In the pre-accession period of perspective accession of Serbia to the EU, in Serbia, especially during 2008 and 2009, legislative activities, directed to adjust its own legislation in the field of environmental protection, recommendations and directives, applied in EU countries were intensified. The amendments were made in the Law on Environment Protection, Nature Conservation, Regulations referring to Waste Management, Use of Natural Resources. In recent years, the investments from the budget for the protection and preservation of the environment ranged from 0.3% of GDP, which represents a low level of investment. The sources of funds for investment are the fees and charges for the use of natural resources and compensation for environmental pollution. An important source of funds for environment protection was realized from international grants and loan debts. The original revenues for the use of natural values, goods and capital in Serbia, as well as revenues from fees for polluting the environment are distributed by applicable laws, defined percentage of the central budget and the budget of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina and the budgets of municipalities and towns in Serbia. In Serbia, the Fund for Environment Protection was established in accordance with the recommendations of the UN and practices developed in EU in 2005, which goal is to raise funds and systematic realization of investments for environment protection. Finally, the paper presents a short view and some of the paradoxes that follow the pattern of trading pollution rights.
One of the available and yet controversial tools in cultural policy at the national level is the reduction of VAT rates for cultural goods and services. We document the standard and reduced VAT rates in EU-28 countries in the period from 1993 to 2013 and explore the underlying determinants. We further introduce a simple theoretical framework to explain how reduced fiscal rates are expected to decrease prices and increase quantities of the consumed cultural goods and services. We then estimate quantitatively that a decrease in the VAT rate for books by one percentage point is associated with an economically significant drop in the price by 2.6%. Finally, we show the positive effect of a fiscal rate reduction on the book expenditure, where a one percentage point decrease in the VAT rate for books leads to an increase in expenditure by 2.7%.
Unemployment is related to economic, political and social aspects. One of the least analysed economic aspects is the relationship of unemployment to the level of confidence that characterizes some macroeconomic relevant agents, such as consumers or investors. Expanding previous work on this matter, this chapter considers a fuzzy logic methodology in order to uncover the relationship that exists between the unemployment rate and the consumer confidence level for a large group of European Union countries, in the period 1995-2015. It is concluded that this relationship is stronger than apparently it looks, especially in certain countries. This result should therefore be used as an extra argument in making economic decisions leading to the diminishment of unemployment, which will boost economic confidence.
This study produces a technical and economic analysis of a farm- fed biogas plant that utilizes cow manure to produce electricity and heat via combined heat and power unit. The electricity generated is directly injected into the grid while heat is used within the biogas plant. The biogas system design was done depending on number of cows in the farm, which denotes the amount of manure available as feedstock. The economic performance of the proposed biogas plant was evaluated using various economic indicators. The levelized cost of electricity and the avoided greenhouse gas emissions were calculated too. The preliminary design and economic feasibility results proved the profitability of the manure-based biogas systems on wide range of farm sizes. The net present values of a 100-cow, 500-cow, 1,000-cow, 1,500-cow and 2,000-cow farms were all positive. The internal rate of return values were 11%, 12%, 13%, 16% and 17%, respectively, and the levelized cost of electricity values were 0.071, 0.069, 0.064, 0.055 and 0.055 JOD/kWh, respectively. The study also produced a design for a centralized anaerobic digestion plant depending on Jordan resources. The government role in promoting biogas-based electricity was discussed too.
Generation of the 21st century threatened by many global problems: ecological, demographic, resource crisis, and also social conflicts. Therefore it becomes urgent the need for learning, regardless of age. As stated in the Latvian Sustainable Development Strategy, highly educated workforce training, the state human capital investments, public motivations in learning should be considered as a decisive aspect of the Latvian long-term economic improvement of the 21st century in order to ensure the competitiveness of the Latvian economy on a global scale. The aim of this article is to analyses the competence-based lifelong learning development's possibilities in human capital and society in general, affecting green, competitive economy, where the country's internal resources are effectively used without threatening a capability of future generations to satisfy their requirements. The authors of a research have used the scientific analysis of literature, life-long learning policy issues in the international and national documents and expert evaluations, and also methods of processing of statistical data. The most fundamental problem in the article is the long-term economic growth in Latvia based on the skills and knowledge. It was emphasized in "EU 2020 strategy" also. According to the author's conclusions, lifelong learning needs an improvement for achievement the new long-term objectives of the education system. Recommendations for the improvement of the lifelong learning for low-skilled workers and for the development of competencies of small and medium enterprises employees will be provided in the article.
The introduction of the national socio-economic system into the phase of development of post-industrial society puts forward a number of new approaches to its functioning, based primarily on the possibility of introducing creative ideas as the primary source of competitiveness. The institutional orientation of creative management to address socio-priority socio-economic development goals is worth noting. The transformation of knowledge into science-intensive technologies and products stimulates the rapid growth of labour productivity, reduces its resource consumption, and allows the national economy to reach the competitive level of social production, increase the pace of accumulation of public goods, and refine the motivational principles of activity. The decisive feature of creative management is the direct correlation of the success of creative activity with the democratization of management, taking into account creative potential and the level of professional training, and creating conditions for self-realization. The stimulation of creative development is intended to provide optimal cooperation between performers of different qualifications, with different life settings and psychological peculiarities. The motivation for creative activity is based on the ability of a creative worker to work independently, using his own potential and inspiration, based on a high level of interest. The diversity of organizational factors of creative management is determined by the plurality of socio-technical types of organizations, the complexity and dynamism of their interaction with the external environment, the lack of relevant information. Understanding the uniqueness of creative management requires consideration of mental processes of the head, whose thinking should be absolutely practical and applied. Given the transformational challenges of a globalized society, the issues of ethics of scientific and technical creativity and creative economic development, which are based on the philosophical aspects of responsibility, become an inalienable priority of creative management. The ethics of creative management is differentiated on the basis of the orientation towards the internal (in relation to the customer of the creative project, the leaders, members of the creative interaction) and external, which evaluates the social consequences of the results of creative activity (including the price of errors or unwanted technological, environmental and legal effects) for society as a whole. ; Досліджено соціальні аспекти креативного менеджменту з позицій платформи соціально-економічної парадигми національної економіки та побудови соціально орієнтованого суспільства, заснованого на знаннях. Зазначено, що креативний менеджмент є багатокомпонентним управлінським впливом, пов'язаним із процесами генерування і впровадження у соціально-економічний простір нових ідей, заснованих на постійно оновлюваному знанні. Показано, що завданням інституційної підтримки креативного менеджменту є сприяння розвитку високотехнологічних галузей та інтеграція національної економіки у світове науково-інноваційне співтовариство. Креативність керівника проявляється у творчому ставленні до справи, вмінні критично бачити проблему та формулювати нові задачі перед підлеглими. Доведено, що наявність антагоністичних умов вимагає поєднання жорсткості та гнучкості в управлінні, дотримання принципів "обмежувального фактора" для забезпечення конструктивного вирішення проблеми. Зазначено, що в етичному контексті завданням креативного менеджменту стає управління кумулятивним накопиченням технологічних перетворень та постійний моніторинг можливості їх позитивного, негативного (зокрема, і небажані технологічні, екологічні, інформаційно-правові ефекти) чи різновекторного впливу на безперервне оновлення вихідних умов для подальших трансформацій.
The article is devoted to a study of problematic aspects of modem environmental policy in terms of the ratio, proportionality or probable imbalance of interests that can be balanced by means of integrated introduction of an ecosystem approach into the national and global environmental strategy. It is stated that long-term (strategic) and current environmental plans and projects have to be implemented by the state in connection with and with regard to the situation in corresponding spheres at the level of world civilization. Priorities that should be crucial to the development of renewable energy in Ukraine are identified. Obstacles to the implementation of the idea of "green energy" at national level are analyzed, e.g. these are large private companies whose interests as investors are secured by the obligation of the state to buy all the capacity of "green" energy at tariffs recognized as the highest in the world. In this case, economic interests appear as defining and under the guise of environmental motives acquire the character of not fully justified or unfair interests. In order to demonopolize the energy sector, it is necessary to raise the issue of competition, implementation of European standards and market principles of work in the energy sector. Openness and competition, transparent and fair procedures in the development of a modern energy market will allow participants to optimize costs and prices and consumers — to shift to rational energy consumption. In this way, the interests of the state, society, energy producers and consumers will be secured to the greatest possible extent. In light of the need to approximate our country's socio-economic system to climate change, the necessity of raising the issue of intensifying and strengthening Ukraine's role in global efforts to develop a rational policy to combat climate change is substantiated. In general, the coordinated long-term policy of states aimed to minimize the effects of climate change and reconcile the interests of major actors in the energy market in Ukraine as well as the diverse interests of subjects of international law in the energy industry should ensure a positive environmental and economic effect.
Gegenwärtige gesellschaftspolitische Entwicklungen in Teilen Europas und in Deutschland erzwingen einen veränderten chemischen Pflanzenschutz in der Landwirtschaft, mit erheblichen Einschränkungen beim Herbizideinsatz. Der erwarteten signifikanten Reduktion des chemischen Pflanzenschutzes kann zukünftig mit verschiedenen Strategien in der Unkrautbekämpfung begegnet werden. Dazu zählen neben dem weiter zunehmenden ökologischen Landbau und veränderten Fruchtfolgen sowie Kulturmaßnahmen der verstärkte Einsatz physikalischer Maßnahmen wie das Hacken und Striegeln, evtl. in Kombination mit Bandspritzungen. Aber auch das Spotspraying bietet bereits vielversprechende Ansätze mit betriebswirtschaftlicher Tragfähigkeit. Ergänzend sind veränderte Schadschwellenkonzepte erwägenswert, die eine Einpreisung von Ökosystemleistungen ermöglichen. Begleitet durch eine umfangreichere unabhängige Pflanzenschutzberatung sowie verstärkten Forschungsaktivitäten könnte ein ökonomisch akzeptierter Übergang in einen nachhaltigeren Ackerbau leichter gelingen. Dafür sind jedoch höhere Produktpreise erforderlich, die im internationalen Wettbewerb schwer durchsetzbar sind, solange die Herstellung und Verarbeitung der Ackerbauprodukte weder ausreichend transparent noch vergleichbar sind. ; Current socio-political developments in parts of Europe and also in Germany are forcing a change in chemical plant protection in agriculture, from which the use of herbicides is not spared either. In the future, a significant reduction of active ingredients is to be expected, which can be countered with various strategies in weed control. In addition to modified crop rotations, adapted crop measures and organic farming, which will continue to increase in the future, these include the increased use of physical measures such as chopping perhaps in combination with belt spraying. But also spot spraying already offers promising approaches with economic viability. In addition, modified damage threshold concepts that allow the pricing of ecosystem services are worth considering. Accompanied by more comprehensive independent crop protection advice and increased research activities, an economically accepted transition to more sustainable arable farming could be successful more easily. However, this requires higher product prices, which are difficult to enforce in international competition, as long as the production and processing of arable products are neither sufficiently transparent nor comparable.
Gegenwärtige gesellschaftspolitische Entwicklungen in Teilen Europas und in Deutschland erzwingen einen veränderten chemischen Pflanzenschutz in der Landwirtschaft, mit erheblichen Einschränkungen beim Herbizideinsatz. Der erwarteten signifikanten Reduktion des chemischen Pflanzenschutzes kann zukünftig mit verschiedenen Strategien in der Unkrautbekämpfung begegnet werden. Dazu zählen neben dem weiter zunehmenden ökologischen Landbau und veränderten Fruchtfolgen sowie Kulturmaßnahmen der verstärkte Einsatz physikalischer Maßnahmen wie das Hacken und Striegeln, evtl. in Kombination mit Bandspritzungen. Aber auch das Spotspraying bietet bereits vielversprechende Ansätze mit betriebswirtschaftlicher Tragfähigkeit. Ergänzend sind veränderte Schadschwellenkonzepte erwägenswert, die eine Einpreisung von Ökosystemleistungen ermöglichen. Begleitet durch eine umfangreichere unabhängige Pflanzenschutzberatung sowie verstärkten Forschungsaktivitäten könnte ein ökonomisch akzeptierter Übergang in einen nachhaltigeren Ackerbau leichter gelingen. Dafür sind jedoch höhere Produktpreise erforderlich, die im internationalen Wettbewerb schwer durchsetzbar sind, solange die Herstellung und Verarbeitung der Ackerbauprodukte weder ausreichend transparent noch vergleichbar sind. ; Current socio-political developments in parts of Europe and also in Germany are forcing a change in chemical plant protection in agriculture, from which the use of herbicides is not spared either. In the future, a significant reduction of active ingredients is to be expected, which can be countered with various strategies in weed control. In addition to modified crop rotations, adapted crop measures and organic farming, which will continue to increase in the future, these include the increased use of physical measures such as chopping perhaps in combination with belt spraying. But also spot spraying already offers promising approaches with economic viability. In addition, modified damage threshold concepts that allow the pricing of ecosystem services are worth considering. Accompanied by more comprehensive independent crop protection advice and increased research activities, an economically accepted transition to more sustainable arable farming could be successful more easily. However, this requires higher product prices, which are difficult to enforce in international competition, as long as the production and processing of arable products are neither sufficiently transparent nor comparable.
Despite skepticism among experts about the effects of a minimum wage, there is remarkably widespread public support for such policies. Using representative survey data from 2015 and 2016, we investigate the subjective attitudes driving public support for Germany's minimum-wage reform. We find that socioeconomic characteristics and political orientations explain a minor part of the variation in attitudes, whereas beliefs that the reform will improve earnings of workers with low wages and help people to maintain or improve their overall economic situation (measured by living standards, income, hours worked, and job security) play a major role, along with experience with circumvention measures.
Part of the intorduction: The task of writing a reliable and convincing paper on this topic is a very uneasy one because it is threefold: one has to know at least a bit about the agricultural sector, biology (or more precisely ecology), and about the sometimes beneficial but often distorting consequences of human activities. And all that has to be judged from the perspective of an economist who is aware of the steadily increasing uncertainties which are closely connected with post-modem sciences. Especially with regard to global, but also regional environmental issues, neither the conventional applied sciences nor the traditional professional consultancy deliver promising results. Today scientists have to tackle problems which are created by political necessities overwhelmingly caused by short-term human behavior, due in part to a serious lack of information on the longterm behavioral consequences. In these issues, typically, information stacks are high, scientific facts uncertain, individual as well as collective values disputed, and political decisions very urgent. "In general, the post-normal situation is one where the traditional opposition of 'hard'facts and 'soft' values is inverted. Here we find decisions that are 'hard' in every sense, for which the scientific inputs are irremediably 'soft'" (FUNTOWICZ/RAVETZ, 1991, p. 138).
The task of writing a reliable and convincing paper on this topic is a very uneasy one because it is threefold: one has to know at least a bit about the agricultural sector, biology (or more precisely ecology), and about the sometimes beneficial but often distorting consequences of human activities. And all that has to be judged from the perspective of an economist who is aware of the steadily increasing uncertainties which are closely connected with post-modem sciences. Especially with regard to global, but also regional environmental issues, neither the conventional applied sciences nor the traditional professional consultancy deliver promising results. Today scientists have to tackle problems which are created by political necessities overwhelmingly caused by short-term human behavior, due in part to a serious lack of information on the longterm behavioral consequences. In these issues, typically, information stacks are high, scientific facts uncertain, individual as well as collective values disputed, and political decisions very urgent. In general, the post-normal situation is one where the traditional opposition of 'hard'facts and 'soft' values is inverted. Here we find decisions that are 'hard' in every sense, for which the scientific inputs are irremediably 'soft'.
This paper examines the development of tax regimes across the OECD countries in the latter part of the 20th century. It pays particular attention to taxes on labor income. A number of results emerge from this examination. First, not only do taxes on labor income represent a major drain on private households; they have become the mainstay of many of these countries' public sector finances. Second, taxes on labor income, and not taxes on capital, appear to be the preferred instrument of finance for those economic and political interests that advocate and support a strong (and thereby expensive) welfare state. There is little "free lunch" to be had in these welfare states; if anything, "socialism in one class" seems to be the rule. Third, while the effort at financing the welfare state this way comes at cost in terms of loss in employment, the magnitude of such loss is inversely related to the degree of wage coordination in the labor market. ; In diesem Beitrag wird die Entwicklung der Steuersysteme in OECD-Ländern über die letzten Jahrzehnte des 20. Jahrhunderts unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Steuern auf Arbeitseinkommen untersucht. Folgende Resultate können festgehalten werden. Erstens besteht nicht nur der Großteil der Abgabenbelastung für private Haushalte aus Steuern auf Arbeitseinkommen; sie sind vor allem der Grundstock der öffentlichen Finanzen in den betrachteten Ländern. Zweitens scheinen diese Steuern auf Arbeitseinkommen und nicht etwa Kapitalertragssteuern das bevorzugte Finanzierungsinstrument gerade der politischen und ökonomischen Interessenvertreter zu sein, die sich für einen starken und somit teuren Wohlfahrtsstaat aussprechen. Dabei existiert in den Wohlfahrtsstaaten kein sog. 'free lunch', vielmehr scheint der 'Sozialismus in einer Gesellschaftsklasse' an der Tagesordnung zu sein. Drittens lässt sich feststellen, dass diese Art der Finanzierung des Wohlfahrtsstaates Kosten in Form von Arbeitslosigkeit mit sich bringt, deren Höhe sich allerdings invers zum Grad der Koordination auf dem Arbeitsmarkt verhält.
Description: The purpose of the article is to study theoretical and practical aspects of local government organization and activities in Eastern Europe. The subject of the article is the issues of legislative support of the financial and economic bases of functioning of the municipal authorities of the Eastern Europe Statesю Methodology. In the course of study general scientific and special methods were used, which are the means of scientific research. In particular, comparative legal method was used for the analysis of the norms of substantive law of Eastern European countries, scientific categories, definitions and approaches. Historical and legal method gave an opportunity to reveal the meaning of the concepts of «local budget», «local self-government», to highlight the development of scientific views on specific issues. System analysis method was applied for an integrated generalization of the features of each country under consideration. The system-structural method made it possible to determine the state and government objective factors in the financial and economic spheres. The results of the study. It is recognized that due to the relatively low share of income, the entire financial system of municipalities is unstable, as well as the economic conditions in which local self-government operates. Although the analysis showed that the size of municipal budgets gradually increased, in the end they do not correspond to the level of inflation in these countries Practical implications. To ensure the autonomy of local government, it is especially important to manage the own revenue base of the territories and reduce their dependence on subsidies from higher-level budgets. In our opinion, subsidies should cover only certain types of expenditures of either national or regional importance and ensure equalization of the financial situation of the territories. Value / originality. The analysis of the relevant legislation and legal literature of the countries in question allows us to conclude that the expenditure part of the minimum budget determined by the legislator is calculated according to the norms and standards established by representative higher authorities on the basis of the law and the available funds, while the revenues of the minimum budget should cover the minimum necessary expenses guaranteed by higher authorities.
According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), only a tiny fraction of the full potential of energy from biomass is currently exploited in the world. Biogas is a good source of energy and heat, and a clean fuel. Converting it to biomethane creates a product that combines all the benefits of natural gas with zero greenhouse gas emissions. This is important given that the methane contained in biogas is a more potent greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide (CO2). The total amount of CO2 emission avoided due to the installation of biogas plants is around 3380 ton/year, as 1 m3 of biogas corresponds to 0.70 kg of CO2 saved. In Russia, despite the huge potential, the development of bioenergy is rather on the periphery, due to the abundance of cheap hydrocarbons and the lack of government support. Based on the data from an agro-industrial plant located in Central Russia, the authors of the article demonstrate that biogas technologies could be successfully used in Russia, provided that the Russian Government adopted Western-type measures of financial incentives.
