with some recommendations for further research in this field.

Chris Edwards


Federal government spending is soaring and debt will soon reach record highs compared to the size of the economy. Rising spending and debt are undermining growth and may push the nation into a financial crisis.
As the federal government's size has expanded, the scope of its activities has also grown. The government subsidizes farming, health care, school lunches, broadband, rural utilities, energy, rental housing, aviation, passenger rail, public broadcasting, chip manufacturing, job training, foreign aid, education, urban transit, space exploration, and hundreds of other activities.
For decades, the government has published an official list of all its grant or subsidy programs for the states, businesses, nonprofits, and individuals. The list used to be called the Catalog of Federal Domestic Assistance but is now called Assistance Listings. The list is a rough indicator of the steadily expanding scope of federal interventions.
The chart shows that there are 2,418 federal grant or subsidy programs in 2023, more than double the number in 1990. Each new subsidy program requires higher taxes or more federal borrowing. Each subsidy generates a bureaucracy, spawns lobby groups, and encourages more special interests to demand handouts.
The rise in size and scope of federal subsidies means that Americans are losing their independence. State and local governments, businesses, nonprofits, and individuals that become hooked on subsidies become tools of the federal government. They have less incentive to work and innovate, and they shy away from criticizing government policies.
Let's all celebrate July 4, but remember that the path to freedom and prosperity is to cut the size and scope of the federal government.







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Data Notes: Counts for 2020 and 2023 are from July listings under grantsgov here. Previous years were counts based on hardcopy and electronic versions of the Catalog of Federal Domestic Assistance. The new Assistance Listings keeps the same CFDA numbers. The counts should be considered only a rough measure of federal subsidies since what constitutes one program and one grant is rather loose.
An example of a new grant program is CFDA 20.939 for safe streets enacted in 2021. You can get a sense of the bureaucracy in this one new subsidy program reading the materials here and here. There is no reason for this new federal intervention, as the states themselves are in favor of safe streets and have their own revenue sources.

Mauritiusbecame independent on 12 March 1968, and was then said to be the paradigm of the small isolated, poor, dependent country, only emerging from the colonial era to fall immediately into neocolonialism – the Third World's Third World.

Cover -- Half Title -- Title Page -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- Preface -- 1. Roots -- 2. Reverence, Respect, and Dependence -- 3. Aesthetic Experience and Virtue: Narrative, Emotions, and the Understanding of Others -- 4. Autonomy's Sources and the Impact of Globalization -- 5. Personal Independence and Social Justice: Contradictions of Liberal Virtues? -- 6. Autonomy and Moral Responsibility: On Virtues and the Common Good -- 7. The Politics of Virtue in the French Revolution -- 8. Volunteering as Virtue -- 9. The Relation between Independence and Trust -- References -- About the Contributors -- Index

""--Provided by publisher.

Path dependence is commonly used to describe processes where "history matters," which encompasses many different kinds of temporal dynamics. This essay distinguishes path-, or equilibrium-, dependent processes where early conditions continue to matter, from outcome-dependent processes where recent history matters and from outcome-independent processes where history does not matter. Others have argued for a precise and restrictive definition of path dependence. We build on this and distinguish among different types of outcome-dependent processes when these conditions for path dependence are not fully satisfied.

"Der Anstieg Alleinerziehender ist ein Ausdruck für den Zugewinn an Selbständigkeit bei der Wahl und Gestaltung individueller Lebensformen von Frauen mit Kindern, auch wenn Alleinerziehende häufiger als in jeder anderen Lebensform mit Sozialhilfe wirtschaften. Ausgehend davon, daß die Bedingungen, Kinder allein großzuziehen, in beiden Teilen Deutschlands ganz andere waren, haben wir die Fragestellung untersucht, wie sich unterschiedliche Erfahrungen zum Frauenleben, zur Emanzipation und zur Sozialisation von Kindern auf den Umgang ost- und westdeutscher Frauen mit der Sozialhilfe auswirken. Für die Diskussion um den Beitrag der Sozialpolitik zu Unabhängigkeit und Abhängigkeit gilt es, auch die Erfahrungen ostdeutscher Frauen mit dem für sie neuartigen Sozialhilfesystem einzubeziehen. Die Ergebnisse unserer Vergleichsuntersuchung bestätigen im alten Bundesgebiet einen Einstellungswandel bezüglich der Inanspruchnahme von Sozialhilfe. Im Bewußtsein, daß sich eine selbständige Lebensführung mit Kindern zeitweise nur mit Unterstützung von Sozialhilfe realisieren läßt, wird diese vor allem von jüngeren Frauen immer häufiger als eine rechtlich zustehende staatliche Leistung wahrgenommen. Für ostdeutsche Frauen ist einerseits ein Festhalten an wirtschaftlicher Unabhängigkeit durch eigene Erwerbsarbeit sichtbar und andererseits ein ambivalenter Entscheidungsdruck hinsichtlich einer Neufestlegung des Verhältnisses von Erwerbsarbeit und Kinderbetreuung. Im Unterschied zum Westen ist im Osten eine Inanspruchnahme von Sozialhilfe als Grundsicherung für eine längere Zeit zur Betreuung der Kinder bisher kaum zu finden. Ostdeutsche Frauen vergrößern jene zunehmende Gruppe junger Frauen, die aufgrund des Mangels an Alternativen Sozialhilfe in Anspruch nehmen. Diskutiert werden sollte, ob es den Realitäten entspricht, sozialpolitisch weiterhin eher den Ausstieg aus der Erwerbsarbeit zu fordern, oder inwieweit es angemessener wäre, Erwerbsarbeit durch entsprechende Maßnahmen zu stimulieren und so den Lebensvorstellungen junger Frauen besser zu entsprechen." (Autorenreferat)

AbstractThis paper focuses on the qualitative findings from a mixed‐methods study of the educational and employment experiences of male and female Syrian refugees who settled in Regina, Canada. Canada admitted over 40,000 Syrian refugees who settled in 350 communities across Canada, including many smaller, non‐traditional refugee‐receiving centres. This influx necessitated the expeditious development of additional services as well as a re‐allocation of local resources. Drachman's (Social Work, 37, 68, 1992) three‐phase migration framework was employed to trace the experiences of these Syrian refugees through the pre‐migration, transit and resettlement phases. The findings demonstrated that the participants perceived a shift from independence to dependence on the government as they moved through each of the successive phases of migration. While participants had constructed identities as "hard workers" back home, they found that their experiences and credentials from back home were devalued and learning English was a prerequisite for employment.