Suchergebnisse

Como fundamento del sistema intermodal de carga para la Región Andina de Colombia se requiere una estructuración de la red ferroviaria, para implementar una red de transporte soportada en dos ejes fundamentales: la hidrovía del Magdalena y el corredor férreo del Río Cauca con extensión desde Buenaventura hasta Urabá; ambos enlazados por un ferrocarril de montaña que parte de Puerto López en la hidrovía del Meta, pasa por el Altiplano, baja a la Dorada, y llega al Km 41 donde se articularía al Tren de Occidente y al Nuevo Ferrocarril de Antioquia saliendo por Urabá y por Cupica, dos puertos profundos unidos por un sistema bimodal: el Ferrocarril y la Hidrovía del Atrato

Introducción o motivación de la tesis: Esta Memoria se enmarca dentro de los estudios sobre Historia de las matemáticas en la España decimonónica, en particular de su presencia en las instituciones docentes, desarrollados en el Seminario de Historia de la Ciencia y de la Técnica de Aragón bajo la dirección del Prof. Dr. Mariano Hormigón en la Universidad de Zaragoza. A lo largo de más de tres décadas han sido abordados distintos aspectos de la matemática y de la Ciencia española, principalmente en el periodo que va desde la Ilustración a la Guerra Civil. Continuando con esta línea de trabajo en torno al estudio de la evolución de las matemáticas dentro de las Fuerzas Armadas españolas, en esta Memoria se presenta un estudio global del desarrollo de la enseñanza de las matemáticas en la Armada española a lo largo del siglo XIX, especialmente en los centros de formación de Guardias Marinas. Desarrollo teórico: A lo largo de la Memoria se realiza un análisis de contenidos de los textos de matemáticas ¿ manuales, tratados o compendios para la formación de los oficiales ¿ utilizados en la Armada española en el siglo XIX, debidamente contextualizados en su uso docente en los diferentes centros y planes de estudio. La agrupación de todos los textos seleccionados por disciplinas matemáticas presenta un total de seis obras sobre Aritmética, nueve sobre Álgebra, seis sobre Geometría elemental, tres sobre Geometría Descriptiva, cuatro sobre Geometría Analítica, cinco sobre Análisis Matemático, seis sobre Trigonometría Rectilínea, ocho sobre Trigonometría Esférica y cinco obras españolas y siete extranjeras para el estudio comparado de la obra de Pedro José Rodríguez Riola. Cuatro apéndices recogen la sistematización realizada para el estudio de estas obras. Se presentan en los dos primeros las Portadas e Índices de los libros seleccionados, reconstruyendo los índices de las obras que carecen de ellos. Un tercer apéndice muestra en siete subapartados las tablas que resumen los datos generales de las obras seleccionadas y el análisis comparativo de sus contenidos para las diferentes disciplinas matemáticas. El último apéndice recopila los Reglamentos, órdenes y programas de los exámenes de ingreso en la Escuela Naval Flotante, a fin de determinar el nivel matemático exigido a los Aspirantes al ingreso en este centro. El primer capítulo de la Memoria, Marco institucional y legal: centros docentes y Planes de Estudio, está conformado por dos apartados. En el primero, Presencia de las Matemáticas en la Armada a finales del s. XVIII, se repasan los antecedentes de la formación básica y superior de las Academias de Guardias Marinas en cuanto a planes de estudio y textos de matemáticas. En el segundo apartado, Las Matemáticas en la organización y estructura de los estudios desarrollados en la Armada en el siglo XIX, se revisan cronológicamente las cinco etapas en que se ha divido el siglo en relación al centro de formación existente: Academia de Guardias Marinas (1802-1824), Colegio Real y Militar de Caballeros Guardias Marinas (1825-1828), sin centro docente (1828-1844), Colegio Naval Militar (1844-68) y Escuela Naval Flotante (1869-1909). Para cada etapa se realiza una síntesis del periodo y se analizan los desarrollos de la formación básica y superior (si la hay): planes de estudio, disciplinas matemáticas y textos matemáticos utilizados. El segundo capítulo, Las Matemáticas en los textos de formación náutica militar, se compone de diez apartados. En el primer apartado, Revisión de la producción matemática en la Armada en el siglo XIX, se seleccionan aquellas obras de cuyo uso para la formación de los Guardias Marinas o para la preparación de las pruebas de ingreso en la Escuela Naval Flotante tenemos constancia. En los seis siguientes apartados se realizan los estudios comparativos del tratamiento y desarrollo de la Aritmética, el Álgebra, la Geometría elemental, la Geometría Descriptiva, la Geometría Analítica y el Análisis Matemático en la Armada durante el siglo XIX. Para cada una de las materias se examinan las obras utilizadas, se determina la presencia en los textos de los principales contenidos de la materia y se formulan conclusiones sobre la evolución y grado de actualidad de la materia a lo largo del siglo XIX. Entre los autores revisados destacan Gabriel Ciscar y Ciscar, Saturnino Montojo y Juan Cortázar, tanto por su número de obras como por su prestigio científico a nivel nacional. Son las personalidades más influyentes a lo largo del siglo XIX en la formación de los oficiales, por lo que se realizan estudios comparativos en las materias que fueron tratadas por los tres autores: Aritmética, Álgebra y Geometría elemental. En los apartados octavo y noveno se presenta un estudio más detallado y pormenorizado de los tratamientos y desarrollos de la Trigonometría Rectilínea y Esférica, al ser ambas materias de especial importancia en la formación de los Guardias Marinas por sus aplicaciones a la navegación. En el décimo y último apartado se revisa la vida y obra de Pedro José Rodríguez Riola, un autor singular cuya obra estaba pendiente de localización y estudio. Este mahonés ejerció como Professor of Mathematics and Navigation of Midshipmen of the U. S. Navy Yard, Gosport, en el estado norteamericano de Virginia, desde 1827 hasta su fallecimiento en 1838. Su principal obra, Elements of spherical trigonometry, designed as an introduction to the study of nautical astronomy, es ampliamente examinada al objeto de determinar qué obras, tanto españolas como extranjeras, pudieron influir en su elaboración. Conclusiones: En el transcurso del siglo XIX cabe distinguir tres periodos en cuanto a lo que a la enseñanza de las matemáticas en la Armada Española se refiere. En un primer periodo, correspondiente a la formación en las Academias de Guardias Marinas (1802-1824) y en el Colegio Real y Militar de Caballeros Guardias Marinas (1825-1828), la formación básica en matemáticas sufre un retroceso respecto del nivel alcanzado en el último tercio del siglo XVIII, limitándose al estudio de la Aritmética, la Geometría elemental, la Trigonometría Rectilínea y algunas nociones sobre los círculos, líneas y puntos en la esfera. El Plan de Estudios sigue el Curso de Estudios Elementales de Marina, obra que Ciscar adapta plenamente a las necesidades del momento en la Armada, de manera que los cadetes puedan asimilar todos los contenidos durante su formación. Mediante esta obra, Ciscar delimita claramente lo que un Guardia Marina debe o no debe conocer a lo largo de sus estudios. En Aritmética y Geometría elemental se presentan unos conocimientos básicos bajo un enfoque eminentemente práctico, utilizando desarrollos sintéticos en el caso de la Geometría. En Trigonometría Rectilínea se mantiene una concepción geométrica de las expresiones trigonométricas heredada de las líneas trigonométricas utilizadas en el siglo XVIII, mientras que en Trigonometría Esférica Ciscar presenta un reducido número de definiciones y propiedades básicas, apoyándose en figuras geométricas y triángulos rectilíneos, lo que supone un retroceso de contenidos respecto al siglo anterior. En cuanto a la formación superior durante este periodo, las obras de La Caille y Bézout muestran concisamente los principales contenidos sobre el Cálculo diferencial e integral y tratan de forma reducida las Ecuaciones diferenciales. La Caille sigue un enfoque geométrico, mientras Bézout se apoya principalmente en herramientas algebraicas. En el segundo periodo, correspondiente a la formación impartida en el Colegio Naval Militar (1844-1868), se produce un avance sustancial en la instrucción matemática bajo la influencia de Saturnino Montojo, figura clave durante esta etapa por su elaboración de tratados para la formación en el centro sobre Aritmética, Álgebra y Trigonometría. En el Colegio aumentan tanto las asignaturas como el nivel de la formación matemática básica: se instruye a los Aspirantes en Aritmética, Álgebra, Geometría elemental, rudimentos de Geometría Analítica, Trigonometría Rectilínea y Trigonometría Esférica. En Aritmética Montojo realiza un tratamiento más amplio y algebraico que Ciscar, aunque con un manejo básico de los números irracionales y las aproximaciones numéricas. El Álgebra elemental y superior aparece por primera vez como materias propias de los estudios básicos en la obra de Montojo, siendo reseñable la introducción de Series. En cuanto a la Trigonometría Rectilínea, se pasa de un enfoque puramente geométrico a otro algebraico y analítico. Desde una concepción geométrica de las expresiones trigonométricas heredada de las líneas trigonométricas, Montojo evoluciona hacia un enfoque algebraico-analítico basado en las funciones trigonométricas y construye las tablas trigonométricas logarítmicas mediante desarrollos en serie. Si bien la evolución es menos significativa en cuanto a métodos de resolución de triángulos rectilíneos, cabe destacar la incorporación del Teorema del Coseno y de las fórmulas de Briggs como herramientas de resolución. Los contenidos sobre Trigonometría Esférica evolucionan considerablemente durante este periodo de la mano de Montojo. El manejo de los triángulos esféricos, junto con sus propiedades básicas, pierde protagonismo, aumentando la importancia de la resolución de triángulos esféricos. El Teorema del Seno y el método del Perpendículo dejan de ser los pilares del enfoque geométrico, que es sustituido por un nuevo enfoque algebraico basado en el Teorema del Coseno para los lados. Montojo introduce también esta orientación algebraica en el estudio de los triángulos oblicuángulos, apoyándose en las analogías de Gauss-Delambre y de Neper. Incorpora además nuevos contenidos, entre los que destacan el cálculo de áreas de triángulos, las analogías diferenciales y diversas relaciones entre la Trigonometría Esférica y la Rectilínea, como el Teorema de Legendre. En cuanto a la formación superior, también se eleva el nivel en matemáticas al incluirse en los Cursos de Estudios Sublimes el Cálculo diferencial e integral, la Geometría Analítica, la Geodesia y la Geometría Descriptiva. En el tercer periodo, correspondiente a la formación impartida en la Escuela Naval Flotante (1869-1909), se produce un incremento del nivel matemático exigido a los Aspirantes a Guardias Marinas. En las pruebas de ingreso destacan la cantidad y calidad de los contenidos matemáticos que se exigen en Aritmética, Álgebra, Geometría elemental, Geometría Descriptiva, Geometría Analítica, Trigonometría y Cálculo diferencial e integral. Entre los autores de obras utilizadas para la preparación de las pruebas de ingreso destaca Juan Cortázar, tanto por la variedad de materias que trata como por el nivel de los contenidos presentados. Muchos de ellos, anteriormente contemplados en la formación de las academias y colegios precedentes, pasan a ser requisito de acceso a la Escuela Naval Flotante. Respecto a la formación ofrecida en la Escuela, las materias presentan un mayor nivel, en correspondencia con la acrecentada base matemática de acceso de los aspirantes. Las asignaturas impartidas son Análisis (Cálculo diferencial e integral, junto con nociones básicas de Ecuaciones diferenciales y Series), Complemento de Álgebra, Trigonometría Rectilínea, Trigonometría Esférica, Geometría Descriptiva y Geometría Analítica. Se eliminan pues la Aritmética, el Álgebra elemental y la Geometría elemental, cuya evolución se sigue en las obras preparatorias. Así, en Aritmética Cortázar muestra un enfoque algebraico, similar al de Montojo, en el que profundizan a finales de siglo las obras de Terry y Rivas, Serret y Salinas y Benítez, especialmente en cuanto al estudio de la divisibilidad, los logaritmos y las aproximaciones numéricas. Por otra parte, el Álgebra elemental se va entrelazando con contenidos propios del Álgebra superior en las pruebas de ingreso. No obstante, los contenidos no son introducidos de forma gradual durante el último tercio del siglo, sino que varían de un curso a otro, lo que muestra la ausencia de criterios fijos sobre los conocimientos de Álgebra superior necesarios para la formación de los Guardias Marinas; es destacable el tratamiento de los Determinantes por parte de Salinas y Benítez para los exámenes de ingreso de 1900. En cuanto a la Geometría elemental, Cortázar y Terry y Rivas ofrecen un tratamiento más teórico y profundo que Ciscar, que se acentúa a finales de siglo en las obras de Rouché y Comberousse y Ortega y Sala. La Geometría Descriptiva pasa a integrarse por primera vez en la formación de los Guardias Marinas en la Escuela Naval Flotante, especialmente en las pruebas de ingreso, aumentando a lo largo del periodo los elementos tratados y la profundidad con que son estudiados. En los primeros años de la Escuela, un capítulo de la obra de Bielsa y Ciprián o el texto de Ibáñez y Valera cubren todos los contenidos necesarios para la prueba de acceso, que aumentan significativamente con el texto de García Villar. También la Geometría Analítica es tratada por primera vez de forma independiente en la Escuela, tanto en las pruebas de ingreso como en su formación, ampliándose paulatinamente los contenidos a lo largo del último tercio del siglo mediante un enfoque cada vez más algebraico. En los primeros años la obra preparatoria de Meunier-Joannet presenta unos contenidos básicos sobre Geometría Analítica en dos dimensiones. Posteriormente, las obras de Merás y Uría y Salmon, también preparatorias, aumentan de forma considerable los contenidos; el primero estudia principalmente el plano bajo un enfoque geométrico y el segundo el espacio basándose plenamente en el Álgebra. Más tarde, la obra de De María, de uso en la formación de la Escuela, supone un aumento considerable de contenidos respecto a las anteriores obras, especialmente en dos dimensiones, bajo un planteamiento algebraico. El Cálculo diferencial e integral presenta un enfoque plenamente analítico en las obras de Meunier-Joannet y Miranda; ambos textos, adaptados para la enseñanza en escuelas navales, recogen la mayoría de los contenidos del Cálculo diferencial e integral, junto con conceptos básicos de Series y Ecuaciones diferenciales; el texto de Miranda tiene un mayor equilibrio en el tratamiento de los contenidos. En Trigonometría Rectilínea se sigue un enfoque algebraico-analítico basado en las funciones trigonométricas, aunque no todos los autores dejan atrás las líneas trigonométricas, coexistiendo ambos enfoques durante la parte final del siglo. En la elaboración y uso de las tablas trigonométricas logarítmicas del Seno, Tangente y Secante hay un retroceso respecto a la obra de Montojo por parte de algunos autores que, como Cortázar y Barreda y García, estudian los desarrollos en serie aunque sin aplicarlos directamente a la construcción de las tablas. Por otra parte, el manejo por parte de Cortázar del Teorema del Coseno ¿que aparece en la obra de Cortázar antes que en la de Montojo¿y las fórmulas de Briggs facilitan los procesos de resolución de triángulos rectilíneos, sin que esto suponga un cambio metodológico; simplemente cada autor aporta su toque personal a la hora de clasificar y resolver los distintos casos. La Trigonometría Esférica continúa con el enfoque algebraico seguido por Montojo y Cortázar en el estudio de los triángulos oblicuángulos. Adicionalmente, van adquiriendo importancia otros contenidos, como el cálculo de áreas de triángulos y las relaciones entre la Trigonometría Esférica y la Rectilínea. Por otra parte, y dada la singularidad del autor, se ha revisado la vida y obra de Pedro José Rodríguez Riola, mahonés que ejerció como Professor of Mathematics and Navigation of Midshipmen of the U.S. Navy Yard, Gosport, en el estado norteamericano de Virginia, desde 1827 hasta su fallecimiento en 1838. Su obra más importante, Elements of spherical trigonometry, designed as an introduction to the study of nautical astronomy, reunió el conjunto de conocimientos trigonométricos necesarios para la práctica de la Astronomía náutica, presentados de forma que pudieran ser estudiados por personas escasamente versadas en Matemáticas ¿esto es, Aritmética elemental, Geometría Plana, principios de Trigonometría Plana y rudimentos de Álgebra. La obra, influenciada principalmente por Ciscar y Keith, incorpora también elementos procedentes de Keill, Simson y Playfair. A partir de estos autores, Rodríguez realizó, con un estilo personal, un destacable trabajo de selección y síntesis en forma de prontuario destinado a la formación introductoria básica de los niveles inferiores de acceso a la Marina estadounidense. Bibliografía consultada: ARROYO, R. (1994) ¿Las enseñanzas de náutica en el siglo XVIII¿. Revista de Historia Naval, 46, 7-30. AUSEJO, E. & MEDRANO, J. 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(1858) Cours élémentaire d'analyse :contenant un très grand nombre d'applications : à l'usage des élèves de l'Ecole Navale et des élèves de l'Ecole centrale des arts et manufactures. París, Libraire de las Société de Géographie. MIRANDA, A. (1884) Lecciones de cálculo infinitesimal. Ferrol, Establecimiento tipográfico de R. Pita. MONTANER, J. (1898) Álgebra: escrita con sujeción al programa vigente para los exámenes de ingreso en la Escuela Naval Flotante. Madrid, Imprenta de L. Aguado. MONTOJO, S. (1849) Tratado elemental de Aritmética redactado para el uso del Colegio Naval Militar en virtud de Real órden. Cádiz, Imprenta, Librería y Litografía de la Revista Médica. MONTOJO, S. (1850) Tratado elemental de Álgebra redactado para el uso del Colegio Naval Militar en virtud de Real órden. Cádiz, Imprenta, Librería y Litografía de la Revista Médica. MONTOJO, S. (1865) Tratado elemental de Trigonometría. Escrito de Real Órden para el uso de los aspirantes del Colegio Naval Militar. 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The American journal of science and arts, 16, 94-98. RODRÍGUEZ, P. J. (ed). (1829b) Elements of spherical trigonometry, designed as an introduction to the study of nautical astronomy. 1ª edición, New York. RODRÍGUEZ, P. J. (1830) Tables for determining the Latitude at sea, by an altitude, The Polar Star. Observed at any distance from the meridian. Norfolk, Published by C. Hall. RODRÍGUEZ, P. J. (1836) ¿I have examined ¿¿. Army and navy chronicle, and Scientific repository, II, 281. ROUCHÉ, E. & COMBEROUSSE, C. (1878) Tratado de Geometría Elemental, traducido por A. Portuondo y J. Portuondo. Traducción de la 3ª edición francesa. Madrid, Imprenta, Estereotipia y Galvanoplastia de Aribau y Cª. Impresores de Cámara de S. M. SALINAS, I. & BENÍTEZ Y PARODI, M. (1898a) Álgebra. 3ª edición. Madrid, Librería de Hernando y Compª. SALINAS, I. & BENÍTEZ Y PARODI, M. (1898b) Aritmética. 4ª edición. Madrid, Librería de Hernando y Compª. SALINAS, I. & BENÍTEZ Y PARODI, M. (1939) Álgebra. 11ª edición. Madrid, Librería y Casa Editorial Victoriano Suárez. SALMON, G. (1888) Tratado de geometría analítica de tres dimensiones; traducido de la cuarta edicion inglesa por L. de la Fuente. El Ferrol, Establecimiento tipográfico de Ricardo Pita. SELLÉS, M. A. (1988a) ¿Astronomía y Navegación¿. En: M. Sellés y A. Lafuente (eds.) Carlos III y la ciencia de la ilustración. Madrid, Alianza Editorial, 81-98. SELLÉS, M. A. (1988b) ¿La Academia y Observatorio de Marina¿. En: M. Sellés y A. Lafuente (eds.) Carlos III y la ciencia de la ilustración. Madrid, Alianza Editorial, 173-186. SELLÉS, M. A. (2000) Navegación astronómica en la España del s. XVIII. Madrid, Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia. SERRET, J. A. (1879) Tratado Aritmética. 6ª edición revisada por J.A. Serret y Ch. de Comberousse, traducida y aumentada por T. Monteverde, Comandante de R. M. Madrid, Imprenta y Litografía de La Guirnalda. SIMSON, R. (1821) The Elements of Euclid, viz. The first six books, together with the eleventh and twelfth. The errors, by which Theon, or others, have long ago vitiated these books, are corrected, and some of Euclid¿s demonstrations are restored. Also the book of Euclid's data, in like manner corrected. To this edition are also annexed, Elements of Plane and Spherical Trigonometry. Philadelphia, R. Desilver & T. Desilver. TERRY Y RIVAS, A. (1879) Problemas y ejercicios del cálculo algebraico: parte originales y parte escogidos de los principales autores que tratan de la materia. Madrid, Imprenta de Pedro Abienzo, 2 vols. TERRY Y RIVAS, A. (1880) Ejercicios y problemas de Aritmética: parte originales y parte escogidos de los principales autores que tratan de la materia. Madrid, Imprenta de Pedro Abienzo, 2 vols. TERRY Y RIVAS, A. (1881a) Ejercicios de Geometría, parte originales y parte escogidos de los principales autores que tratan de la materia. 2ª edición, Madrid, Imprenta de Pedro Abienzo. TERRY Y RIVAS, A. (1881b) Ejercicios de Trigonometría: parte originales y parte escogidos de los principales autores que tratan de la materia. Madrid, Imprenta de Pedro Abienzo. TERRY Y RIVAS, A. (1885) Ejercicios de algebra, parte originales y parte escogidos de los principales autores que tratan de la materia. Madrid, Imprenta de Viuda é hijos de Pedro Abienzo, 2 vols. VAN SICKLE, J. (2011) A History of Trigonometry Education in the United States: 1776-1900. PhD Dissertation, Columbia University. WEBBER, S. (1808) Mathematics, compiled from the best authors, and intended to be the Text-Book of the course of private lectures on these sciences in the University at Cambridge. Vol II. 2ª edición. Cambridge, University Press. VEA, F. (1986) Las matemáticas en los planes de estudios de enseñanza secundaria en España en el siglo XIX. SEHCTAR, Universidad de Zaragoza. VEA, F. (1995) Las matemáticas en la enseñanza secundaria en España en el siglo XIX. ¿Cuadernos de Historia de la Ciencia¿, 9. SEHCTAR, Universidad de Zaragoza. VELAMAZÁN, M. A. & AUSEJO, E. (1989) ¿Los planes de estudio en la Academia de Ingenieros del Ejército de España en el siglo XIX¿. Llull, 12, 415-453. VELAMAZÁN, M. A. (1994) La enseñanza de las Matemáticas en las Academias Militares en España en el siglo XIX. ¿Cuadernos de Historia de la Ciencia¿, 7. SEHCTAR, Universidad de Zaragoza.

Contexto y perfil de un proyecto alternativo a las diferentes propuestas de carretera entre Caldas y Tolima desarrolladas por el Invías, como lo es el Corredor Bimodal Cafetero, un proyecto de infraestructura estratégica inscrito en el Plan Nacional de Desarrollo 2014/2018. Se presentan los impactos de dicho Corredor Bimodal, conformado por un tren de montaña de 150 km que parte de La Dorada, transita por el Norte del Tolima y llega a Manizales en el Km 41, y por una carretera de primer orden que sale del poniente de Manizales, pasa por Fresno y llega a Honda; ambos cruzando la Cordillera Central por el Norte de Cerro Bravo con el Túnel Cumaday, obra subterránea de 17 km a 2200 msnm cuyo autosoporte se logra gracias las rocas estables del Stock de Manizales

This essay discusses the relation between urban spaces and street festival as an example of a creative industry. To begin with, several terms are presented as part of a theoretical approach to fully understand the concept of street festivals, then two cases studies of street festivals will be presented and analysed: The Iberoamerican Theatre Festival of Bogotá and Rock al Parque Festival both from Bogotá, Colombia. The essay has a chapter dedicated to the relationship between festivals and economic development. ; Cultura y desarrollo; Esfera pública; Festival Iberoamericano de Teatro; Festivales callejeros; Habermas; Rock al Parque ; 1 An Act of Faith: Two Cases Studies Of Street Festivals As Examples Of Development. ANDRÉS GUILLERMO CHAUR1 Course Title: Theories of the Culture Industry: work, creativity and precariousness Course Code: CU71015A Date: 13 January 2014 1 Beneficiario COLFUTURO 2013 2 3 «Culture is the be all and end all of development» L.S. Senghor, poet (Senegal, 1906-2001) Introduction This essay discusses the relation between urban spaces and street festival as an example of a creative industry. To begin with, several terms are presented as part of a theoretical approach to fully understand the concept of street festivals, then two cases studies of street festivals will be presented and analysed: The Iberoamerican Theatre Festival of Bogotá and Rock al Parque Festival both from Bogotá, Colombia. The essay has a chapter dedicated to the relationship between festivals and economic development. It is important to mention that the starter point of this essay was precisely to give an introductory background of the importance that has have those two case studies in the development of the city. It is not a secret that Colombia has suffered a period of violence and instability since the second part of the XX century so at first glance it is curious to study and research about an almost contradictory topic such as Culture in a "war country". But at the same time, the "beauty" of this study relies precisely in its contradictory nature: How a country with those characteristics can hold two of the most important and respected free theatre festivals and music festivals in all Latin America? This essay will try to explain that culture when it's conceived with some specific characteristics will bring democracy and peace. A series of deep and abstract concepts will be discussed. This essay was thought just as an introduction and approximation to the topic of public and private, public sphere, culture and development just to mention some examples. Same with authors and thinkers used to elaborate the structure of this study. Once again it should be taken as an approximation rather than a full and elaborated research. The aim is to structure a series of ideas and concepts around one thesis: Those festivals have helped to make Bogotá a better city thus that is the main point of the relation between urban spaces and creativity: It fosters a better understanding of a society overall. At the end of the essay, in the appendix section, some photos are presented to visually recreate the two festivals, its dimensions and its importance. Although, like every 4 transcendental event, in order to understand the magnitude of The Iberoamerican Theatre Festival and the Rock al Parque Festival one have to experience in person. Cities as spaces for the public To fully understand the concept of "Public Realm" and "Public Sphere", one has to address the theory of the city and its relation with the concept of public and private. The concept of "city" has had many meanings through time. There are different ways to approach the concept; however, for the nature of this essay an urban sociological perspective will be approached. Mumford (1937) states the city as a space undoubtedly bonded with the development of human potential: "a city is an expression of the human spirits, and they exist to nurture human personality"2. Weber (1921), one of the founders of modern sociology sees a city in terms of connectivity and settlement between commuters, in that way, the concept of a city, according to Weber, is about the networking, the political and economic participation and the organization among communities. Landry (2013) defines the city as "a complex organism and in constant movement with perspectives, opinions and priorities about what is right often clashing"3. Simmel (1950) explained the correlation of man and the scenarios created by the capitalism and modern society called "The Metropolis". There is always a struggle between the man (individual) and his society (public): "The deepest problem of modern life arises out of the attempt by the individual to preserve his autonomy and individuality in the face of the overwhelming social forces of a historical heritage, external culture and technique of life"4. Simmel's concept of a city as a place where modern man struggle to find his individuality within "overwhelming social forces" is key to understand the theory of the city, specifically one attached with the words: Public -Private. Sennett (1996) in his book "The Fall of the 2 Mumford, L., 1937. What is a city?. In: Scoutt, S and Stoutt, F. ed. 2011. The city reader. Taylor and Francis. pp.91-96. 3 Landry,C. 2013. Civic Urbanity: Looking at the city afresh (PDF). Hangzhou International Congress, "Culture: Key to Sustainable Development", 15-17 May 2013, Hangzhou, China. Available at: http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CLT/images/Charles_Landry_Hangzhou_Congress.pdf (Accessed 12 January 2013). 4 Simmel,G. 1950. The Metropolis and Mental Life. In Miles, M; Hall, T and Borden, I. The City Cultures Reader. Ed. 2000. pp. 12-19. 5 public man" gives an account of the city as the scenario where those 2 concepts are correlated. He starts explaining the meaning of public and private. Although its historical background, coming from the Greeks and the idea of Oikos and Polis as the Private and Public respectively, Sennett comments that "the public" in modern times, started to develop in the eighteen century that is as a direct consequence of the industrial revolution and the liberalism ideas coming from The Enlightenment. "Public came to mean a life passed outside the life of family and close friends. In the public region diverse, complex social groups were to be brought into ineluctable contact the focus of this public life was the city"5 The public life is also the ground to understand modern democracy and public political institution. Sennett, citing Hanna Arendt's book The Human Condition shows how the public life in cities can be a scenario where ideas and opinions are discussed and debated. "Private circumstances have no place in the public realm". 6 Arendt even manifests that cities are "democracy's homes"7 This notion of public started to be more evident when places to meet strangers (people from outside the private sphere) within the city started to grow up. Examples of those "places" are the coffee houses and salons (Habermas will mention those examples to explain his theory of public sphere). Those spaces are called "Public Realm" by Sennett. Public Realm, in other words, are spaces where strangers meet. This encounter is characterized by "anonymity". In "The Conscience of The Eye" Sennett (1992) also says that anonymity is the power of modern cities: "The power of the city lies in its diversity; in the presence of difference people have at least the possibility to step outside themselves (.) The city can give them experiences of otherness"8 The concept of Teatro Mundi is an interesting way to look at the public sphere. According to Sennett, "Teatro Mundi" are spaces full of vitality, differences and disorder. Places where the differences connect and all citizens participate: "Society is a theatre and people are actors". This essay will discuss Teatro Mundi in detail in the chapter related to street festivals. . 5 Sennett, R. 2003. The Fall of Public Man. Penguin, New Edition. 6 Sennett, R. 2008. Reflections on the Public Realm in Bridge, G and Watson, S. A companion of the City. Blackwell Publishers. pp. 380-387. 7 Sennett, R. 2008. The Public Realm. (online) Richard Sennet Website. Available at: http://www.richardsennett.com/site/SENN/Templates/General2.aspx?pageid=16 (Accessed 13 January 2014) 8 Sennett, R. 1992. The Conscience of the Eye: The Design and Social Life of Cities. W.W Norton & Company. 6 In the next chapter, this essay will discuss in-depth different theories about the public realm specially the ideas of Habermas about the public sphere and his theory of action communicative. Habermas and the Public Sphere Even though the previous chapter gave an account of the concepts of private-public, it is important to highlight them according to the theory of Habermas. Recognized as one of the most influential sociologist and philosopher of our times, Habermas theories of the public sphere (phrase from the German Öffentlichkeit), and modern democracy as well as his theory of action communicative have been enormously influential for modern sociology9. Firstly Habermas' thought is marked in the tradition of the Frankfurt School. His first mayor publication "The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere" argues that instrumental rationality is implicit in the Public Sphere. However, Habermas took distance from the classical notion of the critical theory when argues that participation in the public sphere (he exemplified the coffee shops and the salons in Paris and London in the XVIII century) is free and autonomous in order to shape a common good: "The public sphere consisted in voluntary associations of private citizens united in a common aim, to make use of their own reason in unconstrained discussion between equals"10(Later on, Habermas is going to present how mass media eroded individuality and declined the public sphere). It is important to mention the dichotomy of the words public-private for Habermas. Although different, both are dependents to each other. In that way the private sphere and the public sphere instead of being exclusive are inclusive. Susen (2011) defines the public sphere, taking into account Habermas' theory, as: "The socialized expression of individuals' reciprocally constituted autonomy: individuals are autonomous not in isolation from but in relation to one another, that is, in relation to a public of autonomous beings".11 9Finlayson, J .2005. "Habermas, a very short introduction". Oxford University Press. 10 Habermas,J. 1991. The Structural Transformation Of The Public Sphere. MIT Press. 11 Susen, S. 2001. Critical Notes on Habermas's theory of the public sphere. (online). City University of London. Available at: http://tinyurl.com/lhy4j4z. (Accessed 13 January 2014). 7 Several questions came to mind: How this socialization is constructed? What does an autonomous individual mean? And how can individual reach autonomy? For Habermas, the answer relies on a rational communicative action. The aim of the public sphere is to create a consensus through the active participation of all individuals involved. This consensus is created by a rational approach of the language: "The public sphere is a collective realm in which individuals' cognitive ability to take on the role of critical and responsible actors is indicative of society's coordinative capacity to transform itself into an emancipatory project shaped by the normative force of communicative rationality"12. Rationality in terms of Habermas does not consist in knowledge per se but "how speaking and acting subjects acquire and use knowledge"13. This type of rationality is different from the instrumental rationality from the Enlightenment, widely criticized by the Frankfurt School, since it is "practical, epistemological and more important, intersubjective"14. The public sphere, considering the above, not only describes the space where the encounter occurs but moreover, the public sphere has within itself an emancipator and a transformative component. Some critics find Habermas ideas "too utopian and idealistic"15. The next chapter the link between Habermas and Sennett notion of Public Realm in the city will be tracked. The Open City Sennett takes Habermas as a mayor inspiration for constructing his idea of the Public Realm in the city. According to Sennett (2008), Habermas does not tie the public sphere to any particular place, such as a town centre for instance. Even new technological media as the 12 Ibid. 13 Hahn, L. 2000. Perspective On Habermas. Open Court Publishing. 14 Susen, S. 2001. Critical Notes on Habermas's theory of the public sphere. (online). City University of London. Available at: http://tinyurl.com/lhy4j4z. (Accessed 13 January 2014). 15 Ibid. 8 Internet could be seen as an example of public sphere: "In today's cities, an internet cafe would be more likely to excite him than Trafalgar Square" 16 The place where strangers meet, as Sennett defines Public Realm, could be anywhere: An event, a medium, etc. that encourages communication between strangers. Eventually, Sennett argues, cities that promote those types of encounters are called cities with open systems and on the contrary, cities that lack a real public realm or just promote the privatization of spaces are called cities with closed systems. Based on sociologist Jane Jacobs(1961) and her book "The death and life of great American cities"17, Sennett(2006) imagines a city with a closed system with two attributes: Equilibrium and Integration18. Equilibrium is related with balance, with harmony and with a static idea of conceiving a city. Public Spaces as spaces full of differences, dissents and disorders are not part or are reduced in a closed system. By integration, Sennett means that everything is connected and is part of a greater and unique vision. Thus, everything that is not part of that unique vision is expelled and rejected: "The logic of integration is to diminish in value things that don't fit in (.) Closed system cities refuse to evolve and has paralysed urbanism", concludes Sennett. Opposing a closed system, the open system is all about diversity and finding a place for differences, dissents and disorders. It is about complexity, about how a place adapts itself to the always changing community and its processes. Sennett lists three elements of an open city: Passage territories, incomplete form and development narratives. Passages territories means to diffuse boundaries and different territories within the cities; incomplete form is regarding "empty spaces" so the public can interact in it. Development narratives means to allow dissident voices to express and to fully participate. Wirth (1938) summarize the above by saying: "The juxtaposition of divergent personalities and modes of life tends to produce a relativistic perspective and a sense of toleration of differences"19 Taking into consideration the above characteristics of an open city, one can say that an open city is a place for democracy, "not in the legal sense but in the physical experience" says 16 Sennett, R. 2008. Reflections on the Public Realm in Bridge, G and Watson, S. A companion of the City. Blackwell Publishers. pp. 380-387. 17 Jacobs, J .1961. The death and life of great American cities. Random House, New York. 18 Sennett, R 2006. The Open City. (online). Urban Age- LSE. Available at: http://esteticartografias07.files.wordpress.com/2008/07/berlin_richard_sennett_2006-the_open_city1.pdf. (Accessed 13 January 2014) 19 Wirth, L .1938. Urbanism as a Way of Life. (online) Chicago Journals. Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2768119 (Accessed 13 January 2014). 9 Sennett 20. This thesis is important to understand the importance of public spaces in construction of a fully democratic society and thus is connected to the idea of development and equality. ¿What are examples of an open system? Can one give an account of a public sphere? The next chapter will give an account of the relationship between the street festivals and the public sphere, understanding them as a significance example of public realm. Street Festivals and the Public Sphere To begin with, Street Festivals or Urban Festivals as any other cultural event placed in the public sphere are related of what Durkheim called "collective effervescence". As Durkheim pointed out when a group gathers to perform a "religious ritual" experiences a sense of encounter and unity, "leading participants to a high degree of collective emotional excitement or delirium"21. However as Sassatelli(2011) adds, although Festivals are also part of a collective delirium, taking all participant apart from the everyday life, they are also places where the social encounter is made of "polyvalent performances, rather than unified signifiers of a consensual collective conscience"22 Sassatelli complements that street festivals contrasted with museums: By its living dimension as well as its unrestrained sensory experience. Sennett (1992) also talks about spaces "full of live" as narrative spaces where every dweller constructs a disorder and kaleidoscope meaning of the public. This could lead to the erosion of the boundaries of high and low culture in the sense of the Frankfurt School understood the "cultural industries". namely they turn into instances of communication and instances of production of collective meanings and desires. 20 Sennett, R 2006. The Open City. (online). Urban Age- LSE. Available at: http://esteticartografias07.files.wordpress.com/2008/07/berlin_richard_sennett_2006-the_open_city1.pdf. (Accessed 13 January 2014) 21 Durkheim, E .2008. The Elementary Forms of Religious Life. Oxford Paperbacks. 22 Sassatelli, M. 2011. Urban Festivals and the Cultural Public Sphere: Cosmopolitanism between Ethics and Aesthetics in Delanty, G; Giorgi L and Sassatelli, M. Festivals and the Cultural Public Sphere. Routledge. Pp 12-19 10 If Habermas, the notion of the "Public Sphere" is related as the area where rational individuals communicate to each other to discuss their social problems; nowadays as McGuian(2011) argues, there are different ways to look at the public sphere, not only inside a rational communicative system as Habermas states, but from other types of communication that also create a sense of public sphere. One of those "public spheres" is the cultural public sphere, namely a sphere within the public where different modes of communications, for instance "affective-aesthetics and emotional are articulated with the public and the private"23 "The public sphere nowadays operates though various channels and circuits of mass popular culture and entertainment facilitated the routinely mediated aesthetic and emotional reflections on how we live and imagine the good life (.) festivals are the aestheticization of politics as the ground for festivals is the democratization of an independent thought by the spectators transformed into active actors". . Although McGuian theorized the cultural public sphere for the mass media and populism culture, undoubtedly street festivals share that conception in an emotional and aesthetic way of "come together as a public" and to transcend the private sphere into a societal integration as Habermas explained. Fabiani (2011) explained as well: 24 Street Festivals are also part of the Sennett's idea of "Teatro Mundi". Spaces operated in an open system, where strangers meet through a "rhetorical way, acting in order to be 23Mc Guian, J. 2011. The Cultural Public Sphere- a critical measure of public culture? in Delanty, G; Giorgi L and Sassatelli, M. Festivals and the Cultural Public Sphere. Routledge. Pp 79-92. 24 Fabiani, J. 2011. Festivals, local and global: Critical interventions and the cultural public sphere. in Delanty, G; Giorgi L and Sassatelli, M. Festivals and the Cultural Public Sphere. Routledge. Pp 92-108 Involvement rather than contemplation Instances of communication and community building Erosion of the boundaries between high and low culture Construction of Identity Produce meanings and desires Box 1. Characteristics of Street Festivals according to Sassatelli(2011). 11 credible" 25 In the next chapter, this essay will discuss the implications of street festivals in the sustainable development of a city. Different approaches coming from the research of the UNESCO on the relationship between culture and development as well as the studies of the creative class by Michael Florida and the Creative cities by Michael Landry. . People act as in they were in a "role playing" to create a sense of "equality", even if they do not share their same social class, race, sexual orientation, etc. Street Festivals have this "communicative power" of involve everyone together. Street Festivals as mechanism for sustainable development How could we connect street festivals as examples of the cultural public sphere with the idea of development? In other words, is there any connection between street festivals, understood as a cultural manifestation, and sustainable development? This chapter will introduce the concept of "Culture for Development"26 In the last few decades, UNESCO programs have been focused in how culture should be at the centre of economic development in developed and especially in developing countries. One of the last attempts to foster that was the Hangzou Congress in 2013 in China. The final conclusion was: "Placing Culture at the Heart of Sustainable Development Policies"; a term coined by UNESCO in a variety of its programs wide world specially for developing nations and will give an account of the link between that term and street festivals as examples of a cultural industry. 27 25 Sennett, R. 2008. Reflections on the Public Realm in Bridge, G and Watson, S. A companion of the City. Blackwell Publishers. pp. 380-387. and described 9 main ideas to do so: Integrate culture within all development policies and Programmes; Mobilize culture and mutual understanding to foster peace and reconciliation; Ensure cultural rights for all to promote inclusive social development; Leverage culture for poverty reduction and inclusive economic development; Build on culture to promote environmental sustainability; Strengthen resilience to disasters and combat climate change through culture value; safeguard and transmit culture to future generations; Harness culture 26 Culture and Development. 2013. UNESCO- Culture. (Online) Available at: http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/culture-and-development (Accessed 13 January 2014) 27 UNESCO. 2013. The Hangzhou Declaration. UNESCO- Culture. (Online). Available at: http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/culture-and-development/hangzhou-congress/ (Accessed 13 January 2014). 12 as a resource for achieving sustainable urban development and management; Capitalize on culture to foster innovative and sustainable models of cooperation. 28 Landry (2008) also talks about the benefits of cultural industries in a city and how the creativity of those industries will foster economic development and social cohesion: "Culture can also strengthen social cohesion, increase personal confidence and improve life skills, improve people's mental and physical well-being, strengthen people's ability to act as democratic citizens and develop new training and employment routes".29 Florida (2003) shows the relationship between creativeness and development. His theory of human capital, called creative capital theory, shows how by fostering tolerance, high education levels and social adaptation to changes, a social class can help to develop their communities. This creative class and its idea of create "new forms of meanings"30 The bond between the cultural public sphere with democracy and the idea of an Open City, explained before, is also a seminal part of how through cultural manifestations, a society can develop and tackle social problems. are attached to the idea of UNESCO's Culture for development program. Case Studies: The Iberoamerican Theatre Festival of Bogotá and the "Rock al Parque" Festival This essay will present two cases studies of street festivals and its relation with the city and its sustainable development: The Iberoamerican Theatre Festival of Bogota (Festival Iberoamericano de Teatro de Bogotá) and The Rock al Parque Festival. Both represent two major fields in the cultural industries in Bogotá such as the performative arts and the music. 28 Ibid 29 Landry, C. 2008. The Creative City: A toolkit for Urban Innovators. Earthscan Editions. 30 Florida, M (2003). Cities and the creative class. (Online). Available at: http://uv.vuchorsens.dk/r/KAZ/Undervisning%202012-2013/GEOLOGI/B%C3%A6redygtighed/Befolkning%20og%20b%C3%A6redygtighed/GetFile.pdf (Accessed 13 January 2014). 13 Firstly the chapter will introduce a context of each festival and then discuss around 5 main axes how the two festivals help to development in specific ways. Iberoamerican Theatre Festival of Bogotá Declared in December 2013 as "cultural heritage of Colombia"31, The Ibero-American Theatre Festival of Bogotá is a biannual cultural event held in Bogotá and organized by the Fundación Teatro Nacional (National Theatre Foundation) an NGO dedicated to theatre with private and public funding. It is considered as one of the most important theatre festival in Latin America and the most significant cultural event in Colombia32 The history of the festival is in every sense "quixotic": Launched in 1988 when the country was immersed in drug-related violence and when the public institutions and the general idea of democracy were at crisis, Ramiro Osorio, a renowned cultural entrepreneur and Fanny Mikey, considered one of the icons of theatre and culture in Colombia, created the theatre Festival as a "Act of Faith" in order to promote culture as an answer to defeat the prevailing violence of those years. . It is important to mention somehow the significant role of the National Theatre Foundation in the conformation and development of the theatre in Colombia. Founded in 1981 by Fanny Mikey, an Argentinean émigré, with the play "El Rehén" nowadays has three major venues with a wide programme throughout the year as well as an art college a social programme for deprived communities and an international tours of their plays33 The first Ibero-American theatre festival, held from 25th march to 3th of April 1988, gathered 59 theatres companies from 21 countries with an estimated of no more than 100.000 spectators. In 2012, 26 years later, the festival had more than 3 million spectators and 200 theatres companies from 32 countries and 5 continents. 34 31El Espectador. 2013. Festival de Teatro de Bogotá, declarado patrimonio cultural de la Nación. El Espectador, (Online) (Last updated 11December 2013). Available at: . http://www.elespectador.com/noticias/bogota/festival-de-teatro-de-bogota-declarado-patrimonio-cultu-articulo-463508. (Accessed: 13 January 2014). 32 Cepeda, A .2010. FESTIVAL IBEROAMERICANO DE TEATRO DE BOGOTÁ- IMPACTO Y SUPERVIVENCIA. Instituto Complutense de CC Musicales. 33 Ibid 34 Ibid 14 The conception of the festival as a "carnival of the city" relies on the stress in the use of the public space: There are plays presented in the streets, plazas and parks from all over the city: From slums to rich areas covering all significance area of the city. In 2012, the festival presents 218 street plays in 4 major parks (Simón Bolívar, Tunal, Nacional y Plaza de Bolívar) 7 public spaces for street plays, 4 community centres, 2 big parades starting from the north of Bogota (Calle 80) until the Bolivar's Square, the biggest plaza in Bogotá. The Festival was in 11 out of the 21 districts of Bogota. In average, around 2, 5 millions of spectators participate in the festival. 35 "Rock al Parque" Festival In March 2012, Bogotá was chosen by the UNESCO as Creative City of Music along with European cities such as Bologna (Italy), Ghent (Belgium), Sevilla (Spain) and Glasgow (Scotland).36 This recognition is part of the strategy of the secretary of culture of Bogotá of positioning the city as a major culture hub in Latin-American especially in the music field. In recent years and after the creation of the central roadmaps namely the "Políticas Culturales Distritales 2004-2016"37 The link between urban public spaces and public festivals as cultural policies is more visible in the "Festivales al Parque" (Park Festivals) which consists in five annual free music festivals held in different times of the year and performed in important free venues and public parks. They are managed and executed by the Institute for arts in Bogotá (A sub division of the Secretary of Culture of Bogotá) "IDARTES". and the "Plan Decenal de Cultura 2011-2021" the music field and their relation with public spaces have being an important core of the cultural policies in Bogotá. There are 5 "festivales al parque" dedicated to the 5 most popular rhythms that conformed the music scene in the city: Hip Hop, Jazz, Colombia (traditional music) and Rock. Created in different years, the "Festivales al Parque" conforms a local identity and a cultural highlight of the city. 35 Ibid 36 Cultura y Entretenimiento. 2012. Bogotá fue declarada capital mundial de la música. EL TIEMPO. (Online). Available at: http://www.eltiempo.com/entretenimiento/musica/ARTICULO-WEB-NEW_NOTA_INTERIOR-11842506.html (Accessed 13 January 2014) 37 IDARTES. 2004. Políticas Culturales Distritales (Online) Available at: http://www.culturarecreacionydeporte.gov.co/sites/default/files/politicas_culturales_distritales_2004-2016.pdf (Accessed 13 January 2014). 15 The pioneer and the biggest in terms of audience of the "Festivales al Parque" is "Rock al Parque" a 3 days rock festival created in 1995 and hosted in the biggest public park of the city, Parque Simón Bolivar; it was organized by musicians Mario Duarte and Julio Correal as a strategy to create a bond between citizens of different socio economic background with the public space during the Antanas Mockus' mayor. The XVIII edition of the festival in 2012 congregated more than 70.000 people per day, making the Festival, the biggest public rock festival in Latin America in terms of audience38. Places for sustainable development: conclusions studies. Although each festival has its own characteristics a study conducted by Obgregón (2007) shows 5 main conclusions that "Rock al Parque" festival has brought to the city. In a similar study done for the Iberoamerican Theatre Festival, Cepeda (2010) also concluded that the festival helped the city in similar ways of the five elements of Obregon. Those five elements also share the same roots of the elements of Culture for Development by the UNESCO. This is an interesting discovery that shows how festivals if they are organized inside the language of Open City -Teatro Mundi (Sennett) and in the Cultural Public Sphere all share similar benefits: 38 Obregon, J. 2007. Desconfianza, civilidad y estética. Universidad Nacional de Colombia. Improve the image of the city Create a sense of identity Help to build an audience Visibilization of a minority group Tolerance and social cohesion. Box 2. Five mains benefit of the Iberoamerican Theatre Festival and Rock al Parque Festival to Bogotá. 16 1. Improve the image of the city Both festivals improve the image of the city, for both its inhabitants and foreigners audiences. Leguizamón, Moreno and Tibazisco(2013) have argued the relation between the festivals and the local economy especially in the touristic field: "Bogotá is a touristic destiny who takes advantage of its public festivals as an important opportunity to retain tourists interested in performing arts because they visit the city only one time. This advantage depends on quality improvements which tourist perceived around touristic products and services offered like: security, hospitality, environmental practices, mobility and connectivity."39 UNESCO (2001) has also states how cultural tourism has increased in recent years: In 2010, international tourism generated 919 billion dollars in export earnings. Emerging and developing countries accounted for 47 per cent of world international tourism arrivals and 36.9 per cent of world international tourism receipts in 2010. Cultural tourism presently accounts for 40 per cent of world tourism revenues. Taking into account the statistics of the monitoring centre for culture of IDARTES conducted in 2011 the percentage of tourist that visited the city exclusively to assist to "Rock al Parque" Festival were 16,16% compared to 6,03% in 199740. 2. Create a sense of identity Wyss (2012) states that for 17 days, "the Iberoamerican Theatre Festival transformed a chaotic metropolis like Bogotá (more than 8 million inhabitants) into a cultural Mecca", The general director of the Festival, Ana Marta de Pizarro also argues than the festival is "the carnival of the city, crime rates are significantly reduced and the general atmosphere of the dwellers is of great joy and party"41 39 Leguizamon, M; Moreno, E and Tobavizco N. 2013. Impacto turístico del Festival Iberoamericano de Teatro de Bogotá. (online) Available: . http://www.pasosonline.org/Publicados/11113/PS0113_06.pdf (Accessed 13 January 2014) 40 IDARTES. 2011. Observatorio de Culturas. (online) Available at: http://www.culturarecreacionydeporte.gov.co/observatorio/medAlparque.html. (Accessed 13 January 2014). 41 Wyss, J. 2010. Bogota theater festival: a bright mask for a once grim city. (Online) Available at: http://carpetbagbrigade.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/miami-herald-dios-callings-english1.pdf. (Accessed 13 January 2014) 17 Similar to Wyss, Obregon citing Cante(2007), says that the idea of Rock al Parque has brought a sense of "social cohesion through the construction of an identity of tolerance and coexistence. It creates a civil culture in the city"42. 3. Help to build an audience Obregon (2007) and Cepeda (2010) states that one of the most important benefits of Rock al Parque and the Iberoamerican Theatre Festival is that those events have helped to build an audience in music and performative arts respectively. In the case of Rock al Parque, the event helped to massify a genre that wasn't part of the mainstream in Colombia as Rock. According to IDARTES (2011), almost 60% of the audience that assisted to the Festival in 2011 has been to a different free rock concert. Almost 80% has already assisted to more than two versions of Rock Al Parque. Cepeda (2010) concludes that the Iberoamerican Theatre Festival has collaborate to "enrich the theatre market in the city and to put it in one of the top in Latin America". 65% of the public, who assisted to the Festival in 2010, has seen a play regularly outside the Festival, according to the study. 4. Visibilization of a minority group This point is connected to the last conclusion. By building an audience, the festivals helped to make visible an audience. In Rock al Parque an "underground culture" as the rock scene, stigmatized before as "antisocial, started to have a better image in the community. IDARTES (2011) indicates that 60% of the audience of Rock al Parque has been to a Rock Concert without any kind of stigmatization43. 5. Tolerance and social cohesion Another important point about the two festivals is regarding the social cohesion and zero violence culture that promotes. Cepeda (2010) is very emphatic describing the impact of the Iberoamerican Theatre Festival with the violence and crime rates in the city: 42 Obregon, J.2007. Desconfianza, civilidad y estética. Universidad Nacional de Colombia. 43 IDARTES. 2011. Observatorio de Culturas. (online) Available at: http://www.culturarecreacionydeporte.gov.co/observatorio/medAlparque.html. (Accessed 13 January 2014). 18 "The festival has contributed since its beginning to the peace process in Colombia. This festival dared to make public performatives acts in the streets when the crimes rates were really high. Those events had an amazing and significative success. One could say that in the 17 days of the festival, crimes and violence stops. Police informs that the crime rates during those two weeks are the lowest of the year."44 93,48% of the spectators of the 2011 "Rock al Parque" felt that the event help to promote a non-violence culture. Still, both festivals shares the unique values of the "Teatro Mundi": Every spectator is equal, no matter his race, gender, social class, etc. The rates of zero violent deaths in the history of both festivals are also an example of how those events are truly places for democracy and peace. Conclusion As it has been seen through the different chapters that conform this essay, the benefits of creating public cultural events in urban spaces bring, undoubtedly a notion of democracy and development. Although Habermas did not specifically discuss street festivals and public festivals in urban spaces as examples of his theory of both public sphere and the theory of communicative action, the essay helped to shape a theoretical background to such events according to Habermas's notions. In the end, the link between Cultural Public Spaces and the UNESCO definition of Culture for Development was an interesting discovery that is worthwhile to keep researching. As mentioned in the introduction, the aim of the essay was to create a structure to understand the Iberoamerican Theatre Festival and the Rock al Parque Festival as examples of cultural public sphere and based on that give an account of the relationship between those spaces and the idea of development. Culture and Cultural manifestations are always moving and changing as society itself. Street Festivals are manifestations that definitely have to be fully addressed. All the rich variety of characteristics that those kinds of events possesses as the essay presented, make them a unique type of cultural products. Could culture transform a society? Definitely. Not only culture transformed society but improves it. Bogota is a better city, with more possibilities with events like the ones studied. In the future, and as part of a cultural policies plan, More events such those, should be created. This is the only recommendation of this essay toward the future, taking into account 44 Cepeda, A .2010. FESTIVAL IBEROAMERICANO DE TEATRO DE BOGOTÁ- IMPACTO Y SUPERVIVENCIA. Instituto Complutense de CC Musicales. 19 that the existing legislation "protect" the two festivals, that in the end, are part of the cultural heritage of the city and the nation. 20 Appendix Photos a. Iberoamerican Theatre Festival45 45 All photos: Humar, Z., 2012. En fotos, Bogotá y su fiesta de las mil caras. [electronic print] Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/video_fotos/2012/04/120405_fotos_galeria_festival_teatro_bogota_aw.shtml [Accessed 12 January 2013]. 21 22 b. Rock al Parque Festival46 46 All photos: Lopez, J., 2013. Bogotá Rock al Parque. [electronic print] Available at: http://tinyurl.com/oabvlmt [Accessed 12 January 2013]. 23 24 Bibliography • Cepeda, A. 2010. 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