Suchergebnisse

Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina. Escuela de Posgrado. Maestría en Innovación Agraria para el Desarrollo Rural ; La escasez hídrica en el Perú se encuentra entre uno de los problemas más graves para el desarrollo humano (ENAHO, 2013). Factores como la poca disponibilidad de agua por ecorregiones, la distribución de la población en el territorio nacional, los efectos climáticos y las políticas nacionales para gestionar éste recurso, también influyen en la escasez. Lima, la ciudad más poblado del país, con aproximadamente 9 millones de habitantes (9'904,727, según el INEI, del 15 de enero 2016), está ubicada en una franja desértica. Cerca de Lima —a aproximadamente 4 horas— se encuentra la Comunidad Campesina de San Andrés de Tupicocha. Habitan poco más de 1400 personas (INEI, 2007). Su territorio oscila entre varios pisos altitudinales, desde los 500 hasta los 4800 msnm (Sifuentes de la Cruz, 1997). Se sitúa en una de las regiones de mayor escasez de agua en la serranía peruana (García, 2011). Esta tesis presenta un estudio sobre cambios percibidos en los medios de vida de la población de Tupicocha; estos cambios, según lo observado, tienen un punto de inicio con la llegada de innovaciones hídricas. Se encontró la coexistencia de múltiples sistemas de riego: sistemas meramente dedicados a recibir agua de lluvia, sistemas vinculados a represas manejadas por la comunidad campesina y sistemas por goteo, que fueron considerados como los sistemas de riego más avanzados. Debido esta multiplicidad, se eligieron solo a tres sistemas por su cercanía con las familias con quienes se trabajaron: a) el sistema de amunas; b) el sistema de manantiales familiares y c) el sistema represas comunales1. Históricamente, el sistema de las amunas, por ser un sistema prehispánico, es el más antiguo de los tres; le sigue el sistema de manantiales familiares; y, en último lugar, el sistema más reciente es el de las represas comunales. En tanto sus infraestructuras, los tres sistemas no necesariamente comparten materiales usados: por ejemplo, cuando se observa que el sistema de represas comunales y manantiales familiares, están comenzando a importar materiales que frenan la pérdida del agua. Es la comunidad campesina la que organiza el uso de dos de los tres sistemas; el único sistema que no se gestiona por esta entidad, es el de los manantiales familiares, quienes tienen un comité formado del grupo de familias que construyeron su infraestructura. De los tres sistemas, el único que se asocia con festividades y rituales, es el sistema de amunas: la fiesta de la champería se organiza ritualmente (todos los años) para poder limpiar la infraestructura de las amunas de la champa (malezas) que crecen en ella, e impiden su funcionamiento correcto2. Las innovaciones hídricas han generado cambios en las actividades agrícolas y pecuarias en la zona. El incremento del uso de agua para riego ha significado, a su vez, cambios en los productos agropecuarios, en cómo producirlos y hacia dónde se dirigen. Hoy en día, estos productos son destinados a los mercados en Lima (recordemos que Tupicocha está a 4 horas de Lima). Otros cambios ocurrieron: disminución en el uso de terrenos dedicados a las actividades pecuarias; menos familias se dedican a criar ganado en Tupicocha; la ganadería es destinada a los mercados de Lima; el tipo de ganado que las familias ahora crían son, sobretodo, cuyes (el alfalfa – producto más sembrado en el distrito según el último censo – es el alimento estrella de estos animales). La teoría de capitales comunales (Emery y Flora, 2006), permite observar la asociación de otros cambios con la llegada de las innovaciones hídricas suscitadas: Capital construido: Construcción del canal de Willcapampa se consideró como uno de los hitos más importantes, hechas por la comunidad, en aras de conseguir agua para el riego. Capital natural: Se dio un cambio en los materiales de construcción de la infraestructura de los sistemas de riego ha sido un proceso clave. Significó una nueva forma de relacionarse con el agua para riego, donde los sistemas que filtraban el agua —como en el caso de las amunas—, están siendo olvidados; en su reemplazo, sistemas que trasladan eficientemente el agua de un punto hacia otro, sin que se filtre, están tomando su lugar. Capital social: Se manifestaron cambios en tanto que nuevos actores en la zona (como la municipalidad o la gobernación) surgen como entidades que contestan a la comunidad campesina, pero a su vez con quienes se organizan trabajos comunales para beneficio de la población. No está demás considerar un estudio a futuro sobre tensiones interinstitucionales en dicho distrito-comunidad. Otros capitales, como el capital humano, permitió observar el descuido de la educación de hijos para favorecer la construcción del canal de Willcapampa o cambios en la alimentación de familias; capital financiero, con el incremento en el acceso a dinero en efectivo o motivos para llevar a cabo una cosecha; capital político, en tanto se percibieron cambios en el relacionamiento de instituciones políticas locales; y cambios en capital cultural, en donde la existencia de prácticas festivas y rituales, asociadas al agua, se comienzan a desprender del quehacer de sistemas de riego, como el de las amunas. La teoría de Escalamiento (o Spiraling-up), que también mencionan Emery & Flora (2006), supone que las innovaciones y los cambios suscitados, mejorarían de forma escalonada todos los capitales comunales. Sin embargo, y por lo recogido en campo, esto no es del todo cierto. Varias personas manifestaron el beneficio de ciertos cambios, pero no de otros. Un ejemplo se dio con la alimentación: familias en Tupicocha anteriormente producían para alimentarse; pocos eran los productos que compraban para comer. Sin embargo, hoy en día, buena parte de los alimentos consumidos por familias en la comunidad, se obtiene de las tiendas residentes en esta localidad. Ahora se consumen productos que antes no formaban parte de la canasta básica familiar (como son los fideos, las galletas, la leche en tarro, entre otros). Ha llegado al punto, según un entrevistado, que ahora se compran productos que anteriormente se cosechaban. Se llega a una conclusión descriptiva, donde existió para las familias visitadas en Tupicocha, una serie de cambios que se suscitaron con la llegada (construcción) de nueva infraestructura hídrica, asociada a las represas comunales. Esto, a su vez, puede enfocarse desde la interculturalidad, donde los tres sistemas de riego se asocian con mundos culturalmente distintos: significa que las lógicas de cada sistema se diferencian, lo que implica maneras distintas de cómo usar y pensar el agua. Las nuevas lógicas de los sistemas de riego más novedosos llegaron con cambios que han afectado los medios y modos de vida de pobladores en San Andrés de Tupicocha, analizándolos como capitales comunales, donde cada capital puede tener relación con algún otro. No necesariamente la mejora en uno de estos capitales significaría la mejora en los demás. ; Water scarcity in Peru is among one of the most serious problems for human development (ENAHO, 2013). Factors such as the limited availability of water within ecological regions, the distribution of the population in the national territory, climatic effects and national policies on managing resources, also influence its scarcity. Lima, the most populated city in the country, with approximately 9 million inhabitants (9,904,727, according to the INEI, of January 15, 2016), is located in a desert strip. Near Lima —approximately 4 hours away— is the Campesino Community of San Andrés de Tupicocha. There are a little more than 1400 people (INEI, 2007). Its territory oscillates between several altitudinal floors, from 500 to 4800 meters above sea level (Sifuentes de la Cruz, 1997). It is located in one of the regions with the greatest water scarcity in the Peruvian highlands (García, 2011). This thesis presents a study on perceived changes in livelihoods from the population of Tupicocha; these changes, as observed, have a starting point with the arrival of water innovations. During the study, a coexistence of multiple irrigation systems was found: systems exclusively dedicated to receiving rainwater, systems linked to dams managed by the peasant community and drip systems, which were considered the most advanced. Due to this multiplicity, only three systems were chosen because of their closeness to the families with whom this study was made: a) the amunas system; b) the system of family springs and c) the system of communal dams. Historically, the amunas system, being a pre-Hispanic system, is the oldest of the three; it is followed by the system of family springs; and, lastly, the most recent system is that of communal dams. With respects to their infrastructure, the three systems do not necessarily use similar materials: for example, it was observed that the system of communal dams and family springs are now beginning to import materials that stop or reduce the loss of water. It is the comunidad campesina that organizes the use of two of the three systems; the only system that is not managed by this entity is the family springs, which have committees formed by the family groups that build their infrastructure. Of the three systems, the only one that is associated with festivities and rituals is the amunas system: the champería festivity is organized ritually (once a year); this festivity aims at cleaning the amunas infrastructure from champa (weeds) that grow in it and prevent its proper functioning. Water innovations have generated changes in agricultural and livestock activities in the area. The increase of water for irrigation has meant, in turn, changes in agricultural products, in how to produce them and where they are given. Nowadays, these products are destined to markets in Lima (remember that Tupicocha is 4 hours away from Lima). Other changes that occurred were: decrease in the use of land dedicated to livestock activities; fewer families dedicated to raising cattle in Tupicocha; livestock is destined to the markets of Lima; and the type of cattle that the families now breed are, above all, guinea pigs (the alfalfa - the most sown product in the district, according to the last census - is the star food source for these animals). The theory of communal capitals (Emery and Flora, 2006), analyzes the association of other changes with the arrival of these water innovations. Capital built: Construction of the Willcapampa canal was considered one of the most important landmarks, made by the community, in order to get water for irrigation. Natural capital: There was a change in the construction materials used for the irrigation systems infrastructure. It meant a new way of relating to water for irrigation, where systems that filtered water -as in the case of amunas- are being forgotten; in its replacement, systems that efficiently transfer water from one point to another, without filtering, are taking their place. Social capital: Changes were manifested as new actors in the area (such as the municipality or the government) emerge as entities that contest the comunidad campesina; but, in turn, organize communal work for the benefit of the population with this contested institution. It is worth considering a future study on inter-institutional tensions in said district-community. Other capitals, such as human capital, allowed observing the neglected situtation of childerns education, favoring the construction of the Willcapampa canal or changes in the feeding of families. With respects to financial capital, there was an increase in access to cash or reasons to carry out a harvest. On political capital, changes were perceived in the relationship of local political institutions; and changes in cultural capital, where the existence of festivities and ritual practices, associated with water, begin to detach from the task of irrigation systems, like the amunas example. The Spiraling-up theory, which is also mentioned by Emery & Flora (2006), assumes that the innovations and changes that have arisen would progressively improve all the communal capitals. However, field data collected tend to show this is not entirely true. Several people expressed the benefit of certain changes, but not others. An example was given with food: families in Tupicocha previously produced to feed themselves; few were the products that they bought to eat. However, nowadays, a good part of the food consumed by families in the community is obtained from the stores that reside in this locality. Families now consume products that were not previously part of the basic family basket (such as noodles, cookies, milk in a jar, among others). According to one interviewee, they are now buying products that were previously harvested. We arrive at a descriptive conclusion, where there was a series of changes for the families visited in Tupicocha; these changes came with the arrival (construction) of new water infrastructure, associated with the communal dams. This, in turn, can be approached from an intercultural perspective, where the three irrigation systems are associated with culturally different worlds: it means that the logics of each system are differentiated, which implies different ways of using and thinking about water. The new logics of the most innovative irrigation systems came with changes that have affected the means and ways of life of residents in San Andrés de Tupicocha, analyzing them as communal capitals, where each capital can be related to another. The improvement in one of these capitals would not necessarily mean the improvement of the others. ; Tesis

End Of Mission Statement Of The Special Rapporteur On The Negative Impact Of Unilateral Coercive Measures On The Enjoyment Of Human Rights To The Syrian Arab Republic ; 6/3/2018 OHCHR | End of mission statement of the Special Rapporteur on the negative impact of unilateral coercive measures on the enjoyment of human rights t… http://www.ohchr.org/en/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=23094&LangID=E 1/4 English > News and Events > DisplayNews English | Français | Español Go to navigation | Go to content | русский | العربية | 中文 WHAT ARE HUMAN RIGHTS? DONATE HOME ABOUT US ISSUES HUMAN RIGHTS BY COUNTRY WHERE WE WORK HUMAN RIGHTS BODIES NEWS AND EVENTS PUBLICATIONS AND RESOURCES End of mission statement of the Special Rapporteur on the negative impact of unilateral coercive measures on the enjoyment of human rights to the Syrian Arab Republic, 13 to 17 May 2018 Arabic End of mission statement 17 May 2018 Preliminary observations and recommendations I would like to begin this briefing by expressing my gratitude to the Government of the Syrian Arab Republic for the invitation to visit the country and for the openness and readiness with which it facilitated the meetings for my mission. I would also like to thank the office of the Resident Coordinator, the members of the UN country team and the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights for their invaluable support. I have been entrusted by the Human Rights Council with the task of monitoring, reporting and advising on the negative impact on the enjoyment of human rights of unilateral coercive measures. The United Nations has repeatedly expressed concern that the use of such measures may be contrary to international law, international humanitarian law, the UN Charter and the norms and principles governing peaceful relations among States . During my visit, I had the honour of being received by Ministers, Deputy Ministers and senior officials of the ministries of Foreign Affairs and Expatriates, Economy and Foreign Trade, Local Administration and Environment, Social Affairs and Labour, Transport, Agriculture and Agrarian Reform, Electricity and Health. I also met with the leadership pf the Planning and International Cooperation Commission, the Central Bureau of Statistics, the Chamber of Commerce, and with the Governor of the Central Bank. I was b riefed by staff from civil society, humanitarian organizations and by independent experts. Last but not least, I am also grateful to the numerous diplomatic missions that shared their views with me during my visit. I very much appreciate the briefings I received from the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia in Beirut prior to my visit. The purpose of this mission was to examine to what extent unilateral coercive measures targeting the Syrian Arab Republic impair the full realization of the rights set forth in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and other international human rights instruments. I will present my full report to the Human Rights Council in September 2018. My present statement contains my preliminary observations on the outcome of my visit. I have examined the situation of the Syrian Arab Republic as a target of unilateral coercive measures 1 134K 118K 2290 6/3/2018 OHCHR | End of mission statement of the Special Rapporteur on the negative impact of unilateral coercive measures on the enjoyment of human rights t… http://www.ohchr.org/en/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=23094&LangID=E 2/4 I have examined the situation of the Syrian Arab Republic as a target of unilateral coercive measures by a number of source States. I have examined relevant evidence and endeavoured to assess the actual impact of such measures on the Syrian people. One source country has applied unilateral coercive measures since 1979, and they were strengthened in subsequent years. A larger group of States began applying similar measures in 2011. The collective measures call for a trade ban on the import and export of multiple goods and services. It also includes international financial transfers. The superimposition of different packages of collective sectoral measures, together with the across­the­board implementation of financial restrictions, are tantamount in their global impact to the imposition of comprehensive restrictions on Syria. Additional measures targeting individuals by virtue of their alleged relationship with the government have also been applied. Because of their comprehensive nature, these measures have had a devastating impact on the entire economy and the daily lives of ordinary people. This impact has compounded their suffering resulting from the devastating crisis that has unfolded since 2011. Singling out the impact of the unilateral coercive measures from that of the crisis is fraught with difficulty, but this does in no way diminish the necessity to take measures to restore their basic human rights as a whole. It is clear that the sufferings imposed by the unilateral coercive measures have reinforced those that were caused by the conflict. Indeed, it seems ironic that these measures applied by source States out of a concern for human rights are actually contributing to the worsening of the humanitarian crisis as an unintended consequence. The dramatic increase in the suffering of the Syrian people The Syrian economy continues to decline at an alarming rate. Since the application of coercive measures in 2011, and the beginning of the current crisis, the total annual GDP of Syria has fallen by two thirds. Foreign currency reserves have been depleted, and international financial and other assets remain frozen. In 2010, 45 Syrian Liras were exchanged for one dollar; by 2017 the rate fell to fell to 510 liras per dollar. Inflation has dramatically increased since 2010, reaching a peak of 82.4% in 2013; the cost of food items rose eight­fold during this time. This combination of factors visited further devastation on the living conditions of the population that were already degraded by the conflict. This has hit the half of working Syrians living on fixed salaries particularly hard. The unintended consequences of unilateral coercive measures This damage to the economy has had predictable effects on the ability of Syrians to realize their economic, social and cultural rights. Syria's human development indicators have all tumbled. There has been a staggering increase in the rate of poverty among ordinary Syrians. While there was no food insecurity prior to the outbreak of violence, by 2015 32% of Syrians were affected. At the same time unemployment rose went from 8.5% in 2010 to over 48% in 2015. Banking restrictions The most pervasive concerns I have heard during my mission relate to the negative effect that comprehensive financial restrictions have had on all aspects of Syrian life. Restrictions on the Central bank, state­owned and even private banks, and transactions in the main international currencies have comprehensively damaged the ability of anyone seeking to operate internationally. Despite nominally including "humanitarian exemptions" they have proven to be costly, or extremely slow, to access in practice. The uncertainty around what transactions do, or do not violate the unilateral coercive measures, have created a "chilling effect" on international banks and companies, which as a result are unwilling or unable to do business with Syria. This has prevented Syrian and international companies, non­governmental actors (including those operating in purely humanitarian fields), and Syrian citizens from engaging in international financial transactions (including for goods which are legal to import), obtaining credit, or for international actors to pay salaries or contractors in Syria. This has forced Syrians to find alternatives, such as hawala, which result in millions of dollars flowing 6/3/2018 OHCHR | End of mission statement of the Special Rapporteur on the negative impact of unilateral coercive measures on the enjoyment of human rights t… http://www.ohchr.org/en/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=23094&LangID=E 3/4 y , , g through high cost financial intermediaries, who are alleged at times to be owned by terrorist organizations. These channels which are not transparent, cannot be audited, and increase transaction costs remain the only avenue for smaller companies and Syrian civil society actors to operate internationally. Medical care Syria practices universal, free health care for all its citizens. Prior to the current crisis, Syria enjoyed some of the highest levels of care in the region. The demands created by the crisis have overwhelmed the system, and created extraordinarily high levels of need. Despite this, restrictive measures, particularly those related to the banking system, have harmed the ability of Syria to purchase and pay for medicines, equipment, spare parts and software. While theoretical exemptions exist, in practice international private companies are unwilling to jump the hurdles necessary to ensure they can transact with Syria without being accused of inadvertently violating the restrictive measures. Migration and 'brain drain' While the security situation was a central factor which led to migration flows from Syria, it should be emphasized that the dramatic increase in unemployment, the lack of job opportunities, the closure of factories unable to obtain raw materials or machinery or to export their goods have all contributed to increasing the emigration of Syrians. Some receiving States have selected skilled migrants, while pressuring the less fortunate to return to Syria. This "brain drain" has harmed the medical and pharmaceutical industries in particular, at the worst possible time for Syria. The anticipated end of the current conflict will not put an end to the flows of migrants, especially to Europe, in view of the saturation of neighbouring countries. These flows are likely to continue so long as the Syrian authorities are prevented by unilateral coercive measures from addressing the pressing problems related to their social and economic infrastructure, in particular the restoration of energy and water supplies. Ban on equipment and spare parts The ban on the trade in equipment, machinery and spare parts has devastated Syrian industry. Vehicles, including ambulances and fire trucks, as well as agricultural machinery suffer from a lack of spare parts. Failing water pumps gravely affect the water supply and reduce agricultural production. Power generation plants are failing, and new plants cannot be purchased or maintained, leading to power outages. Complex machinery requiring international technicians for maintenance are failing, damaging medical devices and factory machinery. Civilian aircraft are no longer able to fly safely, and public transit buses are in woeful condition. Whatever rationale source countries may have for restricting so­called dual use goods, greater effort is needed to ensure that goods that are clearly intended for civilian use are permitted, and that they can be paid for. Ban on technology As a result of unilateral coercive measures, Syrians are unable to purchase many technologies, including mobile phones and computers. The global dominance of American software companies, technology companies, and banking and financial software, all of which are banned, has made it difficult to find alternatives. This has paralyzed or disrupted large parts of Syrian institutions. Education Shortages of inputs, energy and water supply as well as of teaching material causing delays in the rebuilding of schools have kept 1.8 million children without access to their classrooms. The ability of Syrians to participate in the international community has been sharply affected. Syrians have been excluded from international educational exchange programs, and the tremendous difficulties involved in obtaining a visa have prevented many from studying or travelling abroad, upgrading their training and skills, or participating in international conferences. By removing consular services from Syria, countries have forced people including the poorest, to travel to neighbouring countries for such applications, which are also placing onerous restrictions on entry for Syrians. 6/3/2018 OHCHR | End of mission statement of the Special Rapporteur on the negative impact of unilateral coercive measures on the enjoyment of human rights t… http://www.ohchr.org/en/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=23094&LangID=E 4/4 Conclusion I am profoundly concerned that unilateral coercive measures are contributing to the ongoing suffering of the Syrian people. Claims that they exist to protect the Syrian population, or to promote a democratic transition, are hard to reconcile with the economic and humanitarian sufferings being caused. The time has come to ask whether these unintended consequences are now more severe than can be reasonably accepted by democratic States. Whatever their political objectives, there must be more humane means by which these can be achieved in full compliance with international law. In view of the complexity of the system of unilateral coercive measures in place, there needs to be a multi­stage approach to addressing the dire human rights situation prevailing in Syria. This would imply a sequenced approach involving addressing the crucial humanitarian needs of the population throughout the whole of Syria, without preconditions, when these touch on issues of life and death. A first stage could include addressing the urgent needs of the food insecure, which represent nearly one third of the population. The second stage is to translate at the ground level effective measures to fulfil the commitment of source States to meet their obligation to allow humanitarian exemptions, particularly for financial transactions. Finally, there must be a serious dialogue on reducing unilateral coercive measures, starting with those that have the most egregious effect on the population, along with those that will promote confidence building between the parties, with the ultimate aim of lifting the unilateral coercive measures. I hope that my report and my future work can contribute in this end. Thank you. Note: 1. More information on this prohibition can be found in the reports and resolutions on the website of the Special Rapporteur. Home CONTACT US Frequently Asked Questions OHCHR on Social Media OHCHR Memorial Employment Mobile App Site Map © OHCHR 1996­2018

This thesis is entitled "Essays on Public Debt, Growth and Development in Africa" and consists of a set of four essays, three of which are empirical. The first essay provides a literature survey on public debt and economic growth, specially focused on Africa. Since the beginning of the 1990s, public debt has been a real barrier to the economic growth of African economies and has since become part of the agenda and concern of policy makers, economists and researchers. A considerable number of theoretical and empirical studies have been produced over decades, addressing the impact of public debt on the economic growth of these countries. The results are consensual and point generally to an inverse relationship between the two variables i.e. public debt negatively affects economic growth from a given level. Krugman (1988) and Sachs (1989) agree that high levels of public debt mitigate the economic growth of developing countries through investment. This position is further corroborated by Mbale (2013) who referring to African countries argues that public debt crowds out credit to the private sector and constitutes a barrier to capital accumulation and private sector growth. Buchanan (1958) and Modigliani (1961) also share the view that in addition to the crowding out effect, the increase in public debt positively affects the long-term interest rate. Generally, the increase in public debt negatively affects economic growth. Fosu (1996) Irons and Bivens (2010) are decisive in concluding that high debt levels jeopardize economic growth, a position shared by Ezeabasili et al (2011), Escobar and Mallick (2013) and Zouhaier and Fatma (2014). Regarding the impact of fiscal policy on the economic growth of African countries, Devarajan et al. (1996) consider, after empirical analysis, that an increase in public spending has a positive and significant impact on economic growth. Nurudeen and Usman (2010) argue that an increase in public spending is not immediately converted into economic growth, whereas Nworji et al. (2012) show that current and capital expenditures do not have a significant negative impact on Nigeria's economic growth. This view is supported by Engen and Skinner (1997) who concluded that public expenditure and the tax burden negatively and sharply affect economic growth. Babadola and Aminu (2011) provide complementary evidence and recommend that increased public spending on health and education should promote growth. The survey also highlights the inverse relationship between economic growth and government debt, compounded by the problem of debt overhang, preventing these countries from leveraging their economies. Additionally, the literature on the relationship between public deficits and economic growth is also not consensual. In fact, although the economic theory postulates that fiscal deficit contributes inevitably to debt accumulation, which through debt overhang affects negatively economic growth, there are other strings of economic thoughts that advocate that African countries would not reach economic growth without increasing debt. The second essay is empirical and analyzes the implications of public debt on economic growth and inflation in a group of 52 African economies between 1950 and 2012. The overall analysis was focused on the relationship between the limits of public debt as a percentage of the GDP, economic growth, and inflation. African economies achieve their highest performance in terms of average rates of economic growth (6.39%), while the limits of public debt as a percentage of the GDP are in the second intervals (30 - 60%) with an average inflation rate of 8.17%. From this limit, any increase in public debt is converted into a reduction of the average growth rates of economies and into an increase in average inflation rates. The findings show, unequivocally, that there is an inverse relationship between these two macroeconomic variables, depending on the levels of indebtedness. Briefly, the analysis concludes that the highest average growth rates are achieved when the public debt is in the second interval. When this ratio is situated in the third interval the average rates of economic growth suffer a drop of 1.32 percentage points and 1.64 percentage points when this ratio exceeds 90%. These results are much lower than those found by Reinhart and Rogoff in the essay "Growth in Time of Debt", for which an amount of debt equivalent to 60% of GDP causes a drop in the annual growth rate of around 2 percentage points. The third essay empirically assesses the traditional determinants of economic growth in African economies over the period 1950 to 2012, using growth regression techniques in which the explanatory variables are: public debt per capita, investment ratio, government ratio, capital stock per capita, and the Human Capital Index. The method used takes into account observed and unobserved heterogeneity. The regression results show strong evidence of a positive impact of the growth rate of capital stock to economic growth of African countries. The growth rate of the government to GDP ratio is also important in all but one of the regressions in which appears, and its growth is harmful for economic growth. Human capital has a positive relationship with economic growth in regressions that don't include public debt. However, the cross country impact of these two variables on the growth rate of the economies (positive to some and negative to others) is not uniform, so that appropriate policies for one country may be seriously misguided in another. Concerning public debt, we found that it is not significant and therefore it has no impact on the economic growth of African countries. The growth rate of real GDP per capita also depends (negatively) on its past value, i.e., the lower the real GDP per capita the higher will be its growth rate. We have also tested two proxies for institutions, which did not deliver significant results. The software used for the regressions is STATA, version 13. The fourth essay is devoted to an exploratory analysis of the main economic, social and institutional determinants of development in Africa, using a main component analysis for categorical data and cluster analysis and taking into account the years 1996 and 2014 as the oldest and most recent, respectively. This methodology allowed the agglomeration of the African countries into four differentiated clusters, being the countries constituting the clusters of 1996 distinct from those of the year 2014. The results point out to a positive association between the social, economic and institutional determinants of development which is reflected in the fact that countries with better institutional performances also show better indicators of economic and social achievement. The results also draw the attention of policy makers and development strategists to the need for an integrated approach to the development process, in order to achieve greater and more efficient integration of the different development determinants. The software used is IBM-SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences), version 23.0. ; Esta tese intitula-se "Essays on Public Debt, Economic Growth and Development in Africa" e é constituída por um conjunto de quatro ensaios, sendo três de natureza empírica. O primeiro ensaio ocupa-se da revisão da literatura sobre a dívida pública e o crescimento económico no contexto das economias africanas. A dívida pública constitui desde os princípios dos anos noventa do século passado uma verdadeira barreira para o crescimento económico das economias africanas e desde então passou a fazer parte da agenda e da preocupação dos decisores políticos, dos economistas e de uma massa crítica de investigadores cada vez mais interessada. Um manancial de estudos teóricos e empíricos foi produzido ao longo dessas décadas abordando o impacto da dívida pública no crescimento económico desses países. Os resultados são consensuais e apontam, genericamente, para uma relação inversa entre as duas variáveis ou seja a dívida pública afeta negativamente o crescimento económico a partir de um determinado nível. Krugman (1988) e Sachs (1989) concordam que níveis elevados da dívida pública hipotecam o crescimento económico dos países em vias de desenvolvimento por via do investimento. Esta posição é ainda corroborada por Mbale (2013) que referindo aos países africanos defende que a dívida pública crowds out o crédito destinado ao sector privado e impede a acumulação do capital e o crescimento do sector privado. Buchanan (1958) e Modigliani (1961) também partilham a opinião de que para além do efeito crowding out, o aumento da dívida pública influencia diretamente o aumento da taxa de juros a longo prazo. Em suma, o aumento da dívida pública afeta negativamente o crescimento económico. Fosu (1996) Irons e Bivens (2010) são decisivos em concluir que níveis elevados de dívida comprometem o crescimento económico, posição partilhada também por Ezeabasili et al (2011), Escobar and Mallick (2013) e Zouhaier e Fatma (2014). Relativamente ao impacto da política fiscal no crescimento económico dos países africanos, Devarajan et al (1996) consideram, após análises empíricas, que um aumento das despesas públicas tem um impacto positivo e significante no crescimento económico. Nurudeen e Usman (2010) argumentam que um incremento das despesas públicas não é imediatamente convertido em crescimento económico, enquanto Nworji et al. (2012) mostram que as despesas correntes e de capital não têm significativo impacto negativo no crescimento económico da Nigéria. Opinião díspar é defendida por Engen and Skinner (1997) que concluíram que as despesas públicas e a carga fiscal afetam negativamente e de forma acutilante o crescimento económico. Babadola e Aminu (2011) trazem evidências complementares e recomendam que o aumento das despesas públicas na saúde e educação promovem o crescimento. O segundo ensaio faz uma análise empírica sobre os limites do endividamento público, o crescimento económico e a inflação nas economias africanas, partindo de uma base de dados que cobre o período entre 1950 e 2012, envolvendo um conjunto de 52 economias, dividido em três áreas geográficas, designadamente: (1) Africa do Norte, (2) Africa Sub-Sahariana e (3) Comunidade para o Desenvolvimento da Africa Austral (SADC). O estudo conclui que, para o conjunto das economias africanas, as melhores performances em termos de taxas médias de crescimento económico (6,39%) são alcançadas quando os limites da dívida pública em percentagem do PIB se encontram entre os 30-60% do PIB e a taxa média de inflação for igual a 8.17%. Qualquer incremento da dívida pública a partir deste limite, provoca uma redução das taxas de crescimento médio das economias e um aumento das taxas médias de inflação. O ensaio traz-nos ainda uma evidência inequívoca de que existe uma relação inversa entre o crescimento económico e a inflação, em função dos níveis de endividamento. A principal conclusão do ensaio é a de que maiores taxas de crescimento médio das economias são alcançadas quando a dívida pública se encontra entre os 30 e os 60% do PIB. Se este rácio aumentar e se enquadrar entre os 60 e os 90% do PIB, as taxas médias de crescimento económico caem 1,32 pontos percentuais e 1,64 pontos percentuais quando excede os 90% do PIB. Trata-se, efetivamente, de valores inferiores aos obtidos por Reinhart e Rogoff no ensaio "Growth in Time of Debt" em que a dívida pública equivalente a 60% do PIB provoca uma queda do crescimento económico em cerca de 2 pontos percentuais e uma redução até 50% para valores da dívida pública superiores a 90% do PIB. Nota-se ainda que, no que diz respeito à taxa de inflação os resultados obtidos são idênticos aos de Reinhart e Rogoff ".nas economias emergentes, níveis elevados da dívida coincidem com elevadas taxas de inflação" (Reinhart and Rogoff, 2010). Um artigo resultante deste ensaio foi publicado no South African Journal of Economics, uma revista científica internacional pertencente ao Journal Citations Report e ao ranking do CEFAGE. O terceiro ensaio, intitulado "Explaining Growth in African Countries – What Matters?", analisa a relação entre dívida pública, stock de capital, consumo público em percentagem do PIB, Formação Bruta do Capital Fixo (BCF) em percentagem do PIB e o Índice do Capital Humano enquanto determinantes do crescimento e o próprio crescimento económico em 52 economias africanas entre 1950 e 2012. Tratando-se de um conjunto preciso de países e, por conseguinte, de uma regressão limitada, utilizou-se um modelo de painel de efeito fixo. Os coeficientes heterogéneos foram estimados utilizando o Modelo de Correção de Erros, de forma a envolver as propriedades das séries temporais e a própria dinâmica dos dados em painel. O software utilizado para as regressões é o STATA versão 13. O ensaio traz sólidas evidências, em todas as regressões efetuadas, de que a taxa de crescimento do stock de capital afeta positivamente o crescimento económico dos países africanos. Por outro lado, o capital humano manifesta uma relação positiva com o crescimento económico nas regressões que não incluem a dívida pública. No que se refere à dívida pública, o ensaio mostra que o seu impacto no crescimento económico dos países africanos não é significante. Testamos ainda duas proxies para as instituições mas os resultados não foram significativos. O quarto ensaio dedica-se à análise exploratória dos principais determinantes económicos, sociais e institucionais de desenvolvimento em Africa, utilizando uma análise de componentes principais para dados categóricos e análise de clusters e tendo em conta os anos de 1996 e 2014 como ano mais antigo e mais recente, respetivamente. Esta metodologia permitiu a aglomeração dos países africanos em quatro clusters diferenciados, sendo os países constituintes dos clusters de 1996 distintos dos do ano 2014. Os dados foram tratados com recurso ao software estatístico IBM-SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences), versão 23.0. Os resultados do ensaio apontam para uma associação positiva entre os determinantes sociais, económicos e institucionais do desenvolvimento. Esta associação traduz-se no facto de que os países com melhores performances institucionais manifestam também melhores indicadores de realização económica e social. Os resultados chamam também a atenção dos decisores políticos e dos estrategas de desenvolvimento para a necessidade de uma abordagem integrada do processo de desenvolvimento, visando uma maior e mais eficiente integração dos diferentes determinantes do desenvolvimento. A tese está organizada em capítulos que constituíram a base para artigos científicos submetidos a revistas internacionais, dai que embora relacionados entre si nos temas abordados e tendo como fio condutor um contributo para o desenvolvimento da economias dos países de Africa, cada capitulo é autocontido, tendo também o autor optado por incluir listas bibliográficas em cada um dos capítulos.

A1 Predictive and prognostic biomarker panel for targeted application of radioembolisation improving individual outcomes in hepatocellular carcinoma, Jella-Andrea Abraham, Olga Golubnitschaja, A2 Integrated market access approach amplifying value of "Rx-CDx", Ildar Akhmetov, A3 Disaster response: an opportunity to improve global healthcare, Russell J. Andrews, Leonidas Quintana, A4 USA PPPM: proscriptive, profligate, profiteering medicine-good for 1 % wealthy, not for 99 % unhealthy, Russell J. Andrews, A5 The role of IDO in a murine model of gingivitis: predictive and therapeutic potentials, Babak Baban, Jun Yao Liu, Xu Qin, Tailing Wang, Mahmood S. Mozaffari, A6 Specific diets for personalised treatment of diabetes type 2, Viktoriia V. Bati, Tamara V. Meleshko, Olga B. Levchuk, Nadiya V. Boyko, A7 Towards personalized physiotherapeutic approach, Joanna Bauer, Ewa Boerner, Halina Podbielska, A8 Cells, animal, SHIME and in silico models for detection and verification of specific biomarkers of non-communicable chronic diseases, Alojz Bomba, Viktor O. Petrov, Volodymyr G. Drobnych, Rostyslav V. Bubnov, Oksana M. Bykova, Nadiya V. Boyko, A9 INTERACT-chronic care model: Self-treatment by patients with decision support e-Health solution, Hans-Peter Brunner-La Rocca, Lutz Fleischhacker, Olga Golubnitschaja, Frank Heemskerk, Thomas Helms, Tiny Jaarsma, Judita Kinkorova, Jan Ramaekers, Peter Ruff, Ivana Schnur, Emilio Vanoli, Jose Verdu, A10 PPPM in cardiovascular medicine in 2015, Hans-Peter Brunner-La Rocca, A11 Magnetic resonance imaging of nanoparticles in mice, potential for theranostic and contrast media development – pilot results, Rostyslav V. Bubnov, Sergiy A. Grabovetskyi, Olena M. Mykhalchenko, Natalia O. Tymoshok, Oleksandr B. Shcherbakov, Igor P. Semeniv, Mykola Y. Spivak, A12 Ultrasound diagnosis for diabetic neuropathy - comparative study, Rostyslav V. Bubnov, Tetyana V. Ostapenko, A13 Ultrasound for stratification patients with diabetic foot ulcers for prevention and personalized treatment - pilot results, Rostyslav V. Bubnov, Nazarii M. Kobyliak, Nadiya M. Zholobak, Mykola Ya. Spivak, A14 Project ImaGenX – designing and executing a questionnaire on environment and lifestyle risk of breast cancer, John Paul Cauchi, A15 Genomics – a new structural brand of predictive, preventive and personalized medicine or the new driver as well?, Dmitrii Cherepakhin, Marina Bakay, Artem Borovikov, Sergey Suchkov, A16 Survey of questionnaires for evaluation of the quality of life in various medical fields, Barbara Cieślik, Agnieszka Migasiewicz, Maria-Luiza Podbielska, Markus Pelleter, Agnieszka Giemza, Halina Podbielska, A17 Personalized molecular treatment for muscular dystrophies, Sebahattin Cirak, A18 Secondary mutations in circulating tumour DNA for acquired drug resistance in patients with advanced ALK + NSCLC, Marzia Del Re, Paola Bordi, Valentina Citi, Marta Palombi, Carmine Pinto, Marcello Tiseo, Romano Danesi, A19 Recombinant species-specific FcεRI alpha proteins for diagnosis of IgE-mediated allergies in dogs, cats and horses, Lukas Einhorn, Judit Fazekas, Martina Muhr, Alexandra Schoos, Lucia Panakova, Ina Herrmann, Krisztina Manzano-Szalai, Kumiko Oida, Edda Fiebiger, Josef Singer, Erika Jensen-Jarolim, A20 Global methodology for developmental neurotoxicity testing in humans and animals early and chronically exposed to chemical contaminants, Arpiné A. Elnar, Nadia Ouamara, Nadiya Boyko, Xavier Coumoul, Jean-Philippe Antignac, Bruno Le Bizec, Gauthier Eppe, Jenny Renaut, Torsten Bonn, Cédric Guignard, Margherita Ferrante, Maria Liusa Chiusano, Salvatore Cuzzocrea, Gerard O'Keeffe, John Cryan, Michelle Bisson, Amina Barakat, Ihsane Hmamouchi, Nasser Zawia, Anumantha Kanthasamy, Glen E. Kisby, Rui Alves, Oscar Villacañas Pérez, Kim Burgard, Peter Spencer, Norbert Bomba, Martin Haranta, Nina Zaitseva, Irina May, Stéphanie Grojean, Mathilde Body-Malapel, Florencia Harari, Raul Harari, Kristina Yeghiazaryan, Olga Golubnitschaja, Vittorio Calabrese, Christophe Nemos, Rachid Soulimani, A21 Mental indicators at young people with attributes hypertension and pre-hypertension, Maria E. Evsevyeva, Elena A. Mishenko, Zurida V. Kumukova, Evgeniy V. Chudnovsky, Tatyana A. Smirnova, A22 On the approaches to the early diagnosis of stress-induced hypertension in young employees of State law enforcement agencies, Maria E. Evsevyeva, Ludmila V. Ivanova, Michail V. Eremin, Maria V. Rostovtseva, A23 Сentral aortic pressure and indexes of augmentation in young persons in view of risk factors, Maria E. Evsevyeva, Michail V. Eremin, Vladimir I. Koshel, Oksana V. Sergeeva, Nadesgda M. Konovalova, A24 Breast cancer prediction and prevention: Are reliable biomarkers in horizon?, Shantanu Girotra, Olga Golubnitschaja, A25 Flammer Syndrome and potential formation of pre-metastatic niches: A multi-centred study on phenotyping, patient stratification, prediction and potential prevention of aggressive breast cancer and metastatic disease, Olga Golubnitschaja, Manuel Debald, Walther Kuhn, Kristina Yeghiazaryan, Rostyslav V. Bubnov, Vadym M. Goncharenko, Ulyana Lushchyk, Godfrey Grech, Katarzyna Konieczka, A26 Innovative tools for prenatal diagnostics and monitoring: improving individual pregnancy outcomes and health-economy in EU, Olga Golubnitschaja, Jan Jaap Erwich, Vincenzo Costigliola, Kristina Yeghiazaryan, Ulrich Gembruch, A27 Immunohistochemical assessment of APUD cells in endometriosis, Vadym M. Goncharenko, Vasyl O. Beniuk, Olga V. Kalenska, Rostyslav V. Bubnov, A28 Updating personalized management algorithm of endometrial hyperplasia in pre-menopause women, Vadym M. Goncharenko, Vasyl O. Beniuk, Rostyslav V. Bubnov, Olga Melnychuk, A29 The personified treatment approach of polimorbid patients with periodontal inflammatory diseases, Irina A. Gorbacheva, Lyudmila Y. Orekhova, Vadim V. Tachalov, A30 Ukrainian experience in hybrid war – the challenge to update algorithms for personalized care and early prevention of different military injuries, Olena I. Grechanyk, Rizvan Ya. Abdullaiev, Rostyslav V. Bubnov, A31 Tear fluid biomarkers: a comparison of tear fluid sampling and storage protocols, Suzanne Hagan, Eilidh Martin, Ian Pearce, Katherine Oliver, A32 The correlation of dietary habits with gingival problems during menstruation, Cenk Haytac, Fariz Salimov, Servin Yoksul, Anatoly A. Kunin, Natalia S. Moiseeva, A33 Genomic medicine in a contemporary Spanish population of prostate cancer: our experience, Bernardo Herrera-Imbroda, Sergio del Río-González, Maria Fernanda Lara, Antonia Angulo, Francisco Javier Machuca Santa-Cruz, A34 Challenges, opportunities and collaborations for personalized medicine applicability in uro-oncological disease, Bernardo Herrera-Imbroda, Sergio del Río-González, Maria Fernanda Lara, A35 Metabolic hallmarks of cancer as targets for a personalized therapy, John Ionescu, A36 Influence of genetic polymorphism as a predictor of the development of periodontal disease in patients with gastric ulcer and 12 duodenal ulcer, Alfiya Z. Isamulaeva, Anatoly A. Kunin, Shamil Sh. Magomedov, Aida I. Isamulaeva, A37 Challenges in diabetic macular edema, Tatjana Josifova, A38 Overview of the EPMA strategies in laboratory medicine relevant for PPPM, Marko Kapalla, Juraj Kubáň, Olga Golubnitschaja, Vincenzo Costigliola, A39 EPMA initiative for effective organization of medical travel: European concepts and criteria, Vincenzo Costigliola, Marko Kapalla, Juraj Kubáň, Olga Golubnitschaja, A40 Design and innovation in e-textiles: implications for PPPM, Anthony Kent, Tom Fisher, Tilak Dias, A41 Biobank in Pilsen as a member of national node BBMRI_CZ, Judita Kinkorová, Ondřej Topolčan, A42 Big data in personalized medicine: hype and hope, Matthias Kohl, A43 The 3P approach as the platform of the European Dentistry Department (DPPPD), Anatoly A. Kunin, Natalia S. Moiseeva, A44 The endometrium cytokine patterns for predictive diagnosis of proliferation severity and cancer prevention, Andrii I. Kurchenko, Vasyl A. Beniuk, Vadym M. Goncharenko, Rostyslav V. Bubnov, Nadiya V. Boyko, Andriy M. Strokan, A45 A monocyte-based in-vitro system for testing individual responses to the implanted material: future for personalized implant construction, Julia Kzhyshkowska, Alexandru Gudima, Ksenia S. Stankevich, Victor D. Filimonov4, Harald Klüter, Evgeniya M. Mamontova, Sergei I. Tverdokhlebov, A46 Prediction and prevention of adverse health effects by meteorological factors: Biomarker patterns and creation of a device for self-monitoring and integrated care, Ulyana B. Lushchyk, Viktor V. Novytskyy, Igor P. Babii, Nadiya G. Lushchyk, Lyudmyla S. Riabets, Ivanna I. Legka, A47 Targeting "disease signatures" towards personalized healthcare, Mira Marcus-Kalish, Alexis Mitelpunkt, Tal Galili, Neta Shachar, Yoav Benjamini, A48 Influence of the skin imperfection on the personal quality of life and possible tools for objective diagnosis, Agnieszka Migasiewicz, Markus Pelleter, Joanna Bauer, Ewelina Dereń, Halina Podbielska, A49 The new direction in caries prevention based on the ultrastructure of dental hard tissues and filling materials, Natalia S. Moiseeva, Anatoly A. Kunin, Dmitry A. Kunin, A50 The use of LED radiation in prevention of dental diseases, Natalia S. Moiseeva, Yury A. Ippolitov, Dmitry A. Kunin, Alexei N. Morozov, Natalia V. Chirkova, Nakhid T. Aliev, A51 Status of endothelial progenitor cells in diabetic nephropathy: predictive and preventive potentials, Mahmood S. Mozaffari, Jun Yao Liu, Babak Baban, A52 The status of glucocorticoid-induced leucine zipper protein in salivary gland in Sjögren's syndrome: predictive and personalized treatment potentials, Mahmood S. Mozaffari, Jun Yao Liu, Rafik Abdelsayed, Xing-Ming Shi, Babak Baban, A53 Maximal aerobic capacity - important quality marker of health, Jaroslav Novák, Milan Štork, Václav Zeman, A54 The EMPOWER project: laboratory medicine and Horizon 2020, Wytze P. Oosterhuis, Elvar Theodorsson, A55 Personality profile manifestations in patient's attitude to oral care and adherence to doctor's prescriptions, Lyudmila Y. Orekhova, Tatyana V. Kudryavtseva, Elena R. Isaeva, Vadim V. Tachalov, Ekaterina S. Loboda, A56 Results of an European survey on personalized medicine addressed to directions of laboratory medicine, Mario Pazzagli, Francesca Malentacchi, Irene Mancini, Ivan Brandslund, Pieter Vermeersch, Matthias Schwab, Janja Marc, Ron H.N. van Schaik, Gerard Siest, Elvar Theodorsson, Chiara Di Resta, A57 MCI or early dementia predictive speech based diagnosis techniques, Matus Pleva, Jozef Juhar, A58 Personalized speech based mobile application for eHealth, Matus Pleva, Jozef Juhar, A59 Circulating tumor cell-free DNA as the biomarker in the management of cancer patients, Jiří Polívka jr., Filip Janků, Martin Pešta, Jan Doležal, Milena Králíčková, Jiří Polívka, A60 Complex stroke care – educational programme in Stroke Centre University Hospital Plzen, Jiří Polívka, Alena Lukešová, Nina Müllerová, Petr Ševčík, Vladimír Rohan, A61 Sleep apnea and sleep fragmentation contribute to brain aging, Kneginja Richter, Lence Miloseva, Günter Niklewski, A62 Personalised approach for sleep disturbances in shift workers, Kneginja Richter, Jens Acker, Guenter Niklewski, A63 Medical travel and innovative PPPM clusters: new concept of integration, Olga Safonicheva, Vincenzo Costigliola, A64 Medical travel and women health, Olga Safonicheva, A65 Continuity of generations in the training of specialists in the field of reconstructive microsurgery, Maxim Sautin, Janna Sinelnikova, Sergey Suchkov, A66 Telemonitoring of stroke patients – empirical evidence of individual risk management results from an observational study in Germany, Songül Secer, Stephan von Bandemer, A67 Women's increasing breast cancer risk with n-6 fatty acid intake explained by estrogen-fatty acid interactive effect on DNA damage: implications for gender-specific nutrition within personalized medicine, Niva Shapira, A68 Cytobacterioscopy of the gingival crevicular fluid as a method for preventive diagnosis of periodontal diseases, Aleksandr Shcherbakov, Anatoly A. Kunin, Natalia S. Moiseeva, A69 Use of specially treated composites in dentistry to avoid violations of aesthetics, Bogdan R. Shumilovich, Zhanna Lipkind, Yulia Vorobieva, Dmitry A. Kunin, Anastasiia V. Sudareva, A70 National eHealth system – platform for preventive, predictive and personalized diabetes care, Ivica Smokovski, Tatjana Milenkovic, A72 The common energy levels of Prof. Szent-Györgyi, the intrinsic chemistry of melanin, and the muscle physiopathology. Implications in the context of Preventive, Predictive, and Personalized Medicine, Arturo Solís-Herrera, María del Carmen Arias-Esparza, Sergey Suchkov, A73 Plurality and individuality of hepatocellular carcinoma: PPPM perspectives, Krishna Chander Sridhar, Olga Golubnitschaja, A74 Strategic aspects of higher medical education reforms to secure newer educational platforms for getting biopharma professionals matures, Maria Studneva, Sihong Song, James Creeden, Мark Мandrik, Sergey Suchkov, A75 Overview of the strategies and activities of the European Federation of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, (EFLM), Elvar Theodorsson, EFLM, A76 New spectroscopic techniques for point of care label free diagnostics, Syed A. M. Tofail, A77 Tumor markers for personalized medicine and oncology - the role of Laboratory Medicine, Ondřej Topolčan, Judita Kinkorová, Ondřej Fiala, Marie Karlíková, Šárka Svobodová, Radek Kučera, Radka Fuchsová, Vladislav Třeška, Václav Šimánek, Ladislav Pecen, Jan Šoupal, Štěpán Svačina2, A78 Modern medical terminology (MMT) as a driver of the global educational reforms, Evgeniya Tretyak, Maria Studneva, Sergey Suchkov, A79 Juvenile hypertension; the relevance of novel predictive, preventive and personalized assessment of its determinants, Francesca M. Trovato, G. Fabio Martines, Daniela Brischetto, Daniela Catalano, Giuseppe Musumeci, Guglielmo M. Trovato, A80 Proteomarkers Biotech, George Th. Tsangaris, Athanasios K. Anagnostopoulos, A81 Proteomics and mass spectrometry based non-invasive prenatal testing of fetal health and pregnancy complications, George Th. Tsangaris, Athanasios K. Anagnostopoulos, A82 Integrated Ecosystem for an Integrated Care model for Heart Failure (HF) patients including related comorbidities (ZENITH), José Verdú, German Gutiérrez, Jordi Rovira, Marta Martinez, Lutz Fleischhacker, Donna Green, Arthur Garson, Elena Tamburini, Stefano Cuomo, Juan Martinez-Leon, Teresa Abrisqueta, Hans-Peter Brunner-La Rocca, Tiny Jaarsma, Teresa Arredondo, Cecilia Vera, Giuseppe Fico, Olga Golubnitschaja, Fernando Arribas, Martina Onderco, Isabel Vara, on behalf of ZENITH consortium, A83 Predictive, preventive and personalized medicine in diabetes onset and complication (MOSAIC project), José Verdú, Francesco Sambo, Barbara Di Camillo, Claudio Cobelli, Andrea Facchinetti, Giuseppe Fico, Riccardo Bellazzi, Lucia Sacchi, Arianna Dagliati, Daniele Segnani, Valentina Tibollo, Manuel Ottaviano, Rafael Gabriel, Leif Groop, Jacqueline Postma, Antonio Martinez, Liisa Hakaste, Tiinamaija Tuomi, Konstantia Zarkogianni, on behalf of MOSAIC consortium, A84 Possibilities for personalized therapy of diabetes using in vitro screening of insulin and oral hypoglycemic agents, Igor Volchek, Nina Pototskaya, Andrey Petrov, A85 The innovative technology for personalized therapy of human diseases based on in vitro drug screening, Igor Volchek, Nadezhda Pototskaya, Andrey Petrov, A86 Bone destruction and temporomandibular joint: predictive markers, pathogenetic aspects and quality of life, Ülle Voog-Oras, Oksana Jagur, Edvitar Leibur, Priit Niibo, Triin Jagomägi, Minh Son Nguyen, Chris Pruunsild, Dagmar Piikov, Mare Saag, A87 Sub-optimal health management – global vision for concepts in medical travel, Wei Wang, A88 Sub-optimal health management: synergic PPPM-TCAM approach, Wei Wang, A89 Innovative technologies for minimal invasive diagnostics, Andreas Weinhäusel, Walter Pulverer, Matthias Wielscher, Manuela Hofner, Christa Noehammer, Regina Soldo, Peter Hettegger, Istvan Gyurjan, Ronald Kulovics, Silvia Schönthaler, Gabriel Beikircher, Albert Kriegner, Stephan Pabinger, Klemens Vierlinger, A90 Rare disease diobanks for personalized medicine, Ayşe Yüzbaşıoğlu, Meral Özgüç, Member of EuroBioBank - European Network of DNA, Cell and Tissue Banks for Rare Diseases

[spa] La actual organización geopolítica y económica ha configurado una situación laboral y social que implica una serie de riesgos para los trabajadores (Sennett, 2000, 2001, 2006, 2009, 2011) derivados de un contexto global, de la presión e inestabilidad laboral y de las exigencias de la tarea, a los que la Organización Internacional del Trabajo (OIT) ha clasificado como riesgo psicosocial. Simultáneamente, la Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS) ha manifestado que las nuevas enfermedades profesionales, entre las que destacan el estrés, la depresión y la ansiedad, son la epidemia del siglo XXI. De todo ello, cabe destacar que el creciente interés por la salud laboral y el "bienestar psicológico" ha propiciado un gran avance en la investigación de estos trastornos, concienciando a los trabajadores y a las organizaciones de la necesidad de poner en marcha programas de prevención, evaluación, formación, información e intervención para mejorar la calidad de vida tanto a nivel personal, como a nivel laboral y social. Por otra parte, el actual contexto global y el auge de las nuevas tecnologías, han puesto de manifiesto la aparición de riesgos emergentes que representan una amenaza para la seguridad de las personas, de sus bienes y del medio ambiente donde se mueven y, que debido a su complejidad, son difusos y difíciles de controlar. Tal es así, que lo que acontece fuera de la propia comunidad puede trascender o afectar de forma directa o indirecta al entorno próximo, como sucede en grandes catástrofes y atentados terroristas, entre otros. Ello ha obligado a las diferentes comunidades, tanto en el orden nacional como internacional, a reorganizarse y analizar nuevas estrategias para hacer frente a este tipo de amenazas. Seguridad y defensa son términos complementarios que analizaremos en el presente estudio, así como la estructura necesaria para el desarrollo de las tareas de seguridad en el marco de las emergencias. Dentro de esta estructura, los cuerpos y fuerzas de seguridad del Estado, a nivel gubernamental y también algunas organizaciones no gubernamentales, constituyen el sector de profesionales y voluntarios implicados en la resolución de situaciones consideradas de riesgo o emergencia para la población. Cuando todavía son pocos los estudios en el área de emergencias, consideramos que la importancia de este trabajo radica en aportar una visión práctica de la intervención en emergencias. En la revisión teórica, inicialmente, se abordarán algunas variables conductuales del personal de emergencias y su relación con las variables psicosociales, motivacionales y organizacionales, centrando el foco de atención en las respuestas de mayor riesgo, la ansiedad y el estrés, consideradas conductas de riesgo psicosocial. Ello implica a su vez, el análisis del medio donde se desarrollan estas conductas con el fin de canalizar este tipo de conflictos dentro de un contexto global. En esta línea, la clínica y la intervención estratégica en emergencias se centra, en primer lugar, en mantener el equilibrio entre los recursos y necesidades de las personas y en el análisis de las demandas y oportunidades del medio, dando lugar a nuevos modelos para afrontar situaciones de riesgo, tanto a nivel individual como a nivel comunitario. En cuanto a las variables conductuales, partiendo de los trabajos pioneros de Selye (1936, 1960,1974) respecto a la respuesta fisiológica del estrés, se ha revisado el modelo de Lazarus y Folkman (1986), el cual considera el estrés como un proceso de afrontamiento (adaptativo o no adaptativo, eficaz o ineficaz) que no siempre guarda relación con los resultados, ya que éstos dependen en gran medida del contexto. Más adelante, Carver y Scheier (1994) presentaron dos tipos de afrontamiento, definiendo el afrontamiento situacional en función de los cambios del entorno y, el afrontamiento disposicional en base a dos componentes, denominados estilos de afrontamiento y estrategias de afrontamiento. Finalmente, los trabajos de Lazarus y los trabajos de Moos sobre el afrontamiento han sido el eje principal de este estudio por su visión integral de la persona y el contexto en el marco de las emergencias. Respecto a las variables motivacionales, los trabajos pioneros de McClelland, Atkinson, Clark y Lowell (1953) publicados en su obra "La motivación de logro" (The Achievement Motive), fueron un avance sobre las teorías cognitivas y sociales. De igual forma, los trabajos de R.H. Moos (2005) destacan el papel de la atmósfera social en la satisfacción de las personas, identificando los principales factores del clima laboral en el desarrollo organizacional, en la salud laboral y en la productividad. En la actualidad, se consideran "organizaciones inteligentes" aquellas que disponen de un sistema abierto en el que sus miembros, además de relacionarse, pueden desarrollar su capacidad creativa y de aprendizaje (Senge, 1992, 1995, 2014). Finalmente, sin entrar en valoraciones o criterios personales, nos ha parecido importante mostrar algunos modelos de afrontamiento, tanto a nivel personal como a nivel comunitario, desde el enfoque de la psicología positiva, tales como el pensamiento sistémico, la resiliencia y el crecimiento postraumático, entre los que destacan autores como Siegrist (1996), Grotberg (1998, 2001), Folkman y Moskowitz (2000), Calhoun y Tedeschi (2001), Seligman (2003), Zuckerfeld y Zonis (2006), Cyrulnik (2007), Leka y Cox (2010) y Wollin (2010), entre otros, y también cabe mencionar la propuesta de la UNESCO respecto a la educación en emergencias, como principal estrategia de afrontamiento. La segunda parte del estudio se centra en el análisis y tratamiento estadístico de las respuestas de afrontamiento del personal de emergencias. Para ello hemos revisado algunos instrumentos de medida elaborados por diferentes autores tales como la Escala de Modos de Afrontamiento de Folkman y Lazarus (1980), el Inventario COPE de Carver, Scheier y Weintraub (1989), el CSI de Tobin, Holroyd y Reynolds (1984,1989) y el CRI-A de R.H. Moos (1993), entre otros. En este contexto, los objetivos que se plantean en el presente estudio pretenden validar una serie de hipótesis capaces de aportar un enfoque eminentemente práctico respecto al perfil del profesional de emergencias y a las estrategias más utilizadas por los intervinientes, con objeto de presentar o validar un instrumento ágil y eficaz que nos permita establecer cuáles son las estrategias de afrontamiento más adecuadas en los procesos de selección y formación e intervención del personal de emergencias. Resumiendo, nuestro esfuerzo va dirigido a proporcionar una visión integral del profesional de emergencias en relación al contexto donde se desarrolla la tarea, poniendo el foco de atención en los estresores laborales que afectan la salud y el bienestar psicológico, personal, familiar, laboral y social y, como éstos pueden ser manejados de forma más eficaz por el propio interviniente y por la organización. ; [eng] The actual geopolitical and economic structure has given place to a social and occupational situation which involves new risks for workers (Sennett, 2000, 2001, 2006, 2009, 2011), deriving from the global context, of inestability and persistent pressoure in employment and the demands of the job, which the International Labour Organisation (ILO) has classified as a psychosocial risk. At the same time, the World Health Organization (WHO) has declared that the new professional diseases, amongst which they attach great importance to stress, depression and anxiety, are the epidemic of the 21st century. Above all, we must underline that the growing interest in occupational and "psychological well being" has propitiated a great advance in the investigation into these disorders, making workers and also institutions aware of the need to implement programmes for prevention, evaluation, formation, information and intervention in the hope of improving the standart of life as much on a personal, as on occupational and social level. On the other hand, the current global context of events and the increase in new technologies, have made it evident that the consequent new risks represent a threat to personal safety, to personal property and the environment in which we move and, due to their complexity, they are disordered and difficult to control. And this means, that what may occur outside of our own community can extend or can cause an affect in a direct or indirect way on our immediate surroundings, such being the case during large scale disasters or terrorist attacks, amongst other matters. This fact has made many different communities, as much on a national level as on international level, reorganise and analyse new tactics to be able to face up to this kind of treats which we will see throughout this study. Security and defense are complementary terms that we will analyse in this study, as well as the essential framework necessary for the development of safety duties within emergency settings. Within this structure the nation´s security forces, on a governmental level and also some non-governmental organizations, make up the sector of professionals and volunteers involved in the resolution of situations considered to be of a high risk, a threat, or an emergency for the population. While there are still few investigations in the emergency field, we consider that the importance of this study lies in providing a practical view of interventions in emergencies. In the theoretical revisión, we will initially broach some of the behavioural variables of the emergency personal and their relation to psychosocial, motivational and organizational variables, focusing our attention on the reponses of greater risk, anxiety and stress, that are considered to be conducts of high psychosocial risk. This involves at the same time, an analysis of the environment where these conducts develop with the aim of canalizing this type of conflicts within a global context. On these lines, the current clinical and strategic intervention in case of emergency centre, in the first place, on maintaining a balance between the resources on hand, and the needs of the people and on the analysis of the demands and opportunities of the environment, giving rise to new ways of confronting hazardous situations as much as on, an individual level as on a communitarian scale. As for the behavioural variables, starting with the pioneering works of Selye (1936, 1960, 1974) in relation to the physiological reponse to stress, we have reviewed Lazarus` model (1986) which considers stress to be a coping process (adaptive or not adaptive, effective or not effective), that does not always bear any relation to the results, as these depend in greater part on the context. At a later date, Carver and Scheier (1994) presented two kinds of confrontation, defining situational coping as relating to the changes in our surroundings and, dispositional coping as based on two components designated as manners of coping and coping strategies. And finally, Lazarus` studies and Moo`s Works on coping have been the main crux of this investigation because of his integral visión of the person and its context within an emergency framework. With regard to motivational variables, the pioneering works of McClelland, Atkinson, Clark and Lowell (1953), in this field with their studies published as "The Achievement Motive", maked an advance in cognitive and social sciencies. In the same way, R.H. Moos (2005), underlines the role of a social atmosphere for personal satisfaction, identifying the principle factors of the working atmosphere as organizational development, in occupational health and in productivity. Nowadays we regard as "intelligent organizations" the institutions that provide an open system in which their members as well as mixing socially can develop their creative and learning abilities (Senge, 1992, 1995, 2014). Finally, without entering into personal evaluation or personal judgement, we have thougtht it important to offer some patterns of coping, as much at a personal level as at a communitarian level, from the point of view of positive psychology, such as systemic thinking, resilience and post-traumatic growth , with works by noteworthy authors such as Siegrist (1996), Grotberg (1998, 2001), Folkman and Moskowith (2000), Calhoun and Tedeschi (2001), Seligman (2003), Zuckerfeld and Zonis (2006), Cyrulnik (2007), Leka and Cox (2010), and Wollin (2010), amongst others, and also the UNESCO´S proposal with regard to education for emergencies, as the main coping strategy. The second part of this work centres on the analysis and statistics treatment of coping responses used by a representative simple of emergency staff. For this matter we have review a several scales of measurement worked by different authors, for example Folkman and Lazaru´s "Scale of Coping Modes" (1980), Carver, Scheier and Weintraub´s COPE Inventary (1989), CSI by Tobin, Holroyd and Reynolds (1984,1989) and R.H. Moos CRIA (1993), amongst others. In this context, the objetives set out in the present study are those which seek to validate a series of hypotheses capable of forming a highly practical point of view with regard to the profile of the emergency personnel and the strategies most used by the professionals who intervene in emergencies, whit the purpose of presenting or validating an effective and flexible instrument that will let us establish the most appropiate confrontational strategies for the procedures of selection, formation and intervention of emergency personnel. Summing, our main endeavour is directed at proportioning an overall view of the professionals who deal with emergencies in relation to the context in which their task evolves, focusing our attention on the factors of occupational stress that affect their health and their psychological well-being, on a personal and social level, at work and within the family and, how these factors can be dealt with in the most efficacious manner by the person intervening and by the organization.

Drivers, characteristics and barriers of beneficial and adapted response mechanisms to water-related risks in the Vietnamese Mekong Delta (VMD) are at the centre of this PhD research. These subject matters owe their importance to a manifold range of factors. Water is at the fore as the most formative element for landscapes and societies in the VMD – not only in its function as a vital source of livelihood but also as a threatening natural hazard. Water-related hazards have changed and will continue to change amidst a vibrant socio-economic setting and a fundamentally changing climate. These looming threats and the ongoing changes require action if the prospering character of Vietnam's rice bowl is to be maintained. Long-term and short-term-oriented response mechanisms have thus aroused a great deal of interest in science, practice and in the public debate. Strategic assessments of the nature and values of risk-related measures have, however, rarely been addressed in the Mekong Delta context. This research has therefore brought evaluation of coping and adaptation in the context of water-related risks into focus. Quality judgements are at the centre of interest in the international community of evaluation research and practice. Within this community, evaluations commonly revolve around the identification of the most efficient strategy for a specific target group. Quality is, however, a measure of basic normative considerations on divergent implications and distinct values – aspects which cannot always be measured by a mere effectiveness assessment which judges "good" responses in seemingly absolute terms. A more comprehensive evaluation in combination with a profound understanding of the local context and individuals' decision-making processes is an essential prerequisite for identifying barriers to "good" adaptation and coping. This is, in turn, a vital requirement for promoting more sustainable development pathways for the Mekong Delta. This thesis therefore aims at a holistic assessment of "good" risk-related response mechanisms, an identification of more than just economic barriers to the successful implementation of these strategies, and an exploration of context-specific and actor-oriented ways of overcoming the barriers. The study consequently develops an innovative and adaptable evaluation framework which takes a multi-disciplinary perspective of risk-related strategies. This concept draws on three different schools of thought and combines them in an integrative approach. Firstly, it takes a social-ecological system perspective. In contrast to most of evaluation research and practice, this framework thereby explicitly addresses the risk context. It allows actors at various scales to be addressed and considers multiple dimensions. Vulnerability, as a concept arising from this line of thought, provides an expedient baseline to judge the relevance of taking action, grasp the complexity of strategy outcomes, and identify barriers emerging from the overall risk context. Secondly, the vulnerability concept is linked with an actor-oriented perspective derived from a socio-cognitive model of adaptation decision-making. This provides a, widely neglected, actor-oriented perspective to evaluation. It explains why decisions to adapt or cope are taken and involves a subjective and actor-specific evaluation component. Thirdly, the framework involves a more structured analysis of the actual adaptation/coping process along the lines of so-called "theories of change". It comprises the assessment of strategy implementation, outcomes and impacts on the vulnerability of different groups and can therefore facilitate outcome- and process-oriented evaluations. Such a multi-faceted analysis entails quite a number of methodological challenges such as empirically unfolding implicit preference structures, revealing underlying interconnectivities across scales, and facing difficulties specific to doing field research in Vietnam. A mixed-methods paradigm was used to address many of these challenges. A deliberately chosen set of methods in combination with a conscientious and flexible process created thereby the foundation for a more encompassing empirical assessment of risk-related strategies in the VMD. The data demonstrate that the risk context was diverse and varied, most notably with regard to the geographic location of the production area and the agro-economic indicators. Rice producers were the least exposed group, but experienced the largest production losses. This was mainly due to the fact that the farmers raised their susceptibility significantly by introducing winter-spring rice in 2011. In addition, the vulnerability of rice farmers was reinforced by low risk-specific capacities to cope and adapt. Aquaculture and sugarcane producers were more experienced in dealing with water-related hazards and/or produced less susceptible commodities. Nevertheless, the hydrological and geophysical characteristics as well as the location with regard to the hydraulic infrastructure made these farmers more exposed to water-related hazards than rice producers. The analysis also shows that these vulnerability patterns have and will most likely gather momentum as the sea level rises and socio-political changes lead to agricultural modernisation and rural industrialisation. How far and why the past and the future risk context induces "good" coping and adaptation actions depended, however, not only on the actual but also on the individually perceived risks. A social-psychology perspective motivated and guided by the social-ecological vulnerability concept indicates why intentions to act were formed and how different actors evaluated the quality of strategy options. The analysis of risk perception shows, for instance, that the perceived threats (i.e. hazard exposure and susceptibility) could differ substantially from the revealed threats. This became most apparent in the example of the individuals' appraisal of salinity threats. Rice producers perceived a low hazard exposure in a year of high salinity values and also seemed to have misjudged their susceptibility. This was a major reason for their producing winter-spring rice in the season with the highest salinity exposure, i.e. an action which increased the susceptibility substantially. The perceived capacity of response and the subjective quality judgement of the acknowledged adaptation and coping options were also of central importance for forming an intention to act. The empirical data suggest that households had a clear preference for protective infrastructural measures, despite the subjectively perceived high costs and low income effects. This seemed to be due to the positively judged long-term effects. Corresponding to this finding, negative long-term effects were a major factor restraining the application of many strategies, most notably taking children out of school, selling assets and buying on credit. Income effects were, thus, of less importance to people than expected from the weighting of quality criteria in group discussions. Migration was, for example, rarely preferred over other strategies although it was perceived to have the most positive income effect of all strategies (in addition to the judgement that it is easily implementable and comes at a comparatively low cost). This is only one of many examples which show that subjective evaluations cannot always be explained with common evaluation criteria, are often context-specific and represent in many cases more of an intuition than a structured quality judgement. Still, structured and "objectivity"-based approaches from evaluation research are essential elements in a more holistic judgement and analysis of risk-related response mechanisms and were therefore taken into consideration. They describe the revealed characteristics of the strategies, indicate their implications for the risk context, and provide a valid basis of comparison to the subjective evaluations. A theory-of-change-led assessment of the most common household strategies shows that strategies which induced a change in the exposure of the household were rarely applied in the context of flood and salinity risks. Households hardly ever sold exposed land although buyers were easily found and land prices were comparatively high. Moreover, strategies which caused a susceptibility reduction played only a minor role. Susceptibility-reducing strategies, such as the construction and maintenance of dikes and a change of crops, were either rarely put into practice or had merely a short-term impact. Most of the measures were intended to strengthen the coping and adaptive capacity. Raising the short-term availability of financial capital by buying on credit or taking a loan were the most common measures. However, these strategies often reduced the capacity of response in the long-term. Measures which were intended to strengthen the stock of capital endowment, in contrast, came at a high cost in the short-run but had positive effects on the capacity of response in the long-run. At the government level, the responsibilities with regard to flood- and salinity-related risk management were allocated hierarchically based on the centrally planned and highly technocratic Vietnamese state system. Protective and productive infrastructural measures were the most influential strategies from governmental side. The strong preference for the construction and management of dikes and sluice gates was largely based on their role in protecting a large number of people in the areas inside the dike. Nevertheless, these infrastructure-related measures had detrimental effects such as an increased flood risk outside the dike and strengthened the motivation to apply susceptibility-increasing strategies inside the dike (growing winter-spring rice, in particular). These aspects turn the construction and management of protective infrastructure into the most controversially judged measures in the research area. Susceptibility reduction seemed to play a merely minor role. Only the regular dredging of a canal had a substantial impact on the vulnerability of a large share of the population. The majority of strategies were applied in order to strengthen the capacity of response. The short-term oriented strategies, i.e. compensation payments and flood and salinity warnings, seemed to have had only a short-term effect, if any, on the capacity to cope. Agricultural training and public loan schemes were, in contrast, more common, had a longer-term effect, and were more positively judged. Overall, analyses of strategies along the lines of theories of change have been shown to facilitate a better understanding of the quality of certain strategies. In an integrative analysis with the previously outlined risk context and decision-making processes, this evaluation perspective provides innovative findings about evaluations of and barriers to "good" coping and adaptation at a region-specific, methodological and conceptual level. The analysis of the risk context enabled an identification of many context-specific barriers and recommendations for action. The data, for instance, show that several of the geo-physical and ecological limits may not be limits in "real" terms - at least not when they are taken up at higher-level arenas. Without mitigation action on a global level, sea level rise may turn most other barriers into limits and make adaptation on site impossible. Further geo-physical and ecological characteristics constitute barriers which can be overcome by "better" infrastructural planning and coordinated international and inter-regional water-resource management. Most of the economic barriers have been shown to emerge from agricultural modernisation and rural industrialisation. De-industrialised and diversified forms of income generation could clear many of these barriers and provide a basis for more sustainable livelihoods. Cognitive and knowledge-related obstacles were identified at the level of individuals' decision-making processes. Knowledge barriers arose mainly at the level of non-agricultural employment. A more adapted vocational education system could help seize the opportunities that rural industrialisation policies provide. Knowledge barriers to the implementation of "good" risk-specific strategies could be addressed by a more explicit inclusion of salinity-and flood-specific content in agricultural training. A participatory approach would, in this context, be conducive in strengthening the trust in expert know-how, involve local knowledge, develop context-specific solutions, and convey an understanding for diverging interests and implications. Many of the cognitive barriers emerged from too strong a reliance on the actions of other actors, most notably on governmental measures. In addition, cognitive processes converted some barriers into perceived limits. Too strong a hierarchical thinking and an often subordinate mentality made people believe that an order from the respective higher level is inviolable. It has thus been shown to be of particular importance to raise awareness with regard to the fallibility of infrastructural measures in addition to a reinforcement of the household's belief in its own capability to implement "good" response mechanisms. At the institutional level, the multifaceted approach revealed that a lack of official demand for evaluations, an unclear structure of responsibilities, vaguely defined criteria and insufficient control mechanisms inhibited an expedient evaluation practice. These barriers (as well as several other obstacles identified before) often relate to general institutional barriers such as prevailing elitism, a lack of participatory decision-making and the technocratic nature of the system. Many barriers thus have to be defeated at the level of national regulations and can be supported by technical cooperation from international partners. At the local level, stronger cooperation between NGOs, development organisations, researchers and the local government would provide a pertinent basis for more evaluation-based data exchanges and appraisals. Besides this lack of evaluation activities, the analysis has revealed methodological shortcomings in existing evaluation practice. It has been shown that there is a need to include more than just economic criteria, improve the competences of local evaluators in participatory and qualitative methods, specify and enforce the evaluation guidelines, and increase local participation in evaluation practice. In conclusion, the concerted analysis of risks and risk-related strategies on multiple levels and a comparison of revealed and perceived realities have been shown to put the often assumed "objective" vulnerability into perspective. At the same time, a vulnerability-centred lens in a socio-cognitive decision-making model has added agency to the often one-sided reflection of risk perception as a mere function of the individuals' appraisal of probability and magnitude of an event. It has also been demonstrated that the identification of "good" strategies is highly complex and specific to the evaluation method, the stakeholder, the spatial-scale and the time-scale. Many drivers, opportunities and barriers would therefore have remained uncovered if the conceptual framework had not included multiple scales and actor groups; single data sets had suggested a less reliable evaluation result; and an analysis based on a single evaluation approach would have depicted a merely one-sided judgement of a strategy's quality. In the end, this thesis has not presented the "ultimate" strategy in response to water-related risks in rural areas of the Mekong Delta. On the contrary, it is argued that such absolute judgments are neither achievable nor desirable. The suggested context-specific and actor-oriented evaluation approach, instead, has acknowledged and grasped the distinct nature and diverse values of risk-related strategies and has thereby made a contribution to promoting flexible and adapted measures for more sustainable development pathways for the Vietnamese Mekong Delta.

AMÉRICA LATINA Elecciones en Chile: Michelle Bachelet se impuso pero habrá segunda vuelta. Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/americas/21589430-more-left-wing-michelle-bachelet-set-win-tide-social-discontent-cruising-backhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/elecciones-en-chile-bachelet-lidera-conteo_13199952-4http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1639173-michelle-bachelet-sabiamos-que-ganar-en-primera-vuelta-era-complejo-pero-estuvimos-cerca-de-lograrlohttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/15/actualidad/1384541229_286167.htmlhttp://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2013/impreso/estudiantes-en-chile-de-la-calle-al-congreso-84871.html Maduro impondrá control de precios. 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Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/barack-obama-dice-que-ee-uu-debe-revisar-poltica-hacia-cuba_13172695-4 Obama cede a la presión y anuncia cambios en la reforma sanitaria. Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-24966051http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2013/obama-pelea-para-salvar-ley-de-salud-966084.htmlhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/14/actualidad/1384448382_108583.htmlhttp://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2013/impreso/republicanos-van-contra-obamacare-84873.htmlhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/barack-obama-anuncia-concesin-en-reforma-de-salud_13189335-4 El activista que se volvió alcalde de Nueva York. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/perfil-de-bill-de-blasio_13173965-4 Decenas de legisladores demócratas abandonan a Barack Obama Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1638677-decenas-de-legisladores-democratas-abandonan-a-barack-obamaAcercamiento entre Estados Unidos y la Unión Europea. Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-24965053Hawaii legaliza el matrimonio gay. Para más información:http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-11/13/content_17101591.htm Polémica en Toronto por los excesos de su alcalde. Para más información:http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/11/07/21352338-toronto-mayor-rob-ford-considering-rehab-his-lawyer-says?litehttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1638982-polemica-en-toronto-por-los-excesos-de-su-alcalde Cambio climático amenaza a especies en Canada. Para más información:http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/11/13/21441506-climate-change-threatening-polar-bears-in-canada?liteEscándalo de corrupción salpica a la Marina de Estados Unidos. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/corrupcin-en-la-marina-de-estados-unidos_13182955-4 El Senado de EE.UU. aprueba la protección laboral de los gays. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1636513-el-senado-de-eeuu-aprueba-la-proteccion-laboral-de-los-gays EUROPA Graves disturbios en Polonia en el Día de la Independencia. Para más información: http://www.cnn.com/2013/11/13/world/europe/poland-russia-embassy-attack/index.htmlhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1637394-graves-disturbios-en-polonia-en-el-dia-de-la-independencia Madrid y Londres intentan poner fin a la crisis por Gibraltar. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1635760-madrid-y-londres-intentan-poner-fin-a-la-crisis-por-gibraltarhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-24954881La ultraderecha europea sella una alianza. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/13/actualidad/1384343925_371743.htmlhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/13/actualidad/1384372721_543279.html Escándalo en Francia por una ola de insultos racistas contra una ministra. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1637976-escandalo-en-francia-por-una-ola-de-insultos-racistas-contra-una-ministra Madrid, bajo una montaña de basura por un paro. Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-24966932http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1636679-madrid-bajo-una-montana-de-basura-por-un-parohttp://www.cnn.com/2013/11/15/world/europe/spain-madrid-trash-strike/index.html Suecia se queja de que la UE está dando la espalda a las víctimas de la guerra. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/13/actualidad/1384367435_310249.html La popularidad de Hollande se desploma y complica su mandato. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1638370-la-popularidad-de-hollande-se-desploma-y-complica-su-mandato La UE se plantea lanzar una misión militar contra el tráfico de inmigrantes. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/15/actualidad/1384545086_960667.html Estocolmo ignora la ofensiva populista y abre las puertas a los refugiados sirios. Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-24954702http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/13/actualidad/1384366494_958825.html Accidente de avión en Rusia deja al menos 50 muertos. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/accidente-areo-en-rusia_13199476-4http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1639121-cayo-un-avion-en-rusia-hay-al-menos-50-muertos Economías italiana y española bajo la lupa de la Unión Europea. Para más información:http://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/16/business/international/in-first-economic-review-italy-and-spain-get-warnings.html?ref=world&gwh=1E21AA30DC3309825D80414F38C1D6CChttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-24954867 Piden tres meses más de prisión para los activistas de Greenpeace. Para más información:http://www.lemonde.fr/planete/article/2013/11/16/soutien-mondial-pour-les-30-militants-de-greenpeace-detenus-en-russie_3515125_3244.htmlhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1638547-piden-tres-meses-mas-de-prision-para-los-activistas-de-greenpeace Albania rechaza desmantelar las armas químicas de Siria. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/14/actualidad/1384462285_751906.htmlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-24963241http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/15/actualidad/1384543782_976845.html Doce inmigrantes murieron en naufragio en Grecia. Para más información:http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/nafragio-en-grecia-deja-12-muertos_13189435-4 Luego del atentado contra un fotógrafo, la web del diario Libération sufrió un ataque. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1639429-francia-un-hombre-ingreso-a-un-diario-y-disparo-contra-un-fotografoEl SPD promete ser el contrapeso de Merkel en la UE. Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/15/actualidad/1384541528_684685.html Tensión social en Francia: se multiplican las protestas. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1637402-tension-social-en-francia-se-multiplican-las-protestas ASIA- PACÍFICO/ MEDIO ORIENTE Devastador Tifón pasa por Filipinas dejando miles de muertos. Para más información:http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/11/16/21491646-typhoon-haiyan-aid-begins-trickling-into-desperate-philippines-communities?litehttp://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-11/13/content_17103311.htmhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-24972707http://www.cnn.com/2013/11/15/world/asia/typhoon-haiyan/index.html?hpt=wo_c1http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2013/busqueda-de-sobrevivientes-en-filipinas-un-infierno-966074.htmlhttp://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2013/onu-justifica-disparidad-en-numero-de-muertos-por-tifon-966059.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2013/11/11/world/asia/typhoon-haiyan-map.html?ref=world&gwh=69698C955BEC7E67E77D3A5D938E277Ahttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/14/actualidad/1384418137_846403.htmlhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/evacuacin-en-vietnam-por-llegada-del-tifn_13174615-4http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1637979-filipinas-se-extienden-los-saqueos-y-el-exodo-en-las-zonas-afectadashttp://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/11/14/21453110-typhoon-haiyan-hundreds-of-unidentified-victims-buried-in-mass-graves?lite China anuncia históricas reformas. Para más información:http://www.lemonde.fr/international/article/2013/11/16/xi-jinping-relance-la-chine-sur-la-voie-des-reformes_3514971_3210.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/16/world/asia/china-to-loosen-its-one-child-policy.html?ref=world&gwh=2B49B07D7864F930C4A1F223F1490E2Chttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/china-autoriza-a-parejas-tener-dos-hijos_13189638-4http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1638484-china-elimina-los-campos-de-trabajo-y-la-politica-del-hijo-unicohttp://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2013/impreso/gobierno-chino-pone-fin-a-politica-de-hijo-unico-84868.htmlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-24957303http://www.cnn.com/2013/11/15/world/asia/china-one-child-policy/index.htmlhttp://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/11/15/21474076-china-to-relax-one-child-policy-as-part-of-economic-social-reforms?lite Continúa el sangriento conflicto en Siria. Para más información:http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/11/15/21477555-syria-rebels-linked-to-al-qaeda-apologize-for-beheading-fellow-fighter?litehttp://www.cnn.com/2013/11/16/world/meast/syria-opcw-roadmap/index.htmlhttp://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/11/15/21477555-syria-rebels-linked-to-al-qaeda-apologize-for-beheading-fellow-fighter?litehttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-24966482http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-11/14/content_17105303.htmhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-17258397http://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/17/world/middleeast/syrian-governments-forces-gain-but-a-siege-war-goes-on.html?ref=world&gwh=5227ABD8C910BB150831563C2CB573FB Irán firma un acuerdo para permitir mayores inspecciones nucleares. Para más información:http://www.economist.com/blogs/pomegranate/2013/11/negotiations-iranhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/acuerdo-para-permitir-inspecciones-nucleares-en-irn_13176975-4http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1636926-las-potencias-e-iran-postergan-el-acuerdo-por-el-programa-nuclearhttp://www.lanacion.com.ar/1637404-acuerdo-entre-iran-y-el-oieahttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/14/actualidad/1384453882_678598.htmlhttp://www.cnn.com/2013/11/09/world/meast/iran-nuclear-talks/index.htmlhttp://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-11/13/content_17101616.htm Diversos ataques suicidas sacuden Irak. Para más información:http://www.cnn.com/2013/11/14/world/meast/iraq-violence/index.htmlhttp://www.cnn.com/2013/11/07/world/meast/iraq-violence/index.htmlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2013/11/17/world/asia/explosion-in-kabul.html?ref=world&gwh=A938AA5C45C2B6391D21BCB3AA7F53FFElecciones en Maldivas.Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-24974019 Producción de opio en Afganistán ha alcanzado récords. Para más información:http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/11/13/21425925-afghanistan-opium-production-hits-record-despite-billions-spent-to-combat-trade?lite Burma liberará 69 prisioneros políticos.Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-24955227 Comienzan a desmantelar la central atómica de Fukushima. Para más información:http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1636213-comienzan-a-desmantelar-la-central-atomica-de-fukushimahttp://www.cnn.com/2013/11/07/world/asia/japan-fukushima-visit-hancocks/index.html ÁFRICA Nuevos choques entre milicias elevan la cifra de muertos en Trípoli.Para más información:http://www.lemonde.fr/libye/article/2013/11/16/libye-les-affrontements-se-poursuivent-a-tripoli_3515079_1496980.htmlhttp://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2013/11/15/actualidad/1384551515_377437.htmlhttp://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/11/15/21484827-dozens-dead-in-clash-with-libyan-militiamen-in-tripoli?lite Morsi asegura que sigue teniendo poder legitimo para gobernar Egipto. Para más información:http://www.cnn.com/2013/11/13/world/meast/egypt-morsy-president/index.html?hpt=iaf_c2http://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2013/11/16/egypte-les-freres-musulmans-appellent-au-dialogue_3515094_3212.htmlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-24938948 Egipto levanta estado de emergencia. Para más información:http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2013-11/13/content_17101535.htmCiclón en Somalia deja 115 muertos. Para más información:http://www.cnn.com/2013/11/15/world/africa/somalia-cyclone-deaths/index.html?hpt=iaf_c2Marinos estadounidenses secuestrados en costas de Nigeria Para más información:http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-24971765http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/11/09/21367485-hunt-for-a-ghost-ship-nbc-news-spots-abandoned-us-vessel-in-nigerian-creek?lite 1 en 5 africanos paga sobornos para acceder a seguridad, sistema de salud y educación Para más información:http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/11/14/21453375-1-in-5-africans-forced-to-pay-bribes-for-police-health-care-education-report?lite OTRAS NOTICIAS "The Economist" presenta su informe semanal Politics this week. Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/world-week/21589930-politics-week

This guide accompanies the following article: Nikki Khanna, 'Multiracial Americans: Racial Identity Choices and Implications for the Collection of Race Data', Sociology Compass 6/4 (2012): 316–331, 10.1111/j.1751‐9020.2011.00454.x.Author's introductionIn 2010, approximately nine million Americans self‐identified with two or more races on the United States Census – a 32 percent increase in the last decade. President Barack Obama, the son of a white Kansas‐born mother and Kenyan father, was not one of these self‐identified multiracial Americans. In fact, Obama chose only to check the 'black' box, illustrating that multiracial ancestry does not always translate to multiracial identity. Since the 1990s, there has been a growing body of research examining the multiracial population and key questions have included: How do multiracial Americans identify themselves? And why? This paper reviews this research, with a focus on the factors shaping racial identity and the implications regarding the collection of race data in the US Census.Author recommendsKhanna, Nikki. 2011. Biracial in America: Forming and Performing Race. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.Looking at black‐white biracial Americans, this book examines the influencing factors and underlying social psychological processes shaping their multidimensional racial identities. This book also investigates the ways in which biracial Americans perform race in their day‐to‐day lives.Korgen, Kathleen. 1998. From Black to Biracial: Transforming Racial Identity among Biracial Americans. New York: Praeger.This book looks at the transformation in racial identity among black‐white biracial Americans over the last several decades. She finds that those born before the Civil Rights Era are likely to identify as black, while those born in the post‐Civil Rights Era identify as biracial, black, and sometimes white. She describes the declining influence of the one drop rule on shaping black identities, and the increasing importance of other factors, such as physical appearance.Perlmann, Joel and Mary Waters (eds). 2005. The New Race Question: How the Census Counts Multiracial Individuals. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.This edited volume examines how changes to the race question in the US Census affect how people are counted and the implications for public policy, enforcement of anti‐discrimination laws, and reporting of health, education, and income statistics.Rockquemore, Kerry Ann and David Brunsma. 2008. Beyond Black: Biracial Identity in America. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.Drawing on interview and survey data, this groundbreaking book examines racial identity among black‐white biracial adults. The authors describe a myriad of ways in which biracial Americans understand themselves racially, while also examining why people identify the way they do.Online materialsRace: Are We So Different?http://understandingrace.org/This website explores the common misconceptions about race through several interactive activities.Race: The Power of an Illusionhttp://www.pbs.org/race/000_General/000_00‐Home.htmThis website explores the question 'What is Race?' through several interactive activities.Mixed‐Race Studieshttp://www.mixedracestudies.org/This website is a useful resource for anyone interested in mixed‐race studies. Included here is information about articles, books, dissertations, videos, multimedia, and other resources related to multiracial people.Mixed Folks.comhttp://www.mixedfolks.comThis site provides information about multiracial historical figures and celebrities, as well as links to books, websites, and comics featuring biracial characters.Mixed Chicks Chathttp://www.mixedchickschat.com/This site features an award‐winning weekly podcast about the multiracial experience. Included are approximately 200 episodes of interviews with scholars, activists, journalists, celebrities, and artists.Sample syllabusPart I: IntroductionWeek 1: Defining conceptsRace & Multiraciality as Social Constructs.Spickard, Paul R. 1992. 'The Illogic of American Racial Categories.' Pp. 12–23 in Racially Mixed People in America, edited by Maria P. P. Root. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.Khanna, Nikki. 2011. 'A Note on Terminology.' Pp. ix–xiii in Biracial in America: Forming and Performing Racial Identity. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.Angier, Natalie. 2000. 'Does Race Differ? Not Really, Genes Show.'New York Times, August 22. http://www.nytimes.com/2000/08/22/science/do‐races‐differ‐not‐really‐genes‐show.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm.American Anthropological Association's Statement on Race (1998): http://www.aaanet.org/stmts/racepp.htm.Part II: Historical backgroundWeek 2: Curbing 'Miscegenation' (Part 1)Interracial Mixing in Early America.Anti‐Miscegenation Laws.Zabel, William D. 2000. 'Interracial Marriage and the Law.' Pp. 54–61 in Interracialism: Black‐White Intermarriage in American History, Literature, and Law, edited by Werner Sollors. Oxford University Press.Kennedy, Randall. 2000. 'The Enforcement of Anti‐Miscegenation Laws.' Pp. 140–160 in Interracialism: Black‐White Intermarriage in American History, Literature, and Law, edited by Werner Sollors. Oxford University Press.Kennedy, Stetson. 1990. 'Who May Marry Whom.' Pp. 58–71 in Jim Crow Guide: The Way It Was. Boca Raton, FL: Florida Atlantic University Press.Week 3: Curbing 'Miscegenation' (Part 2)Biological, Religious, Social Arguments.The Role of Eugenics.Tucker, William H. 'Inharmoniously Adapted to Each Other: Science and Racial Crosses.' Pp. 109–33 in Defining Difference: Race and Racism in the History of Psychology, edited by Andrew S. Winston. American Psychological Association.Nakashima, Cynthia L. 1992. 'An Invisible Monster: The Creation and Denial of Mixed‐Race People in America.' Pp. 162–72 in Racially Mixed People in America, edited by Maria P. P. Root. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.Visit the Jim Crow Museum of Racist Memorabilia & read about the 'Tragic Mulatto Myth': http://www.ferris.edu/jimcrow/mulatto/.Week 4: The politics of racial definitionCounting 'Mixed‐Bloods' and 'Mulattoes'.Williams, Gregory Howard. 1995. Life on the Color Line: The True Story of a White Boy Who Discovered He Was Black. New York: Plume.Morning, Ann. 2003. 'New Faces, Old Faces: Counting the Multiracial Population Past and Present.' Pp. 41–67 in New Faces in a Changing America: Multiracial Identity in the 21st Century, edited by Loretta I. Winters and Herman L. DeBose. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.Davis, F. James. 1991. Who is Black? One Nation's Definition. (Excerpt). http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/jefferson/mixed/onedrop.html.Week 5: Resistance and subversion to the American binaryIndividual & Collective Strategies.Daniel, G. Reginald. 1992. 'Passers and Pluralists: Subverting the Racial Divide.' Pp. 91–107 in Racially Mixed People in America, edited by Maria P. P. Root. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.Valdez, Norberto and Janice Valdez. 1998. 'The Pot that Called the Kettle White: Changing Racial Identities and US Social Construction of Race.'Identities 5: 379–413.Maillard, Kevin. 2000. 'We are Black Indians.' Pp. 81–86 in What Are You? Voices of Mixed‐Race Young People, edited by Pearl Fuyo Gaskins. New York: Henry Holt and Company.Read first‐hand narratives of people who 'passed' as white during the Jim Crow Era: http://www.jimcrowhistory.org/resources/lessonplans/hs_es_passing_narratives.htm.Week 6: The 'Biracial Baby Boom'Explanations.The Loving Myth?LISTEN: 'Loving Decision: 40 Years of Interracial Unions.' National Public Radio. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=10889047.Spencer, Rainier. 2006. 'White Mothers, the Loving Legend, and Manufacturing of a Biracial Baby Boom' in Challenging Multiracial Identity. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.Week 7: The multiracial movementPlayers and Agendas.Public Policy Issues.White, Jack E. 1997. 'I'm Just Who I Am.'Time.http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,986278,00.html.Graham, Susan. 1995. 'Grassroots Advocacy.' Pp. 185–9 in American Mixed Race: The Culture of Microdiversity, edited by Naomi Zack. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.Spencer, Rainier. 1999. 'The Multiracial Category Initiative.' Pp. 125–60 in Spurious Issues: Race and Multiracial Identity Politics in the United States. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Wright, Lawrence. 1999. 'One Drop of Blood.'The New Yorker, July 24, 1994. http://www.afn.org/~dks/race/wright.html.Week 8: Critiquing multiracialitySpencer, Rainier. 1999. 'Thinking About Transcending Race.' Pp. 192–9 in Spurious Issues: Race and Multiracial Identity Politics in the United States. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Spencer, Rainier. 2006. Challenging Multiracial Identity. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.Week 9: Mixed‐race people abroadConceptualizations & Status of Multiracial People.South Africa, Brazil, Australia, Vietnam, Japan, India.Davis, F. James. 2006. 'Defining Race: Comparative Perspectives.' Pp. 15–31 in Mixed Messages: Multiracial Identities in the 'Color‐Blind' Era, edited by David L. Brunsma. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.Daniel, G. Reginald. 2003. 'Multiracial Identity in Global Perspective: The United States, Brazil, and South Africa.' Pp. 247–86 in New Faces in a Changing America: Multiracial Identity in the 21st Century, edited by Loretta I. Winters and Herman L. DeBose. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.Murphy‐Shigematsu, Stephen. 2001. 'Multiethnic Lives and Monoethnic Myths: American‐Japanese Amerasians in Japan.' Pp. 207–16 in The Sum of Our Parts: Mixed‐Heritage Asian Americans, edited by Teresa Williams‐Leon and Cynthia L. Nakashima. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.Week 10: Intermarriage, multiracial people, and the future of race relations in the USCensus Trends.Future of Race in America?Humes, Karen R., Nicholas A. Jones, and Roberto R. Ramirez. (2011). 'Overview of race and Hispanic origin: 2010.' 2010 Census Briefs. http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br‐02.pdf.Bonilla‐Silva, Eduardo and David G. Embrick. 2006. 'Black, Honorary White, White: The Future of Race in the United States?' Pp. 33–48 in Mixed Messages: Multiracial Identities in the 'Color‐Blind' Era, edited by David L. Brunsma. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.Lind, Michael. 1998. 'The Beige and the Black.'New York Times.http://www.nytimes.com/1998/08/16/magazine/the‐beige‐and‐the‐black.html?pagewanted=all.Part III: Scholarly researchWeek 11: Identities (Part 1)Methodological Issues in Research.Typology of Identities.Racial Fluidity.Root, Maria P. P. 1992. 'Back to the Drawing Board: Methodological Issues in Research on Multiracial People.' Pp. 181–9 in Racially Mixed People in America. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.Tashiro, Cathy J. 2002. 'Considering the Significance of Ancestry through the Prism of Mixed Race Identity.'Journal of Advanced Nursing Science 25: 1–21.Harris, David R. and Jeremiah Joseph Sim. 2002. 'Who is Multiracial? Assessing the Complexity of Lived Race.'American Sociological Review 67: 614–27.Week 12: Identities (Part 2)Factors Shaping Identity.Implications for Census Statistics.Morning, Ann. 2000. 'Who is Multiracial? Definitions and Decisions'. Sociological Imagination 37: 209–29.Khanna, Nikki. 2004. 'The Role of Reflected Appraisals in Racial Identity: The Case of Asian‐White Adults.'Social Psychology Quarterly 67: 115–31.*Khanna, Nikki. 2012. 'Multiracial Americans: Racial Identity Choices and Implications for the Collection of Race Data.'Sociology Compass 6(4): 316–31.Week 13: Psychological and social well‐beingThe 'Tragic Mulatto' & Other Stereotypes (revisited).Campbell, Mary E. & Jennifer Eggerling‐Boeck. 2006. 'What about the Children? The Psychological and Social Well‐Being of Multiracial Adolescents'. The Sociological Quarterly 47: 147–73.Suzuki‐Crumly, J. and L. L. Hyers. 2004. 'The Relationship among Ethnic Identity, Psychological Well‐being, and Intergroup Competence: An Investigation of Two Biracial Groups'. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology 10: 137–50.Phillips, Layli. 2004. 'Fitting in and Feeling Good: Patterns of Self‐evaluation and Psychological Stress among Biracial Adolescent Girls.'Women & Therapy 27: 217–36.Seminar/Project ideasCensus Exercise and Discussion: Have students visit the webpage: http://racebox.org/, which shows what the race question looked like in the U.S. Census from 1790 to 2010. Next, they should visit http://understandingrace.org/lived/global_census.html to see how different countries collect census information about race. After students view both sites, they should answer the following questions: In what years in the US were multiracial Americans counted as multiracial? What types of categories were used? What other countries use multiracial categories and what categories are used? Finally, after reading Lawrence Wright's 'One Drop of Blood' and Rainier Spencer's 'The Multiracial Category Initiative' (see above), pose the following question for class discussion: What are the pros and cons of including a multiracial category in the Census (or allowing Americans to check multiple boxes)? Then ask: Should we even ask Americans their race in the US Census? While some students will emphatically answer 'no!' because they believe the Census categories only serve to reify racial categories and racial divisions, this question should open up an informed debate about the function of the Census and race question.Examining the Politics of Race in Comic Strips: To provide context for this assignment, student should first read the following on‐line excerpt from F. James Davis'Who Is Black: One Nation's Definition: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/jefferson/mixed/onedrop.html. Next, have students visit the site: http://www.mixedfolks.com/comics.htm, which features The Boondocks comic strip with a biracial character (Jazmine). Have students read and analyze the 17 posted comic strips and answer the following questions (via class discussion or an out‐of‐class assignment): How is Jazmine's character portrayed? How is blackness portrayed? What message does the artist convey in these comic strips regarding biraciality and internal and external perceptions of Jazmine's race and racial identity?Film and Discussion: Show students the movie, Guess Who's Coming to Dinner– a 1967 film starring Spencer Tracy, Sidney Poitier and Katharine Hepburn, which looks at the controversy surrounding interracial marriage. In the year that the film was released, 16 states still prohibited interracial marriage in the US (although the Supreme Court would abolish these laws in the same year with their landmark ruling in Loving v. Virginia). This film is useful to discuss the controversy surrounding interracial marriage, and how the same scenario might play out in the present‐day.Small Group Activity: Analyzing Anti‐Miscegenation Laws: Before coming to class, have students listen to the following NPR story: 'Loving Decision: 40 Years of Interracial Unions' (http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=10889047) – it describes the case Loving v. Virginia (1967). Next, using an interactive map of the United States (see http://www.lovingday.org/legal‐map), have students, in small groups, examine and analyze anti‐miscegenation laws in the US prior to the Loving decision. Some questions to have them consider: Which states were the first to make interracial marriage illegal? Which racial groups were targeted in those early laws? By 1913, how many of the then 48 states had anti‐miscegenation laws? Which states made interracial marriage legal? How many states had anti‐miscegenation laws in the year preceding Loving? Students can also click on individual states to see an example of its laws. Looking at the laws, ask students: What was criminalized (e.g. interracial marriage, sex, performing the wedding, cohabitation)? What types of punishments did those who violated the law receive? What racial groups are targeted in these laws? How are racial categories (e.g. black, white) defined in these laws? What do these laws reveal about the social construction of race?

This research entitled "Incidence of the exports and Integrated Management Systems on the Generation of Job Positions in Agroindustrial Trujillo, 200-2009", aims at determining the relationship or incidence that exists between the exports of the company Agroindustrial Trujillo S.A., the Integrated Management Systems (IMS) implemented by the company and the generation of skilled labor during the period comprised between the years 2001 and 2009. These exports respond to the world market demand of food products that meet the requirements of quality, environmental management and safety and occupational health management, and the IMS ensure the fulfillment of these requirements. The problem stated in this research is as follows: What is the incidence of exports and the integrated management system in the generation of employment in the company Agroindustrial Trujillo, period 2001-2009? The corresponding hypothesis: "In Agroindustrial Trujillo, period 2001-2009, the incidence of exports and the integrated management systems (IMS) is relevant in the generation of employment, in relation to the standards of quality, environmental management and management of safety and health in the workplace required in the international food market." The contrasting design in this research is a LONGITUDINAL TREND DESIGN, because we are observing the behavior of study variables of Exports in Agroindustrial Trujillo, the Integrated Management Systems (IMS) and the generation of skilled employment through time. The most important conclusion reached is that exports in Agroindustrial Trujillo of products such as fresh asparagus, preserved asparagus and preserved piquillo pepper have significantly increased in the period 2011 to 2009, as well as Peruvian exports. The Integrated Management System (IMS) set up in Agroindustrial Trujillo and internationally certified, enables to provide its clients in the international market with top quality products and at the same time meet the requirements of environmental management and industrial safety and health management required by the World Food Market. At the end of the research, we can assert that as a result of the increase in exports and the effective implementation and development of the Integrated Management Systems (INS), the employment of skilled labor has increased in the company Agroindustrial Trujillo, during the 2001-2009 period. Throughout the various chapters of this research we can evidence the increase of agricultural and industrial exports of Peru between the years 2001 and 2009, considered as NON traditional exports. Agricultural exports – which are the line of business of Agroindustrial Trujillo S.A., one of the largest agricultural exporters of La Libertad – consist of the top quality flagship products demanded by exclusive international markets, such as fresh, frozen and packaged vegetables and fruit. Among the exported vegetables, the ones that particularly outstand are asparagus, artichokes and piquillo peppers, which are being widely exported to the world food market concentrating mainly on the countries of the European Union and the United States of America. The research analyzes the figures of total exports of some countries – Peru among them – to the world food market in connection with the following products: fresh and packaged asparagus, packaged artichokes and packaged piquillo peppers, comparing them later with the main exports of Agroindustrial Trujillo SA to those markets. Agricultural industry in Peru in general and in La Libertad in particular have met with high efficiency the requirements of quality and service that these demanding world markets require, working with competitive prices, timely supply and excellent customer service. Satisfying the quality parameters demanded by the clients in the world food market does not only involve the quality of the products but also other important issues such as environmental management, industrial safety and occupational health, fair trade and corporate social responsibility, all of which are considered highly valuable by the first world consumers. In other words, not only food safety and the quality of the products being delivered to the customer are important, but also how the company that produces them behaves. Through our research we have been able to evidence that in order meet the requirements mentioned above, Agroindustrial Trujillo SA has implemented the INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS (IMS), specifically integrating the following three systems: Standard ISO 9001:2008 for QUALITY MANAGEMENT, Standard ISO 14001:2004 for ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT and Standard OHSAS 18001 for INDUSTRIAL SAFETY AND OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH. This Integrated Management System (IMS) has helped the company reach the objectives for quality management, environmental management and work risk prevention management, maximizing its resources. In our research we have also been able to evidence that Peru is a country that has important comparative advantages, such as the weather, the biodiversity, the seasons that enable to grow certain crops throughout the year, and the cost of labor and some supplies. All these comparative advantages that the country "naturally" has, need to be transformed into sustainable competitive advantages, thanks to the location of the activities in our country, the implementation of INTEGRATED MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS and Research & Development, as Agroindustrial Trujillo has done. Based on the comparative advantages that Agroindustrial Trujillo initially had, the competitive advantages so appreciated in the international market have been developed, which include competitive prices, supply of products all year round, sale of special and diversified products with aggregate value and excellent customer service, fulfilling always the specific quality parameters required by world customers. Finally, we cannot disregard the competitiveness factor contributed by the human capital of Agroindustrial Trujillo, which has been the determining factor for the effective implementation of the Integrated Management Systems and also for the support of this competitive advantage achieved. Developing human capital that is duly qualified to manage the integrated management systems (IMS) is a strategic activity to maintain the company's competitiveness. The increase in the amount of the qualified staff required by Agroindustrial Trujillo SA, is the result of the gradual recruitment of specialized professionals that constitute new job profiles in the organization. The close relationship between the qualification of human capital and the Integrated Management Systems on one hand, and the determining importance of the IMS on the other to add value and strengthen the sustainable competitiveness and thus the growth of exports to meet the requirements of the world food market, indicate us that as a country we must take care of, develop and enhance the curricular structure of higher education programs related to the economic activity of exporting agricultural products, such as Industrial Engineering, Agricultural Engineering, Food Engineering, among others, anticipating the demand for human resources that will be required, always in close relationship with the professional profiles needed for the Integrated Management Systems (IMS). ; La presente investigación intitulada "Incidencia de las exportaciones y Sistemas Integrados de gestión en la Generación de empleo en la empresa Agroindustrial Trujillo. 2001 – 2009", busca determinar la relación e incidencia que existe entre las exportaciones de la empresa Agroindustrial Trujillo S.A., la cual responde a la demanda del mercado mundial de alimentos cuyos requerimientos son de calidad de producto, gestión medioambiental y gestión de la seguridad y salud ocupacional; los Sistemas Integrados de Gestión (SIG) implantados en la empresa que aseguran el cumplimiento de estos requerimientos y la generación de empleo calificado, durante el periodo comprendido entre los años 2001 al 2009. El problema planteado en esta investigación es el siguiente: ¿Cuál es la incidencia de las exportaciones y de los sistemas integrados de gestión en la generación de empleo en la empresa Agroindustrial Trujillo. período 2001 – 2009? La Hipótesis correspondiente: "La incidencia de las exportaciones y de los sistemas integrados de gestión (SIG) es relevante en la generación de empleo, en relación a los requerimientos de calidad, gestión medio ambiental y gestión de la seguridad y salud ocupacional que demanda el mercado mundial de alimentos, en la empresa Agroindustrial Trujillo; periodo 2001 - 2009." El diseño de contrastación en la presente investigación es un DISEÑO LONGITUDINAL DE TENDENCIA, porque se está observando el comportamiento de las variables de estudio Exportaciones en Agroindustrial Trujillo, Sistemas Integrados de gestión (SIG) y generación de empleo calificado a través del tiempo. Las conclusiones más importantes a las que se ha llegado es que las exportaciones de Agroindustrial Trujillo en productos como el espárrago fresco, espárrago en conserva, alcachofa en conserva y pimiento del piquillo en conserva se han incrementado significativamente en el período 2001 al 2009, al igual que las exportaciones peruanas. El Sistema Integrado de Gestión (SIG) implantado por Agroindustrial Trujillo y certificado internacionalmente le permite proporcionar a sus clientes del mercado internacional productos de óptima calidad y a la vez cumplir con requerimientos de gestión ambiental y gestión de seguridad industrial y salud ocupacional requeridos por el mercado Mundial de Alimentos. Como resultado final de la investigación, podemos afirmar que a consecuencia del incremento de las exportaciones y de la eficaz implantación y desarrollo de los Sistemas Integrados de Gestión (SIG); se ha incrementado el empleo de capital humano calificado en la empresa Agroindustrial Trujillo, durante el período que va desde el año 2001 al año 2009. A través de los distintos capítulos de esta investigación, se informa acerca del incremento de las exportaciones agropecuarias y agroindustriales del Perú desde el año 2001 hasta el año 2009, consideradas dentro del rubro de las exportaciones NO Tradicionales. Las exportaciones agroindustriales – las cuales son el ámbito de negocios de Agroindustrial Trujillo S.A., una de las principales agroexportadoras de La Libertad – están constituídas por productos de bandera de muy alta calidad, requeridos en segmentos exclusivos del mercado internacional; tales como hortalizas y frutas frescas, congeladas y en conserva. Entre las hortalizas exportadas destacan de manera especial los espárragos, las alcachofas y los pimientos del piquillo, las cuales han sido ampliamente comercializadas en el mercado mundial de alimentos, concentrado principalmente en países de la Unión Europea y los Estados Unidos de Norteamérica. Dentro del estudio se revisan las cifras de las exportaciones totales de algunos países – entre ellos el Perú - hacia el mercado mundial de alimentos en los siguientes productos: Espárragos frescos y en conserva, alcachofas en conserva y pimiento del piquillo en conserva, relacionándolos luego con las principales exportaciones de Agroindustrial Trujillo SA hacia esos mercados. La agroindustria peruana en general y la liberteña en particular han respondido con alta eficiencia a los requerimientos de calidad y servicio que requieren estos exigentes mercados mundiales, trabajando con precios competitivos, abastecimiento oportuno y excelente servicio al cliente. El cumplimiento de los parámetros de calidad solicitados por los clientes del mercado mundial de alimentos no involucra solamente la calidad de los productos, sino abarca otros importantes aspectos tales como los ambientales, los de seguridad industrial y salud ocupacional, comercio justo y los de responsabilidad social corporativa, todo ellos considerados de alto valor para los consumidores del primer mundo. En otras palabras, importa no solamente la seguridad alimentaria y calidad del producto que llegue al consumidor, sino cómo se comporta la empresa que los produce. A través de nuestra investigación, podemos constatar que con el fin de cumplir con los requerimientos mencionados previamente, Agroindustrial Trujillo SA ha implementado los SISTEMAS INTEGRADOS DE GESTION (SIG), integrando específicamente los tres sistemas siguientes: Norma ISO 9001:2008 de GESTION DE LA CALIDAD, NORMA ISO 14001:2004 DE GESTION MEDIOAMBIENTAL y NORMA OHSAS 18001 DE GESTION DE LA SEGURIDAD INDUSTRIAL Y SALUD OCUPACIONAL. Este Sistema Integrado de Gestión (SIG) ha ayudado a la empresa a alcanzar los objetivos de gestión de la calidad, de la gestión medioambiental y de la gestión de la prevención de riesgos laborales, maximizando sus recursos. También dentro de nuestro estudio constatamos que el Perú es un país que tiene ventajas comparativas importantes, tales como el clima, la biodiversidad, estaciones que permiten trabajar determinados cultivos a lo largo de todo el año, y factores de costos de mano de obra y algunos insumos. Todas estas ventajas comparativas que el país posee "naturalmente", deben transformarse en ventajas competitivas sostenibles, gracias a la ubicación de las actividades en nuestro territorio, y a la implantación de SISTEMAS INTEGRADOS DE GESTIÓN e Investigación y Desarrollo, tal como lo ha hecho Agroindustrial Trujillo. En base a las ventajas comparativas que tenía Agroindustrial Trujillo inicialmente, se han construído ventajas competitivas apreciadas por el mercado internacional, las cuales incluyen precios competitivos, abastecimiento de productos durante todo el año, ventas de productos especiales y diversificados con mayor valor agregado y excelente servicio de atención al cliente, cumpliendo siempre con parámetros específicos de calidad solicitados por los clientes mundiales. Finalmente, no podemos dejar de lado el factor de competitividad aportado por el capital humano de Agroindustrial Trujillo, el cual ha sido determinante para el eficaz funcionamiento de los Sistemas Integrados de gestión, y también para construir el soporte de esa ventaja competitiva lograda. Desarrollar el capital humano debidamente calificado para gestionar los sistemas integrados de gestión (SIG) es una actividad de naturaleza estratégica para mantener la competitividad en esta empresa. El incremento de la cantidad de personal calificado requerido en Agroindustrial Trujillo SA, es fruto de la incorporación paulatina de puestos profesionales especializados que configuran perfiles de trabajo nuevos en la organización. La estrecha relación entre la calificación del capital humano y los Sistemas Integrados de Gestión por un lado; y por otro lado la importancia determinante de los SIG para agregar valor y fortalecer la competitividad sostenible y por ende el crecimiento de las exportaciones para satisfacer los requerimientos del mercado mundial de alimentos nos indican que como país debemos cuidar, desarrollar y enriquecer la estructura curricular de aquellas carreras profesionales relacionadas con la actividad económica de exportación de productos agroindustriales, tales como las de Ingeniería Industrial, Ingeniería Agronómica, Ingeniería Alimentaria, entre otras, proveyendo de manera anticipada a las empresas del capital humano que se requiere, siempre en estrecha relación con los perfiles profesionales que se demandan para los Sistemas Integrados de gestión (SIG). ; Tesis

SENTIERI Project (Mortality study of residents in Italian polluted sites) studies mortality of residents in the sites of national interest for environmental remediation (Italian polluted sites, IPS). IPSs are located in the vicinity of industrial areas, either active or dismissed, near incinerators or dumping sites of industrial or hazardous waste. SENTIERI includes 44 out of 57 sites comprised in the "National environmental remediation programme". For each IPS contamination data were collected, both from the national and local environmental remediation programmes. Contamination data are mainly for private industrial areas; municipal and/or green and agricultural areas were poorly studied, therefore it is difficult to assess the environmental exposure of populations living inside and/or near IPSs. Each one of 44 SENTIERI IPSs includes one or more municipalities. Mortality in the period 1995-2002 was studied for 63 single or grouped causes at municipality level computing: crude rate, standardized rate, standardized mortality ratios (SMR), and SMR adjusted for an ad hoc deprivation index. Regional populations were used as reference for SMR calculation. The deprivation index was constructed using 2001 national census variables on the following socioeconomic domains: education, unemployment, dwelling ownership and overcrowding. A characterizing element of SENTIERI Project is the a priori evaluation of the epidemiological evidence of the causal association between cause of death and exposure. Exposures for which epidemiological evidence was assessed are divided into IPSs environmental exposures and other exposures. The former are defined on the basis of the decrees defining sites' boundaries; they are coded as chemicals, petrochemicals and refineries, steel plants, power plants, mines and/or quarries, harbour areas, asbestos or other mineral fibres, landfills and incinerators. The other exposures, considered for their ascertained adverse health effects are: air pollution, active and passive smoking, alcohol intake, occupational exposure and socioeconomic status. The epidemiologists in SENTIERI Working Group (WG) developed a procedure to examine the epidemiological literature published from 1998 to 2009; the WG identified a hierarchy in the literature examined to classify each combination of cause of death and exposure in terms of strength of causal inference. The selected epidemiological information included primary sources (handbooks and Monographs and Reports of international and national scientific institutions), statistical re-analyses, literature reviews, multi-centric studies and single investigations. This hierarchy relies on the epidemiological community consensus, on assessments based on the application of standardized criteria, weighting the studies design and the occurrence of biased results. Therefore, to put forward the assessment, the criteria firstly favoured primary sources and quantitative meta-analyses and, secondly, consistency among sources. The epidemiological evidence of the causal association was classified into one of these three categories: Sufficient (S), Limited (L), and Inadequate (I). The procedures and results of the evidence evaluation have been presented in a 2010 Supplement of Epidemiologia & Prevenzione devoted to SENTIERI. SENTIERI studied IPS-specific mortality and the overall mortality profile in all the IPSs combined. Some IPS-specific results are noteworthy and are herementioned. The presence of asbestos (or asbestiform fibres in Biancavilla) was the motivation for including six IPSs (Balangero, Emarese, Casale Monferrato, Broni, Bari-Fibronit, Biancavilla) in the "National environmental remediation programme". In these sites (with the only exception of Emarese) increases in malignant pleural neoplasm mortality were observed, in four of them the excess was in both genders. In six other sites (Pitelli, Massa Carrara, Aree del litorale vesuviano, Tito, Area industriale della Val Basento, Priolo), in which additional sources of environmental pollution were reported, mortality from malignant pleural neoplasm was increased in both genders in Pitelli, Massa Carrara, Priolo and Litorale vesuviano. In the twelve sites where asbestos was mentioned in the decree, a total of 416 extra cases of malignant pleural neoplasms were computed. Asbestos and pleural neoplasm represent an unique case. Unlike mesothelioma, most causes of death analyzed in SENTIERI have multifactorial etiology, furthermore in most IPSs multiple sources of different pollutants are present, sometimes concurrently with air pollution from urban areas: in these cases, drawing conclusions on the association between environmental exposures and specific health outcomes might be complicated. Notwithstanding these difficulties, in a number of cases an etiological role could be attributed to some environmental exposures. The attribution could be possible on the basis of increases observed in both genders and in different age classes, and the exclusion of a major role of occupational exposures was thus allowed. For example, a role of emissions fromrefineries and petrochemical plants was hypothesized for the observed increases in mortality from lung cancer and respiratory diseases in Gela and Porto Torres; a role of emissions frommetal industries was suggested to explain increased mortality from respiratory diseases in Taranto and in Sulcis-Iglesiente-Guspinese. An etiological role of air pollution in the raise in congenital anomalies and perinatal disorders was suggested in Falconara Marittima, Massa-Carrara,Milazzo and Porto Torres. A causal role of heavy metals, PAH's and halogenated compounds was suspected for mortality from renal failure in Massa Carrara, Piombino, Orbetello, Basso Bacino del fiume Chienti and Sulcis-Iglesiente- Guspinese. In Trento-Nord, Grado and Marano, and Basso bacino del fiume Chienti increases in neurological diseases, for which an etiological role of lead, mercury and organohalogenated solvents is possible, were reported. The increase for non- Hodgkin lymphomas in Brescia was associated with the widespread PCB pollution. SENTIERI Project assessed also the overall mortality profile in all the IPSs combined. The mortality for causes of death with a priori Sufficient or Limited evidence of causal association with the environmental exposure showed 3 508 excess deaths for all causes, corresponding to 439 per year; the number of excess deaths was 1 321 for respiratory diseases, 898 for lung cancer and 588 for pleural neoplasms. When considering excess mortality with no restriction to causes of death with a priori Sufficient or Limited evidence of causal association with the environmental exposure, the number of excess deaths for all causes was 9 969 (SMR 102.5, about 1 200 excess deaths per year; the excess was 4 309 for all neoplasms (SMR 103.8, about 538 excess deaths per year), 1 887 for circulatory systemdiseases, and 600 for respiratory systemdiseases. Most of these excesses were observed in IPSs located in Southern and Central Italy. The distribution of the causes of deaths showed that the excesses are not evenly distributed: cancer mortality accounts for 30% of all deaths, but it is 43.2% of the excess deaths (4 309 cases out of 9 969). Conversely, the percentage of excesses in noncancer causes is 19%, while their share of total mortality is 42%. SENTIERI is affected by some limitations, such as the ecological study design and a time window of observation possibly inappropriate to account for induction-latency time; the analyzed outcome (mortality instead than incidence) might be unsuitable as well. Despite its limitations, SENTIERI documented increased mortality for single IPSs and an overall burden of disease in residents in Italian polluted sites. These excesses could be attributed to multiple risk factors, that include also the environmental exposures. The study results will be shared with the Ministries of Health and Environment, Regional governments, Regional environmental protection agencies, Local health authorities and municipalities. A collaborative approach between institutions in charge of environmental protection and health promotion will foster, among else, a scientifically sound and transparent communication process with concerned populations. ; Il Progetto SENTIERI (Studio Epidemiologico Nazionale dei Territori e degli Insediamenti Esposti a Rischio da Inquinamento) riguarda l'analisi della mortalit? delle popolazioni residenti in prossimit? di una serie di grandi centri industriali attivi o dismessi, o di aree oggetto di smaltimento di rifiuti industriali e/o pericolosi, che presentano un quadro di contaminazione ambientale e di rischio sanitario tale da avere determinato il riconoscimento di "siti di interesse nazionale per le bonifiche" (SIN). Lo studio ha preso in considerazione 44 dei 57 siti oggi compresi nel "Programma nazionale di bonifica", che coincidono con i maggiori agglomerati industriali nazionali; per ciascuno di essi si ? proceduto a una raccolta di dati di caratterizzazione, e successivamente a una loro sintesi. La maggior parte dei dati raccolti proviene dai progetti di bonifica ipotizzati per i diversi siti, da cui si evince che oggetto di caratterizzazione e di valutazione del rischio sono state prevalentemente le aree private industriali, quelle, cio?, ritenute causa delle diverse tipologie di inquinamento (definite in SENTIERI esposizioni ambientali). Le aree pubbliche cittadine e/o a verde pubblico e le aree agricole comprese all'interno dei SIN sono state poco investigate. I SIN studiati sono costituiti da uno o pi? Comuni. La mortalit? ? stata studiata per ogni sito, nel periodo 1995-2002, attraverso i seguenti indicatori: tasso grezzo, tasso standardizzato, rapporto standardizzato di mortalit? (SMR) e SMR corretto per un indice di deprivazione socioeconomica messo a punto ad hoc. Nella standardizzazione indiretta sono state utilizzate come riferimento le popolazioni regionali. L'indice di deprivazione ? stato calcolato sulla base di variabili censuarie appartenenti ai seguenti domini: istruzione, disoccupazione, propriet? dell'abitazione, densit? abitativa. Gli indicatori di mortalit? sono stati calcolati per 63 cause singole o gruppi di cause. La presenza di amianto (o di fibre asbestiformi a Biancavilla) ? stata la motivazione esclusiva per il riconoscimento di sei SIN (Balangero, Emarese, Casale Monferrato, Broni, Bari-Fibronit e Biancavilla). In tutti i siti (con l'esclusione di Emarese) si sono osservati incrementi della mortalit? per tumore maligno della pleura e in quattro siti i dati sono coerenti in entrambi i generi. In sei siti con presenza di altre sorgenti di inquinamento oltre all'amianto, la mortalit? per tumore maligno della pleura ? in eccesso in entrambi i generi a Pitelli, Massa Carrara, Priolo e nell'Area del litorale vesuviano. Nel periodo 1995-2002 nell'insieme dei dodici siti contaminati da amianto sono stati osservati un totale di 416 casi di tumore maligno della pleura in eccesso rispetto alle attese. Quando gli incrementi di mortalit? riguardano patologie con eziologia multifattoriale, e si ? in presenza di siti industriali con molteplici ed eterogenee sorgenti emissive, talvolta anche adiacenti ad aree urbane a forte antropizzazione, rapportare il profilo di mortalit? a fattori di rischio ambientali pu? risultare complesso. Tuttavia, in alcuni casi ? stato possibile attribuire un ruolo eziologico all'esposizione ambientale associata alle emissioni di impianti specifici (raffinerie, poli petrolchimici e industrie metallurgiche). Tale attribuzione viene rafforzata dalla presenza di eccessi di rischio in entrambi i generi, e in diverse classi di et?, elementi che consentono di escludere ragionevolmente un ruolo prevalente delle esposizioni professionali. Per esempio, per gli incrementi di mortalit? per tumore polmonare e malattie respiratorie non tumorali, a Gela e Porto Torres ? stato suggerito un ruolo delle emissioni di raffinerie e poli petrolchimici, a Taranto e nel Sulcis-Iglesiente-Guspinese un ruolo delle emissioni degli stabilimenti metallurgici. Negli eccessi di mortalit? per malformazioni congenite e condizioni morbose perinatali ? stato valutato possibile un ruolo eziologico dell'inquinamento ambientale a Massa Carrara, Falconara, Milazzo e Porto Torres. Per le patologie del sistema urinario, in particolare per le insufficienze renali, un ruolo causale di metalli pesanti, IPA e composti alogenati ? stato ipotizzato a Massa Carrara, Piombino, Orbetello, nel Basso bacino del fiume Chienti e nel Sulcis-Iglesiente-Guspinese. Incrementi di malattie neurologiche per i quali ? stato sospettato un ruolo eziologico di piombo, mercurio e solventi organo alogenati sono stati osservati rispettivamente a Trento Nord, Grado e Marano e nel Basso bacino del fiume Chienti. L'incremento dei linfomi non-Hodgkin a Brescia ? stato messo in relazione con la contaminazione diffusa da PCB. Ulteriori elementi di interesse sono stati forniti dalle stime globali della mortalit? nell'insieme dei siti oggetto del Progetto SENTIERI. In particolare, ? emerso che la mortalit? in tutti i SIN, per le cause di morte con evidenza a priori Sufficiente o Limitata per le esposizioni ambientali presenti supera l'atteso, con un SMR di 115.8 per gli uomini (IC 904.4-117.2, 2 439 decessi in eccesso) e 114.4 per le donne (IC 902.4-116.5; 1 069 decessi in eccesso). Tale sovramortalit? si riscontra anche estendendo l'analisi a tutte le cause di morte, cio? non solo per quelle con evidenza a priori Sufficiente o Limitata: il totale dei decessi, per uomini e donne, ? di 403 692, in eccesso rispetto all'atteso di 9 969 casi (SMR 102.5%; IC 902.3-102.8), con una media di oltre 1 200 casi annui. Si ritiene opportuno ricordare che il Progetto SENTIERI, per obiettivi, disegno e metodi, rappresenta uno strumento descrittivo che verifica, in prima istanza, se e quanto il profilo di mortalit? delle popolazioni che vivono nei territori inclusi in aree di interesse nazionale per le bonifiche si discosti da quello cause delle popolazioni di riferimento. Ai fini dell'interpretazione dei risultati, si ricorda che la presenza di eccessi di mortalit? pu? indicare un ruolo di esposizioni ambientali con un grado di persuasivit? scientifica che dipende dai diversi specifici contesti; invece, un quadro di mortalit? che non si discosti da quello di riferimento potrebbe riflettere l'assenza di esposizioni rilevanti, ma anche l'inadeguatezza dell'indicatore sanitario utilizzato (mortalit? invece di incidenza) rispetto al tipo di esposizioni presenti, o della finestra temporale nella quale si analizza la mortalit? rispetto a quella rilevante da un punto di vista dell'esposizione. La condivisione dei risultati con i ministeri della salute e dell'ambiente, le Regioni, le ASL, le ARPA e i Comuni interessati consentir? l'attivazione di sinergie fra le strutture pubbliche con competenze in materia di protezione dell'ambiente e di tutela della salute, e su questa base l'avvio di un processo di comunicazione con la popolazione scientificamente fondato e trasparente. Parole chiave: siti di interesse nazionale per le bonifiche (SIN), mortalit? geografica, impatto sanitario ambientale, Italia

AMÉRICA LATINA Unos 80 muertos y 150.000 afectados por fuertes lluvias en Centroamérica.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/17/world/americas/central-america-floods/index.html?hpt=wo_bn8 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/17/actualidad/1318837321_448930.html http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/unos-80-muertos-y-150000-afectados-por-lluvias-en-amrica_10578146-4 http://www.economist.com/node/21532292El Tribunal Supremo venezolano bloquea la candidatura de un rival de Chávez.Para más información:http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/18/actualidad/1318904762_393671.htmlhttp://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/en-venezuela-positor-lpez-dice-que-ser-candidato-pese-a-inhabilidad_10589966-4 http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/74788.htmlUna millonaria multa asedia al principal canal opositor de Venezuela.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1415945-una-millonaria-multa-asedia-al-principal-canal-opositor-de-venezuela#comentar http://diario.elmercurio.com/2011/10/19/internacional/_portada/noticias/A46B940C-C6B6-4CE1-BB45-6BAE144B1D21.htm?id={A46B940C-C6B6-4CE1-BB45-6BAE144B1D21} http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/multa-a-canal-opositor-del-televisin-venezolano_10586304-4 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/18/actualidad/1318965461_251822.html http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-15358834Liberada la niña colombiana secuestrada durante 19 días.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/18/world/americas/colombia-missing-girl/index.html?hpt=wo_c2 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-15361105http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1415801-liberan-a-una-nina-secuestrada-en-colombia#comentar http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/18/actualidad/1318909157_377754.htmlGraves incidentes caracterizan al paro nacional en Chile.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1415802-graves-incidentes-en-chile#comentar http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/74789.html http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/estudiantes-inician-dos-marchas-en-segundo-da-de-protesta_10591924-4 http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/802075.html http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-15358921La Fiscalía de Perú investiga a uno de los vicepresidentes por corrupción.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/18/actualidad/1318920890_039227.htmlChávez regresa a Cuba para realizarse nuevos examines médicos.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/15/world/americas/venezuela-chavez-cuba/index.html?hpt=wo_bn8Morales acepta diálogo con indígenas. Para más información: http://diario.elmercurio.com/2011/10/19/internacional/internacional/noticias/17A854B3-B420-45C8-875E-EA0D3E3CE994.htm?id={17A854B3-B420-45C8-875E-EA0D3E3CE994} http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/la-marcha-de-los-indgenas-crece-con-apoyo-a-su-ingreso-a-la-paz_10591905-4 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-15366035Ecuador: Rafael Correa y el neocaudillismo.Para más información: http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/74772.htmlEl PRI presenta queja contra el presidente de México, Felipe Calderón.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/el-pri-presenta-queja-contra-el-presidente-caldern-ante-rgano-electoral_10590044-4 http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/17/world/americas/mexico-politics-crime/index.html?hpt=wo_bn8Argentina: de cara a las presidenciales del domingo 23 de octubre.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/19/actualidad/1319007522_163618.html http://diario.elmercurio.com/2011/10/19/internacional/internacional/noticias/5B640A57-EEEA-4766-BACC-47EC5B017B43.htm?id={5B640A57-EEEA-4766-BACC-47EC5B017B43} http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/18/actualidad/1318960474_989283.html http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/74786.htmlOposición pidió anular elección de magistrados del domingo en Bolivia.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/bolivia-vot-para-elegir-magistrados_10577188-4La tensión se agudiza en Nicaragua a dos semanas de las presidenciales.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/18/actualidad/1318919187_018457.htmlPresos mantienen secuestrados a 60 trabajadores de cárcel en Venezuela.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/presos-en-venezuela-secuestran-60-trabajadores-de-una-crcel_10576625-4Brasil: otro escándalo de corrupción involucra a ministro de Dilma.Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-brazil-dilma-20111016,0,7107872.storyRevuelta en cárcel mexicana deja al menos20 muertos. Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-mexico-prison-20111016,0,1752360.story Primer Ministro jamaiquino nombra a su sucesor.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/19/world/americas/jamaicas-prime-minister-names-education-official-as-successor.html?ref=world'Sería un duro golpe si Chávez muere': Rafael Correa.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/seria-un-duro-golpe-si-chavez-muere-rafael-correa_10592824-4ESTADOS UNIDOS / CANADÁLos "indignados" redoblan la presión en Estados Unidos.Para más información: http://www.economist.com/blogs/democracyinamerica/2011/10/occupy-wall-street-2 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1415342-los-indignados-redoblan-la-presion#comentar http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/18/actualidad/1318958353_966494.htmlEn visita sorpresa a Trípoli, Hillary Clinton "saluda la victoria" de Libia.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/19/world/africa/clinton-in-libya-to-meet-leaders-and-offer-aid-package.html?ref=world http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/18/actualidad/1318937456_884598.html http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/802020.html http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/18/world/africa/libya-clinton/index.html?hpt=wo_c2En un año fueron deportados de Estados Unidos 400.000 indocumentados.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/19/us/latinos-said-to-bear-weight-of-deportation-program.html?ref=world http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1415799-eeuu-record-de-expulsiones-de-indocumentados#comentar http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/74785.htmlBarack Obama de gira por estados claves en carrera por la reelecciónPara más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/14/world/africa/africa-obama-troops/index.html?hpt=wo_bn10 http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/obama-de-gira-por-estados-claves-en-carrera-por-la-reeleccin_10585564-4 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/16/actualidad/1318787773_176962.html http://www.nytimes.com/pages/politics/index.html?hpCain, el republicano hoy le ganaría a Obama.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1415544-cain-la-gran-sorpresa-de-la-campana-en-eeuu#comentar http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/18/actualidad/1318961539_985453.htmlCandidatos republicanos intercambiaron 'golpes' en debate televisivoPara más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-15361428 http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/debate-televisivo-entre-candidatos-republicanos-_10591805-4 http://www.lemonde.fr/ameriques/article/2011/10/19/les-candidats-a-la-primaire-republicaine-promettent-de-solder-le-bilan-d-obama_1590084_3222.html Migración centra debate electoral.Para más información: http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/74784.htmlLos amish salen de su silencio y denuncian ataques en Estados Unidos.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/18/actualidad/1318970940_744477.htmlGobierno de Estados Unidos refuerza sus sitios en la web.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/19/world/africa/united-states-weighs-cyberwarfare-strategy.html?ref=worldEUROPAGrecia otra vez paralizada con una manifestación récord.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-15362678 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1415955-protesta-record-en-grecia#comentar http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/huelga-general-en-grecia-por-medidas-de-austeridad_10591386-4Piden a ETA el cese definitivo de la violencia.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/17/world/europe/spain-eta/index.html?hpt=wo_bn9 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1415479-piden-a-eta-el-cese-definitivo-de-la-violencia#comentar http://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2011/10/19/l-agence-de-notation-moody-s-abaisse-la-note-de-l-espagne_1590072_3234.htmlFrancia, cerca de perder su calificación "triple A".Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1415800-francia-cerca-de-perder-su-calificacion-triple-a#comentarAbsuelven a Berlusconi en un caso de sospechas de fraude fiscal.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/19/world/europe/italys-interior-minister-anticipates-more-unrest.html?ref=world http://www.lemonde.fr/europe/article/2011/10/18/berlusconi-acquitte-des-soupcons-de-fraude-fiscale-et-d-abus-de-confiance_1589912_3214.html http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1415666-absuelven-a-berlusconi-en-un-caso-de-sospechas-de-fraude-fiscal#comentar http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/19/world/europe/tax-fraud-and-embezzlement-charges-against-silvio-berlusconi-are-dismissed.html?ref=worldEl socialista Hollande encabeza encuesta presidencial en Francia.Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-france-socialist-vote-20111017,0,4995709.story http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/802055.html http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/franois-hollande-fue-elegico-como-el-candidato-del-partido-socialista-para-prximas-elecciones-en-francia_10575324-4 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-15365469 http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/19/world/europe/french-campaign-taking-shape-as-3-person-collision.html?ref=world http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/17/actualidad/1318872449_028848.htmlStrauss-Kahn pide declarar ante el juez que instruye un escándalo de prostitución.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/16/actualidad/1318785517_533837.htmlViolencia en la primera marcha global; Roma: escenario de una batalla campal.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1415094-violencia-en-la-primera-marcha-global#comentarLas tensiones en Kosovo y la crisis política en Bosnia y Albania desestabilizan la región.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-15355955 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/16/actualidad/1318793428_156884.html http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/19/world/europe/europe-signals-its-ire-at-ukraines-president-yanukovich.html?ref=world http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-15367388Medvedev emprende la campaña electoral del partido Rusia Unida.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/17/world/europe/russia-putin-interview/index.html?hpt=wo_bn9 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/15/actualidad/1318709881_117330.htmlRusia firma tratado de libre comercio con los ex Estados Soviéticos.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-15363770Una advertencia de Alemania asustó a los mercados.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1415541-una-advertencia-de-alemania-asusto-a-los-mercados#comentarLa justicia pone a la mujer más rica de Francia bajo la tutela de su familia.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/17/world/europe/france-loreal-guardianship/index.html?hpt=wo_bn9 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/17/actualidad/1318850617_214116.htmlReina Isabel comienza tour por Australia.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-15364751Más de 20 muertos en el peor ataque de los últimos años en Turquía.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/archivo/documento/CMS-10591024ASIA- PACÍFICO/ MEDIO ORIENTEHistórico intercambio en Medio Oriente: Gilad Shalit a cambio de1027 prisioneros palestinos.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/18/actualidad/1318901857_778178.html http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/19/world/middleeast/hard-feelings-after-israel-hamas-swap-for-shalit.html?_r=1&ref=world http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-15361312 http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/74781.html http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/18/world/meast/israel-prisoner-swap-shalit-future/index.html?hpt=wo_c1 http://www.economist.com/blogs/newsbook/2011/10/gilad-shalit http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-mideast-prisoners-freed-20111019,0,3020421.story http://israelpalestine.blog.lemonde.fr/2011/10/19/pourquoi-il-ne-faut-rien-attendre-de-lechange-shalit-pour-le-processus-de-paix/Los yemeníes desafían al régimen pese a la represión.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/17/world/meast/yemen-unrest/index.html?hpt=wo_bn11 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/16/actualidad/1318794219_261465.html http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-15365980Tropas francesas comienzan a volver de Afganistán.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-15363624 http://www.lemonde.fr/asie-pacifique/article/2011/10/19/l-armee-francaise-commence-a-se-retirer-d-afghanistan_1590100_3216.htmlAccidente aéreo en Nepal: 6 muertos.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-15363178Disidentes chinos desafían el poder.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/19/world/asia/despite-violence-chinese-dissidents-emboldened-supporters-stream-to-see-him.html?ref=world http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/17/world/asia/china-toddler-hit-and-run/index.html?hpt=wo_bn7"New York Times" analiza: "Irak, la guerra olvidada".Para más información: http://atwar.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/10/17/iraq-the-forgotten-war/?ref=worldContinúa la violencia en Siria.Para más información: http://www.economist.com/blogs/newsbook/2011/10/syrias-uprising-1 http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/17/world/meast/iran-saudi-plot/index.html?hpt=wo_bn11 http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/15/world/meast/syria-unrest/index.html?hpt=wo_bn11Ataque terrorista en Afganistán tenía como objetivo Central de Inteligencia.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/17/world/asia/afghanistan-violence/index.html?hpt=wo_bn7Reactor de Fukushima puede dejar de funcionar antes de lo previstoPara más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/10/17/world/asia/japan-nuclear/index.html?hpt=wo_c2 http://www.lemonde.fr/japon/article/2011/10/19/dans-les-villes-mortes-autour-de-fukushima_1590284_1492975.htmlInundaciones continúan amenazando a tailandeses.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-15368177La inflación continúa siendo una gran preocupación en China.Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-china-inflation-20111015,0,6423694.storyEjecuciones secretas de cientos de disidentes en Irán desde 2009.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/ejecuciones-secretas-de-disidentes-en-irn-desde-2009_10585865-4La guerra fría de Oriente Medio, el caso Irán-Arabia Saudita.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/la-guerra-fra-de-oriente-medio-en-caso-irn-arabia-saudita_10582024-4AFRICALa Haya quiere juzgar en rebeldía a los acusados del asesinato de líder libanés Hariri.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/17/actualidad/1318867023_270193.htmlKenia irrumpe en Somalia para combatir a los islamistas y evitar más secuestros.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/19/world/africa/kenyan-officials-make-surprise-visit-to-somalia.html?ref=world http://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2011/10/18/le-kenya-entre-dans-la-guerre-en-somalie_1589711_3212.html http://politica.elpais.com/politica/2011/10/16/actualidad/1318786711_259229.htmlEn visita sorpresa a Trípoli, Hillary Clinton "saluda la victoria" de Libia.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/19/world/africa/battle-for-surt-threatens-libyas-healing-process.html?ref=world http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2011/10/18/actualidad/1318937456_884598.html http://diario.elmercurio.com/2011/10/19/internacional/_portada/noticias/4B3195A5-934A-4355-AF63-610140F9E0D4.htm?id={4B3195A5-934A-4355-AF63-610140F9E0D4} http://www.lemonde.fr/libye/article/2011/10/18/visite-surprise-d-hillary-clinton-en-libye_1589905_1496980.htmlEn Liberia surge nueva fórmula para las elecciones presidenciales.Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-liberia-warlord-20111019,0,74864.storyEstados Unidos envió militares para dar recomendaciones en Uganda.Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-us-uganda-20111015,0,3346989.storyHuellas de violencia persisten en Libia.Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/middleeast/la-fg-libya-killings-20111017,0,6961741.storyFMI: Se espera un crecimiento económico del 5% en África durante el 2011.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-15366045OTRAS NOTICIAS"El Universal" presenta su portal dedicado al cambio climático.Para más información: http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/coberturas/cobertura3.html"The Economist" presenta su informe semanal: "Business this week".Para más información: http://www.economist.com/node/21532338

Author's IntroductionOver the last 25 years, the environmental justice movement has emerged from its earliest focus on US social movements combating environmental racism to an influential global phenomenon. Environmental justice research has also undergone spectacular growth and diffusion in the last two decades. From its earliest roots in sociology, the field is now firmly entrenched in several different academic disciplines including geography, urban planning, public health, law, ethnic studies, and public policy. Environmental justice refers simultaneously to a vibrant and growing academic research field, a system of social movements aimed at addressing various environmental and social inequalities, and public policies crafted to ameliorate conditions of environmental and social injustice. Academia is responding to this social problem by offering courses under various rubrics, such as 'Race, Poverty and the Environment, Environmental Racism, Environmental Justice', 'Urban Planning, Public Health And Environmental Justice', and so on. Courses on environmental justice offer students opportunities to critically and reflexively explore issues of race and racism, social inequality, social movements, public/environmental health, public policy and law, and intersections of science and policy. Integrating modules on environmental justice can help professors engage students in action research, service learning, and more broadly, critical pedagogy.This article offers an overview of the current state of the field and offers a range of resources for teaching concepts of environmental racism, inequality and injustice in the classroom.Author recommendsPellow, D. and R. Brulle 2005. Power, Justice and the Environment : a Critical Appraisal of the Environmental Justice Movement. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.The primary focus of this edited collection is to offer a 'Critical Appraisal' of the environmental justice movement. The articles in this book are strong, focused on broad areas of: critical assessment, new strategies, and the challenge of globalization.Downey, L. and B. Hawkins 2008. 'Race, Income, and Environmental Inequality in the United States.'Sociological Perspectives51: 759–81.This article is an effective overview of the current sociological literature on environmental inequality using quantitative methods.L. Cole and S. Foster 2001. From the Ground Up: Environmental Racism and the Ris of the Environmental Justice Movement. New York: New York University PressThe primary focus of this book is an overview of the US Environmental Justice Movement. Unique in itself, the authors, an activist lawyer and law professor, offer a well‐written overview of the movement.Taylor, Dorceta E. 2000. 'The Rise of the Environmental Justice Paradigm: Injustice Framing and the Social Construction of Environmental Discourses.'American Behavioral Scientist43: 508–80.A leading environmental justice scholar discusses the issue of injustice framing.Morello‐Frosch, R. A. 2002. 'Discrimination and the Political Economy of Environmental Inequality.'Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy 20(2002): 477–96.In a critique that focuses on the political economy of place, geography, and ethnic studies, Morello‐Frosch integrates relevant social and legal theories with a spatialized economic critique to formulate a more supple theory of environmental discrimination that focuses on historical patterns of industrial development and racialized labor markets, suburbanization and segregation, and economic restructuring.Pastor, Manuel, Rachel Morello‐Frosch, James Sadd, Carlos Porras and Michele Prichard 2005. 'Citizens, Science, and Data Judo: Leveraging Secondary Data Analysis to Build a Community‐Academic Collaborative for Environmental Justice in Southern California,' in Methods For Conducting Community‐Based Participatory Research For Health, edited by Barbara A. Israel, Eugenia Eng, Amy J. Schulz and Edith A. Parker. San Francisco, CA: Jossey‐Bass.Exemplary reflexive analysis of the power of research as intervention in environmental justice struggles.Online materials

 25 stories from the Central Valley: http://twentyfive.ucdavis.edu
 Environmental Justice Resource Center at Clark Atlanta: http://www.ejrc.cau.edu/
 US EPA Environmental Justice: http://www.epa.gov/environmentaljustice/
 Environmental Justice of Field Studies: University of Michigan: http://sitemaker.umich.edu/environmentaljusticefieldstudies/home
 Center on Race, Poverty and the Environment: http://www.crpe‐ej.org/
 National Black Environmental Justice Network: http://www.nbejn.org/
 Environmental Justice and Climate Change Initiative: http://www.ejcc.org/
 Environmental Justice Project: http://ej.ucdavis.edu/

Sample syllabus





Ethnic Studies 103: Environmental Racism


Fall 2008


Instructor: Traci Brynne Voyles


Contact Information:
tvoyles@ucsd.edu


Office Hours: Monday, Wednesday 11:00‐12:30, SSB 240 and by appointment


Purpose: This course is designed to explore issues germane to environmental racism and environmental injustice, particularly focusing on the theoretical and material implications of social constructions of identity (race, class, gender, sexuality, etc.) and nature that lead to the degradation of racialized environments, bodies, and communities. In this course, we will explore case studies of environmental injustice, theories of body, space, nation, and colonialism; and think through possibilities for resistance, sovereignty, and environmental justice. The course materials are derived from ethnic studies, environmental justice studies, and feminist theory to provide multiple interdisciplinary perspectives on the state of race, inequality, and environment.


Logistics: You can reach me by email, in my office hours, or by appointment at any time during the quarter. I respond to students' emails by 10 am every weekday; I do not answer students' emails on weekends.


 I do not accept late assignments or assignments submitted electronically.


 This syllabus is subject to change; any changes will be announced well in advance in class or by email.


 Please refer to the UCSD Principles of Community (http://www.ucsd.edu/principles) for guidelines on standards of conduct and respect in the classroom. I reserve the right to excuse anyone from my classroom at any time for violating these principles.


Required Texts


1. Luke Cole and Sheila Foster, From the Ground Up: Environmental Racism and the Rise of the Environmental Justice Movement, NYU Press, 2000.


2. Andrea Smith, Conquest: Sexual Violence and American Indian Genocide, South End Press, 2005.


3. Rachel Stein, Ed., New Perspectives on Environmental Justice: Gender, Sexuality, and Activism, Rutgers University Press, 2004.


4. Al Gedicks, Resource Rebels: Native Challenges to Mining and Oil Corporations, South End Press, 2001.


5. Ana Castillo, So Far from God, Tandem Library Books, 1994.


These texts are available on campus at Groundwork Books.


Assignments and Evaluation


 30 points: Attendance and reading responses


 20 points: Unit 1 Case Study Project and Paper


 20 points: Unit 2 Paper


 10 points: The View from UCSD Project


 20 points: Unit 3 Paper


Unit 1 Project For this project, you will work both in a group (4 people MAX) and individually. Ten points will be earned by doing a group presentation of your assigned case, explaining to the class in 4–6 minutes the who, what, when, where, and how of your case. Your group will produce a 1 page, bullet‐pointed informative analysis of the case in a style that could or would be distributed publicly. NO POWERPOINTS OR MEDIA THAT DOES NOT FIT ONTO THE 1 PAGE—on the 1 page, however, you can use graphics to convey major points about the case.


 The remaining 10 points will be earned by turning in a 500‐word paper that links this case to the course readings and lectures. A prompt for this paper will be distributed one week before it is due.


Unit 2 Paper (1000–1250 words) The prompt for this paper will be distributed one week before it is due. The prompt will require you to critically analyze course readings, lectures, and discussions from Unit 2.


The View from UCSD For this project, you will present a creative project of your choosing that explores themes of environmental racism and injustice from your viewpoint – that is, of a UCSD student. What is the relationship of UCSD as an academic institution to environmental injustice? How can (or how have) UCSD students contest and resist the perpetuation or funding of environmental injustices by their academic institutions? This project can be poetry, visual art, activist literature (i.e. brochures, web sites, pamphlets, etc.), political cartoons, activist alert bulletins, journalistic articles or photographic essays, etc.


Unit 3 Paper (1000‐1250 words) The prompt for this paper will be distributed one week before it is due. The prompt will require you to think cumulatively about the course and apply materials and key themes from Units 1 and 2 to the readings, lectures, and discussions from Unit 3.


Unit 1: What's the Problem Here? Case Studies in Environmental Racism and Environmental Injustice In this unit, we will explore cases of environmental injustice through four major frameworks that will be used throughout the course:


 1. The social construction of identity and power (of race/racism, gender/patriarchy, sexuality/heteronormativity, etc.);


 2. The intersectionality of identity and power;


 3. The relationality of privilege and inequality; and


 4. The transnational or global nature of modern political–economic structures


9/26 Fri: 1st DAY – Introductions


 No reading due


Week 1 ER Frameworks: Race, Gender, Sexuality, and Nation


9/29 Mon:


 Cole and Foster, pp. 1–33


10/1 Wed:


 Cole and Foster, pp. 34–53


10/3 Fri:


 Cole and Foster, pp. 54–79


Week 2 Relationality and Globalization


10/6 Mon:


 Cole and Foster, pp. 80–102


10/8 Wed:


 Cole and Foster, pp. 103–133


10/10 Fri:


 Cole and Foster, pp. 134–166


Week 3


10/13 Mon: Environmental Racism Case Studies


 Due: Unit 1 case study project and paper


Unit 2: A User's Guide to Environmental Justice Studies: Analytic Frameworks and Theoretical Possibilities This unit moves us from the material effects of environmental racism and injustice to the analytic frameworks and theoretical possibilities of environmental justice studies. In this unit, we will read, discuss, and develop theories about how racialization and naturalization work together, what role the environment plays in colonial encounters, and how to re‐imagine what we mean by 'nature', 'race', and 'body'.


10/15 Wed:


 Stein, pp. xiii‐20


10/17 Fri: ss


 Stein, pp. 21–62


Week 4 Ecocriticism


10/20 Mon:


 Stein, pp. 63–77


10/22 Wed:


 Stein, pp. 78–108


10/24 Fri:


 Stein, pp. 109–138


Week 5 Colonialism


10/27 Mon:


 Stein, pp. 225–248


10/29 Wed:


 Smith, pp. ix‐34


10/31 Fri:


 Smith, pp. 55–78


Week 6 Indigeneity and Sovereignty


11/3 Mon:


 Smith, pp. 137–176


11/5 Wed:


 Smith, pp. 177–192


11/7 Fri:


 Due: Unit 2 paper


UNIT 3: Decolonize This! Modes of Resistance to Environmental Injustice This unit is dedicated to the all‐important question of where to go from here? Now that we understand the material and theoretical ins and outs of environmental racism and injustice, how can and how is it being contested, resisted, and undone?


Week 7 Social Movements


11/10 Mon:


 Geddicks, pp. vi‐14


11/12 Wed:


 Geddicks, pp. 15–40


11/14 Fri:


 Geddicks, pp. 127–158


Week 8 The Politics and Poetics of EJ Resistance


11/17 Mon:


 Geddicks, pp. 159–180


11/19 Wed:


 Geddicks, pp. 181–202


11/21 Fri:


 Castillo, pp. TBA


Week 9 Poetics


11/24 Mon:


 Castillo, pp. TBA


11/26 Wed: NO CLASS


11/28 Fri: NO CLASS


Week 10 Conclusions and EJ Futures


12/1 Mon:


 Castillo, pp. TBA


12/3 Wed:


 Castillo, pp. TBA


12/5 Fri: LAST DAY—Conclusions


 Due: View from UCSD Project



Unit 3 Paper due on or before Tuesday, December 9, at 11am, in my office (SSB 240)



Guidelines for written assignments:


*Please note: more specific requirements for content, quality, and style will be included with each prompt.


The three papers required for this course must be:


 –Typed


 –Stapled


 –Submitted on time


Please include a header with:


 –Your name


 –The name of the assignment (e.g. 'Unit 2 Paper')


 –A word count


Please do not include:


 –A title


 –The assignment prompt


Majoring or Minoring in Ethnic Studies at UCSD


Many students take an Ethnic Studies course because the topic is of great interest or because of a need to fulfill a social science, non‐contiguous, or other college requirement. Often students have taken three or four classes out of 'interest' yet have no information about the major or minor and don't realize how close they are to a major, a minor, or even a double major. An Ethnic Studies major is excellent preparation for a career in law, public policy, government and politics, journalism, education, public health, social work, international relations, and many other careers. If you would like information about the Ethnic Studies major or minor at UCSD, please contact Yolanda Escamilla, Ethnic Studies Department Undergraduate Advisor, at 858‐534‐3277 or yescamilla@ucsd.edu.




OptionalFocus questions

 What are the roots of environmental inequality? What are the major policy debates within the field of environmental justice?
 How has environmental justice academic writing and environmental justice activism changed since the 1980s? What accounts for these changes?
 What are the relationships between academic research, environmental justice, and the politics of knowledge production, more broadly? How are these relationships complicated by factors such as race, class, and gender?
 What challenges do researchers interested in environmental justice face and why?
 What are the challenges faced by environmental justice activists that can be informed by EJ research?

Seminar/project idea25 Stories Project: Teaching Tools available in the Summer 2009 http://www.twentyfive.ucdavis.edu Use these teaching tools to introduce the environmental justice movement in classroom settings. Tools may be used individually or in combination with one another.Below, you will see that we have organized the tools by the intended purpose of the activity. In considering which to use, it may be helpful to look over the 'Why Do It' section of the directions for the tool you are looking at for an indication of how this activity might fit within your course material.






Purpose
Teaching tool




Getting to know the group's experience of the environment
Share squares
Environmental experience in pictures
Circles of my self


Defining environmental justice
Where is the environment and what do people do there? Environmental justice defined


Researching your place in the environment
Mapping your community
My town, your town
Data detective


Learning from the life‐stories of others
Environmental justice stories
Circles of my self




Combining tools for lesson planningEach teaching tool fits into one (or more) of the categories above. Combine tools from different categories to create lesson plans for your class or workshop.For example, in a 50‐min class session you could combine the following tools:

Help the group get to know each other with 'Share squares'.
Explore various understandings of the environment with 'Where is the environment and what do people do there?' and then
Analyze women's real‐life experiences with stories and questions relevant to your class with 'Environmental Justice Stories'.

Public Policy and Ageing in Northern Ireland: Identifying Levers for Change Judith Cross, Policy Officer with the Centre for Ageing Research Development in Ireland (CARDI)��������Introduction Identifying a broad range of key public policy initiatives as they relate to age can facilitate discussion and create new knowledge within and across government to maximise the opportunities afforded by an ageing population. This article looks at how examining the current public policy frameworks in Northern Ireland can present opportunities for those working in this field for the benefit of older people. Good policy formulation needs to be evidence-based, flexible, innovative and look beyond institutional boundaries. Bringing together architects and occupational therapists, for example, has the potential to create better and more effective ways relevant to health, housing, social services and government departments. Traditional assumptions of social policy towards older people have tended to be medically focused with an emphasis on care and dependency. This in turn has consequences for the design and delivery of services for older people. It is important that these assumptions are challenged as changes in thinking and attitudes can lead to a redefinition of ageing, resulting in policies and practices that benefit older people now and in the future. Older people, their voices and experiences, need to be central to these developments. The Centre for Ageing Research and Development in Ireland The Centre for Ageing Research and Development in Ireland (CARDI) (1) is a not for profit organisation developed by leaders from the ageing field across Ireland (North and South) including age sector focused researchers and academics, statutory and voluntary, and is co-chaired by Professor Robert Stout and Professor Davis Coakley. CARDI has been established to provide a mechanism for greater collaboration among age researchers, for wider dissemination of ageing research information and to advance a research agenda relevant to the needs of older people in Ireland, North and South. Operating at a strategic level and in an advisory capacity, CARDI�۪s work focuses on promoting research co-operation across sectors and disciplines and concentrates on influencing the strategic direction of research into older people and ageing in Ireland. It has been strategically positioned around the following four areas: Identifying and establishing ageing research priorities relevant to policy and practice in Ireland, North and South;Promoting greater collaboration and co-operation on ageing research in order to build an ageing research community in Ireland, North and South;Stimulating research in priority areas that can inform policy and practice relating to ageing and older people in Ireland, North and South;Communicating strategic research issues on ageing to raise the profile of ageing research in Ireland, North and South, and its role in informing policy and practice. Context of Ageing in Ireland Ireland �۪s population is ageing. One million people aged 60 and over now live on the island of Ireland. By 2031, it is expected that Northern Ireland�۪s percentage of older people will increase to 28% and the Republic of Ireland�۪s to 23%. The largest increase will be in the older old; the number aged 80+ is expected to triple by the same date. However while life expectancy has increased, it is not clear that life without disability and ill health has increased to the same extent. A growing number of older people may face the combined effects of a decline in physical and mental function, isolation and poverty. Policymakers, service providers and older people alike recognise the need to create a high quality of life for our ageing population. This challenge can be meet by addressing the problems relating to healthy ageing, reducing inequalities in later life and creating services that are shaped by, and appropriate for, older people. Devolution and Structures of Government in Northern Ireland The Agreement (2) reached in the Multi-Party Negotiations in Belfast 1998 established the Northern Ireland Assembly which has full legislative authority for all transferred matters. The majority of social and economic public policy such as; agriculture, arts, education, health, environment and planning is determined by the Northern Ireland Assembly at Stormont. There are 11 Government Departments covering the main areas of responsibility with 108 elected Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLA�۪s). The powers of the Northern Ireland Assembly do not cover ��� reserved�۪ matters or ��� excepted�۪ matters . These are the responsibility of Westminster and include issues such as, tax, social security, policing, justice, defence, immigration and foreign affairs. Northern Ireland has 18 elected Members of Parliament (MP�۪s) to the House of Commons. Public Policy Context in Northern Ireland The economic, social and political consequence of an ageing population is a challenge for policy makers across government. Considering the complex and diverse causal factors that contribute to ageing in Northern Ireland, there are a number of areas of government policy at regional, national and international levels that are likely to impact in this area. International The Madrid International Plan of Action on Ageing (3) and the Research Agenda on Ageing for the 21st Century (4) provide important mechanisms for furthering research into ageing. The United Kingdom has signed up to these. The Madrid International Plan of Action on Ageing commits member states to a systematic review of the Plan of Action through Regional Implementation Strategies. The United Kingdom�۪s Regional Implementation Strategy covers Northern Ireland. National At National level, pension and social security are high on the agenda. The Pensions Act (5) became law in 2007 and links pensions increases with earnings as opposed to prices from 2012. Additional credits for people raising children and caring for older people to boost their pensions were introduced. Some protections are included for those who lost occupational pensions as a result of underfunded schemes being wound up before April 2005. In relation to State Pensions and benefits, this Act will bring changes to state pensions in future. The Act now places the Pension Credit element which is up-rated in line with or above earnings, on a permanent, statutory footing. Regional At regional level there are a number of age related public policy initiatives that have the potential to impact positively on the lives of older people in Northern Ireland. Some are specific to ageing such as the Ageing in an Inclusive Society (6) and others by their nature are cross-cutting such as Lifetime Opportunities: Governments Anti-Poverty Strategy for Northern Ireland (7). The main public policy framework in Northern Ireland is the Programme for Government: Building a Better Future, 2008-2011(PfG) (8) . The PfG, is the overarching high level policy framework for Northern Ireland and provides useful principles for ageing research and public policy in Northern Ireland. The PfG vision is to build a peaceful, fair and prosperous society in Northern Ireland, with respect for the rule of law. A number of Public Service Agreements (PSA) aligned to the PfG confirm key actions that will be taken to support the priorities that the Government aim to achieve over the next three years. For example objective 2 of PSA 7: Making Peoples�۪ Lives Better: Drive a programme across Government to reduce poverty and address inequality and disadvantage, refers to taking forward strategic action to promote social inclusion for older people; and to deliver a strong independent voice for older people. The Office of the First Minister and deputy First Minister (OFMDFM) have recently appointed an Interim Older People�۪s Advocate, Dame Joan Harbison to provide a focus for older peoples issues across Government. Ageing in an Inclusive Society is the cross-departmental strategy for older people in Northern Ireland and was launched in March 2005. It sets out the approach to be taken across Government to promote and support the inclusion of older people. The vision coupled with six strategic objectives form the basis of the action plans accompanying the strategy. The vision is: ���To ensure that age related policies and practices create an enabling environment, which offers everyone the opportunity to make informed choices so that they may pursue healthy, active and positive ageing.�۝ (Ageing in an Inclusive Society, Office of the First Minister and Deputy First Minister, 2005) Action planning and maintaining momentum across government in relation to this strategy has proved to be slower than anticipated. It is proposed to refresh this Strategy in line with Opportunity Age ��� meeting the challenges of ageing in the 21st Century (9). There are a number of policy levers elsewhere which can also be used to promote the positive aspects of an ageing society. The Investing for Health (10) and A Healthier Future:A 20 Year Vision for Health and Well-being in Northern Ireland (11), seek to ensure that the overall vision for health and wellbeing is achievable and provides a useful framework for ageing policy and research in the health area. These health initiatives have the potential to positively impact on the quality of life of older people and provide a useful framework for improving current policy and practice. In addition to public policy initiatives, the anti-discrimination frameworks in terms of employment in Northern Ireland cover age as well as a range of other grounds. Goods facilitates and services are currently excluded from the Employment Equality (age) Regulations (NI) 2006 (12). Supplementing the anti-discrimination measures, Section 75 of the Northern Ireland Act 1998 (13), unique to Northern Ireland, places a statutory obligation on public authorities in fulfilling their functions to promote equality of opportunity across nine grounds, one of which is age(14). This positive duty has the potential to make a real difference to the lives of older people in Northern Ireland. Those affected by policy decisions must be consulted and their interests taken into account. This provides an opportunity for older people and their representatives to participate in public policy-making, right from the start of the process. Policy and Research Interface ���Ageing research is vital as decisions in relation to policy and practice and resource allocation will be made on the best available information�۝. (CARDI�۪s Strategic Plan 2008-2011) As outlined earlier, CARDI has been established to bridge the gap to ensure that research reaches those involved in making policy decisions. CARDI is stimulating the ageing research agenda in Ireland through a specific research fund that has a policy and practice focus. My work is presently focusing on helping to build a greater awareness of the key policy levers and providing opportunities for those within research and policy to develop closer links. The development of this shared understanding by establishing these links between researchers and policy makers is seen as the best predictor for research utilization. It is important to acknowledge and recognise that researchers and policy makers operate in different institutional, political and cultural contexts. Research however needs to ���resonate�۪ with the contextual factors in which policy makers operate. Conclusions Those working within the public policy field recognise all too often that the development of government policies and initiatives in respect of age does not guarantee that they will result in changes in actual provision of services, despite Government recommendations and commitments. The identification of public policy initiatives as they relate to age has the potential to highlight persistent and entrenched difficulties that social policy has previously failed to address. Furthermore, the identification of these difficulties can maximise the opportunities for progressing these across government. A focus on developing effective and meaningful targets to ensure measurable outcomes in public policy for older people can assist in this. Access to sound, credible and up-to-date evidence will be vital in this respect. As well as a commitment to working across departmental boundaries to effect change. Further details: If you would like to discuss this paper or for further information about CARDI please contact: Judith Cross, Policy Officer, Centre for Ageing Research and Development in Ireland CARDI). t: +44 (0) 28 9069 0066; m: +353 (0) 867 904 171; e: judith@cardi.ie ; or visit our website at: www.cardi.ie References 1) Centre for Ageing Research and Development in Ireland (2008) Strategic Plan 2008-2011. Belfast. CARDI 2) The Agreement: Agreement Reached in the Multi-Party Negotiations. Belfast 1998 3) Madrid International Plan of Action on Ageing. http://www.un.org/ageing/ 4) UN Programme on Ageing (2007) Research Agenda on Ageing for the 21st Century: 2007 Update. New York. New York. UN Programme on Ageing and the International Association of Gerontology and Geriatrics. 5) The Pensions Act 2007 Chapter 22 6) Office of the First Minister and deputy First Minister (2005). Ageing in an Inclusive Society. Belfast. OFMDFM Central Anti-Poverty Unit. 7) Office of the First Minister and deputy First Minister (2005). Lifetime Opportunities: Government�۪s Anti-Poverty and Social Inclusion Strategy for Northern Ireland. Belfast. OFMDFM Central Anti-Poverty Unit. 8) Northern Ireland Executive (2008) Building a Better Future: Programme for Government 2008-2011. Belfast. OFMDFM Economic Policy Unit. 9) Department for Work and Pensions, (2005) Opportunity Age: Meeting the Challenges of Ageing in the 21 st Century. London. DWP. 10) Department of Health, Social Services and Public Safety (DHSS&PS) (2002) Investing for Health. Belfast. DHSS&PS. 11) Department of Health, Social Services and Public Safety (DHSS&PS) (2005) A Healthier Future:A 20 Year Vision for Health and Well-being in Northern Ireland Belfast. DHSS&PS. �� 12) The Employment Equality (Age) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 SR2006 No.261 13) The Northern Ireland Act 1998, Part VII, S75 14) The nine grounds covered under S75 of the Northern Ireland Act are: gender, religion, race, sexual orientation, those with dependents, disability, political opinion, marital status and age.

[eng] Research involving human subjects must be performed with standards that promote protection of their rights. Several codes were developed and all are unanimous in the following ethic principles: respect for persons, beneficence and justice. The fulfilment of these principles will assure that the dignity, rights, safety and well-being of the participants in a biomedical research are guaranteed.The need of a special protection to those with diminished autonomy is a common requirement to all codes. Pregnant women are defined as a vulnerable population because of the potential risk of harm of the foetus. Apart from the foetal risk, pregnant women in developing countries have additional potential for vulnerability, as in most of the cases they are economically or/and educationally disadvantaged individuals. Their generally low level of education may put them in a difficult situation to fully understand consent forms and the risk-benefit assessment provided by the researchers.In recent years, the evidence-based medicine has been an important international goal. Mechanisms to support the use of research-based evidence in developing health policy are being promoted. The research must be sensitive to the potential for vulnerability when designing evidence-based trials and they have to assure that the vulnerable population is being protected.With the intention to protect the vulnerable population, some groups such as pregnant women have being traditionally excluded from clinical trials. As a result of this exclusion, pregnant women are being exposed to medicines in situations where no evidence-based information is available on efficacy and safety. They are deprived of the benefits of treatment in order to be protected themselves and their offspring from an unknown risk. Although is very clear that protection of a vulnerable population, particularly the pregnant women, is mandatory in the design of any trial, the challenges of the implementation of this principle should be taken into account in order to not increase the gap between the introduction of a pharmaceutical product in the market and the availability of safety information for its use in pregnancy.In developing countries maternal mortality is an important public health problem. Most maternal deaths occur in the poorest countries particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa. In Mozambique the rate could be between 408-1000 per 100 000 live births according to the source of information. Several studies have addressed different causes of maternal mortality in Africa, eclampsia and malaria being part of the five most reported.There is strong evidence of the effectiveness of magnesium sulphate (MGSO4) in women with pre-eclampsia and eclampsia but the drug is not available in some countries. The example of MgSO4 has being used to describe failure in translating results of research into policy and/or practice.For malaria treatment few drugs were considered effective and safe for use during pregnancy including chloroquine, sulphadoxine-pyrimethamine and quinine. The information on safety comes from a long experience of use. The emergency of resistance of P. falciparum to these drugs is limiting its use in most of endemic areas. The artemisinin derivatives are being strongly recommended to be used in combination with other antimalarial drugs. Preclinical studies have consistently shown that artemisinin and its derivatives are embryolethal and teratogenic in animals. Current available information is not adequate to extrapolate the results in animals to humans.Limited data on the safety profile of antimalarial drugs during pregnancy is a challenge. Nowadays these drugs are used in pregnant women based on retrospective cumulative risk-benefit assessment. Mechanisms of prospectively monitoring the drugs use are required to protect pregnant women from the potential risk.The aim of this thesis is to describe the (un)availability of drugs and their reasons, as well as, the (un)availability of safety information on drugs needed to be used during pregnancy in Southern Africa, and to propose mechanisms to effectively monitor drug safety in pregnancy in developing countries.In order to achieve this objective four studies were performed. In the first study a qualitative case-study based on interviews and bibliographic review was performed in Mozambique and Zimbabwe. Factors affecting the (un)availability of MgSO4 were assessed. This study showed that research evidence regarding the effectiveness of MgSO4 for the treatment of eclampsia and pre-eclampsia, was widely known in the study countries. However, the registration, approval, acquisition and distribution of MgSO4, and hence its availability to clinicians, was affected by market and systems failures. With this study we concluded that the low cost of magnesium sulphate, as well as the mechanisms through which it is procured, means that market forces alone cannot be relied upon to ensure its availability. Governments and international organizations must be prepared to intervene to ensure the wide availability of low cost, effective drugs critical to improving public health in Africa.The second and the third studies shown that antimalarial drugs are being used in pregnant women even without information on its safety profile in this particular group. Robust safety monitoring systems are clearly needed in developing countries to accompany the deployment of new drugs, especially those with a potential teratogenic risk.The fourth study showed that spontaneous reporting system may be a tool for drug safety monitoring. This system could be used to increase health care providers' and patients' awareness of possible ADRs, and to develop a culture to report these reactions. Spontaneous reporting and pregnancy registries were presented as examples of mechanisms that could and should be in place.Recommendations on how these systems could be effectively implemented in resource constrained countries were also presented.All these studies suggest that the definition of vulnerability of pregnant women in developing countries should not be restricted to the potential risk of harm of the foetus (harm-based definition) or to the difficulty of fully understanding consent forms (consent-based definitions). Women are also vulnerable because of the high risk of dying from any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy. The implementation of these ethic principles need to take into account the urgent need to implement effective and safe drugs targeted to reduce the burden of maternal morbidity and mortality. ; [spa] La investigación relativa a los seres humanos debe realizarse dentro de unos estándares que promuevan la protección de sus derechos. Varios códigos han sido desarrollados y todos ellos coinciden unánimemente en los siguientes principios éticos: el respeto por las personas, la beneficencia y la justicia. La realización de estos principios debe asegurar la dignidad, los derechos, la seguridad y el bienestar de los participantes en una investigación biomédica sean preservados.La necesidad de una protección especial hacia aquellos seres cuya autonomía sea limitada es un requerimiento común para todos los códigos. Las mujeres embarazadas están definidas como un grupo de población vulnerable dado el riesgo potencial de causar daño al feto. Además del riesgo para el feto, las mujeres embarazadas en los países en desarrollo son potencialmente más vulnerables, y suelen contar con desventajas a nivel económico y/o educativo. Su nivel de educación, por lo general bajo, les pone en una situación difícil, dificultando la comprensión de los formularios de consentimiento y la evaluación del riesgo-beneficio que prestan los investigadores.En los últimos años, la medicina basada en la evidencia ha sido una meta muy importante a nivel internacional. Se están promoviendo mecanismos para respaldar el uso de la evidencia científica para la definición de política de desarrollo de la salud. La investigación debe ser sensible a la vulnerabilidad potencial cuando se diseñan ensayos basados en la evidencia. Además, se debe asegurar que la población vulnerable esté siendo protegida.Con la intención de proteger a esa población vulnerable, algunos grupos como los de mujeres embarazadas han sido tradicionalmente excluidos de los ensayos clínicos. Como resultado de esta exención, algunas mujeres embarazadas están siendo expuestas a medicamentos de los que no hay información basada en la evidencia en cuanto a su eficacia y seguridad. Este hecho las priva de los beneficios del tratamiento que debería protegerlas, a ellas y sus hijos, de un riesgo desconocido. Aunque está muy claro que proteger a una población vulnerable, particularmente a las mujeres embarazadas, es obligatorio en el diseño de un ensayo clínico, los retos de la implementación de este principio no deberían aumentar el vacío entre la introducción de un producto farmacéutico en el mercado y la disponibilidad de información sobre su seguridad para uso en el embarazo.En los países en vías de desarrollo la mortalidad materna es un problema importante de salud pública. La mayoría de muertes maternas ocurren en los países más pobres, particularmente en África Subsahariana. En Mozambique el índice puede ser entre 408-1000 por 100000 nacidos vivos, dependiendo de la fuente de información. Diferentes estudios han señalado diversas causas de mortalidad materna en África, encontrándose la eclampsia y la malaria entre las cinco primeras.Existe una gran evidencia de la eficacia del sulfato de magnesio (MGSO4) en mujeres con pre-eclampsia y eclampsia, sin embargo el fármaco no está disponible en algunos países. El ejemplo del sulfato de magnesio se ha utilizado para describir el fracaso en el traslado de los resultados de la investigación a la práctica y/o política.Para el tratamiento de la malaria, se consideró seguro el uso durante el embarazo de algunos fármacos incluyendo cloroquina, sulfadoxinapirimetamina y quinina. La información sobre seguridad responde a una gran experiencia de uso. El aumento de resistencia de P. falciparum a estos fármacos está limitando su uso en la mayoría de las zonas endémicas. Actualmente se está recomendando el uso de los derivados de la artemisinina en combinación con otros fármacos antimaláricos. Los estudios preclínicos han mostrado sistemáticamente que la artemisina y sus derivados son embrioletales y teratogénicos en animales. La información disponible hasta la fecha no es adecuada para extrapolar los resultados de los animales a los humanos.Los datos limitados en el perfil de seguridad de los fármacos antimaláricos durante el embarazo constituyen un desafío. Hoy en día, estos fármacos se usan en mujeres embarazadas basándose en una valoración retrospectiva acumulativa de riesgo-beneficio. Se necesitarían mecanismos de monitorización prospectiva del uso de los fármacos para proteger a las mujeres de su riesgo potencial.El objetivo de esta tesis es el de describir la disponibilidad o no disponibilidad de los fármacos y sus razones; describir la disponibilidad o no disponibilidad de información sobre la seguridad de estos fármacos que son de uso necesario en el sureste de África. Se pretende también proponer mecanismos efectivos para monitorizar la seguridad de los fármacos en el embarazo en los países en desarrollo.Para alcanzar estos objetivos se llevaron a cabo cuatro estudios. El primero consistía en un estudio cualitativo de casos basados en entrevistas y en una revisión bibliográfica en Mozambique y Zimbawe. Se evaluaron los factores que afectaban a la disponibilidad o no disponibilidad del sulfato de magnesio. El estudio mostró que la evidencia científica respecto a la eficacia del sulfato de magnesio para el tratamiento de la eclampsia y la pre-eclampsia fue ampliamente conocida en los países del estudio. Sin embargo, el registro, aprobación, adquisición y distribución del sulfato de magnesio y como consecuencia, su disponibilidad para los médicos se vio afectada por fallos de mercado y de sistema. Este estudio concluye que el bajo coste del sulfato de magnesio, así como el mecanismo a través del cual se obtiene, significa que las fuerzas del mercado por si solas no pueden asegurar su disponibilidad. Los gobiernos y las organizaciones internacionales deben estar preparados para intervenir y para asegurar una amplia disponibilidad de fármacos efectivos de bajo coste, críticos para mejorar la salud pública en África.El segundo y tercer estudio mostraron que los fármacos antimaláricos se están usando en mujeres embarazadas sin contar con información sobre su perfil de seguridad en este grupo particular. Se necesita claramente una monitorización fuerte y segura en los países en vías de desarrollo para acompañar el despliegue de los nuevos fármacos, especialmente aquellos que conllevan un potencial riesgo teratogénico.El cuarto estudio mostró que el sistema de notificación espontánea puede ser una herramienta para la monitorización de la seguridad de los fármacos. Este sistema se podrá usar para incrementar la consciencia en proveedores de salud y en enfermos sobre las posibles reacciones adversas de fármacos. Ello permitirá desarrollar una cultura de notificación de estas reacciones. La notificación espontánea y los registros de embarazo se presentaron como ejemplos de mecanismos que podrían y deberían ser implementados. Las recomendaciones de cómo estos sistemas podrían ser implementados de forma efectiva en países con recursos limitados también fueron presentadas.Todos estos estudios sugieren que la definición de vulnerabilidad de las mujeres embarazas en los países en desarrollo no se puede restringir a causa del riesgo potencial de daño al feto, o debido a la dificultad de entender por completo los formularios de consentimiento. También son vulnerables por el riesgo elevado de morir por alguna causa relacionada o agravada por el embarazo. La implementación de estos principios éticos necesita tener en cuenta la necesidad de implementar fármacos diana efectivos y seguros para reducir la mortalidad y morbilidad materna.

As late back as 1993, Ahmed noted that many Muslims voiced concern of the negative representation of Islam and Muslims by the Western media. However, following on from such incidents as the Rushdie affair, the first Gulf War and 9/11, interest in media representations of Islam have grown. An ever‐increasing body of research has argued that the images, representations and discourses relating to Islam and Muslims in mainstream Western media tend to be negative and hostile (Poole and Richardson 2006). Various studies have examined the specific relationship between media and Islam (Ahmed 1993; Runnymede Trust 1997); the representations of Muslim minorities in the West (Allen 2005; Poole 2002) and others on Muslims and Islam in the global media (Poole and Richardson 2006; Zelizer and Allan 2002). Ideologically, these constructions can be traced back the expansion of Western imperialism where a dichotomy of 'West' versus 'East' was constructed (Said 1978).The following suggested reading list provides a starting point for researchers that are interested in exploring issues of representation and minority groups. This is not an exhaustive list but provides some of the fundamental texts that help us to understand the relationship between one minority group in the West (i.e. Muslims) and their representations in the media.The reading list is constructed in the following way. First, it presents key cultural theory (i.e. Orientalism) and relates this to issues of 'race'. Second, it examines the link between media research on minority groups and representations of Muslims/Islam. Finally, it provides some background knowledge on Muslims/Islam within the West.Suggested textsCultural theorySaid, Edward 1978. Orientalism. London, UK: Penguin (republished, 2003 and 2005).Edward Said's Orientalism (1978) is a theory that has transformed the ways in which power relations between West and East can be understood. This explores the ideas that have become embedded in Western culture through history that justify imperialism/colonialism on the basis that the West is viewed as superior to the East. Within the book, Said offers three major claims. First, he describes Orientalism as an objective, disinterested and esoteric set of ideas, the overall function of which is to serve political ends. These, for example, provided an ideological justification for Orientalist scholars to allow Europeans to take over Oriental lands. Second, Said looks at how these tools are important in helping Europe to define its image and to establish and maintain opposites and others. On this basis, Europe was given its own cultural and intellectual superiority over Islamic cultures, and this led the West to see the Islamic culture as static both in place and time. Third, Said points out that Orientalism has produced a false description of Islamic cultures, including a belief that that it is possible to unconditionally define the essential qualities of a whole Islamic culture and the people within it. The qualities of this culture are usually defined in negative terms.The following link provides a summary by Said on the new edition of Orientalism: http://books.guardian.co.uk/review/story/0,12084,1010417,00.html (last accessed 24 June 2008)Ferguson, Robert 1998. Representing 'Race': Ideology, Identity, and the Media. London, UK: Arnold.The operations of ideology in the media are also discussed in Representing 'Race'. Ferguson argues that the study of 'race' and the media cannot be seriously undertaken without engaging with theories of ideology and without an awareness of contemporary theoretical work, such as approaches to Orientalism, hegemony and critical discourse analysis. Ferguson also highlights the danger of accepting at face value socially constructed and ideologically charged notions such as 'race'. The book also provides a useful summary and critique of Orientalism and applies various concepts to case studies within the media.For a good analysis of how hegemony, representation and notions of 'race' are intertwined that draws upon Ferguson's work, see the following: Can Gramsci's theory of hegemony help us to understand the representation of ethnic minorities in western television and cinema? By Reena Mistry at http://www.theory.org.uk/ctr‐rol6.htm (last accessed 24 June 2008).Media and 'race'Cottle, Simon 2000. Ethnic Minorities and the Media: Changing Cultural Boundaries. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press.This key text brings together international researchers who have investigated some of the latest issues, debates and examples informing the field of ethnic minorities and the media. It provides a useful opening chapter that reviews the developments within this field. It also explores changes in media representations as well as different approaches that examine discourse, production and identity and debates within broader media theory such those about the media' role as the public sphere.Van Dijk, Teun 1991. Racism and the Press. London, UK: Sage.Van Dijk notes that most white people have very little contact with ethnic minorities and that their attitudes towards ethnic groups are therefore influenced on this basis by the media. He states that the media play a central role in the reproduction of racism in Western countries. Using discourse analysis, his book investigates the nature of the existence of racism through an analysis of statements on racial/ethnic relations found within the Dutch and British press. Van Dijk links the idea of 'primary definers' to the notion that the media constitute an 'elite' in society. Whilst accepting that the media represent conflicts over these ideas that include the voices of other social actors, he argues that in terms of race and ethnicity, an ethnic consensus is prevalent here. Van Dijk notes that the media constitute a cultural elite, and as the experts in matters of 'formulation' (and re‐formulation), the media produce the dominant discourse environment of a racist society.A collection Van Dijk's work on racism, discourse analysis and media can be found on the following web site: http://www.discourses.org Representations of Islam/muslims in the mediaPoole, Elizabeth 2002. Reporting Islam: Media Representations of British Muslims. London, UK: I.B. Tauris.Poole examines the claim that Muslims are negatively represented in the British press. She argues that media images of Muslims are informed by official definitions of Islam that serve elite interests and that these change over time to suit political purposes. Orientalist discourses, it is argued here for example, maintain the view of Islam as a coherent, trans‐national monolithic force that has been engaged in a confrontational relationship with the West throughout history. The book makes clear and concise connections between theory and representation and provides excellent examples to illustrate this.Poole, Elizabeth and John Richardson (Eds) 2006. Muslims and the News Media. London, UK: I.B. Tauris.This book examines the role and representations of Muslims in the news media in context of the current discussions of the 'War on Terror'. It includes chapters by both academic authorities and media practitioners and demonstrates how theory can be exemplified in practice. Furthermore, it is set in both a British and international context and recognizes similarities and differences present within coverage from around the globe. From a media perspective, the book clearly explores the connections between national/global context, content, production and different audiences (Muslim and non‐Muslim) and looks also at how Muslim media is organized and structured.Muslim minorities in the WestModood, Tariq 2006. Multicultural Politics: Racism, Ethnicity and Muslims in Britain. Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press.In Multicultural Politics, Tariq Modood explores how much of the 'blame' for the failure of multiculturalism has been attached to Islamic culture's incompatibility with the 'democratic' principles of the West. Arguing that the old 'racial' division of black–white has been complicated by factors such as cultural racism and the rise of Islamophobia, the book moves to chart these developments within the British context whilst also paying attention to global political developments. The book has an impressive range of topics covered such as 'race', racism, Islamophobia, the multicultural debate and even summarizes broader relevant cultural theory.Films, videos and on‐line sourcesVisual sources are an excellent teaching method that can be employed to explain theories of 'race' and media representation. Rather than concentrate on 'actual' films, videos online material that may considered Islamophobic the following provides academic and more critical sources that may be useful for teaching issues of Islam, Muslims, minority representation and even 'race'.Edward Said: On Orientalism (1998)In this documentary, Said talks about the context within which his book was conceived, its main themes and how its original thesis and ideas still relate to a contemporary understanding of 'the Orient' that is represented in the mass media and wider public politics.A brief version of the documentary can be found here: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xwCOSkXR_Cw http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BjlRR‐qRkcc (last accessed 26 June 2008)Reel Bad Arabs: How Hollywood Vilifies a People (2008)Race, the Floating Signifier: Featuring Stuart Hall (2006)Stuart Hall discusses the concept of 'race' and how race is represented and naturalized in the media. This interview gives relevant examples to help to understand the concept of mediated representations. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7cxBOdBoxpg&feature=related (last accessed June 26 2008)A documentary supported by the Media Education Forum based on academic research on how Muslims/Islam/Arabs are represented (and treated as a homogenous group) by Hollywood. It builds upon media representations of various minority groups and then looks specifically at similarities and differences in Arab portrayalsThe trailer and a brief version of the documentary can be found at: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ko_N4BcaIPY http://www.democracynow.org/2007/10/19/reel_bad_arabs_how_hollywood_vilifies (both last accessed 26 June 2008)Online sourcesRace, racism and ethnic minority affairs http://www.cre.gov.uk/ The home page for the Commission for Racial Equality provides up to date information on news and current affairs. It also provides links to a variety of other relevant sources form the media to black history groups. http://www.irr.org.uk The Institute of Race Relations (IRR) was established as an independent educational charity in 1958 to carry out research, publish and collect resources on race relations throughout the world. This website contains links to academic research, policy research and also media stories that are relevant to anyone interested in the area of 'race' and ethnicity. It also published the highly respected journal 'Race and Class'. http://www.islamophobia‐watch.com/islamophobia‐watch/ The above link also provides useful information on examples of racist and Islamaphobic sources that maybe useful for teaching or illuminating theories. I have purposefully not included the original links to many of these because they are, in my opinion, racist. http://www.guardian.co.uk/race The Guardian has a link to a database of back issues of relevant race articles. These include information on media representations and provide links to a variety of other sources as well as events/topics such as 9/11 and Asylum Issues. http://www.johnpilger.com/ This site contains articles on a variety of opinions from the respected author John Pilger. Much of this is relevant to issues of 'race' and ethnicity. http://www.insted.co.uk/islam.html The above links to a full text of the commission's 2004 report, plus also some extracts from it, including Islamophobia and Race Relations and Debate and Disagreement. http://www.fairuk.org/ Useful range of recent newspaper articles and several valuable fact sheets.Sample SyllabusModule justificationIt is clear that as issues of race, ethnicity and religion are as crucial to the 21st century as at any time in human history. We need to build clear understanding of these topics as well as an awareness of how they have evolved into present debates. Many of these debates and issues have invoked the use of racial, ethnic or national terminology but the discussion is not always fashioned around theories of 'old' racism but around concepts of 'new' racism.Whilst traditional notions of racism may have been challenged, these have been replaced in the West by fears of minority cultures, especially fear of Muslims. Following the terrorist attacks on New York and Washington, the subsequent War on Terrorism has in some quarters been debated in terms of a clash of civilisations invoking representations of the 'Others' and based on historical conceptions of the 'Orient'.Furthermore, the European community as a whole is now debating issues of asylum seekers and refugees in what could be argued to be ethnic and racial terms. Thus, there is a need for a module that examines issues of race and ethnicity by linking media representations with theoretical and historical considerations.Section 1 Theories of 'race', racism and the 'other'This reading looks at how the concept of 'race' has been ideologically constructed. This will be done by examining race theory and applying this to historical and contemporary examples.Donald, James 1992. Cultural Identity. London, UK: Sage/Open University.Dyer, Richard 1997. White. London, UK: Routledge.Fryer, Peter 1984. Staying Power: History of Black People in Britain. London, UK: Pluto Press.Gilroy, Paul 1993. Small Acts: thoughts on the politics of black cultures. London, UK: Serpent's Tail.Gilroy, Paul 1987. There Ain't No Black In The Union Jack. London, UK: Hutchinson.Hiro, Dilip 1991. Black British, White British, 2nd edn. London, UK: Grafton Books.Mason, David 1995 Race and Ethnicty in Modern Britain. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Modood, Tariq 1997 Ethnic Minorities in Britain: Diversity and Disadvantage. London, UK: PSI.Solomos, John 1993. Race and Racism in Contemporary Britain. Basingstoke, UK: MacMillan.Solomos John and Les Back 1996. Racism and Society. Basingstoke, UK: MacMillan. Possible Seminar discussion Is racism about class or colour? Would you consider yourself racist? Section 2 'Race' history and imperialismThis reading examines how representations of race and culture are mediated through ideological power and explain this through historical and contemporary examples.Bhabba, Hommi 1990. Nation and Narration. London, UK: Routledge.Fanon, Frantz 1986. Black Skin: White Masks. London, UK: Pluto.Gandhi, Leela 1998. Postcolonial Theory: A Critical Introduction. Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press.Said, Edward 1978. Orientalism: Western Conceptions of the Orient. London, UK: Penguin Books.Said, Edward 1997. Covering Islam. London, UK: Vintage.Section 3 Islam, Islamophobia and cultural racismThese readings look at how constructions of religion in popular media are increasingly racialised and consider at the case study of Western media representations of Islam and Muslim communities.Ahmed, Akbar 1992. Postmodernism and Islam. London, UK: Routledge.Anthias, Floya and Yuval‐Davis, Nira 1992. Racialized Boundaries. London, UK: Routledge.Ballard, Roger (Ed.) 1994. Desh Pradesh, The South Asian Presence in Britain. London, UK: Hurst and Co.Conway, Gerald 1997. Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All. London, UK: Runnymede Trust.Modood, Tariq 2006. Multicultural Politics: Racism, Ethnicity and Muslims in Britain. London, UK: I.B. Tauris.Said, Edward 1978. Orientalism: Western Conceptions of the Orient. London, UK: Penguin Books.Said, Edward 1997. Covering Islam. London, UK: Vintage.Note
* Correspondence address: Department of Media and Cultural Studies, University of Sunderland, St Peters Campus, SR6 ODD. Email: amir.saeed@sunderland.ac.uk