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The international business environment is still changing dramatically and, although international growth may introduce added complexity it may be unavoidable for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) mainly due to the increasing globalization of markets (Levitt 1983) and industries (Yip 2003). In the face of rapid globalization, SMEs are a vital part of the economic systems of both emerging and developed countries. As Veloso (1991) points out, this type of companies may be an important organ for increasing the level of competitiveness of emerging markets. Some studies, for example, Yasuf (2001), go to the extent of suggesting that growth and employment in developing countries depend on the fate of SMEs. The incentive and the legal structures within which firms must operate have been drastically altered. SMEs are no longer protected from foreign competition and local buyers and suppliers are becoming more sophisticated. To compete effectively, SMEs must adapt and reshape themselves to facilitate adjustments and enhance learning for their growth and economic development. This article provides a typology to explain the degree of internationalization of SMEs. At one extreme is tangible internationalization, which is short-term and depends on macro and microeconomics factors exogenous to firms; at the other is a combination of tangible and intangible internationalization, which implies a strong commitment by firms to become competitive at international levels.I argue that different forces have forced the internationalization not only of firms, but also of markets, so that SMEs can become global without a physical presence in foreign markets. Furthermore, it may be necessary for these companies to become global if they are to remain competitive in their local markets. As a result of this paradigm shift, internationalization is based not only on geographical aspects, which are closely related to firm internationalization, but also on intangible considerations, which are closely related to market internationalization.Tangible internationalization is a restricted approach defined as a physical presence in a foreign market; it consists mainly of foreign sales, foreign direct investment (FDI), physical presence in foreign markets, and foreign suppliers. It fluctuates with exchange rates, costs of inputs, and other resource endowments that are tied to a particular geographic location. On the other hand, intangible internationalization implies a change in the comprehensive approach to the way firms should reconfigure, develop and secure resources. Intangible internationalization requires facilitating learning at all levels of a firm to increase the stock of knowledge, and, therefore, to improve flexibility on the production side and increase the likelihood of developing new resources and processes, thus enhancing the firm's critical invisible assets (Itami and Roehl 1987). An SME should aim for both in order to take advantage of a physical presence in foreign markets and provide constant incentives to facilitate learning and new organizational capabilities and processes. Tangible internationalization is a short-term expansion in foreign markets because it takes advantage of temporary macro- and microeconomics conditions; it does not require changes at the firm level. On the other hand, a combination of intangible and tangible internationalization has a higher probability to be sustainable in the long term and mostly depends on the firm's actions to meet international standards.This article emphasizes 5 crucial aspects of that managers need to be aware of: I. A matter of having an strategic plan II. An internal perspective of the firm III.The need of expanding the knowledge bases of SMEs IV.How to access and secure resources: networks V.The entrepreneurial aspectsI. A Matter of Having an Strategic PlanWhile firms have an important degree of freedom to make their own decisions, the effect of the environment cannot be discounted. This matter becomes critically important in the context of emerging economies because firms are not only facing changes in the structure of the industry in which they operate, but also in the surrounding and institutional environments. To be aware of the different courses of action available, decision makers must understand all the pro-market reforms, not just those that most affect their own industry. According to Weick (1995), the strategic decisions that managers make depend on their cognitive structures and how they make sense of the environment. Managers need to understand any intended change in a way that makes sense or fits an interpretative schema or system of meaning (Bartunek 1984). Andrews (1980) compares the role of the owner-manager to an architect who is in charge of doing the synthesis. Senior managers have the role of analyzing, interpreting, and making sense of clues so as to formulate and implement strategies. Senior managers should act as catalysts to understand and create new interpretative frameworks that provide purpose and direction to the members of the organization (Westley 1990).Laying a Formal Foundation: Making the Implicit Explicit The fact that SMEs have inadequate organizational structures and managerial expertise is a real problem in a changing environment. SMEs do not have the same level of support to increase their competitiveness, and given the lack of managerial expertise, building an adequate structure is not a straightforward process, even though it is a central one. Formalizing routines and processes within firms to make them less dependent on a specific individual is key. This is an important concern because SMEs not only have a less highly developed structure, but their fate is closely linked to one or a few individuals who posses knowledge or resources that have not been made explicit to the rest of the firm.Nevertheless, in a changing environment managers need to be proactive and to rethink their approaches regarding the future activities of their firms. A mere replication of previous strategies may no longer be a valid option when firms are competing in the international arena. The future can be imagined and enacted and that companies must be capable of fundamentally reconciling themselves by regenerating their core competencies and reinventing their industry. The role of managers is not to plan for the future, but to manage the process of learning and to be open to the possibility that new strategies can emerge.II. Analyzing the Firm's ResourcesAn analytical examination of the resources of a firm may help to develop an understanding not only of possible short-run business strategies, but also of future diversifications (Montgomery and Wernerfelt, 1988), growth strategies (Penrose, 1959), and sustainability of long-term rents (Rumelt, 1984). SMEs can compete in the international arena, but they will face international competition from foreign SMEs as well as from multinational enterprises (MNEs). Focusing only on product-market strategies is not enough; instead, the long-term survival of a firm depends on the characteristics and endowment of its resources, which should be valuable and difficult to imitate (Mahoney and Pandian 1992; Grant 1991; Amit and Schoemaker 1993). To be able to compete, the manager-owners of SMEs must know the internal resources and capabilities of their companies. As Andrews (1980: 18-19) suggested, a firm should make its strategic plans "preferably in a way that focuses resources to convert distinctive competence into competitive advantage."Firms are a bundle of different kinds of resources and a set of commitments to certain technologies, human resources, processes, and know-how that manager-owners marshal. This issue is particularly important to the present study because it is not unusual that are controlled, managed, and run by one or a small group of individuals that have a deep, but tacit, knowledge of the firm. What is important is a clear identification—not just a vague idea—of the different resources on which a firm can depend.How to Reconfigure a Firm's Resources? Capabilities exist when two or more resources are combined to achieve a goal and they "emphasizes the key role of strategic management in appropriately adapting, integrating and reconfiguring the internal and external organization skills, resources, and functional competences to match the requirements of changing environment" (Teece et al. 1997: 515). It is important to note that the relative endowment of firms may not necessarily relate to their financial performance because "only the service that the resource can render and not the resources themselves provide inputs into the production process" (Penrose 1972: 25). It is the deployment of a combination of those services that are critical to the rent generation of the firm. Firms need to exploit the existing firm-specific capabilities and also develop new ones (Penrose 1959; Teece 1982; Wernerfelt 1984) to compete internationally and to grow. Over time, SMEs have seen the nature of their rents change; we should expect a shift from Ricardian to Schumpeterian rents. A company may not have better resources, but achieve rents because it makes better use of its resources (Penrose 1959). Rents depend not only on the structure of the resources, but also on the ability of firms to reconfigure and transform those resources. The above discussion leads to the formation of the following hypotheses:III. The Need of Expanding the Knowledge Bases of SMEsThe capacity to exploit a new set of opportunities depends partly on the strategic decisions made by managers. In some cases, these opportunities require at least a reconfiguration of the activities of the firm, but more often, they require the incorporation of new resources and, especially, the introduction of new processes.Firms are as systems of purposeful actions engaging in economic activities to achieve objectives, therefore, they must learn adapt and survive in a complex environment. Organizational learning is the process by which firms can cope with uncertainty and environmental complexity, and their efficiency depends on learning how the environment is changing and then adapting to those changes (March and Olsen, 1976).SMEs need to enhance their learning in two different aspects. First, internal knowledge should be coded and made available to selected members in the company. The manager-owner is knowledgeable about almost all aspects of the business (Mintzberg 1979), and his or her knowledge is personal in the sense that it is located in the mind and not always encoded or available to the rest of the firm. Routines should be created in order to secure the long-term existence of the firm because routines capture the experiential lessons and make that knowledge obtainable by the members of the organization that were not part of the history of the company (Levitt and March 1988).The second way SMEs need to enhance their learning is to make changes in their knowledge base. When socio-economic environments change, firms need to assess the change in order to reformulate how they react to new incentives. The first step is developing a capability to understand the new dynamics. When regulatory and competitive conditions change rapidly, persistence in the same routines can be hazardous because managers and employees use organizational memory or knowledge to make decisions and to formulate the present strategy of the firm.The effectiveness of decisions taken by an SME is greatly influenced by its knowledge base which, in turn, is the result of learning processes that are no longer applicable and may be misleading. Changes in the knowledge base are probably requisite for any firms competing in an industry with tradable products. Supporting infrastructure and routines may prove essential to increase the learning pace and to effectively integrate the new knowledge and reduce the inertia due to outdated knowledge.IV. How to Access and Secure Resources: NetworksSMEs, compared to larger firms, face major challenges in terms of securing and updating resources. Where internal resources are important to accounting for a firm's performance (Gnyawali and Madhavan, 2001), resources also can be secured within networks that may allow firms to be competitive locally and internationally. Increasingly, networking is seen as a primarily means of rising required resources. Resources, such as information, equipment, and personnel, can be exchanged in networks because of relationships between. Networks are important instruments to ease the constraints facing SMEs in terms of access to: a) capital markets to obtain long-term finance both locally and internationally, b) narrow and highly regulated labor markets, c) information and technologies, d) inefficient tax codes, and e) highly bureaucratic and expansive legal procedures. SMEs may be part of a network not only because it may find complementary resources, but also because owners and managers may have friendship ties with other owners and mangers. These non-economic reasons may be as important as economic ones.A Particular Kind of Network: Industry Clusters An extensive literature exists on the topic of industry clusters. Ricardo's "comparative advantages" can be considered as a pioneering concept of industrial clusters; and Marshall's exposition about externalities is based on industrial localization. Industrial clusters are characterized by having extensive interfirm exchanges and an advantageous environment to pursue business activities. Marshall (1961) argues that industry localization may be an important factor because a) it creates a market for workers with certain industry-specific skills, b) it promotes production and exchange of non-tradable specialized input, and c) firms may take advantage of informational spillovers. Krugman (1991) points out that given the existence of market imperfection, pecuniary externalities may also play an important role in determining the concentration of industry in a specific geographic location. Pouder and St. John (1996) argue that clustered firms have a greater legitimacy than firms outside a cluster. Clusters can provide a critical mass to counterbalance the political influence of large firms and to increase the pressure for investments that affect the productivity of the cluster. Furthermore, competition within clusters increases productivity and new firm development (Porter 1998).V. The Entrepreneurial AspectsIntangible internationalization requires facilitating learning by its employees in order to constantly transform the firm. Implementing mechanisms to expand the knowledge base and to diffuse information should allow SMEs to increase their capacity to develop new goods and services, and to compete in new markets. Key characteristics of this type of internationalization are common interests, trust and openness that allow employees to challenge assumptions. Intangible internationalization is a more difficult international expansion, but it provides sustainable competitive advantages. Consequently, SMEs would become competitive by reducing their costs, introducing new products and expanding their potential markets.It is not possible to engage in tangible internationalization without having a minimum level of intangible internationalization or being competitive without some degree of valuable, rare, in-imitable, non-substitutable resources (Barney 1991). SMEs should aim for both types of internalization in order to take advantage of physical presence in foreign markets and constantly provide the incentives to facilitate learning, new organizational capabilities and processes.Firms have different combinations of internationalization. In order to analyze how SMEs can take advantage of both tangible and intangible internationalization, the foundation of the potential competitive advantages need to be identified. Therefore, it is crucial to understand how firms deliver products that have value for customers, but also to understand what makes these firms different from the rest (Hall 1998). I argue that there are three major categories of differential that have a strong impact on the nature of internationalization of SMEs. The first is called firm differential, and includes a) organizational (team level), b) managerial (individual level), c) physical endowment and d) technological capabilities differentials. The second category is based on the home country characteristics and it is called country differential. The final category,market differential, takes into consideration the specific features of local markets and industries. These differentials deeply influence the role of owner-manager. There are three basic approaches that a SME can adopt while anticipating and responding to the needs of its customers. The first one is the approach of the Schumpeterian entrepreneur (Schumpeter, 1934), a leader who breaks away from routine and introduces either new goods/services or new production processes for existing goods/services. The second one is related to Porter's (1980) concept of cost leadership even though Porter studied larger firms from developed countries. The last style of owner-manager is the Kirznerian entrepreneur, who is a person alert to opportunities (see figure 1). This type of role implies that the owner-manager acts as a broker in order to take advantage of over-optimistic or over-pessimistic reactions of economic agents (Kirzner 1973); therefore, the owner-manager will act "in regard to the changes occurring in the data of the markets" (Mises 1949: 255).ConclusionIn the business literature, internationalization involvement usually results from one of two factors: a) the firm possesses some monopolistic advantage that it can use in another country, or b) the host country owns resources that are valuable to the foreign firm. While these reasons may be necessary and sufficient conditions for larger companies, is not necessarily the case for SMEs whom have no option but to internationalization.Those two factors do not necessarily apply to SMEs because they need to become international even if they do not compete in international markets. The average level of competitiveness of SMEs is below that of multinational enterprises. SMEs are faced with international competition whether they decide to internationalize or to remain "local." Even SMEs providing non-tradable goods face a "demand side" pressure to meet the characteristic of similar product sell in other countries. SMEs may not have the time required, according to this model, to meet world-class standards. ReferencesAmit, R. and Schoemaker, P. (1993). "Strategic assets and organizational rent". Strategic Management Journal,14(1):33-46. Andrews, K. (1980). The concept of corporate strategy. Homewood, Irwin. Barney, J. (1991). ¨Firm resources and sustained competitive advantage.¨ Journal of Management, 17(1): 99-120. Bartunek, J. (1984). "Changing interpretative schemes and organizational restructuring: the example of a religion order." Administrative Science Quarterly, 29(3):355-372. Child, J. (1972). "Organizational structure, environment and performance: the role of strategic choice". Sociology,6(1):1-22. Gnyawali, D. and Madhavan, R. (2001). "Cooperative networks and competitive dynamics: A structural embeddedness perspective." Academy of Management Review, 26(3):431-445. Grant, R. (1991). Contemporary Strategic Analysis: Concepts, Techniques, Application. Basil Blackwell, Cambridge, MA. Itami, H. and Roehl, T. (1987). "Mobilizing Invisible Assets". Harvard Business School Press. Kirzner, I. (1973). "Competition and entrepreneurship". University of Chicago Press, Krugman, P. (1991). "Increasing Returns and Economic Geography." The Journal of Political Economy, 99(3):483-499. Levitt, T. (1983). The globalization of markets. Harvard Business Review, 61(May-June): 92-102. Levitt, B. and March, J. (1988)."Organizational Learning." Annual Review of Sociology, (14):319-340. Mahoney, J. and Pandian, R. (1992). "The Resource-Based View Within the Conversation of Strategic Management." Strategic Management Journal, 13(5):363-380 . March, J. and Olsen, J.(1976). Ambiguity and choice in organizations. Bergen: Universitetsforlaget. Marshall, A., (1961 (1890)). Principles of Economics. London: Macmillan. Mintzberg, H. (1979). The structuring of organizations: a synthesis of the article. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. Mises, L. (1949). "Human action; a treatise on economics". Yale University Press. Montgomery, C. and Wernerfelt, B. (1988). "Diversification, Ricardian Rents, and Tobin's q". RAND Journal of Economics, 19(4):623-632. Penrose, E. (1959). The theory of the Growth of the Firm. John Wiley: New York. Penrose, E. (1972). The theory of the Growth of the Firm. Originally published in 1959, Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Porter, M. (1998). On Competition. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Porter, M. (1990). The competitive advantage of nations. Free Press: New York. Pouder, R. and St. John, C. (1996). "Hot Spots and Blind Spots: Geographical Clusters of Firms and Innovation."The Academy of Management Review, 21(4):1192-1225. Rumelt, R. (1991). "How much does Industry Matter?" Strategic Management Journal, 12(3):167-185. Schumpeter, J. (1934). The Theory of Economic Development. Harvard University Press. Teece, D. Pisano, G. and Shuen, A. (1997). "Dynamic Capabilities and Strategic Management." Strategic Management Journal, 18(7):509-533. Teece, D (1982). "Toward an economic theory of the multiproduct firm". Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 3:39-63. Veloso, P. (1991). "International Competitiveness and the creation of an enabling environment." International competitiveness, ed. By Irfan ul Haque, pp. 29-36. Washington, DC: Economic Development Institute of the World Bank. Weick, K. (1995). Sensemaking in organizations. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Wernerfelt, B. (1984). ¨A resource based view of the firm.¨ Strategic Management Journal, 5(2):171-180. Westley, F. 1990. "Middle Managers and Strategy: Microdynamics of Inclusion." Strategic Management Journal,11(5): 337-351. Yasuf, S. (2001). "Globalization and the Challenge for Developing Countries." Policy ArticleWorking Paper 2618, the World Bank Yip, G. (2003). Total Global Strategy II. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.Sobre el autorCoordinador Académico de Finanzas FACS, Universidad ORT Uruguay

Las principales estrategias de conservación en Patagonia Sur se han efectivizado utilizando criterios geo-políticos y técnicos, considerando a los bosques de Nothofagus pumilio como unidades homogéneas sin mayores diferencias a distintas escalas de paisaje o con sus ambientes asociados. Sin embargo, se desconoce el grado de homogeneidad real de los distintos ecosistemas a distintas escalas de paisaje, y denota la necesidad de comprender las interacciones entre el ensamble de especies (ej. plantas vasculares) con el medio físico, incluyendo al hombre como agente modificador. En esta tesis se busca analizar los factores (ambientales y antrópicos) que afectan la diversidad y el ensamble de las especies de plantas vasculares (nativas y exóticas) de Tierra del Fuego en los bosques productivos de Nothofagus pumilio y sus ambientes asociados (ej. pastizales, bosques de N. antarctica) a lo largo de gradientes latitudinales-longitudinales (cuatro zonas geográficas: sur, norte, oeste y este), utilizando un enfoque multi-escala que integró tres niveles espaciales: macro-escala (regional), meso-escala (paisaje), y micro-escala (rodal). Además, se evaluó la homogeneidad entre dichos ensambles a las distintas escalas, dentro y entre los ecosistemas usualmente presentes en los predios bajo manejo forestal. Se analizó la ineficacia de las actuales estrategias de conservación de Tierra del Fuego y se propuso una estrategia que propende un equilibrio entre la producción y la conservación de la naturaleza, ej. retención de elementos naturales y seminaturales de la vegetación que se pueden integrar en los sistemas de producción y conservación a múltiples escalas espaciales. Este trabajo utilizó datos provenientes de parcelas permanentes de la Red PEBANPA (>500 parcelas) realizadas en distintos ecosistemas terrestres. Los análisis estadísticos se hicieron mediante análisis de varianza, técnicas de agrupamiento y ordenación multivariada con base en la riqueza o abundancia de las especies. Los resultados indican que, a macro-escala, cuando se comparan los ensambles de plantas de diferentes tipos de bosques entre zonas geográficas, existen diferencias significativas entre el norte, el este y el sur para los bosques de N. pumilio y N. antarctica, y entre las zonas oeste y este para los bosques de N. betuloides; por lo tanto, la ubicación de las áreas protegidas en una sola zona no asegura la protección total de las especies de plantas vasculares de la isla. Por otro lado, aunque los diferentes ecosistemas comparten especies de plantas, los ensambles fueron significativamente diferentes entre sí en casi todas las zonas, donde la influencia del clima (ej. variación de la temperatura y precipitación) explica estas variaciones más allá de los impactos antrópicos (ej. uso ganadero). A meso-escala, estas diferencias se observan a nivel de gradientes ambientales (ej. exposición) y determinados impactos antrópicos (aprovechamientos forestales > uso ganadero); no solo la zona geográfica determina la diversidad y ensambles de plantas, sino también las propiedades intrínsecas de los ambientes forestales y ambientes abiertos asociados (bosque vs. pastizales). A micro-escala, los diferentes esquemas de aprovechamientos (ej. diferentes niveles y tipos de retención) ejercen cambios en el ensamble de especies de los bosques primarios, pero estos se manifiestan diferencialmente por las diversas estructuras y componentes del rodal cosechado a niveles detallados, encontrándose que los ensambles de plantas vasculares se mantuvieron más similares a los bosques primarios en la retención agregada (parches de bosque primario dentro de una matriz de producción) que en la dispersa (árboles padres dispersos en la matriz de producción) para los bosques cosechados de N. pumilio. Se concluye que es crucial para el concepto de sustentabilidad (conservación y producción) determinar la escala y el impacto que reciben las especies en su entorno natural, y aquellos debidos al impacto antrópico, pues la exclusión de ambientes para aprovechamiento forestal o ganadería u otros impactos no garantiza la conservación de todas las especies. Gracias al enfoque de análisis a diferentes escalas (ej. arriba hacia abajo, o sea de macro-escala a micro-escala) realizado este trabajo, se puede inferir que Tierra del Fuego es un lugar donde es potencialmente aplicable emplear propuestas productivas desde el punto de vista de la conservación a través de la integración del territorio, usando un enfoque de retención de ambientes a diferentes escalas para mejorar la preservación de la biodiversidad y la productividad en los diferentes ecosistemas. El enfoque de retención en cada ambiente se debe poner en marcha a escalas espaciales, ej. a escala de rodal por parte de propietarios de tierras privados o públicos, o a escalas mayores por parte del Estado a través de reservas a media escala o el diseño de una nueva red de áreas protegidas. ; The main conservation strategies in Southern Patagonia were based on geo-political and technical criteria, considering Nothofagus pumilio forests as homogeneous units without major differences at different landscape scales or within their associated environments. However, the degree of homogeneity of the different ecosystems at different landscape scales is unknown, and highlight the need of understanding of the interactions between the assemblages of species (e.g. vascular plants) and the physical environment, including human alterations. This thesis analyse the factors (related to environment and human) that influence over diversity and assemblage of vascular plant species (native and exotic) in timber forests of Nothofagus pumilio and their associated environments (e.g. grasslands, N. antarctica forests) of Tierra del Fuego. These analyses included latitudinal-longitudinal gradients (four geographic zones: south, north, west and east), and used a multi-scale approach that integrated three spatial levels: macro-scale (regional), meso-scale (landscape), and micro-scale (stand). In addition, the homogeneity between plant assemblages were evaluated at the different scales, within and among ecosystems presented in the landscape under different forest uses. The effectiveness of the current conservation strategies of Tierra del Fuego was analysed, and a new strategy was proposed leading to balance between timber production and conservation of nature, e.g. retention of natural and semi-natural elements of vegetation that can be integrated into production and conservation systems at multiple spatial scales. This work used data from permanent plots of the PEBANPA Network (>500 plots) surveyed along different terrestrial ecosystems. The statistical analyses were made using analysis of variance, grouping techniques and multivariate management based on the richness or cover of the understory species. The main results indicated that: (i) At a macro-scale, when comparing the assemblages of plants of different forest types between geographical zones, there are significant differences between the north, the east and the south for the forests of N. pumilio and N. antarctica, and between the west and east zones for the N. betuloides forests. Therefore, the location of the protected areas in a single area does not ensure the total protection of the vascular plant species of the island. On the other hand, although the different ecosystems share plant species, the assemblages were significantly different from each other in almost all areas, where the influence of climate (e.g. variation of temperature and precipitation) explained these variations beyond human impacts. (e.g. cattle grazing). (ii) At a meso-scale, differences observed among environmental gradients (e.g. aspect) and human impacts (harvesting > cattle grazing) were found. (iii) At a ranch scale, not only the geographical area determines the diversity and plant assemblages, also the intrinsic properties of the forest environments and associated open environments (forest vs. open-lands). And (iv), at micro-scale, different harvesting schemes (e.g. different levels and types of retention) generated differential changes in the assemblage of the original species. The different retention schemes influenced over the conservation of the understory plants, where vascular plant assemblages remained more similar to primary forests in aggregate retention (patches of primary forest within a production matrix) than in dispersed ones (parent trees dispersed in the harvesting matrix). It was concluded that it is crucial for the concept of sustainability (conservation and production) to determine the scale and impact over the plant diversity of natural phenomena (e.g. natural dynamics) and differentiate those impacts related to human activities, due to the exclusion of environments for forestry or cattle use does not guarantee the conservation of all species. The analysis approach at different scales (e.g. top-down, from macro-scale to micro-scale) conducted in this thesis, allowed to propose that Tierra del Fuego can be adequate to be managed through the integration of the territory, using an approach of retention of environments to different scales to improve the preservation of the biodiversity and the productivity in the different ecosystems. The retention approach in each environment must be implemented at spatial scales, e.g. at the stand scale by private or public landowners, or at larger scales by the government through medium-scale reserves or the design of a new network of protected areas. ; Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias y Forestales

El Estado colombiano debe generar estrategias que le permitan prestar un servicio de salud de manera oportuna, eficaz y con calidad, en las regiones más apartadas del territorio, donde el acceso a este derecho es limitado. Pensando en este gran reto se propone un plan de negocios que tiene como misión implementar un sistema de asistencia sanitaria a través de un "Buque Hospital", aportando herramientas al Estado Colombiano para el cumplimiento de su deber constitucional establecido en el Artículo 49 de la Constitución Política de Colombia de1991 "La atención de la salud y el saneamiento ambiental son servicios públicos a cargo del Estado. Se garantiza a todas las personas el acceso a los servicios de promoción, protección y recuperación de la salud" y a lo establecido en la Ley Estatutaria 1751 de 2015 donde obliga al Estado a garantizar y proteger el debido cumplimiento del derecho a la salud de los colombianos, mediante la adopción de decisiones que no conlleven al deterioro de la salud de la población y de acciones que resulten un daño en la salud de los pacientes. Esta propuesta pretende a través de programas de prevención y promoción lograr apoyar la gestión del Estado Colombiano para mejorar la calidad de vida de las comunidades más alejadas que carecen de un servicio de salud adecuado, y pretende focalizarse inicialmente en las poblaciones costeras del departamento del Chocó como mercado objetivo; lo anterior teniendo en cuenta la crisis social que actualmente padece este departamento, así como sus condiciones geográficas y de infraestructura que limitan a nivel marítimo y fluvial el acceso a la mayoría de sus poblaciones. De igual forma, como lo destacan diferentes medios de comunicación (Revista Semana - 2016), el Chocó es uno de los departamentos con mayor cantidad de personas con necesidades básicas insatisfechas reflejadas en los altos índices de pobreza, sobre todo por el precario sistema de salud con el que cuenta. Ante esto, se requiere de manera urgente la intervención del Estado a través de un plan de choque, apoyado por todas instituciones del sector público y privado, pero además gestado desde el nivel central, para evadir los problemas de corrupción que abundan en esta región del país, buscando aliviar y solucionar en parte una de sus más grades falencias sociales: La salud. Se propone que este proyecto sea liderado y direccionado por la Armada Nacional de Colombia (ARC), institución que asumiría la responsabilidad de su puesta en marcha y ejecución, a través de un Buque Hospital diseñado con características especiales para llegar a estas zonas de difícil acceso y con capacidad de prestar atención medica hospitalaria hasta el Nivel II. Aunado a lo anterior, también se propone como parte del proceso de gestión para su financiamiento buscar el apoyo de los sectores públicos y privados, a fin de garantizar la sostenibilidad en el tiempo. En síntesis, este proyecto pretende desarrollar una propuesta de negocios que implemente un sistema de asistencia sanitaria a través de un Buque Hospital, que mediante un adecuado planeamiento tendrá la capacidad de atender de manera periódica y rotativa las poblaciones más necesitadas de este servicio en el departamento del Choco, contribuyendo a la satisfacción del derecho fundamental de la salud, en zonas actualmente inaccesibles. Ante este panorama, resultaría interesante apostarle a su viabilidad, la cual sin duda va a requerir una inversión significativa para su proceso de implementación, pero con el compromiso de aliados y la gestión de diferentes entidades, será fácil llevarlo adelante, para que a través de la prestación de un servicio de alta calidad ayude a evitar o disminuir la pérdida de vidas humanas por la carencia de un servicio de atención en salud.Para la elaboración del presente plan de negocios se utiliza la metodología propuesta por SCORE, que es una asociación sin ánimo de lucro, dedicada a ayudar a las pequeñas empresas a despegar, crecer y alcanzar sus objetivos a través de la educación y la tutoría. Tiene una red de 10.000 voluntarios que asesoran la administración de pequeños negocios en los Estados Unidos, y ha ayudado a más de 10 millones de empresarios, a través de sus mentores, talleres y recursos educativos desde el año de 1964. Esta metodología consiste en el diligenciamiento de plantillas que van direccionando paso a paso los aspectos que se deben tener en cuenta para el desarrollo del plan de negocios. ; The Colombian State must generate strategies that allow it to provide a health service in a timely, efficient and quality way, in the most remote regions of the territory, where Access is limited. Thinking about this great challenge proposes a business plan that has as a mission to implement a health care system through a "Hospital ship", Providing tools to the Colombian State for the fulfillment of its constitutional duty established in article 49 of the Political Constitution of Colombia of 1991 "health care and environmental sanitation are public services in charge of the state. All people are guaranteed access to health promotion, protection and recovery services "and to the provisions of statutory law 1751 of 2015 where it obliges the state to guarantee and protect the proper fulfillment of the right to the health of the Colombian people, by means of the adoption of decisions that do not lead to the deterioration of the health of the population and of actions that result a harm in the health of the patients. This proposal aims through prevention and promotion programs to support the management of the Colombian State to improve the quality of life of the remote communities that lack an adequate health service, and aims initially to focus on the Coastal populations of the Chocó department as the primary market; This is taking into account the social crisis currently suffered by this department, as well as its geographical and infrastructural conditions that limit the access to the majority of its populations to the maritime and fluvial level. Similarly, as highlighted by different media (Revista Semana-2016), Chocó is one of the departments with the largest number of people with unsatisfied basic needs reflected in the high rates of poverty, Especially because of the precarious health system that counts. In this way, the intervention of the State is urgently required through a plan of shock, supported by all public and private sector institutions, but also gestated from the central level, to avoid the problems of corruption that abound in this region of the Country, seeking to alleviate and partly solve one of its most social flaws: health. It is proposed that this project be led and directed by the National Navy of Colombia (ARC), institution that would assume responsibility for its start-up and execution, through a Hospital ship designed with special characteristics to reach these Difficult-to-access areas with the ability to provide hospital medical care up to level II. In addition to the above, it is also proposed as part of the management process for its financing to seek the support of the sectors Public and private, in order to ensure sustainability over time. In short, this project aims to develop a business proposal that implements a system of health care through a Hospital ship, which through adequate planning will have the capacity to serve periodically and rotary Populations most in need of this service in the Department of Choco, contributing to the satisfaction of the fundamental right of the health In areas currently inaccessible. In view of this panorama, it would be interesting to bet on its viability, which will no doubt require a significant investment for its implementation process, but with the commitment of allies and the management of different entities, it will be easy to carry it forward, So that through the provision of a high quality service it helps to avoid or reduce the loss of human life due to the lack of a health care service. For the elaboration of this business plan we use the methodology proposed by SCORE, which is a non-profit association, dedicated to helping small businesses to take off, grow and achieve their goals through education and mentoring. It has a network of 10,000 volunteers advising Small Business Administration in the United States, and has helped more than 10 Millions of entrepreneurs, through their mentors, workshops and educational resources since the year of 1964. This methodology consists in the diligence of templates that are directing step by step the aspects that must be taken into account for the development of the business plan.

Dentro de los usos que se puede ofrecer a los lodos EDAR, debido a que contienen una cantidad elevada de materia orgánica y un más que aceptable contenido en elementos nutricionales, es su consideración (siempre que no hayan elementos en contra que introduzcan toxicidad) como enmiendas orgánicas o incluso, como fertilizantes orgánicos, susceptibles de ser reciclados en los suelos y conseguir para los mismos una mejora en productividad, fertilidad, y por tanto un su calidad. Precisamente, en zonas como la Región de Murcia donde existen una continua degradación de suelos que les lleva a perder materia orgánica, así como productividad desde un punto de vista agronómico, la posibilidad de disponer de fuentes exógenas de materia orgánica como los lodos EDAR, que puedan ser recicladas en los suelos, es algo muy a tener presente. Por tanto, una posible solución mejorar la calidad de suelos agrícolas sería entonces emplear como fuente de materia orgánica para ellos aquella contenida en los lodos EDAR, consiguiendo de este modo, por una parte, mejorar la fertilidad de dichos suelos, y por otra, eliminar racionalmente los residuos mediante su reciclado en dichos suelos (conversión de un Residuo en un Recurso). En este contexto, esta Tesis Doctoral se propuso como Objetivo principal generar conocimiento sobre una gran cantidad de lodos producidos en nuestra Comunidad Autónoma, con ánimo de comprobar sus posibilidades para reciclarlos en suelo desde un punto de vista agronómico, e incluso ambiental. Este estudio valora parámetros de índole agronómico que pueden justificar la consideración de los lodos como "enmiendas orgánicas" o incluso "fertilizantes orgánicos", ya que la finalidad de este estudio es conocer la posibilidad de reciclar lodos en los suelos agrícolas de la Región de Murcia. Para alcanzar este Objetivo General, la Tesis Doctoral ha llevado a cabo una parte experimental consistente en una amplia serie de analíticas, realizadas sobre lodos EDAR producidos en un conjunto de depuradoras de tratamiento de aguas urbanas situadas en la Comunidad Autónoma de Murcia (30 en total), cerca del 90 % del total de lodos que se producen en nuestra Región. La mencionada parte experimental ha consistido en los correspondientes muestreos (tres al año, para poder comprobar la posible variabilidad estacional de los lodos), así como la determinación en todas las muestras de un set de parámetros al objeto de monitorizar su comportamiento cara a poder reciclar lodos EDAR en los suelos desde una perspectiva agronómica. Se han estudiado parámetros de tipo físico (contenido en humedad), parámetros físico-químicos (pH y CE), nutricionales (macro y micronutrientes), y otros de índole ambiental (metales pesados, contaminantes orgánicos como bifenilos, LAS, nonifenoles y, PAH,s). También se ha llevado a cabo un estudio sobre parámetros indicativos de la actividad y la biomasa microbiana de los lodos, tanto de índole "general", tales como la respiración de suelo, el contenido de adenosín trifosfato (ATP) y de carbono de la biomasa microbiana, como de índole "especifico" entre los que citaremos a diversas actividades enzimáticas (oxidorreductasas como la actividad deshidrogenasa, como hidrolasas: ureasas, fosfatasas y b-glucosidasas). Asimismo, se han determinado parámetros referidos a su problemática microbiológica ligada a microorganismos patógenos contenidos en los lodos estudiados. Esta fase del estudio se consideró de interés debido a la importancia que el grado de higienización de los lodos puede tener en un futuro. Por último, se estudió la ecotoxicidad de los residuos, empleando un bioensayo de luminiscencia con la bacteria Photobacterium phosphoreum. La evaluación de la fitotoxicidad de los lodos mediante ensayos de germinación (test de plantas) de dos especies vegetales de diferente grado de sensibilidad a los efectos de la contaminación: cebada (Hordeum vulgare L.) y berro (Lepidium sativum L.) se ha considerado adecuada en este estudio. Todas las muestras, tomadas en las condiciones adecuadas de muestreo, se muestrearon por triplicado para poder someter las mismas a tratamiento estadístico. La CONCLUSION GENERAL a este estudio, es que la mayor parte de los lodos EDAR estudiados por nosotros pueden ser usados como una fuente de materia orgánica apropiada para ser adicionada a suelos con ánimo de conseguir mejorar en los mismos su productividad y fertilidad. Sin embargo, la salinidad que pueden aportar, así como elementos tóxicos tales como metales pesados puede suponer también una traba, y por ello interesa que contengan una cantidad mínima de los mismos. Se recuerda en este punto, que para el uso agrícola de lodos se sigue la legislación marcada en el Real Decreto 1310/1990, en donde se señalan las cantidades máximas de metal pesado que pueden contener los lodos para poder ser usados en agricultura. Por supuesto, otros aspectos como los contenidos en microorganismos patogénicos, o incluso compuestos carbonados difícilmente volatilizables deben ser considerados más que por la problemática inmediata, por su potencialidad en el futuro. Se concluye pues que hay que conocer mediante una exhaustiva analítica, el material que será reciclado en un suelo (en este caso, los lodos), para así comprobar que está exento de riesgos. Hemos asimismo de señalar que no se detectan efectos negativos en algunos parámetros de calidad, como los relacionados con actividad microbiana. Sin embargo, hemos de tener presente que se ponen de manifiesto efectos positivos derivados de la carga orgánica de los lodos (biota), y otros negativos derivados de su posible contaminación; si los positivos superan a los negativos, éstos últimos no se manifiestan, pero no indica que no estén presentes. Algo también a tener presente es el antagonismo o sinergismo que puede darse entre diversos metales o contaminantes, los cuales pueden marcar una pauta de comportamiento. Todo esto confirma la necesidad de conocer de la manera más adecuada posible, la calidad de la enmienda o fertilizante orgánico que se puede usar. El tratamiento al que se someten los lodos en la planta de tratamiento tiene incidencia sobre algunos de los parámetros estudiados en este Memoria; pero la calidad de las aguas entrantes, o incluso la zona donde se sitúan las depuradoras (zona con intervenciones metálicas, por ejemplo), es más incidente en muchos de los casos, que el propio tratamiento. De manera complementaria y al igual que ocurre con el Programa de Caracterización de Lodos de Depuradoras Generados en España publicado por el Ministerio de Medio Ambiente en 2009 y el Plan Nacional de Lodos de Depuradora integrado dentro del Plan Nacional Integrado de Residuos 2008-2015, con esta Memoria se ha pretendido mejorar el conocimiento sobre la composición de los lodos de las depuradoras de aguas residuales en la Comunidad Autónoma de la Región de Murcia y por ende del Estado Español (metales pesados, parámetros agronómicos, patógenos y contaminantes orgánicos), con la finalidad última de utilizar los conocimientos derivados de esta Tesis para la revisión del Plan Nacional de Lodos de Depuradora integrado dentro del Plan Nacional Integrado de Residuos 2008-2015.SUMMARY Due to the significant quantities of organic matter and nutritional elements that WWTP sludges contain, the most important potential application of this waste is as an organic amendment or even as an organic fertilizer (provided it does not contain toxic elements as well). Such sludges can be recycled in the soil and thus improve the productivity, fertility and, ultimately, the quality of the soil. In areas like the Region of Murcia where soil degradation is incessant, resulting in lost organic matter and lost agricultural productivity, the possibility of obtaining exogenous sources of organic matter like WWTP sludges that can be recycled in the soil is particularly attractive. Using WWTP sludges as a source of organic matter is therefore one possible solution for improving the quality of agricultural soils. This would not only improve soil fertility, but also provide a means to rationally eliminate waste by recycling it in degraded soils (thus converting Waste into a Resource). Nevertheless, this recycling process should be able to be carried out without posing a risk to the soil on account of the excessive toxic elements that sludges sometimes contain. When the toxic elements in sludges reach levels that constitute a risk to the soils where they are to be recycled, their use as an amendment should be prohibited. The main goal of this Doctoral Thesis was to generate knowledge about a significant number of the sludges produced in our Region in order to assess their potential for being recycled in the soil from an agricultural as well as environmental point of view. Given this ultimate purpose – to determine the possibility of recycling sludges in agricultural soils in the Region of Murcia – agronomic parameters were evaluated that could be used to justify the use of sludges as "organic amendments" or even as "organic fertilizers". The treatment processes the sludges were submitted to (mainly anaerobic or prolonged aerobic) were also considered as variables in some of the parameters studied. To achieve this Overall Goal, this Doctoral Thesis includes an experimental component in which a wide range of analyses were performed on WWTP sludges produced in a group of urban wastewater treatment plants located in the Region of Murcia (a total of 30). These treatment plants generate about 90% of the total sludge produced in the Region. The experimental component of the Thesis involved collecting samples at three different times of the year (in order to evaluate for possible seasonal variability among the sludges) and determining a set of parameters in all samples in order to monitor their behaviour and thus assess the possibility of recycling WWTP sludges in agricultural soils. The following parameters were studied: physical parameters (moisture content); physical-chemical parameters (pH and EC); nutritional parameters (macro and micronutrients); and other parameters of an environmental nature (heavy metals, organic pollutants such as polychlorinated biphenyls, LAS, nonylphenols and PAHs). A study was also conducted on parameters indicative of the microbial activity and biomass of the different sludges, both of a "general" nature, such as soil respiration and the Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) and carbon content of the microbial biomass, and of a "specific" nature, including various enzymatic activities (of oxidoreductases, such as dehydrogenases; and of hydrolases, such as ureases, phosphatases and -glucosidases). Furthermore, parameters were determined for microbiological problems linked to the pathogens contained in the sludges studied. This phase of the study was deemed of interest given the potential importance that the degree to which sludges are sanitised may have in the future. Finally, the ecotoxicity of the wastes was studied by means of a bioassay using the luminescent bacteria Photobacterium phosphoreum. For the purposes of this study, it was considered adequate to assess the phytotoxicity of the sludges by means of germination assays (a test using plant seeds) of two plant species displaying different degrees of sensitivity to the effects of sludge phytotoxicity, as are barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) and cress (Lepidium sativum L.). All samples, taken in appropriate sampling conditions, were collected in triplicate so they could be submitted to statistical treatment. The GENERAL CONCLUSION of this Thesis is that most of the WWTP sludges studied can be used as a suitable source of organic matter for amending soils with the goal of improving soil productivity and fertility. However, sludges can also pose a threat to the soil by adding salinity and toxic elements such as heavy metals. It is thus important that sludges contain minimum amounts of these substances. It is worth recalling that the agricultural use of sludges is currently regulated by legislation in Spain, by the Royal Decree 1310/1990, which indicates the maximum amounts of heavy metal that sludges can contain for agricultural use. In determining this quality, it is also of course important to take other aspects into consideration such as pathogenic microorganism content and even the amount of minimally volatile carbon compounds, and not just for the immediate problems they pose, but also due to their potential to cause problems in the future. It is therefore essential to perform comprehensive analyses of materials that are to be recycled in soils (in this case, sludges) to ensure they are free of risk. It is of note that no adverse effects were detected in some of the quality parameters studied, such as those linked to microbial activity. However, we must keep in mind that the organic content of sludges (biota) demonstrates positive effects but that it can also have negative effects resulting from possible contamination. If the positives outweigh the negatives, the latter do not show up, but this does not mean they are not present. Another thing to consider is the antagonism or synergism that can occur between different metals or contaminants, both of which can set a behavioural pattern. All of these concerns accentuate the need to understand to the greatest extent possible the quality of the amendments or organic fertilizers that are to be used in the soil. The treatment processes sludges went through in the treatment plant influenced some of the parameters studied in this Thesis. Nevertheless, the quality of incoming water or even the location of the treatment plants (areas with metal operations, for example) had an even greater impact in many cases than the treatment process itself. The goal of this Thesis was to improve knowledge about the composition of the sludges produced in wastewater treatment plants in the Autonomous Community of the Region of Murcia and, ultimately, in Spain as a whole (heavy metals, agronomic parameters, pathogens and organic contaminants). This objective complements the Programa de Caracterización de Lodos de Depuradoras Generados en España published by the Ministry of Environment in 2009 and the Plan Nacional de Lodos de Depuradora , which is part of the Plan Nacional Integrado de Residuos 2008-2015 . The ultimate aim of this Thesis is to apply the knowledge acquired to revising the Plan Nacional de Lodos de Depuradora (part of the Plan Nacional Integrado de Residuos 2008-2015).

Tesis por compendio de publicaciones ; [ES] El Control Predictivo basado en Modelos (MPC) es un caso particular de estrategia de control automático de procesos que abarca un conjunto de procedimientos cuyo denominador común es la utilización de un modelo de predicciones para determinar una ley de control óptima. El tipo de modelo elegido, los criterios de optimización y el procedimiento de deducción de la ley de control caracterizan cada una de las múltiples alternativas de MPC que existen. El control predictivo es una consolidada y, al mismo tiempo, prometedora estrategia de control con múltiples aplicaciones en el ámbito industrial y con numerosas líneas de investigación abiertas. Una de las modalidades de este tipo de control es el denominado Control Predictivo basado en Modelos Borrosos (FMBPC), que utiliza modelos cualitativos basados en reglas, globalmente no lineales, para representar el proceso a controlar. El control FMBPC está enmarcado en el subcampo del Control Predictivo No Lineal (NLMPC/NMPC) y al mismo tiempo pertenece también, parcialmente al menos, al campo del Control Inteligente (IC), debido a que utiliza una de las herramientas características de la inteligencia artificial, como es la lógica borrosa. En la Tesis Doctoral que aquí se presenta se considera una estrategia FMBPC cuyo modelo base es un modelo borroso, o Fuzzy Model (FM) en la literatura en inglés, de tipo Takagi-Sugeno (TS), obtenido mediante identificación a partir de series de datos numéricos de entrada-salida (que pueden ser datos estrictamente experimentales o adaptaciones de estos, generados en simulación). Esta característica dota a nuestra estrategia FMBPC de una interesante cualidad que aporta valor añadido dentro del campo del control NMPC, consistente en la útil información cualitativa implícita en el modelo borroso, consecuencia de la capacidad que tiene la identificación borrosa de capturar fielmente la dinámica de un sistema a partir de datos numéricos. Esta propiedad repercute directamente de forma positiva en la validez de las predicciones y supone, en última instancia, un incremento significativo del rendimiento o desempeño del algoritmo de control predictivo, en el caso de tratar con sistemas fuertemente no lineales, complejos o desconocidos. Esta es la razón por la que en esta tesis se propone la estrategia FMBPC como la idónea para abordar el control de un cierto tipo de procesos conocidos como Procesos de Fangos Activados (ASP), muy habituales como mecanismo de depuración biológica en Estaciones Depuradoras de Aguas Residuales (EDAR) (también conocidas en la literatura en inglés como Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTP)). El interés de la propuesta es doble: por un lado, contribuir a ampliar las líneas de investigación en el campo del control predictivo no lineal y por otro, aportar una estrategia y una metodología que puedan ser útiles en la mejora de los procesos de depuración de aguas, cuya importancia en la salud pública y en el cuidado del medio ambiente es creciente, cono así se refleja en las legislaciones medioambientales, cada vez más exigentes. Una parte importante del esfuerzo investigador desarrollado en la presente tesis ha sido enfocado a la aplicación de la estrategia FMBPC propuesta al paradigmático caso de estudio elegido (procesos biológicos ASP en plantas depuradoras de aguas residuales). Dadas las características de estos procesos, principalmente su alta no linealidad, su complejidad intrínseca y su carácter multivariable, derivadas de su naturaleza biológica, las investigaciones realizadas pueden trascender más allá del mero ámbito del propio proceso. La implementación practica se ha llevado a cabo mediante simulación y ello ha supuesto un importante reto, principalmente en dos aspectos: por un lado, el desarrollo del software necesario y por otro, la implementación de los cálculos matemáticos apropiados. La investigación realizada puede descomponerse, de una manera esquemática, en las siguientes cuatro fases o etapas: a) identificación borrosa del proceso ASP a partir de datos numéricos de entrada-salida y conversión del modelo borroso obtenido en un modelo equivalente en el espacio de estados, discreto, lineal y variante en el tiempo (DLTV); b) determinación de una ley de control predictivo de tipo FMBPC, analítica y explícita, siguiendo los principios del denominado Control Predictivo Funcional (PFC); c) análisis de estabilidad local en lazo cerrado de la estrategia FMBPC propuesta; d) integración de esta estrategia dentro de la configuración de control predictivo conocida como Paradigma de Lazo Cerrado (CLP), también llamada control predictivo en lazo cerrado, con el objetivo de imponer restricciones de manera automática en la acción de control. Los resultados obtenidos son satisfactorios, principalmente en lo que se refiere a la demostración de la utilidad de la estrategia FMBPC propuesta como una alternativa válida en el campo del control predictivo no lineal, para sistemas complejos o desconocidos, con dos ventajas destacables en relación con otras estrategias, a saber: por un lado, la útil información contenida en el modelo base de las predicciones, capturada durante el proceso de identificación borrosa previo a la aplicación de la estrategia y, por otro, la forma analítica y explicita de la ley de control deducida, que facilita tanto la implementación del algoritmo de control como las tareas de análisis (entre ellas, las de análisis estabilidad). [EN] Model Predictive Control (MPC) is a particular case of automatic process control strategy that encompasses a set of procedures whose common denominator is the use of a prediction model to determine an optimal control law. The type of model chosen, the optimization criteria and the control law deduction procedure characterize each one of the multiple MPC alternatives that exist. Predictive control is a consolidated and, at the same time, promises a control strategy with multiple applications in the industrial field and with many open lines of research. One of the modalities of this type of control is the so-called Fuzzy Model-Based Predictive Control (FMBPC), which uses qualitative models based on rules, globally non-linear, to represent the process to be controlled. The FMBPC control is framed in the subfield of Non-Linear Predictive Control (NLMPC/NMPC) and at the same time it also belongs, partially at least, to the field of Intelligent Control (IC), because it uses one of the characteristic tools of intelligence artificial, as is fuzzy logic. In the Doctoral Thesis presented here, a FMBPC strategy is considered whose base model is a fuzzy model, or Fuzzy Model (FM) in the English literature, of the Takagi-Sugeno (TS) type, obtained through identification from series of input-output numerical data (which can be strictly experimental data or adaptations of these, generated in simulation). This feature provides our FMBPC strategy with an interesting quality that provides added value within the field of NMPC control, consisting of the useful qualitative information indicated in the fuzzy model, a consequence of the fuzzy identification's ability to faithfully capture the dynamics of a system from numerical data. This property has a direct positive impact on the validity of the predictions and, ultimately, a significant increase in the performance of the predictive control algorithm, in the case of dealing with expensive non-linear, complex or unknown systems. This is the reason why in this thesis the FMBPC strategy is proposed as the ideal one to address the control of a certain type of processes known as Activated Sludge Processes (ASP), very common as a biological purification mechanism in Water Treatment Plants. Waste (WWTP) (also known in English literature as Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTP)). The interest of the proposal is twofold: on the one hand, to contribute to expanding the lines of research in the field of nonlinear predictive control and, on the other, to provide a strategy and methodology that can be useful in improving the debugging processes of waters, whose importance in public health and in caring for the environment is growing, as reflected in the increasingly demanding environmental legislation. An important part of the research effort developed in this thesis has been focused on the application of the FMBPC strategy to the chosen paradigmatic case study (ASP biological processes in wastewater treatment plants). Given the characteristics of these processes, mainly their high non-linearity, their intrinsic complexity and their multivariable character, derived from their biological nature, the investigations carried out can transcend beyond the mere scope of the process itself. The practical implementation has been carried out through simulation and this has been an important challenge, mainly in two aspects: on the one hand, the development of the necessary software and, on the other, the implementation of the appropriate mathematical calculations. The research carried out can be broken down, schematically, into the following four phases or stages: a) fuzzy identification of the ASP process from numerical input-output data and conversion of the fuzzy model obtained into an equivalent model in the space of states , discrete, linear and variant in time (DLTV); b) determine a predictive control law of the FMBPC type, analytical and clean, following the principles of the so-called Predictive Functional Control (PFC); c) closed-loop local stability analysis of the proposed FMBPC strategy; d) integration of this strategy within the predictive control configuration known as Closed Loop Paradigm (CLP), also called closed loop predictive control, with the aim of automatically imposing restrictions on the control action. The results obtained are satisfactory, mainly in what refers to the demonstration of the utility of the FMBPC strategy as a valid alternative in the field of nonlinear predictive control, for complex or unknown systems, with two advantages

There is consensus in the international community that water and sanitation are basic human rights, prerequisites for the enjoyment of the remaining rights. For this reason, international human rights law imposes on States obligations of protection, promotion and guarantee, also applicable to the defense of human rights to water and sanitation. However, the current reality is worrying, while in the Americas, high rates of disease have been documented, along with the incorporation of mining projects in protected reserve ecosystems, which transform habitat and negatively affect resources hydric. This, without delving into the people who die due to the absence of drinking water and sanitation. At the same time, the panorama is more complex when the study is carried out from an ethnic perspective, since Afro-descendant, indigenous and tribal people suffer afflictions of this type in the region in a marked way and they are especially vulnerable due to the different way in which inhabit and appropriate their territory. In general, their ancestral rituals, among other cultural values, have been affected extractive economy that is woven throughout the region. This aspects have a notable influence on the eradication of the poverty and of certain diseases, especially when Afro-descendant, indigenous and tribal people occupy an important and representative place, among people living in poverty and extreme poverty. This is an approximate panorama, it being necessary to contextualize this reference in relation to the American continent, to finally understand the pending challenges. To explain the above, a socio-legal study will be presented, based on the documentary method, but with an ethnic focus. This will be supported, among other things, in reports emanating from the universal and inter-American system for the protection of human rights, in order to understand the needs and requirements in this matter, resorting to the special rapporteurs at the United Nations Organization - UN, among them, the Special Rapporteur on the Human Rights to Safe Drinking Water and Sanitation; Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples; and the Office of the Rapporteur for the Rights of People of African Descent and against Racial Discrimination, this within the framework of the Organization of American States - OAS. Reports that are essential for the study, while reaffirming, on the one hand, the importance of safe and universal access to water for all, and on the other, the implications of affirmative actions, based on the principle of equality and non-discrimination, in parallel, in vulnerable populations. In this regard, this document studies the commitments related to human rights in the international field, in light of the standards within the framework of the universal and regional human rights system, using the international corpus iuris issued by the UN and OAS, on the right to water and sanitation. The main objective of the article is not only to make visible the challenges in the Americas for ethnic groups from the international standards of protection of human rights, in relation to water and sanitation as basic rights, but also, from an ethnic/ancestral differential approach to claim the particularities demanded by indigenous, Afro-descendant and tribal populations, as traditionally excluded and stigmatized groups. The ethnic focus is important since ethnicity as a category of analysis allows identifying distinctive features referring not only to African heritage, but also to a culture of its own with particular needs, such as the recognition of ethnic/ancestral territories and their linguistic-cultural identity. Specifically, the text studies the various conceptual and legal responses related to the problem of water and sanitation in the American continent, including international and social approaches, from different points of view, that is, the guidelines of organs, organizations, and agencies international, together with the perspective of social movements. Regarding the human right to water, the article proposes that it should be treated as a social and cultural good, and not fundamentally as an economic good. As an essential element, the human right to water is approached from four perspectives as follows: (1) availability, (2) quality, and (3) accessibility, all of them aligned to (4) the principle of equality and non-discrimination, which for the study, will be addressed independently, but interconnected to the previous ones. Regarding the human right to sanitation, it is approached from the understanding that services must be available and innocuous, acceptable, accessible and affordable. In this regard, having potable water and sanitation under equitable conditions as an essential component of the enjoyment of all human rights clearly constitutes a responsibility for all States in the region. However, in a continent like the American, characterized by having considerably large cities and very large population, with expansion and development projects that do not limit extractive industries, the situation worsens for the inhabitants of rural areas, who are usually among the poorest. Based on the above, the article is developed in five parts as follows: in the first, a contextualization of the population under study is developed. On the other hand, in a second moment the problem under study is explained, assuming as a central thesis the precariousness of the right to water and sanitation from an ethnic perspective, that is, in indigenous, Afro-descendant and tribal populations, in the panorama of Latin America and the Caribbean, despite its international recognition as a human right. In the third part, a conceptually comprehensive study is made on the human right to water and sanitation, concluding that, although they are related rights, they are independent and with their own foundations. Regarding the fourth part, it explains the international standards to understand the responsibility of the States in the Americas. Finally, the fifth part describes the findings and pending challenges in the region. In detail, the close relationship between extractivism, Afro-descendant, Indigenous and Tribal Populations in the region stands out as a conclusion placing some peoples, even in danger of extinction. This a situation that is concentrated, to a greater extent, in the rural context, rather than the urban. This makes it possible to identify, at the same time, a population nucleus more than others, where the right to drinking water and sanitation obviously does not enjoy universality. Another important and significant finding is the lack of free, prior and informed consent to the indigenous and tribal peoples in the respective governments in the region, prior to the beginning extractive projects on their ancestral land or using resources within the Afro-descendant, indigenous or tribal population's territory. On the other hand, although the situation of the States in the Americas is very heterogeneous, it is necessary that government policies at the regional level also dialogue with civil society, since these are crucial to reduce environmental degradation and pollution. ; Existe consenso en la comunidad internacional en relación a que el agua y el saneamiento son derechos humanos esenciales, prerrequisitos para el goce de los restantes derechos. Por ello, el derecho internacional de los derechos humanos impone a los estados obligaciones de protección, promoción, respeto y garantía, aplicables también a la defensa de los derechos humanos al agua y el saneamiento. Sin embargo, la realidad actual es preocupante, en tanto que, en las Américas, se han documentado índices elevados de enfermedades, junto con la incorporación de proyectos de extracción minera en ecosistemas de reserva protegida, que transforman el hábitat e inciden negativamente en los recursos hídricos. Esto, sin profundizar en las personas que fallecen por la ausencia de agua potable y saneamiento. A la par, el panorama es más complejo cuando el estudio se hace desde una perspectiva étnica, en tanto que, personas afrodescendientes, indígenas y tribales, padecen de manera acentuada afectaciones de este tipo en la región. Son personas especialmente vulnerables por la forma diferente en la que habitan y se apropian del territorio. En general, sus rituales ancestrales, entre otros valores culturales, se han visto afectados por la economía del extractivismo que se teje en toda la región. Este es un panorama aproximado, siendo necesario contextualizar este referente en lo relativo al continente americano, para entender, finalmente, los retos pendientes. Para explicar lo anterior, se presentará un estudio socio-jurídico, basado en el método documental, pero con un enfoque étnico. Este se concentra en poblaciones afrodescendientes, indígenas y tribales y está soportado, entre otras cosas, en reportes e informes emanados del sistema universal e interamericano de protección de los derechos humanos, para comprender las necesidades y exigencias en esta materia, pues preocupa que estos colectivos ocupan un lugar representativo entre las personas que viven en la pobreza y pobreza extrema. El objetivo central del artículo no solo es visibilizar los desafíos en las Américas para colectivos étnicos desde los estándares internacionales de protección de los derechos humanos, en lo relativo al agua y saneamiento como derechos básicos, sino también, desde un enfoque diferencial étnico/ancestral, reivindicar las particularidades que demandan las poblaciones indígenas, afrodescendientes y tribales, como grupos tradicionalmente excluidos y estigmatizados. El enfoque étnico es importante, en tanto que, la etnicidad como categoría de análisis permite identificar rasgos distintivos referentes no solo a la herencia africana, sino una cultura propia con necesidades particulares, como el reconocimiento de territorios étnico/ancestrales y su identidad lingüísticocultural. Puntualmente, el artículo estudia las diversas respuestas conceptuales y jurídicas, relativas a la problemática del agua y el saneamiento en el continente americano, incluidos los enfoques internacionales y sociales, desde diferentes puntos de vista, esto es, las directrices de órganos, organizaciones y organismos internacionales, junto con la perspectiva de los movimientos sociales. A partir de lo anterior, el artículo se desarrolla en cinco partes así: en la primera, se desarrolla una contextualización de la población objeto de estudio; seguidamente, se explica el planteamiento del problema, asumiendo como tesis central la precariedad del derecho al agua y saneamiento desde una perspectiva étnica. En la tercera parte, se hace un estudio conceptual del derecho humano al agua y saneamiento. En lo que respecta, a la cuarta parte, explica los estándares internacionales de protección de los derechos humanos en esta materia, para entender la responsabilidad de los estados en las Américas y, finalmente, la quinta parte describe los hallazgos y retos pendientes en la región.

Este documento es el resultado del trabajo de investigación desarrollado en el seno del Departamento de Ingeniería Minera, Mecánica y Energética de la Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingeniería de La Rábida (Universidad de Huelva) en la que ejerzo mi labor docente como profesor asociado en el Área de Conocimiento de Explotación de Minas, desde el año 2006, así como en el Servicio de Minas de la Dirección General de Industria Energía y Minas de la Consejería de Economía, Innovación, Ciencia y Empleo de la Junta de Andalucía en la que desarrollo mi actividad como Asesor Técnico de Explotación y Seguridad Minera. Como indica su título, se trata de un trabajo en el que se analiza la fuerte incidencia que en los últimos años ha tenido la difusión de diversos estándares internacionales de sistemas de gestión en la industria extractiva, que han tenido su origen en el ámbito de la gestión de la calidad, con la difusión de la familia las normas ISO 9000. Se analiza la génesis y difusión de los principales estándares, asimismo, se reflexiona acerca de la evolución futura de estos estándares, mediante el análisis de las respuestas obtenidas en un estudio empírico llevado a cabo (Año 2012)en un elevado número de explotaciones mineras del sector de la minería de los áridos y de la piedra asociaciones empresariales y entidades relacionadas ubicadas en Andalucía. Es un documento destinado a dar a conocer a las empresas y asociaciones del sector de la industria extractiva, la situación actual y futura en cuanto a la implantación de sistemas de gestión de la calidad, medio ambiente, prevención de riesgos laborales, minería sostenible y responsabilidad social corporativa, y pretende dar respuesta a la pregunta: ¿qué grado de aplicación de los sistemas de gestión mencionados anteriormente existe en las explotaciones mineras del sector de los áridos y de la piedra natural ubicadas en Andalucía? Este trabajo recoge los resultados descriptivos de un trabajo de campo con el objetivo de recoger evidencia empírica sobre cuál es el grado de conocimiento e implantación de los diferentes estándares de sistemas de gestión en las empresas mineras andaluzas, así como de recoger la opinión de las empresas que ya han implantado algún estándar internacional de sistemas de gestión más demandados por las empresas, con el fin de tener en un solo documento los requisitos de implantación correspondiente a cada uno de ellos, facilitando de esta forma la integración de los diferentes sistemas de gestión, proponiéndose en el mismo algunas preguntas interesantes que animen a la industria extractiva a implantar dichos sistemas. La investigación comenzó en 2009 y el trabajo de campo se llevó a cabo durante el año 2012 en la Comunidad Autónoma de Andalucía, tratándose esta de una de las Comunidades Autónomas españolas que cuentan con un elevado índice de intensidad certificadora. Se diseñaron dos tipos de cuestionarios basados en la literatura que fueron enviados a empresas mineras del sector de los áridos y de la piedra natural y otro tipo de cuestionario a las asociaciones empresariales y entidades relacionadas con el sector. Los cuestionarios se enviaron por correo ordinario. Después un seguimiento telefónico de la recepción de dichas encuestas, obteniéndose una elevada muestra representativa, lo cual representa una tasa de respuesta del 28,8%. Por tanto, lo que aquí se presenta es un instrumento al servicio del sector de la industria extractiva de la minería del árido y de la piedra natural, esperando que les anime y ayude a gestionar mejor estos aspectos fundamentales de su actividad en beneficio de sus trabajadores, sus clientes y su entorno, y por ende, de su propia capacidad para sobrevivir y crecer en un mercado competitivo. De esta forma, además, estarán en condiciones de ofrecer no sólo más empleo sino un empleo de calidad: estable, seguro y saludable. No se trata exclusivamente de un documento meramente exploratorio, por lo que se han establecido diferentes hipótesis de trabajo a contrastar. Si bien la principal motivación para la realización de este trabajo de campo ha sido académica, es decir, motivada por el avance en la generación de conocimiento relacionado con este ámbito de investigación, también se ha de considerar la participación de algunos de los revisores de este trabajo, estadísticos, investigadores independientes, etc., pertenecientes a foros en los que existe, según se ha podido constatar, un grado de desconocimiento importante sobre cuál es la opinión de las empresas de la industria extractiva en relación a la dirección que ha de tomar la generación de este tipo de estándares. Un avance de las conclusiones de la investigación realizada en el estudio fue presentado en el III Congreso Nacional de Áridos celebrado en Cáceres (Octubre de 2012) y van en línea con los objetivos estratégicos establecidos en el Plan Estratégico 2012-2025 del sector de los áridos, como senda a seguir por las empresas mineras para mejorar la rentabilidad, competitividad y sostenibilidad de las explotaciones mineras, considerando los retos tradicionales del sector de los áridos y de la piedra natural, como la protección del medio ambiente, la prevención de riesgos laborales, la calidad de producción y de producto, la cualificación de los trabajadores, la imagen del sector, las relaciones con el entorno social, áreas prioritarias para asegurar el futuro de las empresas mineras. Finalmente resulta necesario mencionar que las normas son susceptibles de revisiones periódicas para asegurar su actualidad y consonancia con los progresos de la industria y de la sociedad. Por esta razón, aunque todas las normas analizadas en este trabajo se encuentran vigentes a la fecha de finalización del mismo, puede ocurrir que en el futuro las modificaciones que se produzcan en el catálogo de normas afecten a las estudiadas en el presente trabajo. ; This document is the result of research work carried out within the Department of Mining Engineering, Mechanics and Energetic of the College of Engineering at La Rábida (Huelva University) where I practice my teaching as an associate professor since 2006, and in the Department of Mines of Service Industry, Energy and Mines of the Government of Andalusia in which developing my work as Technical Advisor and Security Mining Activities. As the title indicates, this is a work that examines the high incidence in recent years that has spread the various international standards of management systems in the mining industry, which had their origin in the field of quality management, with the unprecedented success of the dissemination of the family of ISO 9000 standards. It analyzes the origin and dissemination of major standards. Also, it reflects on the future development of these standards by analyzing the responses obtained in an empirical study carried out (Year 2012) in a large number of mining sector aggregates and natural stone and industry associations and related entities located in Andalusia. It is a document intended to inform companies and industry associations in the extractive industry, the current and future situation regarding the implementation of management systems for quality, environment, occupational safety, sustainable and responsible mining corporate social, and seeks to answer the question: What degree of implementation of management systems mentioned above exists in the mining sector aggregates and natural stone located in Andalusia? This paper presents the results of a descriptive field work in order to collect evidence on what degree of knowledge and implementation of various management systems standards in mining companies, and to seek the views of the companies that have already implemented some international standard management systems and the information concerning management systems demanded by companies, in order to be in a single document implementation requirements for each of them, thus facilita ting the integration of different management systems, proposing some interesting proposals to encourage die mining industry to implement such systems. The investigation began in 2008 and the field work was conducted between January and July 2012 in the Autonomous Community of Andalusia, which is one of the Spanish Autonomous Communities that has a higher rate of current certification. We designed two types of literature-based questionnaires that were sent to mining sector aggregates and natural stone and other questionnaire to business associations and organizations related to the sector. The questionnaires were sent by mail, along with a stamped envelope. After a telephone follow receipt of such surveys, obtaining high representative sample, representing a response rate of 28.8%. Therefore, what is presented here is a tool for the extractive industry sector of aggregate mining and natural stone, which hopes to encourage them and help better manage these fundamental aspects of its business for the benefit of its employees, their customers and their environment, and therefore, their own ability to survive and grow in a competitive market. This will also be able to offer not only more jobs, but quality jobs: stable, secure and healthy. It is not only a document merely exploratory and therefore has established different working hypotheses or propositions to be tested. Although the main motivation for carrying out this work has been academic field motivated by the progress in the generation of knowledge related to this field of research, also has to consider the participation of some of the reviewers of this diesis, statistical, independent researchers, etc., belonging to forums where there is, as has been noted, a significant lack of knowledge about what die opinion of die extractive industry companies in relation to the direction to be taken the generation of such standards. Some of the findings of die research conducted in this thesis were presented at the Third National Congress held in Cáceres Aggregates (October 2012) and are in line with the strategic objectives set in the Strategic Plan 2012-2025 of die aggregates sector as a path to be followed by the mining companies to improve profitability, competitiveness and sustainability of die mining operations. It considers the challenges traditional aggregates sector and natural stone, such as environmental protection, prevention of occupational hazards production quality and product qualification of workers, the industry's image, relations with the social environment, priority areas to ensure the future of mining companies. Finally it should be mentioned that the rules are subject to periodic reviews to ensure current and consistent progress of industry and society. Therefore, although all the standards discussed in this paper are in force at the date of completion of the same, it may be that in die future die changes occurring in the catalog of rules affecting studied in this work.

Actualmente, la conservación de los suelos (CS) en el medio rural puede ser considerada como una asignatura pendiente en España. Consecuencia de una intensa mecanización y tecnificación agrícola, junto a la puesta en cultivo de grandes superficies de tierra en las últimas décadas, en muchos casos, realizadas en suelos de mediocre o muy baja calidad agronómica y en laderas con pendientes elevadas, dejando de lado las prácticas y estructuras de CS tradicionales, se ha visto muy favorecida la erosión hídrica. Por otro lado, posteriormente, el progresivo abandono de cultivos marginales (no rentables) ha provocado, aún con mayor intensidad, la aceleración de estos procesos erosivos, especialmente en litologías deleznables y poco consistentes. Esto da como resultado pérdidas de suelo fértil muy cuantiosas, no admisibles para nuestros territorios, además de otros graves problemas colaterales aguas abajo en infraestructuras, poblaciones, cultivos y, en última instancia, afectando a todos los ecosistemas presentes en las áreas afectadas, y con gran impacto en regiones del sur y sureste de España como la Región de Murcia, caracterizadas por frecuentes episodios de torrencialidad. Para minimizar este grave problema, una de las herramientas más relevantes con que cuenta actualmente el estado y los gobiernos regionales son los denominados Programas de Desarrollo Rural (PDRs); instrumentos político-administrativos de la PAC, que movilizan una importante cantidad de recursos financieros (fondos FEADER). En éstos, se contemplan medidas (líneas de ayuda) entre las que existen algunas con potencial relevancia o repercusión en la lucha contra la erosión y la CS. Igualmente, a nivel nacional e internacional, existen también una amplia muestra de iniciativas y proyectos relacionados con la conservación y restauración de suelos degradados y, en concreto, muchos de ellos abarcan el problema de la erosión y/o las técnicas y prácticas de CS, utilizando diferentes metodologías y enfoques para su estudio y, especialmente, para la difusión, demostración y/o extensificación de dichas técnicas y prácticas, contando con los diversos agentes interesados: investigadores, expertos técnicos, agricultores, entre otros. En el presente trabajo, se expone el resultado de la investigación llevada a cabo con el objetivo general de aportar un mayor grado de conocimiento sobre los PDRs aplicados y proyectos e iniciativas relacionadas con la CS, con especial atención a la Región de Murcia. Para ello, se contempla el estudio y análisis de los PDRs de las diecisiete CC.AA., correspondiente al periodo 2007-2013, y del Marco Nacional que lo respalda, donde se incluyen una serie de exigencias (BPAs y BCAM). Todo ello, fue realizado y armonizado con la finalidad de identificar y evaluar las medidas y submedidas con potencial de cara a la CS, así como las técnicas y prácticas concretas y requisitos administrativos contemplados en éstas. Además, como un caso regional concreto de un área con alto riesgo de desertificación, se ha estudiado la Región de Murcia, con un horizonte temporal mayor, para realizar en último lugar, una validación de algunas de las líneas con impacto en la CS, mediante un estudio en campo de una muestra importante de expedientes de ayudas. Igualmente, se ha incluido como avance, un breve análisis del recientemente aprobado PDR 2014-2020, con el fin de poder valorar la tendencia con respecto a anteriores programas de esta región. Finalmente, también se han estudiado una extensa muestra de iniciativas y proyectos relacionados con la CS, evaluando por un lado, las temáticas y líneas de estudio y, por otro, las herramientas y estratégicas seguidas por éstos, para el desarrollo procesos colaborativos entre los diferentes agentes involucrados y los métodos para la aplicación estas técnicas y prácticas en el medio rural. Entre los resultados obtenidos resaltar que: (i) las ayudas destinadas a forestación, en sus distintas modalidades, serían las más efectivas por su duración y cobertura y, en general, por sus buena implantación; (ii) en las explotaciones agrarias donde se continua ejerciendo una actividad productiva, tendríamos otro grupo de ayudas con interés (ayudas agroambientales). Se trata de un grupo bastante heterogéneo de distintas líneas, en el cual existe un elevado número de ellas que muestran tener cierto interés, al estar claramente alineadas con la mejora de las prácticas agrarias, o bien, favoreciendo la implantación y/o mantenimiento de estructuras estables de CS; (iii) en el caso concreto de la Región de Murcia, destaca la línea denominada precisamente "Conservación de suelos", que contempla la ejecución de fajas de vegetación transversales a la pendiente, entre otros requisitos, aunque ésta sería sólo uno de los muchos ejemplos dentro de las distintas tipologías encontradas en toda España, tales como: sistemas de producción, prácticas agrícolas, ejecución de obras protectoras o de defensa, manejo de ganado, etc.; (iv) igualmente, se han hallado proyectos y acciones nacionales e internacionales de I+D muy relacionados con la CS, en los cuales existe información muy valiosa de las prácticas y técnicas estudiadas o evaluadas, además de las metodologías aplicadas para alcanzar una adecuada difusión e implantación a mayor escala, aspecto de gran importancia de cara a que todos estos trabajos tengan finalmente impacto real y supongan un avance social para el medio rural; (v) por último, gracias a todos los estudios y análisis llevados a termino en el trabajo, se han podido realizar una serie de aportaciones o sugerencias para la mejora de estos programas o de líneas de interés científico y social, pensando en la continuación de estudios relacionados con la temática de esta tesis. Palabras clave: conservación de suelos, erosión, medio rural, desarrollo rural, PDR, medidas agroambientales, forestación, buenas prácticas agrarias, condicionalidad. SUMMARY Nowadays, soil conservation (SC) in the rural areas can still be considered as a pending signature in Spain. The consequence of an intensive agricultural mechanisation and technification over the last decades, the cultivation of large surfaces of land with mostly mediocre or very bad agronomic quality soil, as well as high slopes hillsides, leaving aside the traditionally practices and structures of SC, has greatly favoured water erosion. On the other hand, the gradual abandonment of marginal crops (unprofitable) accelerated these erosive processes, specially on friable and inconsistent lithologies. As a result of that, an important quantity of fertile soil has been lost, which can not be permitted in our territory, besides others serious collateral problems downstream on infrastructures, settlements, crops and eventually, concerning all ecosystems in the areas affected, having a high impact on south and south-eastern regions of Spain like the Region of Murcia, characterized by frequent episodes of torrential nature. In order to minimise the consequences of this serious issue (water erosion), one of the more relevant tool currently available to the state and regional governments are the nominated Rural Development Programs (RDP); political-administrative instruments of the CAP that mobilises a significant quantity of financial sources (the EAFRD). These programmes include measures (such as grant lines), some of them with relevance or potential repercussions on erosion control and SC. At the same time, both at national and international level, also exist a wide range of initiatives and projects related to the conservation and restoration of degraded soil. Many of them cover the erosion issue and/or techniques and practices of SC using different methods and approaches for their studies, specially for dissemination, demonstration and/or extensification of these techniques and practices, counting with the diverse stakeholders: researchers, technical experts, farmers, among others. In the present study, the results of this research are presented with the general objective to contribute to a greater knowledge about the RDP applied and projects and initiatives related to SC, with special attention to the Region of Murcia. In order to do so, the RDP of the seventeen autonomous regions corresponding to the 2007-2013 period has been studied and analysed, as well as the corresponding national framework that supports them, including a series of requirements (GAP and GAEC). The whole study has been made and harmonized in order to identify and assess the measures and submeasures with emphasis to SC as well as the techniques, practices and administrative requirements included inside it. Furthermore, as a regional case of an area with high risk of desertification, the Region of Murcia has been studied with a longer time horizon to finally validate some of the lines with impact on SC, through a field study of an important sample of grant files. At the same time, a short analysis of the recently approved RDP 2014-2020 has been included as introduction to asses the tendency in respect to the previous programmes of this region. Finally, a wide sample of initiatives and projects related to SC has been studied assessing, on one hand, the topic and the lines of study and on the other, the tools and approaches followed to the development of collaborative process between the different stakeholders and the methods to the application of these techniques and practices on the rural areas. The following conclusions can be highlighted from this study: (i) the grants used to afforestation, in their different modalities, are the most effective measures due to the duration and coverage and in general for their proper implementation; (ii) the farms with a productive activity, could have another group of grants available (agri-environment grants). This is a rather heterogeneous group with different lines, in which a high number of them show to have a certain interest to be clearly aligned themselves with the improvement of the agricultural practices, or to favour the implementation and/or maintenance of steady structures of SC; (iii) in the specific case of the Region of Murcia, it just highlights the line named "Soil conservation", that takes into account the realisation of vegetation strips across the slope, among other requirements. However, this would only be one of the many examples within the different types of grant lines found in Spain, such as: production systems, agricultural practices, implementation of protective or defence works, livestock management and so on; (iv) it has been found national and international R&D projects and actions closely related to SC, in which exist information highly valuable about the practices and techniques studied and assessed, moreover the methods applied to reach a suitable large scale dissemination and implementation, that is a very important aspect for all kind of works with real impact and it supposes a social advance for the rural areas; (v) finally, thanks to the studies and analysis carried out in this work, a series of contributions and suggestions with regard to the improvement of these programmes or the lines of scientific and social interest has been able to made, for further study in relation to the subject of this thesis. Key words: soil conservation, erosion, rural areas, rural development, RDP, agri-environmental measures, afforestation, good agricultural practices, conditionality.

El objetivo general consiste en establecer los parámetros que definen la relación entre la calidad del aire y los niveles de emisión de contaminación de origen industrial y proporcionar herramientas que ayuden a la toma de decisiones con el fin de facilitar la localización de impactos ambientales derivados del sector industrial. Los objetivos específicos que se plantean para desarrollar este trabajo se basan en: 1. Realizar una búsqueda bibliográfica de la información relacionada con las emisiones industriales. 2. Recopilar información para identificar los diferentes sectores industriales. 3. Determinar los diferentes parámetros industriales que inciden sobre la calidad del aire. 4. Revisar la legislación vigente internacional y nacional. 5. Realizar un estudio estocástico de las relaciones entre las emisiones industriales y la calidad del aire. 6. Analizar diferentes herramientas de medida de la calidad del aire. 7. Seleccionar los criterios para construir las herramientas. 8. Proponer y aplicar las herramientas de medida a un caso de estudio. ; La calidad del aire es una variable que condiciona la habitabilidad de los sistemas urbanos. La atmósfera es un sistema que, en forma aparente, soporta relativamente bien la influencia que sobre ella ejercen las actividades propias de la ciudad, pero en realidad el aire que respiramos es vulnerable y tiene una capacidad de carga limitada. Es por ello que en las grandes aglomeraciones urbanas el aire respirado está lejos de satisfacer los umbrales recomendados por la Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS, 2006). Multitud de estudios han puesto de relieve que ciertos contaminantes provocan efectos nocivos sobre la salud humana, sobre la vegetación y sobre el medio, aumentando la morbilidad y la mortalidad de la población, acidificando las aguas continentales, afectando la fauna y la flora de la biosfera, alterando el equilibrio natural existente entre los distintos ecosistemas e incluso provocando cambios catastróficos en el clima terrestre. En la actualidad, la población en general es conocedora de este hecho y por lo tanto exige a los poderes públicos que trabajen al respecto para mejorar la calidad del aire (European Environment Agency, 2009). Por otra parte la industria como motor del modelo de desarrollo actual es uno de los causantes de esta serie de efectos negativos sobre la sociedad y el medio en el que se desarrolla, los cuales se ven reflejados en los diferentes ámbitos de los ecosistemas, donde la misma deposita sus residuos, acción que debe ser tratada y controlada debidamente para evitar la continua degradación de la naturaleza (PASSOLA, 2006). Cabe destacar que el modelo de desarrollo económico de la sociedad actual y su dinámica de crecimiento desmedido está íntimamente ligado al aumento de las emisiones a la atmósfera. Tal disposición del sistema demanda cada vez mayor cantidad de energía para realizar sus funciones, las cuales a su vez son de mayor escala. Dicha provisión energética generada en gran medida a partir de combustibles fósiles, como son el carbón, el fuel-oil y el gas natural, al provenir de fuentes no renovables, poseen una tasa de renovación inferior a nuestra tasa de consumo. Como consecuencia nuestro consumo energético puede y debe ser replanteado en aras de proteger la naturaleza y así planear una convivencia del ser humano no sólo respetuoso sino integrado con la misma. Por su parte, la industria presenta una distribución muy heterogénea en el territorio y la gran variedad de actividades y procesos obliga a un análisis detallado por sectores. Incluso dentro de un mismo sector las tecnologías aplicadas pueden ser muy diversas. Entre los sectores que proporcionan las mayores contribuciones de emisiones se encuentra el de producción de energía, las refinerías de petróleo, las industrias químicas y la siderurgia, como sectores fundamentales de la industria básica. Para afrontar la problemática de la contaminación atmosférica, se vienen tomando medidas, que van en todos los sentidos, desde la modelación de la calidad del aire, pasando por inventarios de emisiones de los diferentes sectores involucrados, creación de índices e indicadores de la calidad del aire para controlar, prevenir y mejorar las medidas que se toman al respecto, con la finalidad de obtener una mejor calidad de vida, que vaya en concordancia con el adecuado funcionamiento de los ecosistemas. El presente trabajo por tanto pretende realizar una caracterización de la calidad del aire debida al sector industrial así como proporcionar un sistema de medidas que sirva como punto de apoyo para las diferentes industrias a la hora de tomar decisiones en las que se impliquen las mejoras ambientales y en este caso específico un cambio en el manejo de las emisiones de contaminantes a la atmósfera. ; Air quality is a variable that affects the habitability of urban systems. The atmosphere is a system that supports relatively well the influence that the activities of the city exerts upon it, but in reality, the air that we breathe is vulnerable and has a limited carrying capacity. Due to this fact, in the built-up urban areas, the breathing air is far away from the satisfactory threshold recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO, 2006) A huge amount of studies have shown that some pollutants have adverse effects on human health, vegetation and on the environment, increasing the morbidity and mortality of the population, the acidification in the inland waters, affecting the flora and the biosphere's flora, altering the existing natural balance between the different ecosystems and even causing catastrophic changes in Earth's climate. Nowadays, the general public is aware of this fact, therefore, requires the government to work in this regard in order to improve the air quality (European Environment Agency, 2009). Moreover, the industry as an engine of the current development model is one of the causes of this series of negative effects on the society and the environment in which it develops, which are reflected in different aspects of the ecosystems, where it deposits its waste; this action must be treated and manage properly to prevent continued degradation of nature. (PASSOLA, 2006) It is to be note, that the current society model of economical development and its sprawl dynamic is closely linked to the increased emission into the atmosphere. This provision of the system increased demand amount of energy to perform their functions, which in turn are larger scale. This energy provision is mostly generated from fossil fuels such as coal, fuel-oil and natural gas, those, coming from not renewable sources, have a turnover rate lower than our rate of consumption. As a consequence, our energy consumption can and should be rethought in order to protect nature and moreover, plan a not only respectful living of the human being but integrated with it. On the other hand, the industry represents a very heterogeneous distribution on the territory and the wide variety of activities and processes requires a detail analysis by sector. Even within the same sector, the applied technologies can be widely. Among the sectors that lead with the highest emission contributions, there are: the energy production, oil refineries, chemical and steel industries as key sectors of basic industry. To deal the air pollution problem, it has been taking steps going in all directions, from modeling air quality, going through emission inventories of the different sectors involved. Besides, creation of indexes and indicators of air's quality in order to control, prevent and improve the measures taken in this regard, with the propose of obtain a better life quality that goes in line with the proper functioning of ecosystems. Therefore, this current investigation seeks to make a characterization of air quality due to the industrial sector as well as provide a measurement system that could be used as a support for the different industries when it comes to make decision which involve environmental improvements and in this specific case, a change in the management of pollutant emissions into the atmosphere. ; La qualitat de l'aire és una variable que condiciona l'habitabilitat dels sistemes urbans. L'atmosfera es un sistema, que aparentment, suporta relativament bé la influencià que sobre ella exerceixen les activitats pròpies d'una ciutat, però en realitat l'aire que respiren és vulnerable i té una capacitat de càrrega limitada. Es per això que les grans aglomeracions urbanes l'aire que respiren està lluny de satisfer els llindars recomanats per l'Organització Mundial de la Salut (OMS, 2006). Multitud d'estudis han posat en relleu que certs contaminants provoquen efectes nocius en la salut humana, en la vegetació i sobre el medi, augmenta la morbiditat i la mortalitat de la població, acidificant les aigües continentals, afectant a la fauna i la flora de la biosfera, alterant l'equilibri natural existent entre els diferents ecosistemes i fins i tot provocant canvis catastròfics en el clima terrestre. En l'actualitat, la població en general és coneixedora d'aquest fet i per tant exigeix als poders públics que treballin al respecte per millorar la qualitat de l'aire (European Environment Agency, 2009). D'altra banda la indústria com a motor del model de desenvolupament actual és una de les causants d'aquesta sèrie d'efectes negatius sobre la societat i el medi en que es desenvolupa, els quals es veuen reflectits en els diferents àmbits del ecosistema,on la mateixa diposita els seus residus, acció que ha de ser tractada i controlada degudament per evitar la continua degradació de la naturalesa (Passola, 2006). Cal destacar que el model de desenvolupament econòmic de la societat actual i la seva dinàmica de creixement desmesurat està íntimament lligat a l'augment de les emissions a l'atmosfera. Tal disposició del sistema demanda cada vegada major qualitat d'energia per realitzar les seves funcions, les quals a la vegada són de major escala. Aquesta provisió energètica generada en gran mesura a partir dels combustibles fòssils, com són el carbó, el fuel-oil i el gas natural, i al ser fonts no renovables, tenen una taxa de renovació inferior a la nostra taxa de consum. Com a conseqüència el nostre consum energètic pot i ha de ser replantejat per tal de protegir la natura i així plantejar una convivència de l'ésser humà no més respectuós sinó integrat amb ella. Per la seva banda, la indústria presenta un distribució molt heterogènia en el territori i la gran varietat d'activitats i processo obliga a un anàlisi detallada per sector. Fins i tot dins d'un mateix sector les tecnologies aplicades poden ser molt diverses. Entre els sectors que donen majors contribucions a les emissions trobem: la producció de energia, les refineries de petroli, les indústries químiques i la siderúrgia, com sectors fonamentals de la indústria bàsica. Per afrontar la problemàtica de la contaminació atmosfèrica, es necessari prenent mesures, en tots els sentits, des de la modelització de l'aire, passant per inventaris d'emissions dels diferents sectors involucrats, creació d'índexs i indicadors de la qualitat de l'aire per controlar, prevenir i millorar les mesures que es prenen al respecte, amb la finalitat de obtenir una millor qualitat de vida, que sigui concordant amb un adequat funcionament dels ecosistemes. Aquest treball per tant pretén realitzar una caracterització de la qualitat de l'aire emesa pel sector industrial així com proporcionar un sistema de mesures que serveixi com a punt de suport per a les diferents indústries a l'hora de prendre decisions en què s'impliquin les millores ambientals i en aquest cas específic un canvi en el maneig de les emissions de contaminats a l'atmosfera.

El objetivo general consiste en establecer los parámetros que definen la relación entre la calidad del aire y los niveles de emisión de contaminación de origen industrial y proporcionar herramientas que ayuden a la toma de decisiones con el fin de facilitar la localización de impactos ambientales derivados del sector industrial. Los objetivos específicos que se plantean para desarrollar este trabajo se basan en: 1. Realizar una búsqueda bibliográfica de la información relacionada con las emisiones industriales. 2. Recopilar información para identificar los diferentes sectores industriales. 3. Determinar los diferentes parámetros industriales que inciden sobre la calidad del aire. 4. Revisar la legislación vigente internacional y nacional. 5. Realizar un estudio estocástico de las relaciones entre las emisiones industriales y la calidad del aire. 6. Analizar diferentes herramientas de medida de la calidad del aire. 7. Seleccionar los criterios para construir las herramientas. 8. Proponer y aplicar las herramientas de medida a un caso de estudio. ; La calidad del aire es una variable que condiciona la habitabilidad de los sistemas urbanos. La atmósfera es un sistema que, en forma aparente, soporta relativamente bien la influencia que sobre ella ejercen las actividades propias de la ciudad, pero en realidad el aire que respiramos es vulnerable y tiene una capacidad de carga limitada. Es por ello que en las grandes aglomeraciones urbanas el aire respirado está lejos de satisfacer los umbrales recomendados por la Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS, 2006). Multitud de estudios han puesto de relieve que ciertos contaminantes provocan efectos nocivos sobre la salud humana, sobre la vegetación y sobre el medio, aumentando la morbilidad y la mortalidad de la población, acidificando las aguas continentales, afectando la fauna y la flora de la biosfera, alterando el equilibrio natural existente entre los distintos ecosistemas e incluso provocando cambios catastróficos en el clima terrestre. En la actualidad, la población en general es conocedora de este hecho y por lo tanto exige a los poderes públicos que trabajen al respecto para mejorar la calidad del aire (European Environment Agency, 2009). Por otra parte la industria como motor del modelo de desarrollo actual es uno de los causantes de esta serie de efectos negativos sobre la sociedad y el medio en el que se desarrolla, los cuales se ven reflejados en los diferentes ámbitos de los ecosistemas, donde la misma deposita sus residuos, acción que debe ser tratada y controlada debidamente para evitar la continua degradación de la naturaleza (PASSOLA, 2006). Cabe destacar que el modelo de desarrollo económico de la sociedad actual y su dinámica de crecimiento desmedido está íntimamente ligado al aumento de las emisiones a la atmósfera. Tal disposición del sistema demanda cada vez mayor cantidad de energía para realizar sus funciones, las cuales a su vez son de mayor escala. Dicha provisión energética generada en gran medida a partir de combustibles fósiles, como son el carbón, el fuel-oil y el gas natural, al provenir de fuentes no renovables, poseen una tasa de renovación inferior a nuestra tasa de consumo. Como consecuencia nuestro consumo energético puede y debe ser replanteado en aras de proteger la naturaleza y así planear una convivencia del ser humano no sólo respetuoso sino integrado con la misma. Por su parte, la industria presenta una distribución muy heterogénea en el territorio y la gran variedad de actividades y procesos obliga a un análisis detallado por sectores. Incluso dentro de un mismo sector las tecnologías aplicadas pueden ser muy diversas. Entre los sectores que proporcionan las mayores contribuciones de emisiones se encuentra el de producción de energía, las refinerías de petróleo, las industrias químicas y la siderurgia, como sectores fundamentales de la industria básica. Para afrontar la problemática de la contaminación atmosférica, se vienen tomando medidas, que van en todos los sentidos, desde la modelación de la calidad del aire, pasando por inventarios de emisiones de los diferentes sectores involucrados, creación de índices e indicadores de la calidad del aire para controlar, prevenir y mejorar las medidas que se toman al respecto, con la finalidad de obtener una mejor calidad de vida, que vaya en concordancia con el adecuado funcionamiento de los ecosistemas. El presente trabajo por tanto pretende realizar una caracterización de la calidad del aire debida al sector industrial así como proporcionar un sistema de medidas que sirva como punto de apoyo para las diferentes industrias a la hora de tomar decisiones en las que se impliquen las mejoras ambientales y en este caso específico un cambio en el manejo de las emisiones de contaminantes a la atmósfera. ; Air quality is a variable that affects the habitability of urban systems. The atmosphere is a system that supports relatively well the influence that the activities of the city exerts upon it, but in reality, the air that we breathe is vulnerable and has a limited carrying capacity. Due to this fact, in the built-up urban areas, the breathing air is far away from the satisfactory threshold recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO, 2006) A huge amount of studies have shown that some pollutants have adverse effects on human health, vegetation and on the environment, increasing the morbidity and mortality of the population, the acidification in the inland waters, affecting the flora and the biosphere's flora, altering the existing natural balance between the different ecosystems and even causing catastrophic changes in Earth's climate. Nowadays, the general public is aware of this fact, therefore, requires the government to work in this regard in order to improve the air quality (European Environment Agency, 2009). Moreover, the industry as an engine of the current development model is one of the causes of this series of negative effects on the society and the environment in which it develops, which are reflected in different aspects of the ecosystems, where it deposits its waste; this action must be treated and manage properly to prevent continued degradation of nature. (PASSOLA, 2006) It is to be note, that the current society model of economical development and its sprawl dynamic is closely linked to the increased emission into the atmosphere. This provision of the system increased demand amount of energy to perform their functions, which in turn are larger scale. This energy provision is mostly generated from fossil fuels such as coal, fuel-oil and natural gas, those, coming from not renewable sources, have a turnover rate lower than our rate of consumption. As a consequence, our energy consumption can and should be rethought in order to protect nature and moreover, plan a not only respectful living of the human being but integrated with it. On the other hand, the industry represents a very heterogeneous distribution on the territory and the wide variety of activities and processes requires a detail analysis by sector. Even within the same sector, the applied technologies can be widely. Among the sectors that lead with the highest emission contributions, there are: the energy production, oil refineries, chemical and steel industries as key sectors of basic industry. To deal the air pollution problem, it has been taking steps going in all directions, from modeling air quality, going through emission inventories of the different sectors involved. Besides, creation of indexes and indicators of air's quality in order to control, prevent and improve the measures taken in this regard, with the propose of obtain a better life quality that goes in line with the proper functioning of ecosystems. Therefore, this current investigation seeks to make a characterization of air quality due to the industrial sector as well as provide a measurement system that could be used as a support for the different industries when it comes to make decision which involve environmental improvements and in this specific case, a change in the management of pollutant emissions into the atmosphere. ; La qualitat de l'aire és una variable que condiciona l'habitabilitat dels sistemes urbans. L'atmosfera es un sistema, que aparentment, suporta relativament bé la influencià que sobre ella exerceixen les activitats pròpies d'una ciutat, però en realitat l'aire que respiren és vulnerable i té una capacitat de càrrega limitada. Es per això que les grans aglomeracions urbanes l'aire que respiren està lluny de satisfer els llindars recomanats per l'Organització Mundial de la Salut (OMS, 2006). Multitud d'estudis han posat en relleu que certs contaminants provoquen efectes nocius en la salut humana, en la vegetació i sobre el medi, augmenta la morbiditat i la mortalitat de la població, acidificant les aigües continentals, afectant a la fauna i la flora de la biosfera, alterant l'equilibri natural existent entre els diferents ecosistemes i fins i tot provocant canvis catastròfics en el clima terrestre. En l'actualitat, la població en general és coneixedora d'aquest fet i per tant exigeix als poders públics que treballin al respecte per millorar la qualitat de l'aire (European Environment Agency, 2009). D'altra banda la indústria com a motor del model de desenvolupament actual és una de les causants d'aquesta sèrie d'efectes negatius sobre la societat i el medi en que es desenvolupa, els quals es veuen reflectits en els diferents àmbits del ecosistema,on la mateixa diposita els seus residus, acció que ha de ser tractada i controlada degudament per evitar la continua degradació de la naturalesa (Passola, 2006). Cal destacar que el model de desenvolupament econòmic de la societat actual i la seva dinàmica de creixement desmesurat està íntimament lligat a l'augment de les emissions a l'atmosfera. Tal disposició del sistema demanda cada vegada major qualitat d'energia per realitzar les seves funcions, les quals a la vegada són de major escala. Aquesta provisió energètica generada en gran mesura a partir dels combustibles fòssils, com són el carbó, el fuel-oil i el gas natural, i al ser fonts no renovables, tenen una taxa de renovació inferior a la nostra taxa de consum. Com a conseqüència el nostre consum energètic pot i ha de ser replantejat per tal de protegir la natura i així plantejar una convivència de l'ésser humà no més respectuós sinó integrat amb ella. Per la seva banda, la indústria presenta un distribució molt heterogènia en el territori i la gran varietat d'activitats i processo obliga a un anàlisi detallada per sector. Fins i tot dins d'un mateix sector les tecnologies aplicades poden ser molt diverses. Entre els sectors que donen majors contribucions a les emissions trobem: la producció de energia, les refineries de petroli, les indústries químiques i la siderúrgia, com sectors fonamentals de la indústria bàsica. Per afrontar la problemàtica de la contaminació atmosfèrica, es necessari prenent mesures, en tots els sentits, des de la modelització de l'aire, passant per inventaris d'emissions dels diferents sectors involucrats, creació d'índexs i indicadors de la qualitat de l'aire per controlar, prevenir i millorar les mesures que es prenen al respecte, amb la finalitat de obtenir una millor qualitat de vida, que sigui concordant amb un adequat funcionament dels ecosistemes. Aquest treball per tant pretén realitzar una caracterització de la qualitat de l'aire emesa pel sector industrial així com proporcionar un sistema de mesures que serveixi com a punt de suport per a les diferents indústries a l'hora de prendre decisions en què s'impliquin les millores ambientals i en aquest cas específic un canvi en el maneig de les emissions de contaminats a l'atmosfera.

In my postgraduate formation during the last years of the 80's, we had close to thirty hospital beds in a pavilion called "sépticas" (1). In Colombia, where abortion was completely penalized, the pavilion was mostly filled with women with insecure, complicated abortions. The focus we received was technical: management of intensive care; performance of hysterectomies, colostomies, bowel resection, etc. In those times, some nurses were nuns and limited themselves to interrogating the patients to get them to "confess" what they had done to themselves in order to abort. It always disturbed me that the women who left alive, left without any advice or contraceptive method. Having asked a professor of mine, he responded with disdain: "This is a third level hospital, those things are done by nurses of the first level". Seeing so much pain and death, I decided to talk to patients, and I began to understand their decision. I still remember so many deaths with sadness, but one case in particular pains me: it was a woman close to being fifty who arrived with a uterine perforation in a state of advanced sepsis. Despite the surgery and the intensive care, she passed away. I had talked to her, and she told me she was a widow, had two adult kids and had aborted because of "embarrassment towards them" because they were going to find out that she had an active sexual life. A few days after her passing, the pathology professor called me, surprised, to tell me that the uterus we had sent for pathological examination showed no pregnancy. She was a woman in a perimenopausal state with a pregnancy exam that gave a false positive due to the high levels of FSH/LH typical of her age. SHE WAS NOT PREGNANT!!! She didn't have menstruation because she was premenopausal and a false positive led her to an unsafe abortion. Of course, the injuries caused in the attempted abortion caused the fatal conclusion, but the real underlying cause was the social taboo in respect to sexuality. I had to watch many adolescents and young women leave the hospital alive, but without a uterus, sometime without ovaries and with colostomies, to be looked down on by a society that blamed them for deciding to not be mothers. I had to see situation of women that arrived with their intestines protruding from their vaginas because of unsafe abortions. I saw women, who in their despair, self-inflicted injuries attempting to abort with elements such as stick, branches, onion wedges, alum bars and clothing hooks among others. Among so many deaths, it was hard not having at least one woman per day in the morgue due to an unsafe abortion. During those time, healthcare was not handled from the biopsychosocial, but only from the technical (2); nonetheless, in the academic evaluations that were performed, when asked about the definition of health, we had to recite the text from the International Organization of Health that included these three aspects. How contradictory! To give response to the health need of women and guarantee their right when I was already a professor, I began an obstetric contraceptive service in that third level hospital. There was resistance from the directors, but fortunately I was able to acquire international donations for the institution, which facilitated its acceptance. I decided to undertake a teaching career with the hope of being able to sensitize health professionals towards an integral focus of health and illness. When the International Conference of Population and Development (ICPD) was held in Cairo in 1994, I had already spent various years in teaching, and when I read their Action Program, I found a name for what I was working on: Sexual and Reproductive Rights. I began to incorporate the tools given by this document into my professional and teaching life. I was able to sensitize people at my countries Health Ministry, and we worked together moving it to an approach of human rights in areas of sexual and reproductive health (SRH). This new viewpoint, in addition to being integral, sought to give answers to old problems like maternal mortality, adolescent pregnancy, low contraceptive prevalence, unplanned or unwanted pregnancy or violence against women. With other sensitized people, we began with these SRH issues to permeate the Colombian Society of Obstetrics and Gynecology, some universities, and university hospitals. We are still fighting in a country that despite many difficulties has improved its indicators of SRH. With the experience of having labored in all sphere of these topics, we manage to create, with a handful of colleagues and friend at the Universidad El Bosque, a Master's Program in Sexual and Reproductive Health, open to all professions, in which we broke several paradigms. A program was initiated in which the qualitative and quantitative investigation had the same weight, and some alumni of the program are now in positions of leadership in governmental and international institutions, replicating integral models. In the Latin American Federation of Obstetrics and Gynecology (FLASOG, English acronym) and in the International Federation of Obstetrics and Gynecology (FIGO), I was able to apply my experience for many years in the SRH committees of these association to benefit women and girls in the regional and global environments. When I think of who has inspired me in these fights, I should highlight the great feminist who have taught me and been with me in so many fights. I cannot mention them all, but I have admired the story of the life of Margaret Sanger with her persistence and visionary outlook. She fought throughout her whole life to help the women of the 20th century to be able to obtain the right to decide when and whether or not they wanted to have children (3). Of current feminist, I have had the privilege of sharing experiences with Carmen Barroso, Giselle Carino, Debora Diniz and Alejandra Meglioli, leaders of the International Planned Parenthood Federation – Western Hemisphere Region (IPPF-RHO). From my country, I want to mention my countrywoman Florence Thomas, psychologist, columnist, writer and Colombo-French feminist. She is one of the most influential and important voices in the movement for women rights in Colombia and the region. She arrived from France in the 1960's, in the years of counterculture, the Beatles, hippies, Simone de Beauvoir, and Jean-Paul Sartre, a time in which capitalism and consumer culture began to be criticized (4). It was then when they began to talk about the female body, female sexuality and when the contraceptive pill arrived like a total revolution for women. Upon its arrival in 1967, she experimented a shock because she had just assisted in a revolution and only found a country of mothers, not women (5). That was the only destiny for a woman, to be quiet and submissive. Then she realized that this could not continue, speaking of "revolutionary vanguards" in such a patriarchal environment. In 1986 with the North American and European feminism waves and with her academic team, they created the group "Mujer y Sociedad de la Universidad Nacional de Colombia", incubator of great initiatives and achievements for the country (6). She has led great changes with her courage, the strength of her arguments, and a simultaneously passionate and agreeable discourse. Among her multiple books, I highlight "Conversaciones con Violeta" (7), motivated by the disdain towards feminism of some young women. She writes it as a dialogue with an imaginary daughter in which, in an intimate manner, she reconstructs the history of women throughout the centuries and gives new light of the fundamental role of feminism in the life of modern women. Another book that shows her bravery is "Había que decirlo" (8), in which she narrates the experience of her own abortion at age twenty-two in sixty's France. My work experience in the IPPF-RHO has allowed me to meet leaders of all ages in diverse countries of the region, who with great mysticism and dedication, voluntarily, work to achieve a more equal and just society. I have been particularly impressed by the appropriation of the concept of sexual and reproductive rights by young people, and this has given me great hope for the future of the planet. We continue to have an incomplete agenda of the action plan of the ICPD of Cairo but seeing how the youth bravely confront the challenges motivates me to continue ahead and give my years of experience in an intergenerational work. In their policies and programs, the IPPF-RHO evidences great commitment for the rights and the SRH of adolescent, that are consistent with what the organization promotes, for example, 20% of the places for decision making are in hands of the young. Member organizations, that base their labor on volunteers, are true incubators of youth that will make that unassailable and necessary change of generations. In contrast to what many of us experienced, working in this complicated agenda of sexual and reproductive health without theoretical bases, today we see committed people with a solid formation to replace us. In the college of medicine at the Universidad Nacional de Colombia and the College of Nursing at the Universidad El Bosque, the new generations are more motivated and empowered, with great desire to change the strict underlying structures. Our great worry is the onslaught of the ultra-right, a lot of times better organized than us who do support rights, that supports anti-rights group and are truly pro-life (9). Faced with this scenario, we should organize ourselves better, giving battle to guarantee the rights of women in the local, regional, and global level, aggregating the efforts of all pro-right organizations. We are now committed to the Objectives of Sustainable Development (10), understood as those that satisfy the necessities of the current generation without jeopardizing the capacity of future generations to satisfy their own necessities. This new agenda is based on: - The unfinished work of the Millennium Development Goals - Pending commitments (international environmental conventions) - The emergent topics of the three dimensions of sustainable development: social, economic, and environmental. We now have 17 objectives of sustainable development and 169 goals (11). These goals mention "universal access to reproductive health" many times. In objective 3 of this list is included guaranteeing, before the year 2030, "universal access to sexual and reproductive health services, including those of family planning, information, and education." Likewise, objective 5, "obtain gender equality and empower all women and girls", establishes the goal of "assuring the universal access to sexual and reproductive health and reproductive rights in conformity with the action program of the International Conference on Population and Development, the Action Platform of Beijing". It cannot be forgotten that the term universal access to sexual and reproductive health includes universal access to abortion and contraception. Currently, 830 women die every day through preventable maternal causes; of these deaths, 99% occur in developing countries, more than half in fragile environments and in humanitarian contexts (12). 216 million women cannot access modern contraception methods and the majority live in the nine poorest countries in the world and in a cultural environment proper to the decades of the seventies (13). This number only includes women from 15 to 49 years in any marital state, that is to say, the number that takes all women into account is much greater. Achieving the proposed objectives would entail preventing 67 million unwanted pregnancies and reducing maternal deaths by two thirds. We currently have a high, unsatisfied demand for modern contraceptives, with extremely low use of reversible, long term methods (intrauterine devices and subdermal implants) which are the most effect ones with best adherence (14). There is not a single objective among the 17 Objectives of Sustainable Development where contraception does not have a prominent role: from the first one that refers to ending poverty, going through the fifth one about gender equality, the tenth of inequality reduction among countries and within the same country, until the sixteenth related with peace and justice. If we want to change the world, we should procure universal access to contraception without myths or barriers. We have the moral obligation of achieving the irradiation of extreme poverty and advancing the construction of more equal, just, and happy societies. In emergency contraception (EC), we are very far from reaching expectations. If in reversible, long-term methods we have low prevalence, in EC the situation gets worse. Not all faculties in the region look at this topic, and where it is looked at, there is no homogeneity in content, not even within the same country. There are still myths about their real action mechanisms. There are countries, like Honduras, where it is prohibited and there is no specific medicine, the same case as in Haiti. Where it is available, access is dismal, particularly among girls, adolescents, youth, migrants, afro-descendent, and indigenous. The multiple barriers for the effective use of emergency contraceptives must be knocked down, and to work toward that we have to destroy myths and erroneous perceptions, taboos and cultural norms; achieve changes in laws and restrictive rules within countries, achieve access without barriers to the EC; work in union with other sectors; train health personnel and the community. It is necessary to transform the attitude of health personal to a service above personal opinion. Reflecting on what has occurred after the ICPD in Cairo, their Action Program changed how we look at the dynamics of population from an emphasis on demographics to a focus on the people and human rights. The governments agreed that, in this new focus, success was the empowerment of women and the possibility of choice through expanded access to education, health, services, and employment among others. Nonetheless, there have been unequal advances and inequality persists in our region, all the goals were not met, the sexual and reproductive goals continue beyond the reach of many women (15). There is a long road ahead until women and girls of the world can claim their rights and liberty of deciding. Globally, maternal deaths have been reduced, there is more qualified assistance of births, more contraception prevalence, integral sexuality education, and access to SRH services for adolescents are now recognized rights with great advances, and additionally there have been concrete gains in terms of more favorable legal frameworks, particularly in our region; nonetheless, although it's true that the access condition have improved, the restrictive laws of the region expose the most vulnerable women to insecure abortions. There are great challenges for governments to recognize SRH and the DSR as integral parts of health systems, there is an ample agenda against women. In that sense, access to SRH is threatened and oppressed, it requires multi-sector mobilization and litigation strategies, investigation and support for the support of women's rights as a multi-sector agenda. Looking forward, we must make an effort to work more with youth to advance not only the Action Program of the ICPD, but also all social movements. They are one of the most vulnerable groups, and the biggest catalyzers for change. The young population still faces many challenges, especially women and girls; young girls are in particularly high risk due to lack of friendly and confidential services related with sexual and reproductive health, gender violence, and lack of access to services. In addition, access to abortion must be improved; it is the responsibility of states to guarantee the quality and security of this access. In our region there still exist countries with completely restrictive frameworks. New technologies facilitate self-care (16), which will allow expansion of universal access, but governments cannot detach themselves from their responsibility. Self-care is expanding in the world and can be strategic for reaching the most vulnerable populations. There are new challenges for the same problems, that require a re-interpretation of the measures necessary to guaranty the DSR of all people, in particular women, girls, and in general, marginalized and vulnerable populations. It is necessary to take into account migrations, climate change, the impact of digital media, the resurgence of hate discourse, oppression, violence, xenophobia, homo/transphobia, and other emergent problems, as SRH should be seen within a framework of justice, not isolated. We should demand accountability of the 179 governments that participate in the ICPD 25 years ago and the 193 countries that signed the Sustainable Development Objectives. They should reaffirm their commitments and expand their agenda to topics not considered at that time. Our region has given the world an example with the Agreement of Montevideo, that becomes a blueprint for achieving the action plan of the CIPD and we should not allow retreat. This agreement puts people at the center, especially women, and includes the topic of abortion, inviting the state to consider the possibility of legalizing it, which opens the doors for all governments of the world to recognize that women have the right to choose on maternity. This agreement is much more inclusive: Considering that the gaps in health continue to abound in the region and the average statistics hide the high levels of maternal mortality, of sexually transmitted diseases, of infection by HIV/AIDS, and the unsatisfied demand for contraception in the population that lives in poverty and rural areas, among indigenous communities, and afro-descendants and groups in conditions of vulnerability like women, adolescents and incapacitated people, it is agreed: 33- To promote, protect, and guarantee the health and the sexual and reproductive rights that contribute to the complete fulfillment of people and social justice in a society free of any form of discrimination and violence. 37- Guarantee universal access to quality sexual and reproductive health services, taking into consideration the specific needs of men and women, adolescents and young, LGBT people, older people and people with incapacity, paying particular attention to people in a condition of vulnerability and people who live in rural and remote zone, promoting citizen participation in the completing of these commitments. 42- To guarantee, in cases in which abortion is legal or decriminalized in the national legislation, the existence of safe and quality abortion for non-desired or non-accepted pregnancies and instigate the other States to consider the possibility of modifying public laws, norms, strategies, and public policy on the voluntary interruption of pregnancy to save the life and health of pregnant adolescent women, improving their quality of life and decreasing the number of abortions (17).

The number 1 edition of volume XXII of the year 2021, eight research articles, five review articles and one corresponding to the special section, university life. The first research article RELATION BETWEEN THE ENVIRONMENTAL ATTITUDE AND THE PURCHASE OF SOCIALLY RESPONSIBLE PRODUCTS IN THE CONSUMERS OF MEDELLÍN, COLOMBIA, written by Diana María López Celis of the Konrad Lorenz University and Mónica Eugenia Peñalosa Otero of the Jorge Tadeo Lozano University, address the responsible consumption issue and its relationship with the environment. The research was carried out in the city of Medellín - Colombia and 390 people over 18 years of age were surveyed. Data analysis was carried out, the results of which yielded interesting aspects such as a change in people's buying behavior, with a view to preserving the environment. In second place is the article EFFECTS OF THE FEATURES OF VIDEOS ON YOUTUBE THAT INCREASE THEIR POPULARITY: AN EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS by Carlos Fernando Osorio Andrade, Augusto Rodríguez Orejuela, Fernando Moreno Betancourt, professors at the Universidad del Valle, make an immersion in the world of multimedia platforms and use YouTube as a source of information to analyse the effect of some aspects such as: the strategy of the message, the consistency of the brand and the technical characteristics of the video on the popularity or download of videos corresponding to 4 cell phone companies , specifically Tigo, Movistar, Claro , Avantel. Third, in the article TYPOLOGIES OF POVERTY IN CALI: AN ANALYSIS BASED ON SISBEN, written by María Isabel Caicedo Hurtado and María Castillo Valencia of the Universidad del Valle in Colombia, a comparative study of the poverty conditions of the people surveyed by the Identification System of Potential Beneficiaries of Social Programs (SISBEN) for 2009 and 2019. This information is used to estimate the different types of poverty, based on the monetary poverty line and basic needs dissatisfied households in the city of Cali. The conclusions are very interesting in that there is evidence of an impoverishment of the people who enter the SISBEN and the inclusion of the poor in communes or neighborhoods of the city that had not previously been registered. In the fourth article ANALYSIS OF VENEZUELAN MIGRATION IN THE CITY OF PASTO: CHARACTERISTICS AND PERCEPTIONS OF MIGRANTS written by Bayron Paz Noguera; Oscar Alpala Ramos; Evelyn Villota Vivas, presents a socioeconomic characterization of the Venezuelan migrants who are in the city of Pasto and includes the reasons that led them to leave their country. For the research, which is also exploratory, a survey was applied to 180 people in which questions were included that allowed conclusions to be drawn regarding the situation of migrants in the city. It is interesting in that it shows empirically that some reasons for the exodus are insecurity, poverty and discontent with the government of Nicolás Maduro. In the fifth place is presented the article ENTREPRENEURSHIP AND DESIGN: CHARACTERIZATION OF ENTREPRENEURIAL INITIATIVES OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGNERS by María Cristina Ascuntar Rivera and Francisco Rafael Ayala Gallardo who make an analysis of the entrepreneurial initiatives of the students of the industrial design program of the University de Nariño in Colombia, which is presented as one of the degree options at this institution. The documentary review is established for a period of 18 years (2000-2018), 201 research projects were reviewed in different modalities of which only 5% corresponded to the modality of business creation. It is concluded that it is necessary to strengthen entrepreneurship and the modality of business creation, among other recommendations. In the sixth research article, BUSINESS INTENTION AND CULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN MASTER'S STUDENTS IN ADMINISTRATION IN COLOMBIA written by Edwin Ignacio Tarapuez Chamorro, Juan Manuel Aristizábal Tamayo and Adriana Patricia Uribe Urán, the dependence between business intention and the cultural dimensions of MBA students in Colombia, based on Hofstede's studies on culture, and as reference two variables: ease of doing business, included in the Doing Business study of the World Bank (2013) and the assessment of the entrepreneurial environment in Colombia contained in the General Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM). For the research, a non-probabilistic survey was applied to 485 people from 36 face-to-face programs in 14 cities in Colombia divided between high income and low income, obtaining interesting results regarding the six dimensions studied. In the seventh research article CONSUMER DECISION MAKING AND CONSERVATION IN COSTA RICA presented by Pablo Andrés Sánchez Campos, an analysis of the consumer decision-making of respondents in Costa Rica and the influence of conservatism in this type of decision is carried out. The data are analyzed using statistical techniques and instruments that provide interesting conclusions to the investigation. In the eighth research article SOCIAL MEDIA MARKETING EN EMPRESAS AGRÍCOLAS CUBANAS written by Rudibel Perdigón Llanes and Hubert Viltres Sala, the importance of the use of social networks and the Internet for increasing profits and the visibility of companies is taken up. In the investigation, information was collected from 61 companies of the Agricultural Business Group of the Ministry of Agriculture of Cuba, concluding that it is necessary to reinforce their positioning due to their low index of digital positioning, which hinders their economic growth. Within the group of review articles is the one presented by Luis Améstica Rivas, Andrea King Domínguez, Carlos Cruzat Valenzuela, and Constanza Stuardo Solar from the Universidad de Chile called ADMINISTRATION AND FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE COUNCIL. A BIBLIOMETRIC STUDY. The authors carried out an interesting review of 4,468 articles related to the business area, using bibliometric techniques supported by the VOSviewer software, in order to establish the importance and relationship between decision-making by Boards of Directors and financial performance of the companies. The second review article is the one presented by Claudia Magali Solarte Solarte, Martha Lida Solarte Solarte, Gloria Alicia Rivera Vallejo of the Universidad Cesmag located in Colombia called THE ROLE OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN CONFLICT AND POSTCONFLICT: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF LITERATURE. With the help of specialized databases such as Scopus, Scielo, Redalyc, Science Direct and Google Scholar, the authors explored some general terms related to entrepreneurship, in view of their interest in determining how entrepreneurship becomes a possible alternative of productive reintegration for ex-combatants and victims of the armed conflict in different countries of the world. In the third review article, TOURIST COMPETITIVENESS. AN APPROACH FROM THE DEPARTMENT OF BOYACÁ, COLOMBIA written by Ana Milena Serrano Amado, Luz A. Montoya Restrepo, Nidia Paola Amado Cely, the determining factors of the competitiveness of tourist destinations in the Province of Sugamuxi were identified, using the Crouch and Ritchie model. Some existing competitiveness models were reviewed and interesting conclusions were established with a view to generating a growing tourism dynamic in said province. In the fourth review article, TERRITORIAL DEVELOPMENT AND SOLIDARITY ECONOMY: ANALYSIS FROM THE CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENT, THE ENVIRONMENT AND THE INCORPORATION OF COMMUNITIES IN A TERRITORIAL DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY, the authors Helmer Fernando Llanez Anaya and Claudia Patricia Sacristán Rodríguez, propose a analysis framework to articulate territorial development and the solidarity economy from three dimensions: the idea of development, the environmental dimension and the incorporation of communities in a territorial development strategy. For them, they conducted a document review using databases such as Redalyc, Scielo, Research Gate, scopus and Web of Science through the metasearch engine of the Javeriana University library. In the last review article OFERTA EXPORTABLE DEL CACAO FROM THE DEPARTMENT OF NARIÑO, (2010-2018), the authors Yhancy Eliana Coral Rojas, Gladys Omaira Melo Mosquera, Darlan Arley Agredo Madroñero and Jenny Katherine Moncayo Rosero, from the Universidad de Nariño in Colombia , carry out a secondary review on the cocoa sector in Colombia, using the general database of exports of Nariño of the official platform of the DIAN entity that presents the export declarations of each region in Colombia, the information platform of Legiscomex and the ranking tool by tariff subheading and by department of and the ordering variable in FOB value (US $). With the data obtained, some recommendations are established for the cocoa sector of the department of Nariño. ; La edición No 1 del volumen XXII del año 2021, contiene ocho artículos de investigación, cinco de revisión y uno correspondiente a la sección especial, vida universitaria. El primer artículo de investigación RELACIÓN ENTRE LA ACTITUD AMBIENTAL Y LA COMPRA DE PRODUCTOS SOCIALMENTE RESPONSABLES EN LOS CONSUMIDORES DE MEDELLÍN, COLOMBIA, escrito por Diana María López Celis de la Universidad Konrad Lorenz y Mónica Eugenia Peñalosa Otero de la Universidad Jorge Tadeo Lozano, abordan el tema de consumo responsable y su relación con el medio ambiente. La investigación de desarrolló en la ciudad de Medellín – Colombia y se encuestaron 390 personas mayores de 18 años. Se realizó el análisis de los datos, cuyos resultados arrojaron aspectos interesantes como un cambio en el comportamiento de compra de las personas, con miras a la preservación del medio ambiente. En segundo lugar se encuentra el artículo EFECTOS DE LAS CARACTERÍSTICAS DE VIDEOS EN YOUTUBE QUE AUMENTAN SU POPULARIDAD: UN ANÁLISIS EMPÍRICO de Carlos Fernando Osorio Andrade, Augusto Rodríguez Orejuela, Fernando Moreno Betancourt, profesores de la Universidad del Valle, hacen una inmersión en el mundo de las plataformas multimedia y utilizan YouTube como fuente de información para analizar el efecto de algunos aspectos tales como: la estrategia del mensaje, la consistencia de marca y las características técnicas del video sobre la popularidad o descarga de videos correspondientes a 4 empresas de telefonía celular, específicamente Tigo, Movistar, Claro, Avantel. En tercer lugar, en el artículo TIPOLOGÍAS DE POBREZA EN CALI: UN ANÁLISIS CON BASE EN EL SISBEN escrito por María Isabel Caicedo Hurtado y María Castillo Valencia de la Universidad del Valle en Colombia, se elaboran un estudio comparativo de las condiciones de pobreza de las personas encuestadas por el Sistema de Identificación de Potenciales Beneficiarios de Programas Sociales (SISBEN) para en el año 2009 y para el año 2019. Se utiliza esta información para estimar las diferentes tipologías de pobreza, en función de la línea de pobreza monetaria y necesidades básicas insatisfechas de los hogares de la ciudad de Cali. Las conclusiones son muy interesantes en tanto se evidencia un empobrecimiento de las personas que ingresan al SISBEN y la inclusión de pobres en comunas o barrios de la ciudad que antes no se habían registrado. En el cuarto artículo ANÁLISIS DE LA MIGRACIÓN VENEZOLANA EN LA CIUDAD DE PASTO: CARACTERÍSTICAS Y PERCEPCIONES DE LOS MIGRANTES escrito por Bayron Paz Noguera; Oscar Alpala Ramos; Evelyn Villota Vivas, se presenta una caracterización socioeconómica de los migrantes venezolanos que se encuentran en la ciudad de Pasto y se incluyen las razones que los llevaron a salir de su país. Para la investigación, que además es de tipo exploratorio, se aplicó una encuesta a 180 personas en la que se incluyeron preguntas que permitieron extraer conclusiones respecto a la situación de los migrantes en la ciudad. Es interesante en tanto demuestra empíricamente que algunas razones para el éxodo son la inseguridad, la pobreza y el descontento con el gobierno de Nicolás Maduro. En el quinto lugar se presenta el artículo EMPRENDIMIENTO Y DISEÑO: CARACTERIZACIÓN DE LAS INICIATIVAS EMPRENDEDORAS DE LOS DISEÑADORES INDUSTRIALES de María Cristina Ascuntar Rivera y Francisco Rafael Ayala Gallardo quienes hacen un análisis de las iniciativas emprendedoras de los estudiantes del programa de diseño industrial de la Universidad de Nariño en Colombia, que se presenta como una de las opciones de grado en esta institución. La revisión documental se establece para un período de 18 años (2000- 2018), se revisaron 201 proyectos de investigación en diferentes modalidades de los cuales únicamente el 5% correspondió a la modalidad de creación de empresa. Se concluye que es preciso fortalecer el emprendimiento y la modalidad de creación de empresas, entre otras recomendaciones. En el sexto artículo de investigación, INTENCIÓN EMPRESARIAL Y DIMENSIONES CULTURALES EN ESTUDIANTES DE MAESTRÍA EN ADMINISTRACIÓN EN COLOMBIA escrito por Edwin Ignacio Tarapuez Chamorro, Juan Manuel Aristizábal Tamayo y Adriana Patricia Uribe Urán, se analiza la dependencia entre la intención empresarial y las dimensiones culturales de los estudiantes de Maestría en Administración (MBA) en Colombia, tomando como base los estudios de Hofstede sobre la cultura, y como referentes dos variables: la facilidad para hacer negocios, incluida en el estudio Doing Business del Banco Mundial (2013) y la valoración del entorno emprendedor en Colombia contenida en el General Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM). Para la investigación se aplicó una encuesta no probabilística a 485 personas de 36 programas presenciales en 14 ciudades de Colombia divididas entre altos ingresos y bajos ingresos, obteniendo resultados interesantes en cuanto a las seis dimensiones estudiadas. En el séptimo artículo de investigación TOMA DE DECISIONES DE CONSUMIDORES Y CONSERVADURISMO EN COSTA RICA presentado por Pablo Andrés Sánchez Campos, se realiza un análisis la toma de decisiones de consumo de encuestados en Costa Rica y la influencia del conservadurismo en este tipo de decisiones. Los datos se analizan utilizando técnicas e instrumentos estadísticos que aportan interesantes conclusiones a la investigación. En el octavo artículo de investigación SOCIAL MEDIA MARKETING EN EMPRESAS AGRÍCOLAS CUBANAS escrito por Rudibel Perdigón Llanes y Hubert Viltres Sala, se retoma la importancia que tiene el uso de las redes sociales e internet para el incremento de utilidades y la visibilidad de las empresas. En la investigación se recolectó información de 61 empresas del Grupo Empresarial Agrícola del Ministerio de la Agricultura de Cuba, concluyendo que es necesario reforzar el posicionamiento de las mismas debido a su bajo índice de posicionamiento digital, lo que obstaculiza su crecimiento económico. Dentro del grupo de los artículos de revisión se encuentra el presentado por Luis Améstica Rivas, Andrea King Domínguez, Carlos Cruzat Valenzuela, Constanza Stuardo Solar de la Universidad de Chile denominado CONSEJO DE ADMINISTRACIÓN Y DESEMPEÑO FINANCIERO. UN ESTUDIO BIBLIOMÉTRICO. Los autores realizaron una interesante revisión de 4.468 artículos relacionados con el área de negocios, utilizaron técnicas bibliométricas apoyadas por el software VOSviewer, con el propósito de establecer la importancia y relación entre la toma de decisiones por parte de los Consejos de Administración y el desempeño financiero de las compañías. El segundo artículo de revisión es el presentado por Claudia Magali Solarte Solarte, Martha Lida Solarte Solarte, Gloria Alicia Rivera Vallejo de la Universidad Cesmag ubicada en Colombia denominado PAPEL DEL EMPRENDIMIENTO EN EL CONFLICTO Y POSTCONFLICTO: UNA REVISIÓN SISTEMÁTICA DE LITERATURA. Con la ayuda de las bases de datos especializadas como Scopus, Scielo, Redalyc, Science Direct y Google Scholar, las autoras exploraron algunos términos generales relacionados con el emprendimiento, en vista de su interés por determinar la manera cómo el emprendimiento se convierte en una posible alternativa de reinserción productiva para excombatientes y víctimas del conflicto armado en diferentes países del mundo. En el tercer artículo de revisión, LA COMPETITIVIDAD TURÍSTICA. UNA APROXIMACIÓN DESDE EL DEPARTAMENTO DE BOYACÁ, COLOMBIA escrito por Ana Milena Serrano Amado, Luz A. Montoya Restrepo, Nidia Paola Amado Cely, se identificaron los factores determinantes de la competitividad de los destinos turísticos en la Provincia de Sugamuxi, utilizando el modelo de Crouch y Ritchie. Se revisaron algunos modelos de competitividad existentes y se establecieron interesantes conclusiones con miras a generar una dinámica turística creciente en dicha provincia. En el cuarto artículo de revisión, DESARROLLO TERRITORIAL Y ECONOMÍA SOLIDARIA: ANÁLISIS DESDE EL CONCEPTO DE DESARROLLO, EL MEDIO AMBIENTE Y LA INCORPORACIÓN DE LAS COMUNIDADES EN UNA ESTRATEGIA DE DESARROLLO TERRITORIAL, los autores Helmer Fernando Llanez Anaya y Claudia Patricia Sacristán Rodríguez, proponer un marco de análisis para articular el desarrollo territorial y la economía solidaria desde tres dimensiones: la idea de desarrollo, la dimensión ambiental y la incorporación de las comunidades en una estrategia de desarrollo territorial. Para ellos realizaron una revisión documental utilizando bases de datos como Redalyc, Scielo, Research Gate, scopus y Web of Science a través del metabuscador de la biblioteca de la Universidad Javeriana. En el último artículo de revisión OFERTA EXPORTABLE DEL CACAO DEL DEPARTAMENTO DE NARIÑO, (2010-2018), los autores Yhancy Eliana Coral Rojas, Gladys Omaira Melo Mosquera, Darlan Arley Agredo Madroñero y Jenny Katherine Moncayo Rosero, de la Universidad de nariño en Colombia, realizan una revisión secundaria sobre el sector cacaotero en Colombia, utilizando la base de datos general de exportaciones de Nariño de la plataforma oficial de la DIAN entidad que presenta las declaraciones de exportación de cada región en Colombia, la plataforma de información de Legiscomex y la herramienta ranking por subpartida arancelaria y por departamento de y la variable de ordenamiento en valor FOB (US$). Con los datos obtenidos se establecen algunas recomendaciones para el sector cacaoterio del departamento de Nariño. ; O número 1 do volume XXII do ano 2021 contém cinco artigos de pesquisa, cinco artigos de revisão e um correspondente à seção especial Vida universitária. Primeiro artigo de pesquisa RELAÇÃO ENTRE A ATIVIDADE AMBIENTAL E A COMPRA DE PRODUTOS SOCIALMENTE RESPONSÁVEIS POR CONSUMIDORES DE MEDELLÍN, COLÔMBIA, escrito por Diana María López Celis da Universidade Konrad Lorenz e Mónica Eugenia Peñalosa Otero da Universidade Jorge Tadeo Empréstimo temático de consumo responsável e sua relação com o meio ambiente. Pesquisa de desenvolvimento na cidade de Medellín - Colômbia e 390 pessoas tinham mais de 18 anos. Foi realizada a análise dos dados, cujos resultados trouxeram aspectos interessantes como a mudança no comportamento de compra das pessoas, com vistas à preservação do meio ambiente. Em segundo lugar, o artigo EFEITOS DAS CARACTERÍSTICAS DOS VÍDEOS NO YOUTUBE QUE AUMENTAM SUA POPULARIDADE: A ANÁLISE EMPÍRICA de Carlos Fernando Osorio Andrade, Augusto Rodríguez Orejuela, Fernando Moreno Betancourt, professores da Universidad del Valle, fazem uma imersão no mundo de plataformas multimídia e usar o YouTube como fonte de informação para analisar a eficácia de alguns aspectos como: a estratégia da mensagem, a consistência da marca e as características técnicas do vídeo sobre a popularidade do download de vídeos correspondentes a 4 empresas de telefonia , especificamente Tigo, Movistar, Claro, Avantel. Em terceiro lugar, no artigo TIPOLOGIAS DE POBREZA EM CALI: UMA ANÁLISE COM BASE NO SISBEN, escrito por María Isabel Caicedo Hurtado e María Castillo Valencia, da Universidad del Valle na Colômbia, foi desenvolvido um estudo comparativo das condições de pobreza na Colômbia. eles. pessoas entrevistadas pelo Sistema de Identificação de Potenciais Beneficiários de Programas Sociais (SISBEN) para o ano de 2009 e para o ano de 2019. Essas informações são utilizadas para estimar os diferentes tipos de pobreza, de acordo com a linha de pobreza monetária e necessidades básicas de pessoas insatisfeitas. a cidade de Cali. As conclusões são muito interessantes, tanto que há indícios de um empobrecimento das pessoas que ingressam no SISBEN e da inclusão dos pobres nas comunas da cidade que não eram cadastrados anteriormente. No quarto artigo ANÁLISE DA MIGRAÇÃO VENEZUELANA NA CIDADE DE PASTO: CARACTERÍSTICAS E PERCEPÇÕES DOS MIGRANTES, escrito por Bayron Paz Noguera; Oscar Alpala Ramos; Evelyn Villota Vivas apresenta uma caracterização socioeconômica dos migrantes venezuelanos que se encontram na cidade de Pasto e inclui os motivos que os levaram a deixar seu país. Para a pesquisa, que também é exploratória, foi aplicada uma survey a 180 pessoas, que incluiu questões que permitissem tirar conclusões sobre a situação dos migrantes na cidade. É interessante, tanto empiricamente, que alguns motivos para o êxodo da insegurança, pobreza e descontentamento com o governo de Nicolás Maduro. Em quinto lugar, o artigo EMPREENDEDORISMO E DESIGN: CARACTERIZAÇÃO DAS INICIATIVAS DE DESIGNERS INDUSTRIAIS de María Cristina Ascuntar Rivera e Francisco Rafael Ayala Gallardo, que faz uma análise das iniciativas empreendedoras de estudantes industriais de seus alunos. de Nariño na Colômbia, que se apresenta como uma das opções de graça nesta instituição. A revisão documental está prevista para um período de 18 anos (2000-2018), foram revisados 201 projetos de pesquisa em diferentes modalidades, dos quais apenas 5% correspondem ao método de criação de empresas. Conclui-se que é necessário fortalecer o empreendedorismo e a criação de negócios, entre outras recomendações. No sexto artigo de pesquisa, INTENÇÃO EMPRESARIAL E DIMENSÕES CULTURAIS EM ALUNOS DE MESTRE EM ADMINISTRAÇÃO NA COLÔMBIA, escrito por Edwin Ignacio Tarapuez Chamorro, Juan Manuel Aristizábal Tamayo e Adriana Patricia Uribe Urán, a dependência entre a intenção empresarial e as dimensões culturais de Alunos de MBA na Colômbia, com base nos estudos de Hofstede sobre cultura, e como referência duas variáveis: facilidade de fazer negócios, incluída no estudo Doing Business do Banco Mundial (2013) e a avaliação do ambiente empresarial na Colômbia contido no General Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM). Para a pesquisa, foi aplicada uma pesquisa não probabilística a 485 pessoas de 36 programas presenciais em 14 cidades da Colômbia divididas entre alta e baixa renda, obtendo resultados interessantes em relação às seis dimensões estudadas. No sétimo artigo de pesquisa TOMADA DE DECISÕES E CONSERVAÇÃO DO CONSUMIDOR NA COSTA RICA apresentada por Pablo Andrés Sánchez Campos, é feita uma análise da tomada de decisão dos respondentes do consumidor na Costa Rica e a influência do conservadorismo neste tipo de decisão. Os dados são analisados por meio de técnicas e instrumentos estatísticos que fornecem conclusões interessantes para a investigação. No oitavo artigo de investigação SOCIAL MEDIA MARKETING EN EMPRESAS AGRÍCOLAS CUBANAS da autoria de Rudibel Perdigón Llanes e Hubert Viltres Sala, retoma-se a importância da utilização das redes sociais e da Internet para aumentar os lucros e a visibilidade das empresas. Na investigação foram coletadas informações de 61 empresas do Grupo Empresarial Agrícola do Ministério da Agricultura de Cuba, concluindo que é necessário reforçar seu posicionamento devido ao seu baixo índice de posicionamento digital, que dificulta seu crescimento econômico. Dentro do grupo de artigos de revisão está o apresentado por Luis Améstica Rivas, Andrea King Domínguez, Carlos Cruzat Valenzuela e Constanza Stuardo Solar da Universidade do Chile denominado CONSELHO DE ADMINISTRAÇÃO E DESEMPENHO FINANCEIRO. UM ESTUDO BIBLIOMÉTRICO. Os autores realizaram uma interessante revisão de 4.468 artigos relacionados à área de negócios, utilizando técnicas bibliométricas apoiadas no software VOSviewer, a fim de estabelecer a importância e a relação entre a tomada de decisão dos Conselhos de Administração e o desempenho financeiro. das empresas. O segundo artigo de revisão é o apresentado por Claudia Magali Solarte Solarte, Martha Lida Solarte Solarte, Gloria Alicia Rivera Vallejo da Universidade Cesmag localizada na Colômbia denominado O PAPEL DO EMPREENDEDORISMO NO CONFLITO E PÓS-CONFLITO: UMA REVISÃO SISTEMÁTICA DA LITERATURA. Com a ajuda de bancos de dados especializados como Scopus, Scielo, Redalyc, Science Direct e Google Scholar, os autores exploraram alguns termos gerais relacionados ao empreendedorismo, tendo em vista seu interesse em determinar cómo o empreendedorismo se torna um possível alternativa produtiva de reintegração para ex-combatentes e vítimas do conflito armado em diversos países do mundo. No terceiro artigo de revisão, COMPETITIVIDADE TURÍSTICA. UMA ABORDAGEM DO DEPARTAMENTO DE BOYACÁ, COLÔMBIA escrito por Ana Milena Serrano Amado, Luz A. Montoya Restrepo, Nidia Paola Amado Cely, foram identificados os fatores determinantes da competitividade dos destinos turísticos da Província de Sugamuxi, a partir do modelo Crouch e Ritchie. Foram revistos alguns modelos de competitividade existentes e estabelecidas conclusões interessantes com vista a gerar uma dinâmica turística crescente na referida província. No quarto artigo de revisão, DESENVOLVIMENTO TERRITORIAL E ECONOMIA SOLIDÁRIA: ANÁLISE A PARTIR DO CONCEITO DE DESENVOLVIMENTO, MEIO AMBIENTE E INCORPORAÇÃO DE COMUNIDADES EM UMA ESTRATÉGIA DE DESENVOLVIMENTO TERRITORIAL, os autores Helmer Fernando Llanez Anaya e Claudia Patricia a Rodríguez, propõem quadro de análise para articular o desenvolvimento territorial e a economia solidária a partir de três dimensões: a ideia de desenvolvimento, a dimensão ambiental e a incorporação das comunidades numa estratégia de desenvolvimento territorial. Para eles, realizaram uma revisão documental em bancos de dados como Redalyc, Scielo, Research Gate, scopus e Web of Science por meio do mecanismo de metabusca da biblioteca da Universidade Javeriana. No último artigo de revisão OFERTA EXPORTAVEL DE CACAU DO DEPARTAMENTO DE NARIÑO, (2010-2018), os autores Yhancy Eliana Coral Rojas, Gladys Omaira Melo Mosquera, Darlan Arley Agredo Madroñero e Jenny Katherine Moncayo Rosero, da Universidade de Nariño na Colômbia , realizar uma revisão secundária sobre o setor do cacau na Colômbia, utilizando a base de dados geral de exportações de Nariño da plataforma oficial da entidade DIAN que apresenta as declarações de exportação de cada região da Colômbia, a plataforma de informação do Legiscomex e do ferramenta de classificação por subtítulo tarifário e por departamento e a variável de pedido em valor FOB (US $). Com os dados obtidos, são estabelecidas algumas recomendações para o setor cacaueiro do departamento de Nariño.

The articles that make up this issue cover a wide range of topics: the ecological impact of some productive practices, the constitution of the subjects of public policies by the policies themselves, the scope and limitations in the effectiveness of social participation according to the issues that motivate it, the levels in which it operates and the political system that frames it; the institutional organization of power and the negotiation and confrontation strategies to which the actors resort in certain contexts and moments.María Emilia Val's text on the process of restructuring Argentina's external debt in 2005 studies the sovereign debt negotiation strategy developed by the government of Néstor Kirchner, with an orientation that would continue until 2015, setting a novel precedent regarding the policy with which the states can promote debt restructuring processes in the current stage of financial globalization. It is particularly appropriate to return to that experience at a time when Argentina has been led to gigantic indebtedness for reckless and misguided government management - judging by the results, which are what counts in terms of political action - generating an economic, financial crisis. and social depth and dimensions unparalleled in the last seventy years. Val's article allows us to appreciate the subtlety of the Argentine strategy that, in a framework of explicit adversity with the creditor bloc, at the same time knew how to take advantage of internal or specific differences between different creditors, and between them and their political guarantors, to optimize the perspectives of success.One of the greatest liabilities of capitalism throughout its history is the environmental one. Two articles analyze two aspects of the issue. Soledad Nión Celio deals with the social construction of risk in the production of soybeans in Uruguay, based on the perception of different actors - an issue that fully touches Argentina. This item is taken as an example of the changes that agricultural production has experienced in recent decades. Martha Jhiannina Cárdenas Ruiz and María dos Dôres Saraiva de Loreto present the results of a qualitative study on informal mining in a region of Peru and its effects on the quality of life of the families involved in the activity.The text of Jimena Pesquero Bordón focuses on the role of the vice government in the politics of three Patagonian provinces in recent years. The work opens the way for the study of an issue that until now had been ignored by the "subnational" political analysis. The author emphasizes the strategic relevance that the figure of the Vice Governor usually plays in certain institutional situations and the counterpoint of political games that develop within the respective provinces around the Governor / Vice Governor relationship and the gravitation of that relationship in provincial policy and in its articulation with the federal political system. For its part, Catalina Luz Bressán's article is part of the contemporary theoretical reflection on the relationship between the scale of citizen participation and democracy. Criticisms of the effective modalities in which "transitions to democracy" developed in several countries of our region, in particular what these criticisms posed as a growing distance between formal political systems and the demands of broad sectors of citizenship, led to exalt the virtues of the local, the direct, possibly the immediate, to the detriment of representative democracy practices oriented in the best case towards issues and with approaches alien to the specific problems of citizens and to an effectively democratic participation, generating a vision of the local as an idealized area of participation and deepening of democracy. On the contrary, the author argues that democratic participation is not condemned to the limits of the small scale; maintains that democracy is strengthened the greater the scale of participation as it allows to achieve a citizen involvement of better quality and politicity. "Who nominates dominates" says the old apothegm; naming means identifying and also calling, questioning someone or something, constituting it as a subject or object. The state names through its policies and the tools it uses to achieve its objectives. María Florencia Marcos' article inquires about the production of rural development subjects based on the analysis of the Social Agricultural Program (PSA), a state policy that was developed in Argentina between 1993 and 2013.onstitutes the subject; more often the name, the word, does not change, but the identity mutation occurs as a result of substantive policies, particularly those aimed at empowering its recipients. This is the case of Conectar Igualdad, to which Victoria Matozo's article is dedicated. Conectar Igualdad was one of the best known and possibly successful programs designed and promoted by the government of President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, later dismantled and concluded by the Cambiemos Alliance government. It was also a program surrounded by some controversies, referring to the role of ANSES in its implementation and financing, and how to classify the program within the rigidities of academic classifications: social policy? Educational policy? Technological democratization? - not to mention the deployment of denigrative adjectives and social prejudices that were directed against the program and its beneficiaries. Victoria Matozo's article gets into the discussion from a rights perspective, debating with some social questions, popularized by the media, about the recipients of the program and its scope in relation to the objectives of this policy. The massive student mobilizations that took place in Chile in the 1990s and in recent years highlighted, in the field of public education, the limitations of a firmly structured representative democratic system and the inevitability of the formulation of participation claims and greater democratization far beyond the local level. Braulio Carimán Linares focuses them using theoretical methodological approaches developed in the study of social movements and the analysis of public policies. The article also shows the challenges that student demands posed to successive Democratic Concertación government and the different responses with which they tried to agree with organizations, against the background of a power structure that, in the economic-financial field, maintained continuities with which he had supported the military regime that was installed in 1973. ; Los artículos que integran este número cubren un amplio arco de temas: el impacto ecológico de algunas prácticas productivas, la constitución de los sujetos de las políticas públicas por las propias políticas, los alcances y limitaciones en la eficacia de la participación social de acuerdo a los asuntos que la motivan, los niveles en los que se desenvuelve y el sistema político que la enmarca; la organización institucional del poder y las estrategias de negociación y confrontación a las que recurren los actores en determinados contextos y momentos. El texto de María Emilia Val sobre el proceso de reestructuración de la deuda externa argentina en 2005 estudia la estrategia de negociación de deuda soberana desarrollada por el gobierno de Néstor Kirchner, con una orientación que se continuaría hasta 2015 sentando un precedente novedoso respecto a la política con la que los estados pueden impulsar procesos de reestructuración de deuda en el actual estadio de la globalización financiera. Resulta particularmente oportuno regresar a esa experiencia en momentos en que Argentina ha sido conducida a un endeudamiento gigantesco por una gestión gubernamental imprudente y desacertada -a juzgar por los resultados, que son lo que cuenta en materia de acción política- generando una crisis económica, financiera y social de profundidad y dimensiones sin paralelo en los últimos setenta años. El artículo de Val permite apreciar la sutileza de la estrategia argentina que, en un marco de explícita adversariedad con el bloque acreedor, supo al mismo tiempo aprovechar diferencias internas o puntuales entre distintos acreedores, y entre estos y sus garantes políticos, para optimizar las perspectivas de éxito. Uno de los mayores pasivos del capitalismo a lo largo de su historia es el ambiental. Dos artículos analizan sendos aspectos de la cuestión. Soledad Nión Celio trata la construcción social del riesgo en la producción de soja en el Uruguay a partir de la percepción de diferentes actores -un asunto que toca de lleno a Argentina-. Este rubro es tomado como un ejemplo de los cambios que la producción agrícola ha experimentado en las últimas décadas. Martha Jhiannina Cárdenas Ruiz y María dos Dôres Saraiva de Loreto presentan los resultados de un estudio cualitativo sobre la minería informal en una región de Perú y sus efectos en la calidad de vida de las familias involucradas en la actividad. El texto de Jimena Pesquero Bordón enfoca el papel de la vicegobernatura en la política de tres provincias patagónicas en años recientes. El trabajo abre el camino para el estudio de un tema que hasta ahora había sido soslayado por el análisis político "subnacional". La autora destaca la relevancia estratégica que la figura del Vicegobernador suele desempeñar en determinadas coyunturas institucionales y el contrapunto de juegos políticos que se desenvuelven dentro de las respectivas provincias en torno a la relación Gobernador/Vicegobernador y a la gravitación de esa relación en la política provincial y en su articulación con el sistema político federal. Por su parte el artículo de Catalina Luz Bressán se inscribe en la reflexión teórica contemporánea sobre la relación entre escala de la participación ciudadana y democracia. Las críticas a las modalidades efectivas en que se desenvolvieron las "transiciones a la democracia" en varios países de nuestra región, en particular lo que esas críticas plantearon como un creciente distanciamiento entre los sistemas políticos formales y las demandas de sectores amplios de la ciudadanía, llevó a exaltar las virtudes de lo local, lo directo, eventualmente lo inmediato, en detrimento de las prácticas de la democracia representativa orientadas en el mejor caso hacia temas y con enfoques ajenos a las problemáticas concretas de los ciudadanos y a una participación efectivamente democrática, generando una visión de lo local como ámbito idealizado de participación y profundización de la democracia. Al contrario, la autora argumenta que la participación democrática no está condenada a los límites de la pequeña escala; sostiene que la democracia se fortalece cuanta mayor es la escala de participación en cuanto permite alcanzar un involucramiento ciudadano de mejor calidad y politicidad. "Quien nomina domina" reza el viejo apotegma; nombrar significa identificar y también llamar, interpelar a alguien o algo, constituirlo como sujeto u objeto. El estado nombra a través de sus políticas y de las herramientas de que se vale para alcanzar sus objeticos. El artículo de María Florencia Marcos indaga acerca de la producción de sujetos de desarrollo rural a partir del análisis del Programa Social Agropecuario (PSA), política estatal que se desarrolló en Argentina entre el 1993 y el 2013. El análisis del PSA explicita el modo en que el nombre constituye al sujeto; más a menudo el nombre, la palabra, no cambia, pero la mutación identitaria ocurre por efecto de políticas sustantivas, particularmente aquellas encaminadas al empoderamiento de sus destinatarios. Es el caso de Conectar Igualdad, a la que se dedica el artículo de Victoria Matozo. Conectar Igualdad fue uno de los programas más conocidos y posiblemente exitosos diseñados e impulsados por el gobierno de la presidenta Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, posteriormente desmantelado y concluido por el gobierno de la Alianza Cambiemos. Fue también un programa rodeado de algunas polémicas, referidas al papel de la ANSES en su implementación y financiamiento, y a cómo encasillar al programa dentro de las rigideces de las clasificaciones académicas: ¿política social? ¿política educativa? ¿democratización tecnológica? -para no mencionar el despliegue de adjetivaciones denigratorias y prejuicios sociales que se dirigieron contra el programa y sus beneficiarios-. El artículo de Victoria Matozo se mete en la discusión desde la perspectiva de derechos debatiendo con algunos cuestionamientos sociales, popularizados mediáticamente, sobre los destinatarios del programa y su alcance con relación a los objetivos de esta política. Las masivas movilizaciones estudiantiles que tuvieron lugar en Chile en la década de 1990 y en años recientes pusieron de relieve, en el terreno de la educación pública, las limitaciones de un sistema democrático representativo firmemente estructurado y la inevitabilidad de la formulación de reclamos de participación y mayor democratización mucho más allá del nivel local. Braulio Carimán Linares las enfoca recurriendo a abordajes teórico metodológicos desarrollados en el estudio de los movimientos sociales y el análisis de políticas públicas. El artículo permite ver asimismo los desafíos que las demandas estudiantiles plantearon a sucesivos gobierno de la Concertación Democrática y las diferentes respuestas con que estos intentaron acordar con las organizaciones, con el trasfondo de una estructura de poder que, en el terreno económico-financiero, mantenía continuidades con la que había servido de sustento al régimen militar que se instaló en 1973.

[ES] Se ha buscado un diálogo de tres ramas del Derecho: Internacional, Constitucional y Procesal con la Economía, en especial con el Neo-Institucionalismo. Además, en algunos aspectos también dialoga con la sociología y con la filosofía. Es, por tanto, un trabajo INTERDICIPLINÁRIO. Contiene 4 Capitulos: i aspectos conceptuales de los derechos humanos de tercera generación; ii el derecho al desarrollo como derecho humano de tercera generación; iii consideraciones generales con respecto al proceso en la modernidad para la comprensión de su misión protectora de los derechos humanos de tercera generación; referencia especial a la protección del derecho al desarrollo; iv la protección judicial de los derechos humanos de tercera generación, en especial referencia al derecho al desarrollo (El Poder Judicial y el Derecho al Desarrollo). Descreve la responsabilidad de Naciones Unidas con el fin de que la humanidad disponga de unas mínimas condiciones de vida que garanticen el respeto de los hombres y ciudadanos en cada país, acciones, a fin de cuentas, dirigidas a la implantación de políticas públicas que favorezcan la dignidad del hombre. No es suficiente el mero reconocimiento positivo de los derechos humanos, sino que es necesario contar con instrumentos normativos procesales que, de forma efectiva, protejan y garanticen los derechos humanos, para así posibilitar al hombre el acceso a los tribunales, la reivindicación de sus derechos y el pleno conocimiento y entendimiento de éstos, por lo que el Poder Judicial juega un papel preponderante en la protección de los derechos humanos. Además, el desarrollo debe estar fundamentalmente al servicio de la satisfacción de las necesidades básicas de la población. En este tiempo una actuación judicial más humana, relacionada, evidentemente, con la implantación de un proceso más humano. Se subraya esta nueva misión del juez en la pos-modernidad, cuando se reflexiona sobre la visión de la economía neo-institucionalista, que destaca la importancia para el desarrollo socio-económico de las instituciones, de entre las cuales, se destaca, la Justicia. Por consecuente, estas afirmaciones económicas pueden se constituir en un antecedente racional para que se pueda llegar hasta la concepción de una finalidad económica que se reviste el proceso civil, esto es, un escupo económico para el proceso civil. Hay que observar, en la concepción de la Economía Neo-Institucionalista, el nuevo vigor que asume la Economía del Desarrollo. Dada la importancia que para el mercado representan los consumidores e incluso los efectos para la economía y para el desarrollo de un país - y no sólo para el propio mercado, ya que su equilibrio se refleja significativamente en la economía - es fundamental propiciar las condiciones favorables para que el mercado esté estable y en crecimiento. Esto dependerá sin duda, entre otras cuestiones, de la protección legal y judicial que se dé a los consumidores, especialmente la protección a través de las tutelas procesales (tanto individuales como colectivas). El Poder Judicial, con esas tutelas de protección a los consumidores y usuarios ofrecería, indirectamente, su contribución para el desarrollo socio-económico de una sociedad beneficiada con esas tutelas de protección.El proceso civil, en cuanto instrumento que el Estado dispone para hacer Justicia a los ciudadanos, más allá de su función redistributiva y de reintegración social al aplicar normas jurídicas a situaciones factuales, ha asumido, modernamente, una función de cooperador de la economía, ante justamente, el papel adyuvante del desarrollo socio-económico, que la seguridad jurídica puede proporcionar en el contexto social. Al Derecho Procesal Civil deben ser incorporados los más nuevos estudios de la Economía Neoinstitucionalista, en un esfuerzo científico interdisciplinario, para mejor reflexión y búsqueda de soluciones que tornen el sistema de justicia, ágil y eficiente. La justiciabilidad puede ser una vía para favorecer la efectividad de los derechos humanos. Asumimos posición de entre aquellos que defienden que el Derecho al Desarrollo, comprendidos en los derechos sociales, por ejemplo, de educación fundamental, salud básica, asistencia a los desamparados y el derecho de acceso a la Justicia, son integrantes indispensables y con posibilidades de constituirse en un derecho subjetivo individual definitivo. Defendemos, por consiguiente, que así como es perfectamente posible la justiciabilidad de los derechos económicos, sociales y culturales es igualmente posible la justiciabilidad del derecho al desarrollo en el estadio actual de los derechos humanos. Los tribunales y juzgados ya han protegido de forma bastante enfática y en numerosas ocasiones algunos de estos derechos de tercera generación, como son los de los consumidores y del usuario y los de cariz ambientalista, algo no muy diferente al derecho al desarrollo aunque es muy difícil verificar una jurisprudencia correspondiente. Hay que considerar que la defensa de la protección y justiciabilidad de los DESCs ha sido gradualmente admitida en muchos países democráticos, no sólo con sede doctrinaria pero también jurisprudencial. Y de la misma manera, se puede antever que el derecho al desarrollo, poco a poco, va siguiendo el mismo camino de aquellos otros derechos ya plenamente justiciables y protegidos por el Poder Judicial. Seguramente que en actualidad hay una nueva Justicia en Brasil, por los poderes constituidos, han firmado dos pactos republicanos de Estado por un Sistema de Justicia más accesible, ágil y efectivo, es decir, por una Justicia mejor, más democrática y más eficiente, que ha exigido la edición de 18 (dieciocho) nuevas leyes, de nuevas medidas tomadas por el Presidente de la República Brasileña y por el Presidente de la Corte de Justicia mayor, el Supremo Tribunal Federal STF. El Banco Mundial ha querido aprovechar el modelo de desarrollo del STJ para ayudar en la modernización de las cortes de América Latina, Caribe y África, dentro del eje de cooperación conocido como Sud-Sud. Estas cooperaciones con instituciones de países en desarrollo han sido valoradas por este importante organismo internacional de políticas de desarrollo. La creación del CNJ ha comportado en el seno nacional importantes cambios éticos y la modernización de carácter administrativo. Basta citar, como ejemplos éticos, los siguientes: 1º) el término del nepotismo en el Poder Judicial brasileño; 2º) establecimiento de límites en los salarios de jueces, desembargadores y ministros de tribunales superiores y la eliminación de salarios adicionales que aumentaban considerablemente los valores que el Estado pagava a los magistrados. Es perfectamente posible defender la concepción de que, siempre que el Estado interfiere de manera práctica para proteger y garantizar derechos humanos o derechos fundamentales, a través de la realización práctica de estos derechos, estará por consiguiente, contribuyendo al desarrollo humano e indirectamente al desarrollo socio-económico. Insertado en esta perspectiva, proponemos que al conceder una medida cautelar de protección a la integridad física de una mujer, y algunas veces de protección al mayor derecho de un ser humano, que es la propia vida, el Estado Jurisdiccional estará adoptando, in concreto, medidas que promueven el desarrollo humano; y considerando estas actuaciones estatales al ámbito colectivo, también el desarrollo socio-económico ; [EN] It has sought a dialogue of three branches of the law: International, Constitutional and Procedural with economics, especially the Neo-Institutionalism. In addition, in some respects also talks with sociology and philosophy. Is therefore interdisciplinary work. Contains 4 chapters: i. conceptual aspects of the human rights of third generation, ii. the right to development as a human right of third generation, iii. general considerations regarding the process in modernity for understanding its protective of human rights of third generation; special reference to the protection of the right to development; iv. judicial protection of human rights of third generation, with special reference to the right to development (The Judiciary and the Right to Development). Descreve UN responsibility in order that humanity available to minimal living conditions to ensure respect for the men and citizens in each country, actions, ultimately, led to the implementation of public policies that favor the dignity of man. It is not enough to merely positive recognition of human rights, it is necessary to have procedural policy instruments, effectively, protect and fulfill human rights, so as to allow man access to court, claiming their rights and full knowledge and understanding of them, so that the judiciary plays an important role in protecting human rights. In addition, development must be primarily serve the satisfaction of the basic needs of the population. At this time a more human judicial act, connected, obviously, with the introduction of a more humane process. It underscores the new role of the judge in the post-modernity, when reflecting on the vision of the neo-institutionalist economics, which stresses the importance for socio-economic development of the institutions, among which stands out, Justice. By consequent, these economic statements may constitute a precedent is rational so you can get to the conception of an economic purpose that is coated on civil process, that is, an economic spit civil process. It should be noted, in the conception of Neo-institutionalist economics, the new force that assumed Development Economics. Given the importance to the consumer market and even represent the effects for the economy and for the development of a country - and not just for the market itself, as your balance is reflected significantly in the economy - is essential to foster favorable conditions so that the market is stable and growing. This will certainly depend, among other things, the legal and judicial protection given to consumers, especially protection through the guardianship process (both individual and collective). the Judiciary, with those guardianships to protect consumers and users provide, indirectly, its contribution to socio-economic development of a society benefited from these civil process protection.The guardianships, as a tool that the State has to Justice citizens, regardless of their redistributive and social reintegration in applying legal rules to factual situations, has assumed, modern, built-in helper of the economy, with precisely the adjuvant role of socio-economic, that security entity may provide in the social context. The Civil Procedure Law should be incorporated the newest studies institutionalist economics in an interdisciplinary scientific effort to better reflect and search for solutions that make the justice system, agile and efficient. The justiciability can be an effective way to promote human rights. We assume position between those who argue that the right to development, including social rights, for example, basic education, basic health, homeless assistance and the right to access to justice are indispensable members and likely to become in final individual subjective right. We advocate, therefore, that it is perfectly possible and the justiciability of economic, social and cultural rights is also possible the justiciability of the right to development at the present stage of human rights. The lower courts have protected quite emphatic and in many cases some of these third generation rights, such as consumer and user of appearance and environmental, not unlike the right to development although it is very difficult check a corresponding law. Consider that the protection and defense of the justiciability of downl has gradually been accepted in many democratic countries based not only doctrinal but also jurisprudence. And in the same way, we can foresee that the right to development, little by little, is following the same path from those already fully justiciable rights and protected by the judiciary. Surely that today there is a new Justice in Brazil, by the powers that be, have signed two agreements for state Republicans justice system more accessible, responsive and effective, ie a Justice better, more democratic, more efficient, which has demanded the release of 18 (eighteen) new laws, new measures taken by the Brazilian President and the President of the Court of Justice major, the Supreme Federal Tribunal STF. The World Bank has sought to exploit the STJ development model to assist in the modernization of the courts of Latin America, Caribbean and Africa, in the area of cooperation known as Sud-Sud. These partnerships with institutions in developing countries have been evaluated for this important international body development policies. The creation of the CNJ has performed in important national changes within ethical and administrative modernization. Suffice it to mention, as examples ethical, the following: 1) the term nepotism in the Brazilian Judiciary, 2 º) setting limits on salaries of judges, desembargadores and ministers of courts and the elimination of additional wages that significantly increased values that the State Pagava the judges. It is perfectly possible to defend the idea that, if the State interferes practice to protect and guarantee human rights or fundamental rights, through the implementation of these rights, is therefore contributing to human development and indirectly to the socio -economic. Inserted in this perspective, we propose that in granting an injunction to protect the physical integrity of a woman, and sometimes greater protection of human rights, which is life itself, the State Jurisdictional be adopting, in particular, measures that promote human development and considering these state actions to collective boundaries also socio-economic development

El aumento progresivo de la población, la industrialización y el consumismo son los factores principales por los que ha incrementado la generación de residuos en los últimos años, requiriendo de una gestión integral para proteger la salud pública y el medio ambiente. La gestión y tratamiento adecuado de los residuos sólidos urbanos constituye, actualmente, un problema clave en materia de sostenibilidad, ya que es necesario dar solución a un problema ambiental, económico, social y sanitario, evitando la clásica deposición en vertederos. Sin embargo, el tratamiento de residuos orgánicos incrementa la contaminación por olores desagradables. Dichas emisiones han de ser evaluadas, cualitativa y cuantitativamente, con el propósito de minimizarlas. Actualmente se utilizan diversas herramientas y dispositivos de muestreo que permiten, según las normativas aplicables en el seguimiento de olores (EN 13725 y VDI 3880), llevar a cabo la evaluación de los procesos que generan malos olores y cuantificar las emisiones para dar una magnitud real de cuánto olor emite un foco emisor. Para analizar los compuestos olorosos, en focos emisores, la olfatometría dinámica se ha establecido como una técnica sensorial adecuada que cuantifica la concentración de olor de una muestra olorosa (ouE/m3). Sin embargo, los materiales utilizados en el almacenamiento de las muestras gaseosas pueden no ser estancos para ciertos compuestos olorosos. En este sentido, y en colaboración con el Laboratory of Industrial Environment Engineering (Ecole des Mines d'Alès, Francia), se ha realizado un estudio de los efectos de permeabilidad y adsorción de diversos compuestos de azufre volátiles a través de las bolsas de muestreo de Nalophan®. El sulfuro de hidrógeno (H2S), metilmercaptano (metil-SH) y disulfuro de carbono (CS2) son los que presentan una menor retención en el interior de las bolsas debido a su tamaño y estructura molecular, lo cual ha derivado en una pérdida global del 10% a las 30 h de almacenamiento y del 25% a las 95 h. Además, las válvulas necesarias para la recolección de muestras han dado lugar a pequeñas pérdidas de compuestos por adsorción. Con objeto de profundizar en las emisiones de olor generadas durante el tratamiento de residuos orgánicos, se han llevado a cabo estudios a escala de laboratorio, piloto e industrial de distintas materias residuales. A escala de laboratorio se ha realizado el seguimiento del proceso de co-compostaje en vasos Dewar de lodo de depuradora de aguas residuales municipales con distintas proporciones de residuo del cultivo de la planta de berenjena, insertando como novedad unas conducciones verticales de PVC perforadas para favorecer las condiciones aerobias del proceso. El pico de olor generado durante la etapa hidrolítica del proceso de compostaje se ha minimizado con una mayor proporción de residuos de berenjena en la mezcla con los lodos. Asimismo, la estabilidad del compost obtenido al final del proceso, demuestra la viabilidad de la tecnología para valorizar ambas materias residuales, al igual que la concentración de fósforo arroja mejores resultados, en cuanto a calidad del producto final, que el lodo compostado individualmente. Se ha demostrado que la reducción de la concentración de sólidos volátiles ha sido la principal causa en la emisión de compuestos olorosos durante el proceso, de forma más significativa que la eliminación de compuestos nitrogenados. A escala piloto se ha evaluado el proceso de compostaje en un respirómetro dinámico y, dado que las condiciones operacionales están más controladas que en una instalación industrial, se han realizado estudios con diversas materias residuales (lodo de depuradora, cáscara de naranja, residuo de la manufactura del pescado, residuo del extrusionado de fresa y fracción orgánica de residuos sólidos urbanos) evaluando, mediante la aplicación de herramientas estadísticas avanzadas, la importancia de las variables del proceso sobre el impacto oloroso. En este sentido, un análisis de componentes principales de la matriz de datos obtenida ha permitido clasificar los sustratos por su origen, siendo el índice respirométrico dinámico (proporcional a la velocidad de consumo de oxígeno en la biodegradación) y la tasa de emisión de olor las variables más influyentes. Otra de las herramientas estadísticas aplicada es la regresión multivariante, demostrando ser una técnica adecuada en la predicción de concentración y/o tasa de emisión de olores. La regresión multivariante ha sido una herramienta a partir de la cual se han evaluado las variables operacionales más influyentes en la generación de olores. Además, se han determinado los grupos funcionales, asociados a los compuestos presentes en las materias residuales mediante la aplicación de la novedosa tecnología NIR, encontrándose una clara relación entre estas y las emisiones de olor generadas durante el tratamiento. A escala industrial, se ha elaborado un mapa global de olor de una planta de tratamiento de residuos sólidos urbanos de Córdoba capital, en el que se han identificado los puntos críticos de emisión de olor y las variables más influyentes en su generación. En este sentido, la recepción de basura orgánica y de lodos de depuradora (procedentes de la planta de tratamiento de aguas residuales "La Golondrina") son los puntos críticos más olorosos, con tasas de emisión de 14,57 y 2,41 ouE/s·m2, respectivamente. Además, considerando la variabilidad de puntos críticos en la planta, y tras realizar un estudio global de ellas, las variables respirométricas, la concentración de nitrógeno y el tiempo de residencia de los materiales residuales han destacado como las más influyentes en el impacto oloroso. Finalmente, también se ha estimado dicho impacto oloroso en una planta de compostaje que gestiona lodos de depuradora (pretratado y sin pretratar) y residuos de mercado mediante compostaje en pilas, en términos de concentración de inmisión, con el propósito de evaluar la generación y posterior dispersión de las emisiones olorosas en las zonas colindantes. A partir de un modelo de dispersión Gaussiano de pluma se han obtenido los perfiles de inmisión en función de la distancia de la planta considerando la orografía, condiciones meteorológicas y atmosféricas más desfavorables. La concentración de inmisión máxima observada no ha superado en ningún caso los límites establecidos en el borrador del Anteproyecto de ley contra la contaminación odorífera de Cataluña de 3 ou/m3, con una estabilidad atmosférica neutra y una velocidad del viento de 2,6 m/s. Además, el seguimiento del proceso de compostaje a partir de las variables tradicionales ha demostrado que las emisiones olorosas derivadas de la planta de tratamiento y gestión de residuos sólidos orgánicos mediante compostaje están nuevamente relacionadas con la volatilización de nitrógeno y la eliminación de los sólidos volátiles. Los novedosos resultados obtenidos en los trabajos de investigación que componen esta Tesis Doctoral suponen un avance científico significativo en términos de cuantificación y determinación de emisiones olorosas derivadas del tratamiento de residuos. La aplicación de las nuevas herramientas utilizadas en este trabajo podrían contribuir a mitigar el impacto oloroso que genera la gestión y tratamiento de residuos, un proceso que a día de hoy se considera indispensable y que trata de dar una nueva vida a los millones de toneladas de materia orgánica que cada día genera el ser humano. ; The progressive increase in population, industrialization and consumerism are the main factors leading to the enhancement of waste generation during the last years, which requires integrated management to protect public health and environment. The adequate management and treatment of urban solid waste is nowadays a major issue in terms of sustainability, leading to the necessity of solving an environmental, economic, social and sanitary problem by avoiding classical landfilling. Nevertheless, the treatment of organic waste promotes pollution by the generation of unpleasant odor. The emission of odor should be evaluated qualitative and quantitatively with the aim of achieving its minimization. Several sampling tools and devices are currently being used in accordance with the legislation on odor monitoring (EN 13725 and VDI 3880) to evaluate those processes that generate unpleasant odor and to quantify their emission by providing a real magnitude on how much odor an emission source generates. Dynamic olfactometry has been stablished as an adequate sensorial technique to analyze the odor concentration in an odorous sample (ouE/m3). However, the materials used for storing gaseous samples might not be watertight for certain odorous compounds. In this context, and in collaboration with the Laboratory of Industrial Environment Engineering (Ecole des Mines d'Alès, France), a study of the permeability and sorption effects of several volatile sulfur compounds stored in sampling Nalophan® bags was carried out. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S), methyl mercaptan (methyl- SH) and carbon disulfide (CS2) showed the lowest retention inside the sampling bags due to their molecular size and structure, which led to global loss of 10% after 30 h of storage time and 25% at 95 h. Furthermore, the valves necessary to store gaseous samples led to small loss due to sorption processes. With the aim of deepening in odorous emissions derived from the treatment of organic waste, several research studies of different residual substrates were carried out at laboratory, pilot plant and industrial scales. The monitoring process of co-composting sewage sludge from wastewater treatment at different mixing proportions with eggplant waste was carried out in Dewar vessels at laboratory scale. As a novel aspect, vertical and perforated PVC pipes were inserted in the vessels to favor aerobic conditions inside the substrates being composted. The odor peak generated during the hydrolytic stage of composting was minimized by increasing the proportion of eggplant waste in the mixture with sewage sludge. Likewise, the stability of the final product demonstrates the feasibility of cocomposting to valorize both residual substrates simultaneously. Furthermore, the concentration of phosphorus was higher in the final compost than the value obtained when sewage sludge was composted individually. The reduction of the concentration of volatile solids was found to be the main cause of odor emission, being more influential than the removal of nitrogenous compounds. On the other hand, the composting process was also evaluated in a dynamic respirometer at pilot plant scale. As the operational conditions were more controlled than at industrial scale, several studies were carried out with several residual substrates (sewage sludge, orange peel, fish waste, strawberry extrudate and organic fraction of municipal solid waste) to evaluate the importance of the process variables on the odorous impact through advanced statistical tools. In this sense, a principal components analysis applied to the data matrix obtained allowed classifying residual substrates by origin, with the dynamic respirometric index (proportional to the oxygen consumption rate during biodegradation) and the odor emission rate being the most influential variables. Another statistical tool used was multivariate regression, which has been demonstrated to be an adequate technique to predict odor concentration and/or emission rate. Multivariate regression was used to evaluate the most influential operational variables in odor generation. In addition, the functional groups associated to the compounds contained in the residual substrates were determined by the innovative NIR technology. A relationship between functional groups and odor emission generated during waste treatment was identified. At industrial scale, a global odor map of a solid waste plant that treats residues generated in the city of Cordoba was elaborated. Such a map identified the critical odor emission points and the most influential variables in its generation. Reception of organic waste and sewage sludge derived from the wastewater treatment plant "La Golondrina" were found to be the most critical points in terms of odor generation, with odor emission rates up to 14.57 and 2.41 ouE/s·m2, respectively. Furthermore, after considering the variability of critical points inside the plant and having carried out a global analysis, respirometric variables, nitrogen concentration and residence time of residual substrates were identified as the most influential variables on the odorous impact. Finally, the odorous impact derived from a plant that manages sewage sludge (raw and pretreated) and market waste through composting in piles was estimated in terms of immision concentration, with the aim of evaluating the generation and subsequent dispersion of odorous emissions in neighboring areas. By applying a plume Gaussian dispersion model, the immision profiles as a function of distance were obtained considering orography and the most unfavorable weather and atmospheric conditions. The maximal immision concentration did not exceed the threshold stablished by the draft law against odorous pollution in Cataluña (3 ou/m3), at neutral atmospheric stability and wind speed of 2.6 m/s. In addition, monitoring composing process through traditional variables demonstrated again that odorous emissions derived from the treatment and management of organic solid waste are related to nitrogen volatilization and volatile solids removal. The innovative results reported in the research studies included in this Doctoral Thesis have led to an important scientific advance in terms of quantification and determination of odorous emissions derived from waste treatment. The application of new tools developed in this Thesis might contribute to mitigate the odorous impact derived from waste management and treatment, which is considered essential in current societies and tries to take the advantage of millions of tons of organic waste generated by human beings every day.