Legalisation cannot be fully explained by interest politics. If that were the case, the attitudes towards legalisation would be expected to be based on objective interests and actual policies in France and Germany would be expected to be more similar. Nor can it be explained by institutional agency, because there are no hints that states struggle with different normative traditions. Rather, political actors seek to make use of the structures that already exist to guar-antee legitimacy for their actions. If the main concern of governmental actors really is to accumulate legitimacy, as stated in the introduction, then politicians have a good starting position in the case of legalisation of illegal foreigners. Citizens" negative attitudes towards legalisation cannot be explained by imagined labour market competition; income effects play only a secondary role. The most important explanatory factor is the educational level of each individual. Objective interests do not trigger attitudes towards legalisation, but rather a basic men-tal predisposition for or against illegal immigrants who are eligible for legalisation. Politics concerning amnesties are thus not tied to an objectively given structure like the socio-economic composition of the electorate, but are open for political discretion. Attitudes on legalising illegal immigrants can be regarded as being mediated by beliefs and perceptions, which can be used by political agents or altered by political developments. However, politicians must adhere to a national frame of legitimating strategies that cannot be neglected without consequences. It was evident in the cross-country comparison of political debates that there are national systems of reference that provide patterns of interpretation. Legalisation is seen and incorporated into immigration policy in a very specific way that differs from one country to the next. In both countries investigated in this study, there are fundamental debates about which basic principles apply to legalisation and which of these should be held in higher esteem: a legal system able to work, humanitarian rights, practical considerations, etc. The results suggest that legalisation is "technicized" in France by describing it as an unusual but possible pragmatic instrument for the adjustment of the inefficient rule of law. In Germany, however, legalisation is discussed at a more normative level. Proponents of conservative immigration policies regard it as a substantial infringement on the rule of law, so that even defenders of a humanitarian solution for illegal immigrants are not able to challenge this view without significant political harm. But the arguments brought to bear in the debate on legalisation are not necessarily sound because they are not irrefutable facts, but instruments to generate legitimacy, and there are enough possibilities for arguing and persuading because socio-economic factors play a minor role. One of the most important arguments, the alleged pull effect of legalisation, has been subjected to an empirical investigation. In the political debate, it does not make any dif-ference whether this is true or not, insofar as it is not contested by incontrovertible findings. In reality, the results suggest that amnesties indeed exert a small attracting influence on illegal immigration, which has been contested by immigration friendly politicians in the French par-liament. The effect, however, is not large; therefore, some conservative politicians may put too much stress on this argument. Moreover, one can see legalisation as an instrument to restore legitimacy that has slipped away from immigration politics because of a high number of illegally residing foreigners. This aspect explains some of the peculiarities in the French debate on legalisation, e.g. the idea that the coherence of the law is secured by creating exceptional rules for legalising illegal immigrants. It has become clear that the politics of legalisation are susceptible to manipulation by introducing certain interpretations into the political debate, which become predominant and supersede other views. In this study, there are no signs of a systematic misuse of this constellation by any certain actor. However, the history of immigration policy is full of examples of symbolic politics in which a certain measure has been initiated while the actors are totally aware of its lack of effect. Legalisation has escaped this fate so far because it is a specific instrument that is the result of neglecting populist mechanisms rather than an ex-ample of a superficial measure. This result does not apply to policies concerning illegal immi-gration in general, both with regard to concealing a lack of control and flexing the state- muscles. ; Die Dissertation beschäftigt sich mit illegaler Einwanderung und der Legalisieurng von illegalen Einwanderern in Europa. Sie geht drei zusammenhängenden Fragen nach, die empirisch untersucht werden: Welches sind die bestimmenden Gründe für Einstellungen der europöischen Bevölkerung gegenüber der Legaliserung von illegalen Ausländern, die bereits seit einigen Jahren im Einwanderungsland leben? Wie werden Maßnahmen für oder gegen Legalisierungen in der politischen Diskussion Deutschlands und Frankreichs legitimiert? Haben Legalisierungsmaßnahmen einen Effekt auf zukünfitge illegale Einwanderung? Die Beantwortung der ersten Frage baut auf theoretischen und empirischen Arbeiten zu Einstellungen gegenüber Einwanderung auf. Diese werden auf Einstellung gegenüber Legalisierungen angewendet. Arbeitsmarktkonkurrenz, das soziale Sicherungssystem uns sozialpsychologische Erklärungen werden mit einer Mehrebenenanalyse einer Eurobarometerumfrage von 2003 getestet. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass Bildung die wichtigste Rolle spielt. Zusammen mit früheren Legalisierungen in dem betreffenden Land führt höhere Bildung zu einer höheren Zustimmung zu Legalisierungen. Wettbewerb auf dem Arbeitsmarkt tritt demgegenüber in den Hintergrund. Legalisieren bedeutet zuzugeben, dass der Staat nicht in der Lage ist, seine Gesetze zu Einwanderung und Aufenthalt umzusetzen. Dies stellt besondere Anforderungen an die Legitimierung von Amnestien. Frankreich und Deutschland gehen unterschiedlich an mit illegalem Aufenthalt verbundenen Problemen heran. Im zweiten Teil der Arbeit werden parlamentarische Debatten daraufhin untersucht, wie Regierung und Opposition ihre zustimmende oder ablehnende Haltung zu Legalisierungen begründen. Auf der Grundlage von mehreren Dutzend Reden werden Argumetnationsmuster identifiziert, mit denen die Redner Zustimmung zu ihren Vorschlägen zu erzeugen versuchen. In Deutschland wird die politische Debatte von der Vorstellung einer Steuerbarkeit der Einwanderung und der Gefährung der Kohärenz des Rechts durch Legalisierungen bestimmt. Dagegen werden Legalisierungen in Frankreich von beiden Seiten des poltischen Spektrums auf einer etwas pragmatischeren Ebene diskutiert, so dass sie Gegenstand einer offenen politischen Auseinandersetzung sind. Ausgangspunkt für den dritten Teil sind die von eingen Mitgliedstaaten der Europäischen Union geäußerten Befürchtungen, dass die in einigen Ländern nicht unüblichen Legalisierungen von illegalen Einwanderern zu verstärkter illegaler Einwanderung führen können. Diese Frage wurde bislang für Euopa nicht empirisch überprüft, was auch mit bislang nicht verfügbaren Daten zusammenhängt. Das Design von empirischen Untersuchungen von Steueramnestien wird für die Analyse der Auswirkungen von Amnestien im Ausländerrecht übernommen. Ein Datensatz der Europäischen Kommission (Cirefi) wird für eine Panelanalyse genutzt, wobei für Arbeitsnachfrage, Netzwerkeffekte und Kontrolldichte kontrolliert wird. Die Daten weisen Beschränkungen hinsichtlich ihrer Konsistenz auf. Unter diesem Vorbehalt lässt sich feststellen, dass Legalisierungskampagnen einen leichten positiven Effekt auf illegale Zuwanderung ausüben.
Ageing and urbanization bring major consequences and implications to all facets of human life. We see changes not only in terms of population structure and location, but also in living arrangements, family composition and family relations, economic dynamics in terms of growth, savings, investment and consumption, labour markets, pensions, taxation and intergenerational transfers, health and health care, housing and migration, voting patterns and representation, etc. These changes also affect social policy in general and social work in particular. Partly this is simply due to broader population dynamics, such as the concentration of people in metropolitan areas. Partly it is because the kinship ties and spousal situation in cities differ, in terms of both extent and proximity. Thus far, however, little discussion exists about the diversity and particularities of the urban ageing phenomenon, how it affects and is affected by public policies, and implications for the construction of old age and the reconfiguration of the life-course structure. This thesis critically examines some of the particular characteristics of age in cities in light of a concrete case study, the city of Oslo, asking: How could the particular characteristics of the ageing process in Oslo become the objects of specific social policy response? The research results arising from this thesis brought robust evidence for the need for specific social policy response to the ageing process in Oslo. First of all, the research showed that ignorance about the historical data led to a misconception about the current demographic change in Oslo. It might also have resulted in a lost opportunity of learning from that experience. Oslo's districts not only contribute differently to the current demographic profile, but also had developed differently in terms of population structure during the last decades. Finally, the prevalence of older women in Oslo with particular characteristics in terms of kinship availability should also have an impact on policy design beyond the typical headcount approach. The body of the dissertation consists of three articles. Paper 1 departs from the unpacking of an apparently simple question: Is Oslo getting older? This question was the starting point to highlight the importance of demographic information to city planning. I use the city of Oslo as an example of the variety of approaches that can be used to assess ageing in a specific population. Paper 2 is a comparative analysis in which we use data from the Norwegian population registers to investigate if patterns of population ageing differ across the country. Again, despite the great role and focus on chronological age, the main focus of the paper was the relational aspect. We focused on the kinship relationships from an "availability" point of view, in our case, location. Starting out from a discussion of long-term demographic trends, the paper hypothesizes that family and kinship ties vary between regions. The hypothesis was indeed confirmed. Paper 3 focused on Oslo's translation for the World Health Organization Age-friendly cities and communities (AFCC) framework. As the leading global policy addressing ageing issues in urban environments, the AFCC framework is perhaps the best available source to take the pulse of Oslo's macro-influence on the construction of ageing. ; Aldring og urbanisering har store konsekvenser og implikasjoner for alle aspekter av menneskelig liv. Vi ser endringer ikke bare når det gjelder befolkningsstruktur og geografiske bosettingsmønstre, men også i måten man velger å bo på, familiesammensetting og familierelasjoner, økonomisk dynamikk relatert til vekst, sparing, investering og konsum, arbeidsmarked, pensjon, skatt, overføringer fra generasjon til generasjon, helse og helsevesen, bolig og migrasjon, valg og stemmemønstre, representasjon, osv. Disse endringene påvirker også sosialpolitikken generelt og sosial sektor spesielt. Til dels er dette en konsekvens av større endringer i befolkningssammensetningen, som konsentrasjon av folk i byer. Delvis er dette fordi familierelasjoner og parforhold i byer er annerledes, både i omfang og geografisk nærhet. Så langt finnes det imidlertid lite diskusjon om mangfoldet og særtrekkene ved urban aldring, om hvordan dette fenomenet påvirkes av og påvirker politikken, eller hva slags følger det får for konstruksjonen av aldring og restruktureringen av livsløpsstrukturene. Denne avhandlingen bruker Oslo som case for å studere noen av særtrekkene ved aldring i byer, og spør: Hvordan kan særtrekkene ved aldring i Oslo føre til spesielle sosialpolitiske svar/tiltak/respons? Resultatene fra denne avhandlingen dokumenterer behovet for skreddersydde politiske tiltak som respons til aldringsprosessen i Oslo. For det første avdekket forskningen at manglende kunnskap om historiske data har ført til en misoppfatning om den pågående demografiske endringen i Oslo. Det kan i sin tur føre til at man går glipp av en mulighet til å lære fra tidligere erfaringer. Oslos bydeler bidrar på forskjellig vis til byens eksisterende demografisk profil, men har også utviklet seg ulikt når det gjelder befolkningsstruktur i løpet av de siste tiårene. Det er også viktig at politikken tar høyde for behovene til populasjonen av eldre kvinner i Oslo, med sine særtrekk når det gjelder familierelasjoner. Dette arbeidet består av tre artikler. Den første artikkelen besvarer et tilsynelatende enkelt spørsmål: Blir Oslo eldre? Dette spørsmålet var utgangspunktet for å belyse betydningen av demografiske informasjon i byplanlegging. Jeg bruker Oslo som eksempel på de ulike metodene man kan bruke for å vurdere aldring i en bestemt populasjon. Den andre artikkelen er en komparativ studie der vi bruker data fra norske populasjonsregistre for å studere hvorvidt befolkningsaldringsmønstre varierer mellom ulike steder i landet. Til tross for den viktige rollen og fokuset på kronologisk aldring, var artikkelens hovedfokus det relasjonelle aspektet. Vi studerte familierelasjoner fra et «tilgjengelighets»-perspektiv: i vårt tilfelle geografisk nærhet. Vi tok for oss demografiske trender over et lengre tidsperspektiv med en hypotese om at familierelasjoner varierer fra region til region. Denne hypotesen ble bekreftet. Tredje artikkel studerte Oslos implementering av Verdens helseorganisasjons Rammeverk for aldersvennlige byer og tettsteder. Som det førende globale initiativet for å takle aldringsrelaterte utfordringer i urbane områder, gir dette rammeverket trolig den beste muligheten til å ta pulsen på Oslos makroinnflytelse på konstruksjonen av aldring. ; publishedVersion
Prospects for forest transitions – regional or national turnarounds in forest cover trend, from net deforestation to net reforestation – in tropical regions would have wide implications for biodiversity, carbon stocks, and human livelihoods. The objectives of this thesis are to answer three questions: (i) Is there a forest transition in Vietnam, and what are its main characteristics? (ii) What are the causes of the reforestation in Vietnam – at local, national and international levels, and did local land managers perceive and react to forest degradation and/or scarcity? (iii) What are the environmental impacts of the forest transition, for forests in Vietnam and abroad? Firstly, existing land cover data were compiled and compared with recent tools of map comparison. A forest transition occurred in Vietnam during the 1990s. The forest cover dropped to 25–31% in 1991–1993, and then increased to 32–37% in 1999–2001 and 34–42% in 2005. About half of the reforestation was due to plantations of mainly fastgrowing exotic species. Secondly, spatial lag multiple regressions at the national scale and a review of local case studies were used to analyze the causes of spatial variations in the reforestation. Forest regrowth in Vietnam was not due to a single process or policy but to a combination of economic and political responses to forest and land scarcity, economic growth, and market integration. The distribution of forestry land to households, new forest management practices, and food crop intensification were combined in "push and pull" effects to decrease the footprint of agriculture on hillsides. A smallholder agricultural intensification path of forest transition partly explains the reforestation. Population growth and land scarcity drove an intensification of agriculture, mainly based on increased labor inputs on the most suitable plots of the marginal regions, and contributed to the abandonment of the least suitable plots and their reforestation. Thirdly, a material flows analysis quantified and characterized the displacement of deforestation abroad that accompanied the transition. From 1987 to 2006, displacement of forest extraction to other countries represented 49 (34– 70) Mm3, or around 40% of the regrowth of Vietnam's forests. Leakage due to policies restricting forest exploitation and displacement due to growing domestic consumption and exports contributed respectively to an estimated 58% and 42% of total displacement. About half of wood imports during this period were illegal. Exports of wood products from Vietnam also grew rapidly, amounting to 84% of the displacement. Around 60% of the regrowth in Vietnam was thus not associated with displacement abroad. Fourthly, the main environmental effects of this forest transition at the national scale were studied. The outcomes of the transition are contrasted, and not highly beneficial. The carbon stock in forests followed a transition similar to forest area, decreasing to 903 (770–1307) TgC in 1991–1993, and then increasing to 1374 (1058–1744) TgC in 2005. However, forest density declined during the same period, with an increasing proportion of young and degraded forests. The effects on habitats measured with landscape pattern indices varied between ecoregions: in several regions, the reforestation decreased forest fragmentation, while in others, clearing of oldgrowth forests continued and/or forest fragmentation increased. Fifthly, four village case studies were used to understand feedbacks from local environmental degradation on land use practices of local land managers, their roles in the forest transition and the conditions under which they occur. This showed that forest scarcity is perceived, interpreted and evaluated before possibly affecting land use practices. In one case, beliefs and attitudes of the actors did change because of environmental degradation. Vietnam is one of the few tropical countries that experienced a forest transition, but similar dynamics occur in other countries. Knowledge about this case is, therefore, important to understand forest and land use transitions elsewhere. ; La thèse s'intéresse à la notion de « transition forestière », c'est à dire un basculement d'une tendance nette de déforestation à une tendance nette de reforestation à une échelle spatiale relativement vaste (nationale ou régionale). De tels évènements se sont produits entre autres dans plusieurs pays européens au cours du 19ème siècle. L'idée de départ de la thèse était d'étudier, dans le contexte de pays tropicaux contemporains en développement, la possibilité d'une transition de ce type et la pertinence des théories explicatives développées pour les pays occidentaux tempérés en cours de modernisation. La thèse poursuit trois objectifs: (i) établir la présence éventuelle d'une transition forestière au Vietnam et décrire ses principales caractéristiques, (ii) étudier les causes de cette transition, à l'échelle locale, nationale et internationale, et (iii) dresser le bilan des principaux effets environnementaux de cette transition. Le travail a établi qu'une transition forestière a effectivement eu lieu au Vietnam au cours des années 90, ce qui en fait l'un des rares pays tropicaux dans lequel cette transition s'est produite. La reforestation s'est faite autant par régénération naturelle des forêts que par plantations, et le couvert forestier en 2005 était supérieur à celui de 1980. La reforestation a été causée par une combinaison de processus dans les domaines agraires et forestiers, sous-tendus par des politiques de d'allocation des terres aux ménages, de libéralisation, et de renforcement des règlementations forestières, par des changements dans les marchés agricoles et forestiers, ainsi que par la dégradation des forêts et des terres de montagne et les réactions des acteurs locaux à celle-ci. Selon les contextes, les effets de ces changements sur la situation des habitants des régions reboisées est variable. La reforestation s'est également accompagnée d'un déplacement de la déforestation à l'extérieur du pays, pour combler la demande croissante de bois du Vietnam, qui représente environ 40% de la reforestation dans le pays. L'importation de bois est composée pour moitié de bois illégal coupé dans les forêts naturelles des pays voisins, et la majeure partie de ce bois n'est pas consommée sur place, mais réexportée après transformation. La transition a permis de séquestrer annuellement dans les forêts vietnamiennes plus de carbone que la quantité émise par la consommation d'énergies fossiles au Vietnam. Par contre, la dégradation des forêts continue, et la transition n'a dans l'ensemble pas permis de stopper l'érosion de la biodiversité des forêts vietnamiennes. ; (GEOG 3) -- UCL, 2009
Prospects for forest transitions – regional or national turnarounds in forest cover trend, from net deforestation to net reforestation – in tropical regions would have wide implications for biodiversity, carbon stocks, and human livelihoods. The objectives of this thesis are to answer three questions: (i) Is there a forest transition in Vietnam, and what are its main characteristics? (ii) What are the causes of the reforestation in Vietnam – at local, national and international levels, and did local land managers perceive and react to forest degradation and/or scarcity? (iii) What are the environmental impacts of the forest transition, for forests in Vietnam and abroad? Firstly, existing land cover data were compiled and compared with recent tools of map comparison. A forest transition occurred in Vietnam during the 1990s. The forest cover dropped to 25–31% in 1991–1993, and then increased to 32–37% in 1999–2001 and 34–42% in 2005. About half of the reforestation was due to plantations of mainly fastgrowing exotic species. Secondly, spatial lag multiple regressions at the national scale and a review of local case studies were used to analyze the causes of spatial variations in the reforestation. Forest regrowth in Vietnam was not due to a single process or policy but to a combination of economic and political responses to forest and land scarcity, economic growth, and market integration. The distribution of forestry land to households, new forest management practices, and food crop intensification were combined in "push and pull" effects to decrease the footprint of agriculture on hillsides. A smallholder agricultural intensification path of forest transition partly explains the reforestation. Population growth and land scarcity drove an intensification of agriculture, mainly based on increased labor inputs on the most suitable plots of the marginal regions, and contributed to the abandonment of the least suitable plots and their reforestation. Thirdly, a material flows analysis quantified and characterized the displacement of deforestation abroad that accompanied the transition. From 1987 to 2006, displacement of forest extraction to other countries represented 49 (34– 70) Mm3, or around 40% of the regrowth of Vietnam's forests. Leakage due to policies restricting forest exploitation and displacement due to growing domestic consumption and exports contributed respectively to an estimated 58% and 42% of total displacement. About half of wood imports during this period were illegal. Exports of wood products from Vietnam also grew rapidly, amounting to 84% of the displacement. Around 60% of the regrowth in Vietnam was thus not associated with displacement abroad. Fourthly, the main environmental effects of this forest transition at the national scale were studied. The outcomes of the transition are contrasted, and not highly beneficial. The carbon stock in forests followed a transition similar to forest area, decreasing to 903 (770–1307) TgC in 1991–1993, and then increasing to 1374 (1058–1744) TgC in 2005. However, forest density declined during the same period, with an increasing proportion of young and degraded forests. The effects on habitats measured with landscape pattern indices varied between ecoregions: in several regions, the reforestation decreased forest fragmentation, while in others, clearing of oldgrowth forests continued and/or forest fragmentation increased. Fifthly, four village case studies were used to understand feedbacks from local environmental degradation on land use practices of local land managers, their roles in the forest transition and the conditions under which they occur. This showed that forest scarcity is perceived, interpreted and evaluated before possibly affecting land use practices. In one case, beliefs and attitudes of the actors did change because of environmental degradation. Vietnam is one of the few tropical countries that experienced a forest transition, but similar dynamics occur in other countries. Knowledge about this case is, therefore, important to understand forest and land use transitions elsewhere. ; La thèse s'intéresse à la notion de « transition forestière », c'est à dire un basculement d'une tendance nette de déforestation à une tendance nette de reforestation à une échelle spatiale relativement vaste (nationale ou régionale). De tels évènements se sont produits entre autres dans plusieurs pays européens au cours du 19ème siècle. L'idée de départ de la thèse était d'étudier, dans le contexte de pays tropicaux contemporains en développement, la possibilité d'une transition de ce type et la pertinence des théories explicatives développées pour les pays occidentaux tempérés en cours de modernisation. La thèse poursuit trois objectifs: (i) établir la présence éventuelle d'une transition forestière au Vietnam et décrire ses principales caractéristiques, (ii) étudier les causes de cette transition, à l'échelle locale, nationale et internationale, et (iii) dresser le bilan des principaux effets environnementaux de cette transition. Le travail a établi qu'une transition forestière a effectivement eu lieu au Vietnam au cours des années 90, ce qui en fait l'un des rares pays tropicaux dans lequel cette transition s'est produite. La reforestation s'est faite autant par régénération naturelle des forêts que par plantations, et le couvert forestier en 2005 était supérieur à celui de 1980. La reforestation a été causée par une combinaison de processus dans les domaines agraires et forestiers, sous-tendus par des politiques de d'allocation des terres aux ménages, de libéralisation, et de renforcement des règlementations forestières, par des changements dans les marchés agricoles et forestiers, ainsi que par la dégradation des forêts et des terres de montagne et les réactions des acteurs locaux à celle-ci. Selon les contextes, les effets de ces changements sur la situation des habitants des régions reboisées est variable. La reforestation s'est également accompagnée d'un déplacement de la déforestation à l'extérieur du pays, pour combler la demande croissante de bois du Vietnam, qui représente environ 40% de la reforestation dans le pays. L'importation de bois est composée pour moitié de bois illégal coupé dans les forêts naturelles des pays voisins, et la majeure partie de ce bois n'est pas consommée sur place, mais réexportée après transformation. La transition a permis de séquestrer annuellement dans les forêts vietnamiennes plus de carbone que la quantité émise par la consommation d'énergies fossiles au Vietnam. Par contre, la dégradation des forêts continue, et la transition n'a dans l'ensemble pas permis de stopper l'érosion de la biodiversité des forêts vietnamiennes. ; (GEOG 3) -- UCL, 2009
Marine ecosystems represent the greatest volume of the biosphere and the largest surface of the planet. They are home to an enormous diversity of animals, plants and microbes and are crucially important resource for fishing, transport, mining and recreation. Humans have been dependant on the seas and oceans for many millennia and have used the coastal waters as a prehistoric resource for food and expansion around the planet (Moore et al., 2013). Coastal region are frequently areas of great natural beauty and are used extensively for recreation and tourism as reflected in the mass migration of people to the coasts in the holiday seasons (Golyshin et al., 2003). The Mediterranean has become one of the most demanded destinations for organized touristic routes (increasing cruising market) and "self-made" ones (boating and chartering). Despite the strict link between tourism development in coastal areas and port facilities, the sector growth has not been sustained neither by an adequate expansion nor by an adaptation of the ports. Ports have a decisive role in the development of coastal areas and the risk of impact of infrastructures construction and maritime traffic on the coastal zone is high. Ports are part of the logistics chain and the transport networks with a decisive role in the development of coastal areas. However, the risk of impact of infrastructures construction and maritime traffic on the coastal zone is high. The problem with any port expansion is the balance between environmental and social-economic issues (sustainable development). In fact, if on one hand the development of infrastructures has to take into account environmental impact and restoration to ecological standards, on the other hand, denial of port expansion for environmental reasons may favour other competing ports. Due to their strategic location between sea and land, ports are particularly critical environments as they can receive pollution coming from land, ships and from the port facilities themselves. Furthermore, ports are not closed systems and their pollution may impact large parts of the adjacent coastal areas. Specifically, pollution by petroleum hydrocarbons is one of the major environmental problems in ports and it is mainly associated with the heavy ship/boat traffic and the related facilities located in these areas. The ship transport in ports is powered by diesel. The present study was carried out in the framework of the MAPMED project (Management of Port areas in the Mediterranean Sea Basin). The general objective of the project was to improve the environmental sustainability of tourist coastal areas in the Countries of the Mediterranean Sea Basin through the promotion of a long term cooperation between Institutional Authorities and the scientific community and, at a more specific level, to optimize, validate and transfer tools to guide Institutional Authorities in the sustainable management of tourist ports/harbours with regard to monitoring and reduction of hydrocarbon pollution. Strategies for cleaning up hydrocarbon pollution are greatly affected by a variety of factors, such as type of oil, characteristics of the spill site, and occasionally political considerations. A number of approaches and technologies have been developed for controlling oil pollution in marine environments. Bioremediation has emerged as one of the most promising treatment options for oil removal since its successful application after the 1989 Exxon Valdez spill. The general objective of this work was to evaluate and compare the applicability of different bioremediation approaches of seawaters and sediments in Mediterranean tourist ports. Particularly, it was directed to contribute to the answer to two following main questions: -Do different tourist ports share the same bacterial communities? -Do bioremediation strategies have similar applicability in different tourist port areas? The specific aims of the present study were: 1. Definition and comparison of the pollution status of seawater. 2. Comparison of the bacterial communities in seawater. 3. Characterization of the dominant cultivable hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria from seawater and sediments. 4. Comparison of the effects of biostimulation treatment on bacterial communities in seawater at laboratory scale. 5. Comparison of the effect of bioaugmentation treatments on PAH degradation in sediments at laboratory scale. Three tourist ports located across the Mediterranean Sea were selected as case study sites representative tourist harbours in the Basin: Cagliari (Sardinia, Italy) in the western part, El Kantaoui (Tunisia) in the central part, and Heraklion (Crete, Greece) in the eastern part. Beside their geographic position, port selection was also based on other different elements, such as categories of maritime traffic, port dimension and existing information on pollution. The maritime traffic inside the three tourist ports is represented by recreational boats, passenger ships and fishing vessels. In addition to the marine traffic, the major pollution sources related to the three port areas are wastewater discharges into the sea, river mouth, fuelling stations, and fishing activities. Data demonstrated that Cagliari port was characterized by a high level of eutrophication. Coherently with the high nutrient load, the viable title of heterotrophs was one-log higher in the seawater of Cagliari port when compared with values found in the other ports. The structure of the microbial communities in seawater from Cagliari and El Kantaoui were more similar to one another than the others while Heraklion presented different community structures. During the biostimulation treatment in seawater microcosms, comparable degradation kinetics were found for Cagliari and Heraklion sites. Furthermore, nutrient amendments in El Kantaoui microcosms resulted in a two-fold increase in the degradation rates as compared to the other two port areas. The structures of the bacterial communities of El Kantaoui were more homogenous than those from Cagliari, while Heraklion presented a moderate change in community structures during bioremediation treatment. Moreover, different community structures were found for the three sites at the end of the treatment. The community of cultivable degraders from seawater of the Cagliari port was dominated by copiotrophic bacteria belonging to the genus Pseudomonas whereas the majority of the isolates from Port El Kantaoui were Alcanivorax. Both OHCBs and non-professional hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria were equally represented in the community from Heraklion port. The autochthonous population from the sediments of El Kantaoui does not possess the metabolic routes necessary to metabolize BaP being the addition of an allochthonous strain a successful strategy for promoting BaP degradation. Thus, a selectivity of the bioaugmentation treatments was demonstrated both in terms of typology of PAHs and sediments.
Financial distress is a state where firms do not have enough proceeds to pay theirfinancial obligations while at maturity they become bankrupt. Generally, financial difficultiesare the main indicator of failure and give a signal of the beginning of the expectedbankruptcy. Thus, financial distress needs to be wary of for investor and companies. Thisresearch aims to differences in financial distress between the method of revision andmodification of the Altman Z-score pharmaceutical companies the period 2014-2018 and theinfluence of Net Working Capital to Total Assets (WC/TA), Retained Earning to Total Assets(RE/TA), Earning Before Interest and Tax to Total Assets (EBIT/TA), Book Value of Equity toTotal Liabilities (BVE/BVL), and Sales to Total Assets (S/TA) on Financial Distress onpharmaceutical companies listed on the IDX. This study took an observation period of fiveyears, from 2014 to 2018, where the number of samples used were 9 pharmaceuticalcompanies on the IDX. This study examines the regression relationship between thedependent variable and the independent variable with multiple linear. In this study showsthat the partial test results of the ratio contained in the Altman Z-score, namely WC / TA, RE/ TA, EBIT / TA, BVE / BVL, and S / TA have a positive effect on financial distress.Keywords: Financial Distress, Z-score, Revision Method, Modification Method, WC/TA,RE/TA, EBIT/TA, BVE/BVL, S/TReferenceAl-khatib, H. B., & Al-Horani, A. (2012, July). Predicting Financial Distress of Public Companies Listed in Amman Stock Exchange. European Scientific Journal, 8(15).Abdullah, A. B., & Ismail, K. N. (2008). Disclosure of Voluntary Accounting Ratios by Malaysian Listed Companies. Journal of Financial Reporting and Accounting, 6(1), 1-20.Almilia, L. S., & Kristijadi. (2003, Desember). analisis rasio keuangan untuk memprediksi kondisi financial distress perusahaan manufaktur yang terdaftar di Bursa Efek Jakarta. Jurnal Akuntansi dan Auditing Indonesia, 7(2), 183-210.Aripin, N., Tower, G., & Taylor, G. (2011). Insights on the diversity of financial ratios communication. Asian Review of Accounting, 19(1), 68-85.Bindu, T. H., Subrahmanyam, S. E., & Bhat, M. S. (2015). Financial performance analysis of selected dairy units in Andhra Pradesh using Altman Z score model. Asia Pacific Journal of Research, I(XXVI), 34-42.Binti, S., Zeni, M., & Ameer, R. (2010). Turnaround prediction of distressed companies: evidence from Malaysia. Journal of Financial Reporting and Accounting, 8(2), 143-159.Bryan, D., Fernando, G. D., & Tripathy, A. (2013). Bankruptcy risk, productivity and firm strategy. Review of Accounting and Finance, 12(4), 309-326.Campbell, J. Y., Hilscher, J. D., & Szilagyi, J. (2011). Predicting financial distress and the performance of distressed. Journal of Investment Management, 9(2), 14-34.Chamboko, R., Kadira, G., Mundia, L., & Chamboko, R. K. (2017). Mapping patterns of financial distress among consumers in Zimbabwe. International Journal of Social Economics, 44(12), 1654-1668.Chen, Y., Chen, C. H., & Huang, S. L. (2010). An appraisal of financially distressed companies' earnings management: Evidence from listed companies in China. Pacific Accounting Review, 22(1), 22-41.Cultrera, L., & Bredart, X. (2016). Bankruptcy prediction: the case of Belgian SMEs. Review of Accounting and Finance, 15(1), 101-119.Dwijayanti, S. P. (2012, Juli). Penyebab, dampak, dan prediksi dari financial distress serta solusi untuk mengatasi financial distress. Jurnal Akuntansi Kontemporer, 2(2), 191-205.Exchange, I. S. (n.d.). IDX. Retrieved from Indonesia Stock Exchange: https://www.idx.co.id/Farooq, U., Qamar, M. A., & Haque, A. (2018). A three-stage dynamic model of financial distress. Managerial Finance, 44(9), 1101-1116.Ghozali, H. I. (2014). Ekonometrika: Teori, Konsep dan Aplikasi IBM SPSS 22. Semarang: Badan Penerbit Universitas Diponegoro.Gunathilaka, C. (2014). Financial distress prediciton: A comparative study of solvency test and Z-score models with Reference to Sri Lanka. Journal of Financial Risk Management, XI(3), 39-51.Hidayat, M. A., & Meiranto, W. (2014). Prediksi financial distress perusahaan manufaktur di Indonesia. Journal of Accounting, 33, 1-11.Hu, D., & Zheng, H. (2015). Does ownership structure affect the degree of corporate financial distress in China? Journal of Accounting in Emerging Economies, 5(1), 33-50.Indonesia, I. A. (2019). Standar Akuntansi Keuangan. Retrieved from PSAK 1 Penyajian Laporan Keuangan: http://www.iaiglobal.or.id/v03/standar-akuntansi-keuangan/pernyataan-sak-7-psak-1-penyajian-laporan-keuanganLeClere, M. J. (2006). Bankruptcy studies and ad hoc variable selection: a canonical correlation analysis. Review of Accounting and Finance, 5(4), 410-422.Lee, T. A. (2011). Bankrupt accountants and lawyers: Transition in the rise of professionalism in Victorian Scotland. Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal, 24(7), 879-903.Nasser, E. M., & Aryati, T. (2000). Model analisis camel untuk memprediksi financial distress pada sektor perbankan yang Go Public. Jurnal Akuntansi dan Auditing Indonesia, 4(2), 111-130.Pemerintah, P. (2016, Juni 8). Instruksi Presiden (INPRES) tentang Percepatan Pengembangan Industri Farmasi dan Alat Kesehatan. Retrieved from Peraturan BPK: https://peraturan.bpk.go.id/Home/Details/77336/inpres-no-6-tahun-2016Permana, R. K., Ahmar, N., & Djaddang, S. (2017, Oktober). Prediksis Financial Distress pada perusahaan manufaktur di Bursa Efek Indonesia. Jurnal Bisnis dan Manajemen, 7(2), 149-166.Ramadhani, A. S., & Lukviarman, N. (n.d.). perbandingan analisis prediksi kebangkrutan menggunakan metode altman pertama, revisi, altman modifikasi dengan ukuran dan umur peusahaan sebagai variabel penjelas. Jurnal Siasat Bisnis, 13(1), 15-28.Standards, I. F. (n.d.). IFRS. Retrieved from IFRS Standarads: https://www.ifrs.org/issued-standards/list-of-standards/Statistik, B. P. (n.d.). BPS. Retrieved from Badan Pusat Statistik: https://www.bps.go.id/Sugiyono. (2015). Metode Penelitian Pendidikan. Bandung: Alfabeta.Trussel, J. M., & Patrick, P. A. (2009). A predictive model of fiscal distress in local governments. Journal of Public Budgeting, Accounting & Financial Management, 21(4), 578-616.Trussel, J. M., & Patrick, P. A. (2013). Predicting fiscal distress in special district governments. Journal of Public Budgeting, Accounting & Financial Management, 25(4), 589-616.Trussel, J. M., & Patrick, P. A. (2018). Assessing and ranking the financial risk of municipal governments: The case of Pennsylvania. Journal of Applied Accounting Research, 19(1), 81-101.
Issue 15.4 of the Review for Religious, 1956. ; A. M. D. G. Review for Religious JULY 15, 1956 To The Sons of Ignatius . Pope Plus XII For the Greater Glory of God . Henry Willmerlng Sisters' RetreatsmlV . Thomas Dubey The Occasional Confessor . Meurlce B, Welsh Mother Theodore Guerln . Sister Eugenla Thoughts on Transfers . Winfr~d Herbsf Book Reviews Questions and Answers Communicafions VOLUME XV No. 4 R V EW VOLUME XV FOR RELIGIOUS JULY, 1956 NUMBER 4 CONTENTS TO THE SONS OF IGNATIUS--Pope Pius XII . 169 SOME PAMPHLETS . : . 172 FOR THE GREATER GLORY OF GOD--Henry Willmering, S.3. . 173 ST. IGNATIUS AND THE EUCHARIST . 176 PICTURE MEDITATIONS . 176 SISTERS' RETREATS--IV--Thomas Dubay, S.M . 177 OUR CONTRIBUTORS . 184 THE OCCASIONAL CONFESSOR-~Maurice B. Walsh, S.3 . 185 VOCATIONAL FILMSTRIP . 188 MOTHER THEODORE GUERIN--Sister Eugenia . 189 PAMPHLETS . 201 THOUGHTS ON TRANSFERS---Winfrid Herbst, S.D.S . 202 COMMUNICATIONS . 206 BOOK REVIEWS AND ANNOUNCEMENTS-- Editor: Bernard A. Hausmann, S.J. West Baden College West Baden Springs, Indiana . 210 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS-- 24. Obligation for Postulants ~o Make General Confession . 2i9 25. Helpful Canon Law Books . 220 26. Putting Water in Finger Bowl Before Mass . 220 27. Too much Canon Law in Constitutions? . 220 28. Why Frequent Mass in Black Vestments . 221 29. Beginning Noviceship While Hospitalized . 222 SOME BOOKS RECEIVED . ¯ . 224 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, July, 1956. Vol. XV, No. 4. Published bi-monthly: January, March, May, July, September, and November, at the College Press, 606 Harrison Street, .Topeka, Kansas, by St. Mary's College St. Marys, Kansas, with ecclesiastical approbation. Entered as second class matter, January 15, 1942, at the Post Office, Topeka, Kansas, under the act of March 3, 1879. Editorial Board: Augustine G. Ellard, S.3., Gerald Kelly, S.J., Henry Willmering, S.J. Literary Editor: Edwin F. Falteisek, S.J. Publishing rights reserved by REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS. Permission is hereby granted for quotations of reasonable length, provided due credit be given this review and the author. Subscription price: 3 dollars a year; 50 cents a copy. Printed in U. S. A. Before writing o us, please consult notice on inside back cover. To the Sons d Igna!:ius Pope Pius XII [EDITORS; NOTE: We present here the text of the letter sent by the Holy Father to John Baptist Janssens, General of the Society of Jesus, on July 31, 1955. The footnote references have been omitted.] IT was a real joy for Us to hear that the Society of Jesus, which you, beloved son, have been governing for the past nine years, is about to celebrate with solemn festivities the memory of its holy founder on the fourth centenary of his death; to the end that all its m'embers may be aroused to a more ardent love of their beloved father and lawgiver, and a more perfect observance of his Institute. These centennial celebrations receive Our hearty approval and We join thereto Our prayers for their success, all the more willingly for the well-founded hope that rich benefits will flow from them not only to the sons of St, Ignatius but also to the souls of the faithful. For, just as by an" Apostol.ic Letter expressing Our affection on the occa-. sion of the fourth centenary of the founding of your Society, as a gesture of comfort to Ourselves as well as to you, "We reckoned up with gratitude those remarkable achievements which God in His providence had brought about in the course of the past four hundred years "through'the Society of old and today," so We take pleasure in recalling the same on this occasion as a precious pledge for the future. We are also happy to exhort you once more from the heart of a father to carry forward with untiring earnestness, especially in the spiritual sphere, all your activities, your ministries and everything by which you may give timely answers to the changing and ever-increas-ing needs of our own times. We have been informed that all your provinces throughout the world have with a will set themselves to celebrate this centenary year by devoting themselves with still greater zeal and fidelity to the Spi6tual Exercises of their father and founder and to spreading their use more Widely. In truth, St. Ignatius has left his sons no legacy more precious, more useful, more lasting than that golden book which,: from the time of Paul III, sovereign pontiffs and innumerable saints in the Church have frequently praised most highly. If there is truth in that which Father La Palma wrote, that the book of the Spiritual Exercises was the firstborn of St. Ignatius, the saintly author can be equally well said to have been the firstborn of those Exercises. They are what invigorated his soul with new life, guided his first steps in the way of perfection, increased his strength to enable him 169 POPE PIUS XII Review for Religions to choose the divine King wearied by toil, harassed by insults, sub-missive to torture and death in the service of His eternal Father, and to follow Him to the very summit of love, so that, ablaze with the fire of divine love, he ardently desired to bring not only himself, but the whole world, to the feet of Christ our Savior. Ignatius, who had tested the great force of these Exercises, on one occasion declared that in them was contained ".everything that is most excellent that I can think of, feel and comprehend in this life, to enable a man to make fruitful progress in his own soul, and be of benefit and a stimulus to others." So no one will be surprised that your saintly founder wished to be fully tested in these Exercises each one who desired in this Society "to fight God's battle under the banner of the Cross, and to serve solely our Lord and His Spouse, the Church, guided by the Roman Pontiff, Vicar of Christ on earth.'; He wished his sons to imbibe that spirit, which is the foundation of the Society, from the same source from which he had drunk his new life. This spirit is a mar-velous and holy ardor of mind, aroused by the grace of God work-ing in the Exercises, which would make them not only desirous, but prompt and eager, to devote themselves to God's glory, and for the sake of the same, to undertake exacting labors. Hence, forgetful of their own convenience, shunning leisure, devoted to the practice of prayer based on personal mortification, they would strive with all their might to attain the end proposed to them in the Society. Btit when Ignatius, authorized by Pope Paul III, Our predeces-sor of happy memory, later composed the Constitutions and gave them to his companions, his intention was not that rigid laws should replace the living and life-giving law of interior love. And after the Society was established, he did not lose sight of the meaning of that phrase, "to be at the special service of the Holy See" under the stand-ard of the Cross, that Cross to which Jesus Christ affixed the decree written against us, after He had wiped it out, so that all men might be freed from Satan's power and march in the light of faith and warmth of charity. The command given on Mr. Olivet sounded clearly in his ear: .',and you will be my witnesses . . . to the ends of the earth." Later Augustine would write: "spread charity through the whole world, if youl want to love Christ because Christ's mem-bers are throughout the world." And Ignatius himself was destined to see over a thousand of his followers serving under the standard of the Cross in the distant lands of Europe, America, India, Ethiopia. This was the beginning of that apostolate which would call his sons 170 ~ 1956 TO THE SONS OF IGNATIUS to the vast field of the I~ord, some to the heathen missions, which the popes over the years would be entrusting to them to till with un-remitting labor, exact knowledge, 'even with their blood; others tO labor close to heads of state, or among those oppressed by slavery; still others to direct schools of youth or to occupy university chairs; still others to give the Spir.itual Exercises to every class of men, or to enrich and brighten the world of letters by their writings. It will be for the Constitutions to open the road by which the whole So-ciety and all its members, though dispersed throughout the worId yet united to each other and its head by the same love of the eternal King, might in the spirit of the Ignatian Institute attain that perfect manner, of life which is the chief fruit of the Exercises. Beloved son, who of the Society, in this fourth centenary year, will not listen .to that word, once Paul's now Ignatius': "Be con-tent, brethren, to follow my example and mark well those who live by the pattern we have given them." Through God's goodness, the Society never lacked saintly men, who, exactly obedient to the Exer-cises of Ignatius, kept that pattern unmarred, and drew energy and strength to live precisely according to the Constitutions, so as to re-produce in themselves more perfectly that patte,rn, and work more effectively for souls. Plus VII, of immortal memory, sought men of this stamp when he wished to equip Peter's storm-tossed bark with strong, expert oarsmen; Holy Mother Church in these troubled times asks the Society for helpers of the same mould. May today's sons of Ignatius, therefore, strive to follow in their footsteps. Under the standard of the Cross may they stand firm against all the at[acks of the princes of this world of darkness. Loving and ready obedience must be shown to superiors, especially the Supreme Pontiff; this is their most honorable badge. To worldly desires, love of poverty must be opposed; to empty pleasure a certain austerity of life and un-tiring labor; to the discords and. quarrels of the world, gentle and peace-bringing brotherly love, love for each other and for all men; to materialism that sincere and earnest faith which always acknowl-edges and reverences the presence of God in the universe. If all this comes to pass, Ignatius, though dead, will live on in his sons. As We write these lines, dear son, with all the love of a father's heart, Our thoughts turn to those fathers and brothers who have suffered or are actually suffering bitter exile and torture at the hands of their persecutors. Surely they are most worthy sons, echoing the most glorious traditions of the Society of Jesus. They are confessors of the Catholic faith,, who are aft" honor to their brethren as well as 171 PoPE PIUS XII an example. May God strengthen them; most willingly do We bless them. But it is to all the softs of Ignatius that We extend our lov-ing greetings, begging God that under the patronage of your founder, father, and lawmaker, protected by the ever Blessed Virgin Mary, they may day by day increase in virtue, thus moulded by divine grace into a strong instrument so that all things may be guided aright by the di~,ine hand, and happily contribute to the greater glory of God. In testimony of Our special benevolence towards the Society of Jesus, We lovingly bestow on you, dear son, and on all those re-ligious throughout the world entrusted to your charge, the Apostolic Blessing. SOME PAMPHLETS All That 1 Want. The story of John F. Logsdon. Edited by Paschal Boland, O.S.B. Grail Publications, St. Meinrad, Indiana. Pp. 107. 25c. In Silence Before God. Examination of Conscience. By M. M. Philipon, O.P. Translated by A. M. Crofts, O.P. The Newman PresL Westminster, Maryland. Pp. 46. 30c. Family Limitation. Modern Medical Observations on the use of the 'Safe Period.' By John Ryan, M.B., B.S., F.R.C.S., F.I.C.S. Foreword by .Alan Keenan, O.F.M. Sbeed and Ward, 840 Broadway, N. Y. 3. Pp. 36. (Price not given.) Sacramentals, Medals, and Scapulars. By Winfrid Herbst, S.D.S. Society of St. Paul, 2187 Victory Blvd., Staten Island 14. Pp. 55. 35c. Your Child's Religious Liberty. By Virgil C. Blum, S.J. Catechetlcal Guild, Educational Society, St. Paul 2, Minnesota. Pp. 64. 15c. Mental Prayer. By Cyril Bernard, O.D.C. Clonmore and Reynolds, 29 Kildare St., Dublin, 1955. Pp. 48. 2/6d. The Canon of the Mass. By Dom Placid Murray, O.S.B. Part I deals with the history of the canon. Part II gives a new English translation. Here is new light on an old problem. Pp. 14. Fourpence. The Furrow, St. Patrick's College, May-nootb, Ireland. The following pamphlets are from the Queen's Work, 3115 S. Grand Blvd., St. Louis 18, Mo., and are 10c each. How Brave Can You Be? By Bakewell Morrison. S.J. Pp. 31. Personality and Mental Health. By Hugh P. O'Neill, S.J. Pp. 27. These Lucky Catholics. By Daniel A. Lord. S.J. Pp. 40. Mary's Morning Minute. Compiled by Florence Wedge. Pp. 40. Mary Always Remembers You. By T. N. Jorgensen, S.J. Pp. 32. What a Sinyle Girl Can Do fdr Christ. By W. B. Faherty, S.J. Pp. 32. Which Rites Are Right? By Brother Aurelian Thomas, F.S.C. Pp. 29. The Tree of Life. Also, Seven Supernatural Powers. By Rev. Joseph A. Lauritis, C.S.Sp. Holy Ghost Fathers, 1615 Manchester Lane, N.W., Washington 11, D. C. Pp. 32. 10c each. Why a Priest Is Called Reverend Father." By Dora Rembert Sorg, O.S.B. Plo Decimo Press, Box 53, Baden Station, St. Louis 15, Mo. Pp. 22. 20c. 172 For Ehe reat:er lory ot: Henry Willm.ering, S.J. THIS well-known maxim of St. Ignatius Loyola ,aptly expresses his devotion to a great cause: the. spread.of God s kingdom on earth. We consider here how he came by it, lived by it, prayed for it, suffered and died for it; and how, realizing that he could not carry out God's work alone, he gathered disciples about him, who embraced the same cause: namely, to pray, labor, and suffer for this ideal, the promotion of God's greater glory. Inigo of Loyola lived in an era of conquest and discovery. The year of his birth, 1491, marked the conquest of Granada and the liberation of Spain from Moorish rule. In this conquest Inigo's father took a prominent part. The next year Columbus discovered a new world; and during Inigo's youth great national heroes, like De Soto, Cortez and Pizzaro, added many provinces to the Spanish empire. A brother, Hernandez, died in the conquest of Mexico; and two otherbrothers fell on Europe's battlefields. What wonder that the youngest son of Loyola should wish to distinguish himself in the service of his ~sovereign majesty and devote his talents to the promotion of the greater glory of Spain. In this ambitious career, God halted him after his first display of heroism. A far nobler course and loftier ideal was revealed to him. He was invited to enlist in the service of an eternal King. But the thought of transferring his allegiance frightened him at first; it seemed so fantastic to give up a promising career and disappoint all his friends. After a hard struggle, he yielded to divine grace, though the plan he bad for the future was still rather vague and imaginative. After making a pilgrimage to Palestine, he thought he might live as a hermit: pray, fast, and practice other austerities, as did the saints, in atonement for his past sinful life. Before God can use an instrument for His purpose, He must first temper it in the fire of suffering. The desire of doing and suffering great things for God is often "an illusion of self-love, and nothing so effectively blocks the designs of God as this human failing. Accord-ingly Inigo had to be purged of every vestige of self-complacency. After a brief period of peace of soul and heavenly consolations, he was continually troubled with harassing fears and scruples. He re-doubled his penances and prolonged the time of prayer and sought relief in works of mercy, but all in vain. Neither repeated confes-sions, nor the. advice of spiritual directors offered him the least con- 173 HENRY WILMERING Reoieto For Reliqious solatioh. It was only after his soul had been stirred to its very depths and he-had been led to the brink of despair that finally he regained his composure of soul; and then he had, as he said, "mar- ,,ellous illuminations and extraordinary spiritual consolations." He seemed io himself like a new man, "who had been awakened from a 'drugged sleep." Ever after he had a different outlook on life and cdncentrated all his efforts and care on promoting the greater glory of God. During this period he began to note down material for what was to become the book of the Spiritual Exercises. Briefly he set down in writing the truths upon which he had meditated, the ex-periences through which he passed; and, by combining them into a systematic course, he forged a weapon that would be serviceable, not merely to the soldier who first wielded it, but which would pass from one generation to the next as a trenchant "sword of the spirit, th'at is the word of God." ¯ We so often emphasize the infinity, knowledge, and providence of Gc;d. In the Spiritual Exercises we find another aspect of the divine nature made central: the will of God. St. Ignatius points out to us that God has a purpose, a plan, a will for each one of us. His Mm ih the Exercises is to make men realize this important truth and to bring them to that disposition in which they will say with our Lord: "I seek not my own will, but the will of Him that sent me." Because God is infinitely wise and good, His will represents the o. nly thing in life worth living and dying for. The man who seeks continually to know and do God's will lives for the greater glory of God. St. Ignatius made this the bed-rock principle on which he built up his own spiritual life. So firmly did he hold to it, that some years before his death he could say, that for thirty years'he had never put off anything which had been de-cided for God's greater glory. As a trained soldier, however, be wished to receive God's orders through a. captaih. The thoughtful perusal of the life of Christ dur-ing his convalescence had convinced him that Jesus Christ was the divinely appointed leader, whom all must follow. Since the prin-ciples taught by our Lord are the expression of His Father's will, and the example of Christ is the norm by which we may measure our conformity to it, the imitation Of Christ is the fulfillment of God's. will. The ideal is, that even when "the praise and glory of God would be equally served, I desire and choose poverty with'Christ poor, rather than riches, in order to imitate and be in reality more FOR THE GREATER GLORY OF GOD like Christ our Lord; I choose'insults with Christ loaded with them, rather than honors; I desire to be accounted as worthless.and a fool for. Christ, rath'er than to be esteemed as wise and prudent in this world. So was Christ treated before me." Our divine'Lord had a mission entrusted to Him by His Father: to call all men to His standard and encourage them to embrace His principles. He trained apostles and sent them throughout the whole world to spread His doctrine among men. Similarly St. Ignatius gathered disciples," taught them the principl~s of Christ. through the Spiritual Exercises, and, when they were well trained, he sent them to every land to spread G0d's'kingdom and promote His greater glory by word and example. With a view to perpetuating this work, he organized his companions into a "company," and called it "the Company or Society of Jesus." That this new religious order should, meet with opposition and persecution was inevitable. It introduced many innovations in re-ligious discipline that were demanded by the spiritual labors it planned to carry on. In a period when drastic reforms were urgently called for amoog both clergy and laity in the Church and when heretics were preacl~ing their false proj6~ts of reform in almost every part of Europe, St. Ignatius and his companions set about effecting a true reform. By means of the Spiritual Exercises many prelates and priests were induced to seek not their own advantages in life but the advancement of the Kingdom of Christ. The preaching and teach-ing of Peter Faber, Peter Canisius, Claude LeJay, Alphonse Salmeron, and other Jesuits in countries infested with the new doctrine of the heretical reformers saved many districts for the Catholic faith and converted countless souls from heresy, Yet this activity caused them to be calumniated, persecuted, and drixien from place to place. Along with their Founder, they bore such ill treatment #ith admirable fortitude and patience. Once when St. Ignatius was asked what was the most certain road to perfection, he answered, "To endure many and grievous afflictions for the love of Christ." Once the Society was founded and bechosen to direct the same, Ignatius lived in Rome for the rest of his life. He took the deepest interest in all the labors carried on by his companions and invariably showed the affection of a devoted father to every member whom he admitted into his Society. He ardently longed to share their labors: and, even when broken with age and infirmity, he said that should the Holy Father order it, he would immediately set out for any part of the world to spread God's kingdom. He was asked one day which 175 HENRY WILMERING he would prefer: to die immediately with a guarantee of his salvation ' or to continue for some years more, with opportunities of helping souls but with no guarantee at the end. Knowing his burning zeal for God's gIory and his all-consuming zeal for souls, we are pre-pared to hear that he. declared for the second alternative. Now four hundred years have passed since his death. Ever since and in every land the sons of St. Ignatius in his spirit and according to his principles have labored for God's greater glory. He is ranked by the Church among the great founders of religious orders, Sts. Benedict, Francis of Assisi and Dominic; and rightly so. As a prac-tical organizer and great lover of Christ, he served his Leader and King with an un'divided heart and induced numberless souls to live, labor, suffer, and die for the greater glory of God. ST. IGNATIUS AND THE EUCHARIST Few people realize the tremendous efforts of St. Ignatius Loyola and his early followers in behalf of frequent Communion. A thorough study of their Eucharistic apostolate was published in 1944 by Father ,Justo Beguiriztain, 8.2., on the oc-casion of the Fourth National Eucharistic Congress of Buenos Aires. The Spanish original has recently been translated by 3bhn H. Collins, S.,I., and published in a very attractive form under the title The Eucharistic Apostolate of St. Igr~atius Loyola. It is an excellent souvenir of this Ignatian centenary. Price:' $I.00. Order from: Loyola House, 297 Commonwealth Avenue, Boston 15, Mass. PICTURF.' MEDITATIONS Father Aloysius ,L Heeg, S,J., has prepared four charming booklets entitled Picture Meditations for the use of all who want to learn and practice a simple form of mental prayer. Each booklet contains seven meditations on the life of Christ, and each meditation is illustrated by a picture in full color. Not only are the booklets ideal for teaching youth the practike of mental prayer and, for helping the sick to pray~ but they should also be very useful for religious who find it hard to concentrate during the period of mental prayer. There are also two picture rolls. each containing 14 full-color enlargements (21x33 inches) o'f the pictures in the booklets. The price of the booklets is 10 cents each, 35 cents per set; special quan-tity prices. The price of each picture roll is $2.15 net. Order from: The Queen's Work, 3115 South Grand Boulevard, St. Louis 18, Missouri. 176 Sist:ers' Retreats--IV Thomas Dubay, S.M. WrE leave now in this series of articles problems dealing with retreat approaches, techniques, and mechanics and enter the less tangible realm of understanding and aims. While less palpable, these latter are at least equally crucial if not more so. UNDERSTANDING OF RETREATANTS' NEEDS Judging from their conferences and meditations, do you think that retreat masters understand your rea! spiritual needs? __yes, very well __sometimes yes, sometimes no __no, not too well Further comment (space provided) With this question the sisters were invited on to thin ice, for it can be at times genuinely difficult to know if one is understood or not. However, even though certain knowledge may often be impos-sible on this point, opinion is not: and it is the latter that was sought. Of those answering the question 192 (27.8 %) thought that re-treat masters understand their needs very well; 466 (67.7%) be-lieved that some priests are successful on this score and some are not; and 31 (4.5 %) thought that retreat masters usually do not under-stand them. The overall picture is a trifle disconcerting, not chiefly because of those in the third category, but because of the high percentage of sisters in the second. Any physician likes to think that he under-stands the patient, and any retreat master hopes that he possesses at least a good general understanding of a majority of the sisters' needs. However, it seems questionable their a large number of retreat masters hold.the sisters' confidence on this point. That a considerable num-ber of priests do hold that confidence cannot be doubted, but none-theless we would like to think that all enjoyed it. But most clouds have a silver lining, and we need not look in vain for a cheering side to this problem. The sisters' readiness to understand the difficulties the retreat master faces and charitably to explain any lack of understanding on his part is encouraging. We think that this spirit of kindliness is evident in their further corn-ments: It is difficult for a priest not living your rule to understand your spiritual needs. He tries his best, but he sometimes draws on his knowledge of other communities. A friendly chat on various subjects with the superior before retreat might help. .17,7 THOMAS DUBAY Review [or Religious This is only natural. Religious life among women differs from that among men just ~as] the dispositions of men "and women differ. How can the retreat master understand unless the Holy Spirit enlightens? A sister can usually tell the first day whether such is the case. Some priests seem afraid to get down to particulars--everything is so general that it i~ va.gue. Those who are teachers themselves seem to understand our spir.itual needs as teach-ing religious better than those whose main work is giving retreats. Sometimes I'd like to interrupt and say something like, "Yes, I know, but I can't .do that: this is my problem, see?" But on the whole they are understanding. Very few retreat masters understand the life of a hospital sister. It is very hard to be united to our dear Lord, because everything is rush, rush in hospital work today. We are sometimes too tired to pray. A really good retreat master is rare! Most do not understand the psychology of women. They miss real evils in religious life and fail to get at real problems. They judge what needs to be talked about by confessional difficulties which their own talks have often inspired. Many times they hit the nail on the head. Too frequently a retreat master judges by his own life and community. The activ-ities of nuns and their life is very different. Amazingly well. Too much attention, I think, is given to the needs of the purgative way and too little of a challenge to advancing sanctity. Because they are busy we get their courses which aren't what we need when our physical and mental state is mighty weary. The master would needs be pretty good to know all the spiritual needs of nuns. mean real feminine needs for a virile spirituality. Most priests do a pretty good job. Sometimes I feel they're not too patient with our problems. Sometimes I don't think they understand all the interior struggles of women. Wo-men are not, unfortunately, as "'manly" as men are. They can be very petty. Depends on the individual. Then, too, it is hard to reach everyone from age 20-80, engaged in all kinds of work. If the retreat master wants to know, he might pass out questionnaires after the retreat. Most of the time. It would seem that the more fully they live their own religious life the better their grasp of the problems of others. They try to, I believe, so why not give them credit? If one comes along who's dull, I make my own retreat find a good spiritual book for in between and get my spiritual needs supplied there. God's grace helps. Essentially our needs are the same and it is up to the individual and grace poured in to put his words to work (application). I love retreats for that reason--the exercise of that part of soul and brain! 178 July, 1956 SISTERS".RETREATS--IV Too often they seem to"forget we have voluntarily chosen a life of striving for per-fection and are therefore not, interested in minimum standards. It might be well "for us to single out for explicit mention the precise problems that the sisters think cause or occasion a lack of understanding in the retreat master: 1. The psychological differences between men and women. 2. Differences in the religious life as lived by men and as lived by~ women with the consequent failure to see the real problems in the latter. 3. Differences in the religious life as lived by different communi-ties of women. 4. Problems connected with particular kinds of work in which the sisters engage, e.g., teaching and nursing. 5. Tendency to be vague due probably to a lack of application of principles to concrete cases. 6. The assumption that sisters are interested only in mediocre goodness. The last two observations lead us naturally to the next sections of this article. HEIGHTS OF HOLINESS Thus far in our study the reader may have noticed that one of the deepest and most frequently reoccurring undercurrents causing muddy retreat waters is the wide variety in personality, background, and gifts of grace found in the sisters making any retreat. Perhaps nowhere in our study is this undercurrent more in evidence than in the present question, dealing as it does with the heights of sanctity. What one religious considers the "heights" another may regard as a mere stepping stone. A goal that discourages one religious may serve merely to whet the spiritual appetite of another. And, to make the truth all the more difficult to discover, most of the sisters in registering their affirmative or negative views are talking about entirely different retreats and retreat masters. We might reasonably hope for more agreement if all had made the same retreats. At most, therefore, we can seek to bring common ideas into relief and through them work out retreat approaches that will serve to meet the spiritual aspirations of even greater numbers of religious. The question put to the sisters was worded as follows: Do you think that retreat masters ordinarily urge you sufficiently to the very heights of holiness? ~yes __no Further comment" 179 THOMAS DUBAY Reoieto [or Religious A majority of the respondents, 410 (63.1%), felt that their retreat masters usually did urge them sufficiently to the heights of sanctity. Many of these sisters pointed out the fact that some of their retreat masters did not so urge them to sanctity but that most of them did. A minority of 240 (36.9%) were of the opinion that ordinarily their retreat masters did not do enough urging to the heights of holiness. Again the importance of the word "ordinarily" in the question was brought out in that here also some sisters in-dicated that an occasional priest was an exception to their statement. The sisters' further comments cgnnot fail to throw light on the problem. Respondents voting "yes": The greater number of retreat masters were splendid spiritual men with a fund of understanding human nature. Much or almost all depends on the retreatant herself. I believe in climbing the heights of holiness: however, most of us keep firmly on "'terra /irma" and practice observance of the rule which eventually will help us to attain sanctity. In a general way they do. I think they ought to do more of it in the confessional. Ordinarily retreat masters have that ability. Sometimes it is the sister's fault. Either she gets a poor start because she is so tired or she is not well physically. And some-times she does not work hard enough. Retreat masters cannot do it all. What is sufficient for a group, many members of which need'practical advice, is not necessarily sufficient for every individual. This answer is relative. I think this is my own fault because I am not fully relaxed or able to concentrate. Our life is so full of activity. We go from one thing to another all in working to save souls, but I think we need to take more time out to consider our own heights of holiness. Yes, and it helps very much if they use the small everyday occurrences and show us how to use these as stepping stones. This, no matter how often it is repeated, never gets old. I just wait for a retreat to hear this again--to open my eyes again. At the close of every retreat I feel like a new person, ready to conquer the world for Christ. Retreat masters certainly encourage holiness. Yes. I have my troubles trying to reach the heights I've heard about. Nevertheless, it all serves to make me very thirsty anyway. Maybe some day--who knows? We have had very good retreat masters these.last years. I don't blame the retreat masters for my lack of spirituality. They most likely remember that there are weak and strong souls, and therefore most of them' stick to a happy medium. Otherwise the weak would end in dis-couragement. It is often the retreatants' fault if they do not cooperate in heeding the good ad-vice retreat masters present, that they do not advance in holiness. Again we do not reflect seriously enough on the many beautiful truths explained to us. We feel and 180 dul~ , 1956 SISTERS' RETREATS--IV depend [sic] too often that it is the retreat master's task, rather than ours, to make the retreat profitable for our spiritual welfare. Normally the idealtis well presented and one leaves the retreat aiming high. The trouble lies not with the retreat master, but with th'e individual in carrying out the good resolutions formulated. Respondents voting "no": Not in a definite and practical way. The human element too often is used as a modifier--and we use that very skillfully ourselves. No, but the one who pointed persistently to those heights has influenced my life more than any other. Very few point to supreme holiness as a possible achievement. I would say, out of the 14 retreats I have made, in only two of them did the retreat master approach this. Perhaps they wish to be too considerate of our feelings. So they highly praise the very least we do, and are inclined to consider it sufficient to discuss just average or ordinary goodness. No one can impart to others what he himself does not possess. Holiness cannot be found or imparted in eloquent terminology. Many do not cha!leng~ the sisters to strive for great holiness. What they say is good, but they do not go far enough. Even if one soul answered the call and rose to eminent sanctity, much (vould be accomplished. Too much emphasis on the trite. Some conferences taken from books. Sometimes A waste of time to listen. More help could be gleaned from reading a go~d spiritual book. Many seem, like all too many sisters, content with "getting by." I think each of us longs for sanctity or at least at times longs to be aroused to do so. This I think is the retreat master's grand opportunity. We all entered religion to become holy. The evidence here advanced certainly does not warrant any blanket conclusion or recommendation. Many retreat masters are manifestly doing a superb job of leading these spouses of Christ to sublime reaches of sanctity. Others might profitably examine both themselves and their message to see if they are teaching the complete and undiluted doctrine of the saints both by example (in-sofar as in them lies) and by word. All in all we may conclude that sisters do decidedly want to be urged to the heights, but in a way that (1) does not discourage the "weak," (2) spurs on the generous, (3) enlightens all, and (4) is practical and concrete. IMPLICATIONS OF SANCTITY Our last point above brings us to the next item of inquiry: in retreats is the perfection of holiness (attainable in this life) clearly 181 THOMAS DUBAY Reoieto for Religious explained both in what it is and in how it is to be reached? The question as put to the sisters was worded thus: Do they usually explain sufficiently what those heights really involve and how they are to be reached? ~.yes __no Further comment : Of those answering the question 339 (53.8%) replied in the affirmative and 291 (46.2%) in the negative. It is interesting to note that a considerable number of sisters shifted their yes vote in the previous question to a no in the present one. There were also some--much fewer in number--who did the opposite, i.e., who shifted their no vote to a yes. These split votes would seem to in-dicate that approximately one-half of the sisters questioned are dis-satisfied with some one or both aspects of the retreat master's treat-ment of this matter of perfection. On the other hand, of course, it also indicates that approximately one-half are satisfied with both aspects' and that more than half are content with at least one or other of them. The mere numerical compilation points to the fact that more of the sisters are satisfied with the amount of urging to sanctity than with the explanation of what sanctity is and bow it can prac-tically be attained. This conclusion is confirmed by the observations of the respondents who selected the negative answer. Sisters voting "yes" commented: Yes, but I don't think they make these heights sufficiently desirable. This could be explained really adequately only over a long period of time. I think they do so as well as time and circumstances allow. Yes, I suppose they do, but some retreat masters make it seem more real and actually possible of attainment than others. Perhaps I only say this because I'm a very young religious. In general, yes. Again, they can't reach everyone present. It's much like a classroom procedure--some can't absorb the rfiatter. They explain the heights of sanctity very thoroughly. The main thing is living our rule and vows to the utmost. Personally, I feel I am not ready for the heights. I must first get a footing on the road to holiness. Perhaps most of us feel the same way about it and "the retreat master must help us make the first steps rather than scale the heights. Yes, but the manner is often presented as being very difficult rather, than as something to be faced with joy and confidence. I have always found great satisfaction through the spiritual guidance of the retreat master. 182 dulg, 1956 SISTERS' RETREATS--.IV Some do. Others, it seems, get lost in lesser details. Let us have a clear-cut picture of ends. They aren't too great for us to try. It is wonderful to struggle after great prlzes--more wonderful than to win the lowest. Sisters registering negative views: Never have I heard a really good explanation of this sort in a general retreat medi-tation. I don't think so. It seems to me to be too idealistic and not practical enough. It gives the desire but often not the way . Perhaps I have stressed the practical too much, but young religious still have the ideals and theories in mind, but often lose the ideal in trying to apply it to daily life. This may be the opposite with older religious, I don't know. I think that a theme or subject of the entire retreat which is stressed in every conference will be long remembered by the sisters. Practical ex-amples from daily life and lives of the saints are also helpful. Many religious do not know the graces God has in store for those who give all. Nor do they know the sufferings involved. But if the door of God's grace were thrown wide .open before them, they would want the sufferings involved. I've made retreats already xvhere I went back to the notes of other retreats in order to get sufficient material for a meditation, or for motivation to greater sanctity. Do you think. Father, that enough retreat masters have a central idea or in simple words have some theme about which they weave their meditations? Many times one comes out with fragments rather than one piece from" which to take a slice during the year as the need presents itself. They often explain in very general terms, e.g., in regard to the degrees of humility. But really, you can't give what you haven't got; therefore, only holy priests can do this satisfactorily. Sometimes too much emphasis is placed on (mere) ascetic life. I have met sisters who recoil at the mere word of mysticism, which is no other thing than a very close union with God. We want that, but we don't know how to go about it. Mystical union is a free gift of God, but even that should be explained. It involves sacrifice and generosity, but I think that if we realize better the tremendous grace of union witb God, we will be more ready to immolate our petty likes and comforts. I hope it is not unfair to our retreat masters to give them such a negative rating. But I do not believe their training prepares them adequately to do a competent job in explaining these matters to sisters. They either evade the topic, or suggest it is not for "ordinary" people, or emotionalize, etc. All of which leaves one with a lurking suspicion--and perhaps we are speaking euphemistically--that all is not quite as rosy as he might hope. These questions dealing with being understood and with attaining sanctity are crucially important, and yet it appears that many sisters are not satisfied with the treatment they are receiv-ing in retreats. Allowance certainly must be made for the variables of back-ground and spiritual development often so intimately bound up with problems of this type. But yet there are too many negative 183 THOMAS DUBAY votes to allow for any great stress on so facile an explanation. Per-haps the praise and/or blame involved in the varying responses are to be borne to some considerable extent by the [ndio[dtml retreat master. If this diagnosis be correct, the remedy lies in no blanket recom-mendation, no handy adage that is cut for every case. Each ~etreat master should appoint himself a committee of one to discover by every possible means whether or not he--not retreat masters in gen-eral, but he in particular--understands the sisters, whether he urges them to sanctity sufficiently and explains it adequately. To make this discovery a careful analysis of each of the sisters' written comments would probably be of immense help. For ex-ample, on reading the statement of a hospital sister that retreat masters often fail to understand her problems, the master would do well to examine carefully just how much he knows about the prob-lems of nursing religious and how capably he handles them. Or on noticing that some sisters complain of being urged only to mediocre holiness, the retreat master should examine his own attitudes, medi-tations, and conferences to discover whether or not they escape the censure. We feel--and so do many of the sisters--that a good percentage of our retreat masters would come out of such a self examination with flying colors. Those who would issue forth with slightly droop-ing standards would have lost nothing, but rather they would have gained much for God, for themselves, and for consecrated souls. OUR CONTRIBUTORS HENRY WILLMERING, a member of the editorial board for REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, is a professor of Scripture at St. Mary's College, St. Marys' Kansas. THOMAS DUBAY teaches theology and homiletics at Marist College, Washington, D. C., the major seminary of the Marist Fathers' Washington Province. MAURICE WALSH, a professor of canon law at Westo~ College, Weston, Mass., is a mem-ber of the Fordham Mission Institute and has recently returned after several months spent as canonical consultant in the chancery of the newly erected diocese of Kingston, Jamaica. SISTER EUGENIA, editor of the Coleridge Concordance, is vice-presi-dent of Saint Mary-of-the-Woods College, Saint Mary-of-the-Woods, Indiana, and supervisor ,of the high schools of the Sisters of Providence. WINFRID HERBST is'spiritual father at the Divine Savior Seminary, Lanham, Maryland. 184 The Occasional Cont:essor Maurice B. V~ralsh, S.J. CANONICAL legislation on confessors for religious women seeks to combine two contrasting advantages--advantages which are not always easy to reconcile: a) The requirement of peculiar jurisdiction for the confessor seeks to assure continued and competent spiritual direction in the confessional for sisters. b) At the same time, proper liberty and peace of conscience is protected by provision for extraordinary, supplementary, special, and occasional confessors. Historically, ' it is the first point (a) which early received em-phasis, with a trend more and more in the direction of personal liberty (b). The trend towards greater freedom in the matter of confes-sion for religious women has continued even since the publication of the Code of Canon Law, especially in the interpretation of canon 522, which provides for the so-called "occasional confessor": "If, notwithstanding the prescriptions of canons 520 and 521, any re-ligious, for the peace of her conscience, has recourse to a confessor approved by the local ordinary to hear the confessions of women, this confession, whether made in a church or oratory, even a semi-public oratory, is valid and lawful, every contrary privilege being revoked; nor may the superioress prohibit it or make any enquiry concerning it, even indirectly;, and the religious are under no obliga-tion to inform the superioress on the matter." Since 1918, the interpretation o~ this canon has become gradu-ally more liberal in canonical works. Authentic interpretations of the canon have genera!ly resolved doubts in the direction favoring freedom of choice.1 The same trend towards freedom is seen in 1Thus," the confession is lawful and valid not only in a church or chapel but also in another place legitimately designated (Code Commission. November 24, 1920). Though the requirement of the proper place is for the validity of the con-. fession, "have recourse" in the canon does hot mean that the religious herself cannot summon the confessor (Code Commission. December 28, 1927). The permission of superiors is not required, but the canon gives no exception from domestic disci-pline or the rule, nor are superiors required to grant any such exception in order to provide the occasional confessor (Private Letter of the Secretary of the Congregation of Religious, December 1, 1921---reported in the Canon Law Digest). Further-more, the place "legitimately designated" wherein the confession may be heard law-fully and validly does not exclude a place designated for a particular instance or one legitimately selected by the confessor himself (Code Commission. February 12, 1935). 185 MAURICE B. WALSH Reoiet~ ~or Religious the De Religiosis section of the Code for the Oriental Church, pro-mulgated in 1952. In the canon which parallels canon 522 of the Latin Code, the lawful place is not required for the validit~l of the confession heard by the occasional confessor. (The Commission for the Interpretation of the Code declared on December 28, 1927, that the circumstance of lawful place was a condition of validity for Latins.) The new Oriental discipline does make the special juris-diction required less stringent: it may even foreshadow a similar relaxation for the Latin Church, if and when a new edition of the Latin Code is promulgated. While canonical commentaries on canon 522 published in the 1920's were inclined to stress the necessity of authorization'and the benefits of continuity in confessional direc-tion, those published in the 1940's and 1950's tend more to warn against the dangers of undue interference in the choice of a confessor. A good many periodical articles have been published on the occasional confessor, both scientific and popular; the majority seem to bare had as their purpose the warning of superiors to be liberal in making the use of the occasional confessor possible. In fact, the last canon of the Code itself, canon 2414, is a sort of Demosthenic whip which lashes the overstrict mother superior wh6 refuses to grant her subjects the liberty of confession which the law concedes them. Perhaps the canonists, too, have done more than their share of lashing at poor mother superior in this matter. But--if you. will let me mix my metaphors--there is another side of the coin, and a good many suffering mothers superior probably would like to see a canonist flip it in the other direction for a change. The Canon Law in this matter still aims at the double benefit-- continued and authorized (therefore, presumably competent) con-fessional direction as well as freedom of choice. Some mothers su-perior have mentioned to me real problems that have arisen because canonists may have overstressed the liberty of the sisters in the choice of the occasional confessor. Some sisters have not always been en-tirely reasonable in their requests (or demands), either to 1~ave the convent at odd times for confession or to bare a particular confessor summoned on the spot. Requests of this sort are not easy to refuse. True, superiors are not obliged to disrupt domestic discipline or even to grant any special permissions in order that a sister may have the opportunity of confessing "for peace of conscience" according to canon 522. Still, in the light of all that has been written on the dangers of obstructing freedom of conscience (and the dangers are real), many have been inclined to accede to all requests in this mat- 186 Sulg, 1956 THE OCCASIONAL CONFESSOR ter, even when the request may seem to be, and is, unreasonable. There is no denying the fact that this general inclination on the part of many superiors is a good result of the present widespread knowl-edge of canon 522. If there has to be an error, it is better that it be in this direction rather than in the opposite. These few com-ments do tend towards that "opposite," because I am a little unwill-ing (perhaps unreasonably) to admit the absolute necessity of error in either direction. Occasional use of the concession ofcanon 522 is certainly proper and may even be necessary for the peace of soul of an individual religious. It would be Polyannish to assert that every ordinary con-fessor of every convent is always fully competent as a confessor of religious. Aside from the Missions, more normally the ordinary confessor is not himself a religious; many zealous secular priests have become good confessors for religious, but certainly no priest miracu-lously acquires by the mere fact of episcopal appointment the pro-found knowledge of religious life desired in an ordinary confessor. Even if the ordinary confessor be a religious, his profession of the religious state does not make him automatically the best confessor for every confession of every religious in the community. Where the ordinary confessor is less competent, there is likeli-hood of more frequent occasion for the use of canon 522. But even in this case, the occasional confessor is to be used (as the name in-dicates) only on occasion. If the occasions become so frequent that the .occasional confessor, without any authorization of the bishop, becomes equivalently the ordinary confessor of the community or the special confessor of an individual sister, then at least the lawfulness of these confessions may be called in question. In these cases, the occasional confessor is assuming that continued or habitual direction which requires episcopal appointment. Similarly, if a sister con-stantly "shops around" so that she really has no regular confessor, she has simply dispensed herself from that continuity of confessional direction which has always been required and which still is required of religious. This does not mean that canon 522 is to be used "for peace of conscience" only in a crisis and for the solution of an acute spiritual need. It would be erroneous to suppose (as some seem to do) that the occasional confessor is provided only for the case where the sister might find it embarrassing or extremely difficult to confess a particular sin to a priest who knows her and all the members of the community. Some have the false impression that this canon is pro- 187 MAURICE B. ~v'ALSH vided only as a kind of emergency exit, as an absolutely last resort. The Church intends canon 522 as much more than an emergency exit. On occasion, occasionall~, any sister is justified in using it merely for greater devotion, as a mearis of getting out of the mechanical routine of weekly confessions; this use, too, is for bet "peace of conscience." I suppose one might say the canon may just as well be used for pre-serving the peace as for stopping the war. A sister does not need a serious problem of conscience in order legitimately to use canon 522 for the peace of her conscience. The misuse of the canon comes when a notable proportion of confessions are made to the occasional confessor or confessors. Ex-cessive demands for a special confessor or too frequent recourse to the occasional confessor may be a sign of spiritual pride. A sister can rather easily deceive herself into thinking she is something of a mystic, that her spiritual life should become a full-time job for the best spir-itual advisor available, that the best is not at all too good for her. She can exaggerate the need for peculiar competence in the task of guiding her spiritual destinies. Too much solicitude about the choice of her confessor is rather a sign of spiritual immaturity than of real growth in sanctity. Perhaps I might try to sum up all these observations in this way. Canon 522 helps keep the balance between the two desired ends of competent, continued confessional direction and of that liberty in the choice of a confessor which favors peace of conscience. Much has been written to combat the abuse whereby canon 522 is unduly re-stricted. Though the opposite viewpoint has been less stressed, the too-frequent use of canon 522 is also an abuse. Clearly the canon is.being misused when there results a lack of continuity in confes-sional direction or a continuity which is unauthorized by the bishop. VOCATION FILMSTRIP Behold the Handmaid of the Lord is an audio-visual, full-color filmstrip repre-sentation of a specific religious vocation. It comprises !06 frames, two 10-inch LP records, and a teacher's manual. Price: $18.75. Order from: Sisters of Christian Charity, Mallinckrodt Convent, Mendbam, New Jersey--or from: Sisters of Chris-tian Charity', Maria Immaculata Convent, \Vilmette, Illinois. 188 Mot:her Theodore Guerin Sister Eugenia Foundress of the Sisters of Providence ~ of Saint Mary-of-the-Woods, Indiana IN the designs of providence times of great struggle and great need in the world bring to light great leaders. This is true riot less in the world of religion than it is in the political sphere. Such a woman, a leader of eminent character, is the subject of this sketch. Born in the little seaside town of fltables, on the northern coast of Brittany, on October 2, 1798, Anne-Th~r~se Gu~rin entered the world in the turbulent and unsettled period of the post-revolutionary days of the Directory. She was given as much education as was avail-able at that tim~ and was fortunate in having a cousin, a young dis-placed seminarian, to direct her study and reading during her adoles-cent years. Her family was a deeply pious one but tried by unusual misfortunes. Her father, an officer in Napoleon's navy, was attacked and killed by brigands on his way home on a furlough. One brother bad been burned to death in an accident just before the father's death; and these calamities so unnerved the sorely tried Madame Guerin, that Anne-Th~r~se, at fifteen years of age, had to take over the man-agement of the home and the care of the remaining two children. Anne-Th~r~se had a strong inclination to the Carmelites, but her home duties prevented any such step. For ten years more, she remained with her family; and, at twenty-five years of age, she en-tered the young Community of the Sisters of Providence at Ruill& sur-Loir. This community, established in 1806 by a fe~v pious women, h, ad, since 1811, taken on a recognized form. Under Mother Marie Madeleine du Rosc6at (1817-1822), and Mother Marie, her successor, the community began to increase. Founded by Pere Jean- Fraricois Dujari~, the cur~ of Ruill&sur-Loir, the little community was governed by this holy priest, conjointly with the Brothers of St. Joseph whom he had also founded. He administered the affairs of the communities thus allied and financed them from a common purse, but after 1827 the two communities were separated. Under the direction of Mother Marie, the Sisters of Providence carried on a fruitful apostolate. Some misunderstandings arose between sub-jects and superiors over the separation, and these were the cause of sorrow for those involved, and for those who were innocently drawn into them. In 1823, while Pere Dujari~ still was active in the affairs of the 189 SISTER EUGENIA Review for Religious sisters, Anne-Th~r~se Guerin entered Ruill~-sur-Loir. From the first her superior qualities of mind and heart were manifested. The bene-fits of her careful education, her good judgment, and maturity of mind soon inclined her superiors to regard Sister Theodore as a most promising subject. Even though ill-health, to which she was always subject, showed itself in her year of novitiate, nevertheless, she was admitted to profession and named as local superior of a large estab-lishment at Rennes. During her incumbency here, she demonstrated that the confidence reposed in her had been justified. She was suc-cessful, not only in reforming the school affd the children of a troublesome district, but her influence extended through the children to the homes. What had been a disorderly parish became a model and well-regulated region. From this large place, Sister Theodore was changed to a little country parish of Soulaines. Here she had the opportunity of study-ing medicine and ph.armacy under the local physician and later sup-plemented this instruction by courses under Dr. LeCacheur in Paris. Her work in the parish school drew the attention of the inspectors of the neighboring academy at Angers, and medallion decorations from the French Academy were conferred upon her publicly in the presence of the cur~ and the town authorities for the excellence of her methods in mathematics. In addition to her scholastic achievements, she had interested a local nobleman, M. de la Bertaudiere, in the ruinous condition of the church; and as a consequence, a handsome and costly edifice was erected. This phase of her missionary life in France was soon to come to an end. In 1839, Pete de la Hailandi~re, named auxiliary bishop with the right of succession to the See of Vincennes, learned in Paris of the death of the saintly Bishop Brute. Accordingly, the new pre-late was consecrated in Paris and began to gather together missionary sisters and priests for the Vincennes diocese. When his plans for a group of sisters from a community at Ribeauville were frustrated, the Bishop came to Mother Marie to ask for a group to make the foundation. Before going to America, he had been stationed at Rennes and knew the Sisters of Providence there. The thought of a foreign mission had never been entertained by the Sisters of Providence; but even so, Mother Marie proposed the mission to the voluntary action of the community. Sister Theodore did not volunteer, feeling that her poor health would be a disad-vantage to any new foundation. However, when Mother Marie represented to her that unless she would head the mission, it could 190 dulg, 1956 MOTHER THEODORE GUERIN not otherwise be made, Sister Theodore gave her consent; and im-mediate preparations for the departure were begun. Friends were kind and interested in helping them with the financial concerns of their trip, and very soon the foundress and her chosen five sisters ~vere prepared for their new venture. Much of the information concerning America that had reached France dealt with the lives of the missionaries among the Indians, and certainly the imaginative narratives of La Rochefoucauld clothed the United States in an aura of romance. The novels of J. Fenimore Cooper, and his "noble Indians" were widely known and had, in fact, contributed to the foundation of Sainte Marie, Illinois. But of the igrivations and the vast loneliness of the forests very little was stressed. The sisters, however, were little concerned with romance and adventure. They were going into the New World to save souls and to answer the plea that Bishop de la Hailandi~re had made for the pioneers who were venturing into the newly opened lands of the Midwest. They hoped to spread the Faith here and to keep up the good work begun in Indiana. The technical details of government and the relationship and de-pendence of the new foundation upon the French mother house were discussed by the two bishops, Bishop J. B. Bouvier of Le Mans and Bishop de la Hailandi~re of Vincennes. The discussed points were agreed upon in writing: Mother Theodore was to be foundress and remain superior general of the Indiana mother house and all subse-quently formed establishments until the two bishops should jointly decide upon a change of administration; the sisters from Ruill6 might return to Ruill~ if they became dissatisfied in America, but Ruill6 would not assume responsibility for the American subjects. That was to be Mother Theodore's work. Mother Theodore also interviewed a young girl, Irma Le Fer de la Motte, who had intended to go to Vincennes with the sisters from Ribeauville; but, since that plan had failed, she entered the novitiate at Ruill~ with the intention of joining Mother Theodore as soon as her novitiate year was completed. Delicate, frail, and "good for nothing except to pray," as Mother Marie declared, this young sister was to function as a cofounder with Mother Theodore when she came to Indiana the next year and by her firmness and loyalty put to shame many a stronger person. Finally the little expedition set out in July, 1840, on the mer-chant ship, the Cincinnati. A timely gift of 3000 francs from Countess de Marescot was a godsend to them as their finances were 191 SISTER EUGENIA Religious limited. The "fifty days of penance," as Mother Theodore called the voyage, certainly merited the name. Mother Theodore herself was prostrated with seasickness accompanied by an inflammatory fever and lay practically at death's door. The sisters themselves feared that she would die on the way. A goodly part of their money had been stolen by a passport agent: and their baggage would have gone also had it not been for the watchfulness of one of the French work-men who, although intending to go to Vincennes, later followed them to Saint Mary-of-the-Woods. Afte~ the long trip, the sisters were welcomed by the Parmentier family in New York who sheltered them while they awaited news from the Bishop and funds for their trip to Indiana. They visited the publishing houses and gathered information regarding text-books, maps, charts, and school supplies. They were dismayed to learn that a group of American Sisters of Charity were already lo-cated in Vincennes and wondered why they were needed if the situ-ation had already been met. They were to learn that the Sisters of Charity were withdrawing from the field and merely awaiting the arrival of the French sisters. They learned also that the scope and requirements of education in America were much more extended than in France and that consequently more things must be taught. The insistence on music impressed them, as they were told it was an ab-solute necessity to any kind of school. ' One of their great sufferings was their ignorance of the language; and, without adequate ability to make'themselves understood, they had yet to travel fifteen hundred miles into the interior. A short stop in Philadelphia, where they awaited their official guide, made them acquainted with the Sisters of Charity. They visited St. ~Jo-seph's Orphan Asylum to see American methods in operation; and, finally, under the care of Reverend William Chartier, the Bishop's representative, they began their month-long journey westward by railroad, steamboat, stage, and canal. At various, stopping places they met the Sulpician Fathers at Saint Mary's Seminary, Baltimore; the ,Jesuit Fathers at Frederick, Maryland, where they then had their novitiate; and Mother Rose White, Mother Seton's successor, at the Academy of Sisters of Charity, since transferred to the Visi-tation sisters. Mother Rose gave them some disconcerting informa-tion: "Sciences hardly known in our French schools are needed here, but the indispensable thing in this country, even for the poor . . . is music." From Wheeling they boarded the emigrant steamboat for the 192 dulg, 1956 MOTHER THEODORE GUERIN four-day trip to Cincinnati, the most painful part of the journey due to the lack of privacy, the rude passengers, the primitive arrange-ment for sleeping--mats on the deck of the vessel--and the crowded quarters. A steamboat ride took them to Madison where the Bishop met and welcomed them and acquainted them with the name of their future location, Saint Mary-of-the-Woods, near Terre Haute, not Vincennes as they had naturally expected. On to Evansville by boat, and from thence to Vincennes by stage over a corduroy road was sufficiently discouraging, but the appearance of the ramshackle churches, the ppor quarters of the.clergy, and the wild aspect of the scenery, combined to increase their anxiety about their future. The sisters had expected to be located in a center of population; all their previous experience and training had equipped them to meet the need of such places; but, abandoning themselves to providence, they accepted the change in plans, and consented to go on to "that dreaded Terre Haute." Even though she could see no way in which she could take care of her community and provide for it in a dense forest, nevertheless Mother Theodore acquiesced and set out for" the chosen place. The trip from Vincennes to Terre Haute was fraught with dangers and hazards. The banks of the Wabash bad been inundated by the heavy torrential rain that poured for thirty-six hours; the corduroy roads were unsafe, but the trip must be made. The travelers, leaving Vincennes at ten o'clock on the night of October 20, encoun-tered many mishaps. Their stage was overturned, and they were compelled to seek refuge in a nearby farmhouse. They resumed their way again in the early morning and reached Terre Haute by late afternoon, too late to cross by ferry the yet unbridged Wabash. On the morning of the twenty-second, they continued their journey by ferry and rough overland wagon until about six o'clock in the eve-ning of the same day, Father Buteux, their chaplain, who had ac-companied them, uttered the momentous words: "We have arrived." No human being was in sight. Through the deep forest the heavy-hearted sisters made their way to the small log chapel where they knelt and dedicated themselves anew to the work of the Indiana mis-sion. The poverty of this chapel touched Mother Theodore to tears at the sight of the Lord of Hosts dwelling in such solitude. "No tabernacle, no altar," she wrote, "nothing but three planks forty inches long, supported by stakes driven into the corners." The Blessed Sacrament was reserved in a smalI pyx kept in a covered custodfurn. They united their poverty to that of Jesus in the Blessed Sacrament, 193 SISTER. EUGENIA Review [or Religious knowing that they could never equal His sublime destitution. Mr. Thralls, the farmer, and his wife, had prepared supper for them in the adjoining frame house, and in his generosity, offered to share his house with them until theirs could be built. The house consisted of two rooms and a porch on the first floor and a loft where corn and provisions had beeen stored. Mr. Thralls gave them the use of one room downstairs and ball of the loft above. In this small space were accommodated the six French sisters and the four postu-lants who had been awaiting their coming. On the day after their arrival, the sisters assisted at Mass in the log chape! and received Holy Communion. The request that they might have daily Mass as often as it was possible was practically the only condition that Mother Theodore stated in accepting the Indiana assignment. During their first weeks they were fortunate in having Mass daily; but, since Father Buteux was a missionary priest as well as their chaplain, there were times in the future when this privilege was not possible. The quarters allotted the sisters were sadly inadequate for the group of ten persons who were trying to live the religious life and to prepare for professional work. Accordingly Mother Theodore puchased the whole house from Mr. Thralls for the sum of $'400 which she took from the little fund that Countess de Marescot had given her. The Thralls family moved farther west and gave the sisters full possession. Even at that; the severe winter brought them much discomfort. Snow and rain came in through the poorly roofed loft which they continued to use as a dormitory. The rooms below served by turns as kitchen, dining-room, community room, study room, and one of the rooms as infirmary when Sister Marie Xavier fell ill of a fever and could not be left in the loft. On November 1, their trunks arrived from New York in good condition. The contents were soon put in place: statues of our Lady and Saint Joseph on the flat top of the bureau and a crucifix suspended from the nail in the wall. Plates and tinware were stowed away in the rough pine cupboard. One chair apiece and an all-purpose table completed their furniture. Thin mattresses or pallets of straw placed on the floor of the loft served as beds. The impossibility of opening a school in this deserted spot seemed to Mother Theodore more evident day by day. The half-finished brick building which was to have been their convent still remained unfinished. Bishop de la Hailandi~re remained adamant, however, to any suggestion of finding another location; and time 194 dulg, 1956 MOTHER THEODORE GUERIN proved his attitude a wise one. The uncertain trends of population in Indiana could not be relied upon: the canal towns seemed to be the prosperous ones; yet later on they were to be reduced by the rail-ways to small hamlets, and the canals rendered obsolete. Above all, there remained the utterance of Bishop Brut~ when he renamed the Thralls Station Saint Mary-of-the-Woods: "Some day there will be sisters here. You will see what great good will come from this place." Work proceeded slowly on the brick building. Mother Theodore then decided to retain the old Thralls house as their convent and use the brick building as a school. She was anxious that the school, when opened, should be of superior grade; and, later on, when it was pos-sible to incorporate the Institute, she had it chartered (1846) as an institution for the higher education of women; and she and her suc-cessors were "empowerd to do all necessary for the promotion of artsand sciences." Thus did sbe found the first Catholic institution for the higher .edudation of women in the state of Indiana. Insecurity and anxiety were constantly with Mother Theodore for the first seven years of her stay in Indiana. She could not obtain the deed for the property even though it had been bought by money given expressly for the sisters and their foundation. They could not build in a place they did not own and from which they were likely to be dispossessed at any time. The privations of the first years were very great. The sisters had to help fell trees, sow the grain for the harvest, plant potatoes and fruit trees'. Food was cheap in the markets, but nothing is cheap if one does not have money. In order to maintain a boarding school, the sisters must provide food for their pupils: and they hoped and prayed for a good harvest. In July, 1841, the brick building was sufficiently prepared to open school; and on July 2, 1841, the first of their pupils arrived. As one of the novices was a good English teacher, classes were opened in English as well as French. Music and art were to develop rapidly as soon as a place could be provided for holding these classes. Illness, ever attending Mother Theodore, reduced her many times to a critical state; and it seemed only the prayers and sacrifices of the sisters could restore her. Mother Theodore's first care, sick or well, was the instruction of the sisters and their formation in the spiritual life. She met them daily at five o'clock in .the evening and explained the meaning and importance of the Rule, preparation for the sacraments, the meaning 195 SISTER EUGENIA Reoieu~ for Religious and obligations of the vows. At other times she gathered them around her to help them with teaching methods and to impart to them her own skill. The little community numbered at the end of the first six months, four professed, four novices (two of the French sisters were still novices), and eight postulants. Mother Theodore began to think that her work as Foundress was now finished and implored Mother Marie to send a more experienced and stronger person to take over the mission, meanwhile stating in detail her needs, her relations with the sisters, and her very precarious health, but also her resig-nation to whatever was decided. But little help came from France. The mother house there was engaged in building a larger house; and, with the usual economy of the French, the superior felt that all the funds should be in hand before the building was commenced. Ne-gotiations were also going forward for the final approbation of the rules; and; to this plan, the faraway foreign mission .was a dubious asset. In Indiana the violence of the Know Nothing Movement was beginning to gather strength; the financial panic of 1842 limited" credit greatly; and the final cross of the fire of 1842 reduded the sisters to the deepest destitution. The fire was thought to be of in-cendiary origin as its occurrence could not otherwise be explained. The granary, the stock of fruit gathered, the barn with the plows, farm implements, and wagons, all were lost in the great conflagration. Only the prayers of the sisters s~ved the convent from destruction. Very little help was at hand to assist them in this disaster. The sisters cut down trees, moved logs, labored .to put out the fire, and almost all of them suffered burns and injuries as a result. In addition to this, they were haunted by the fear of future fires, having in mind the burning of the Charlestown convent. But the sisters had to face the reality. They had no money, no friends, no food, no credit, nothing but their invincible confidence in the providence of God; and this trust, by the mercy of God, Was never to abandon them. Mother Theodore appealed to the Bishop for help and discussed with him the pla'n of going to France for aid. His Lordship gave them funds to tide them over their immediate difficulties and felt that the trip to France would be an excellent means of securing help. He also issued the-required letters of introduction and permission to solicit alms. Necessary delays set their departure date for May !, 1843. Mother Theodore took as her companion a young American novice, Sister Mary Cecilia, whom she wished to have .the advantage 196 dul~, 1956 MOTHER THEODORE GUERIN of seeing the French mother house and of studying music under pro-fessors during their stay. Last-minute preparations were made, and the journey was deemed more n, ecessary when letters from Mo'ther Marie regarding a proposed return of the French sisters and the formation of an entirely new com-munity under Father Buteux made known to them a situation they knew nothing about. The plan was unknown to Bishop de la Hailandi~re also, although his attitude toward Mother Theodore and the sisters became more hostile than before. To his demands that the community become a diocesan one, change its Rule and Constitu- ' tions to fit his ideas, the sisters had set up a firm opposition. To gather enlightenment as to the course to pursue was one of Mother Theodore's objectives in returning to France. The voyage was made, and the two petitioners arrived i}t France only to find that many of their friends had left Paris for the cooler mountain-country places. Their quest seemed disheartening at first, but through the help of Mssrs. Aubineau and Veuillot who pub-lished their story in L'Univers, M. Martin du Nord, through whom they secured an interview with Marie-Amelie, Queen of the French, and M. de Choiselat, treasurer of the Association of the Propagation of the Faith, they were able to secure permanent and steady contribu-tions of funds which came to them regularly for many years. The news from Indiana was very disquieting. The Bishop had called for an election of superior-general, even though Mother Theo-dore had been appointed as Foundress with an unlimited term of office. The results of the election confirmed Mother Theodore in 6ffice, ¯ but the effect of this exhibition of loyalty was hardship for the little band of sisters. Acting on Mother Marie's advice, Mother Theodore prepared.to return to America, much fortified by the help and advice she had received from Bishop Bouvier. Before leaving France she affiliated the community with the Association of Our Lady of Vic-tories in Paris. Mother Theodore had also secured three postulants to make the return voyage with her. Hastily, Mother arranged the necessary details for the work she had begun: Canon Lottin agreed to act as her treasurer, receiving the funds from the various persons collecting for Saint Mary-of-the-Woods and arranging for some of it to be placed on interest. Mother and her companions embarked at Havre on November 28, on an old sailing vessel, the Nashville, which hardly seemed sea-worthy to them. Their fears were well grounded, for the ship was almost split asunder by the violence of a storm which arose in mid- 197 SISTER EUGENIA Review for Religious ocean. Their rescue from shipwreck was nothing short of miracu-lous as their ship actually capsized, but by a contrary wind, which miraculously arose, the ship was righted. Mother Theodore felt that this was an answer to the fervent prayers of the sisters to St. Anne, the patron saint of Brittany and promised a chapel and an annua! procession in her honor if they reached port safely. Hardly had this danger been averted when another equally perilous threat-ened them. The captain, who had been overexerting himself in buf-feting the storm, was stricken with apoplexy and lay on the deck as if dying. Mother Theodore's knowledge of medicine stood them in good stead then; she saw that the captain should be bled; and, call-ing for some necessaries,, she performed the operation. The captain soon rallied and was able after a few hours to resume his post. Mother Theodore's nursing skill was also called upon to take care of a dying man whose wife had fled from his side at the sight of death. She also baptized a new-born infant who died shortly after. The anxiety and care pressing upon her spirit completely wore out Mother Theodore's strength: and,.when the ship finally reached New Orleans, she was taken very ill and had to remain for several months under the care of the Ursulines of New Orleans. The news she received from Saint Mary-of-the-Woods increased her alarm. She sent Sister Mary Cecilia on with some of the party and was finally able, some months afterwards, to make the neces-sary trip by way of Vincennes. Here she met with many misunder-standings on account of the money she collected and the money which was accumulating for her in France but, after a stormy and painful two days, was permitted to return to Saint Mary-of-the-Woods. For three years more this situation continued with more or less feeling. In 1846, the sisters, postulants and workmen were prepar-ing to leave Saint Mary-of-the-Woods and take refuge in another diocese where they could follow their Rule in peace, when the news of Bishop de la Hailandi~re's resignation reached them and caused them to remain. Their credit at the local stores was established as soon as the word was given that the sisters were receiving steady help from France. They were able to provide the necessaries, not only of life, but of good instruction for their pupils. Their own personal poverty re-mained. Their clothes were mended and patched, and the furniture of the mother house remained the simplest possible. Straw ticks served as beds, but were placed on the floor. Until 1862, the novitiate possessed one good bed which was always given to the latest comer 198 July, 1956 MOTHER THEODORE GUERIN among the postulants. W6e to the unhappy one who was the first one of two to arrive on the same day! With the succession of Bishop Bazin, whose administration lasted but six months, and the long administration of Bishop de St. Palais, his successor, the troubles of the first seven years seemed to vanish, to be replaced by other minor cares. The deed to their property, se-cured at last, entitled the sisters to build and develop their institution and to lay the foundations of their future extension. At the time of Mother Theodore's death in 1856, the community was teaching in ten missions in addition to the Institute at, Saint Mary-of-the- Woods. The community had received a few subjects frorn France, some from Belgium, but the majority of the new candidates were from the United States. Calls came from all sides for the sisters to open new schools: but Mother Theodore, realizing that she must first instill the religious spirit into her incoming subjects, was slow to send them on a mission. She instructed them herself, and visited the missions diligently, braving the discomfort of the rough wagon, the canal boat, and the primitive railroad. She did not spare her-self in serving: but at last toward the end of 1855, she conceded that her strength was definitely broken. Poor as the community was in worldly goods, it did not lack all the spiritual blessings that Mother Theodore could obtain for it. The first Sodality of the Children of Mary was formed in 1854, but May devotions had been held every May beginning with 1841. The Bishop had given permission for midnight Mass which was celebrated with few interruptions year by year~ In 1843, permis-sion was given for the private celebration of Forty Hours Devotion before it was canonically erected in any diocese in the United States. The devotion was held on the three days preceding Lent, and was continued on that date thereafter with but one or two interruptions in the long survey of 113 years. In 1843, Mother Theodore had affiliated the community with the Association of Our Lady of Vic-tory in Paris, and through the Parmentier family had registered the sisters' names in the Confraternity of the Immaculate Heart of Mary, and later in that of the Sacred Heart of ~Jesus in the Frehch Church in New York. Little has been said here of the loyal service rendered to Mother Theodore and the community by the delicate little Sister St. Francis Xavier, once thought to be "good for nothing but to pray." Her courageous spirit belied her delicate frame, and her sure sense of jus-tice- was a strong support to the often-harassed Foundress. During 199 SISTER EU.GENIP, Review for Religious Mother Theodore's absence in France and the consequent troubles in Indiana, Sister St. Francis never failed in her appointed trust--that of keeping the community intact until Mother's return. Death was now to claim this valiant sister, and in ~lanuary, 1856, she went to her reward. In May of that same year, Mother Theodore succumbed at last to the long series of illnesses which had tried her ¯ strength. In her sixteen years in Indiana, Mother had finished the work given her to do: she had established a mother house, and had formed to the religious life sisters of such moral strength that they were able to continue her work, and to transmit to others the essen-tial spirit of the congregation. She had established an incorporated institution for the higher education of women which was later to be known internationally as Saint Mary-of-the-Woods College. Her work seemed to be completed. Tribute~ to her memory poured, in. The desuits Who had given the annual retreats to the community for many years held her in high esteem. Reverend dohn L. Gleizal, S.d., who had overheard her in-structions to the sisters, told them that their mother was a second Saint Teresa. Her acquaintance with ecclesiastics was very wide. Many of the bishops and priests laboring in the Middle West had come from the same land of Brittany. The first sixteen years of the existence of Saint Mary-of-the-Woods coincided with the development of the Vincennes diocese, and Mother Theodore's Life, Journals and Letters, ¯ and other documents, are firsthand sources which supplement the ecclesiastical history of the times. Her full account of the first synod of Vincennes is the only cgmplete record of that part of the synod which was open to the public. In addition to their historical value, the above mentioned sources are human documents which tell the tale of Mother Theodore's patient suffering and heroic endurance. In 1907, her remains were'exhumed from the grave in the ceme-tery to be reinterred in the crypt of the newly dedicated Church of the Immaculate Conception. In the course of the exhumation it was discovered that her brain was ~intact and presented an appearance similar to that of the brain of a living person. This unusual happen-ing, coupled with the common belief and knowledge of the sisters that Mother Theodore's life was characterized by holiness, led to the introduction of her cause for beatification. The first process held at Saint Mary-of-the-Woods had, as witnesses, many who had known Mother Theodore, and. some who had been the recipients of favors through her intercession. Later it was found that similar 200 SISTER EUGENIA Review for Religiou~ processes must be conducted in France in order to cover Mother Theo-dore's early life, but the troubled condition of European affairs de-layed action in this regard. In 1954, Monsignor Emidio Federici was appointed postulator of the cause. Through his efforts an Italian translation of the biography of Mother Theodore was prepared, and together with the Positio, or pertinent data of the cause, was placed in the hands of the Cardinals and Prelates of the Rites for study. On December 6, this august assembly was addressed by Cardinal Piazza, Ponente of the cause, who read the Relatio and forcefully presented the cause to his colleagues. After the general discussion, the cardinals returned a favorable vote. On February 19, 1956, the Holy Father, after hearing the detailed account of the session from Cardinal Cicognani, chairman of the assembly, promptly granted his approbation for the introduction of the apostolic process. The cause is now entering upon the second stage of its advancement. The Life and Life-Work of Mother Theodore Guerin, by Sister Mary Theodosia, appeared in 1904; but it was necessarily incom- 'plete owing to the fact that it was not possible to use all the ma-terial in the archives. In 1937, Sister Mary Theodosia edited The Journals and Letters of Mother Theodore Guerin. During this same year a vast amount of material was sent to the community from the diocesan office at Alexandria, Louisiana, comprising letters from Mother Theodore and the early sisters to Bishop Martin, ordinary" of the diocese then known as Natchitoches and many letters from bishops and other ecclesiastics who had known the sisters. The con-tents of these letters cleared up many disputed points and vindicated the position Mother Theodore had taken. In 1948 appeared the first volume of the Historv of the Sisters of Providence in America. by Sister Mary Borromeo Brown, in which all available letters and archive material are incorporated. PAMPHLETS Titus Brandsma, Carmelite, Champion of the Catholic Press. By Rev. Aquinas Houle, O.Carm. Mary, 6415 Woodlawn Ave., Chicago 3 7, I11. Pp. 29. 10c. Holy Hour Pamphlets. The Sentinel Press, 194 East 76th Street, New York 21. N. Y. 10c. Faith. gcv. Gerald Dorais. S~S.S. Hope--Bv the Side of a Grave. Rev. Hector Lemieux, S.S.S. Fraternal Charity!. Rev. Gerald Dorais. S.S.S. Watch and Pray. Blessed Sacrament Fathers. Institution of the Hol~! Eucharist. Rev. Daniel Sullivan, S.S.S. Hol~t Hour Guide. Rev. Lionel Vashon. S,S.S. 15c. 201 Thought:s on Transfers \Vinfrid Herbst, S.D.S. A religious once wrote to his major superior: "If I may confide my innermost sentiments to you, here they are: I have a deep longing to go back to my borne country and labor there-- but not against the will of God." Another said that it was his wish to have no wish at all in this matter. What is to be said about those attitudes? No doubt the most perfect frame of mind is to wish that the most just, most high, and most amiable will of God be done in all things. The most difficult but most meritorious thing to do is silently to offer to the Savior the sacrifice of one's dearest wishes. A religious who does that has surely mounted high on the ladder of perfection. He has scaled heigh.ts that all should endeavor to reach. It is natural to have preferences, that is, to be drawn more to one person or place or thing than to another. But to cling to those preferences, to nurture them, and when occasion offers to give ex-pression to them with a view to influencing the superior and in order to obtain what would be most pleasing to us, is a sign of im-perfection. We ought to make ourselves indifferent in the Ignatian sense of the word. To make ourselves indifferent to all created things is to be on guard against our natural affections and exclude any one of them that is not ultimately reducible to God and subordinate to Him. It is to fight against our will when we find it bent on having something against the will of God. It is good to hear a religious say that be has no special preference for this or that study, that occupation, those surroundings, such and such a country or section of a country. But it makes a bad impres-sion when he nevertheless straightway, either directly or indirectly, lets it be known that he would like to do what be is doing and stay where be is and hopes that arrangements can be made to prevent a change. That is not the spirit of perfect obedience. "Behold in the days of your fast your own will is found," says Isaias (58:3) ; and we may add, behold in your obedience your own will is found. All religious know that there are some who are as eager to be transferred to some different place or country as others are to re-main where they are. Perhaps it might be a mooted question whether more would rather go or stay. We are not deciding that. What is of prime importance is that, whether they are transferred or whether 202 THOUGHTS ON TRANSFERS they have to hold down the same position in the same old place, they are content in doing the will of God. Religious also know that superiors are very considerate when it is a case of sending men to countries with bad climates, difficult languages, handicaps of all kinds, when the post will put a man's mettle to the test. They usu-ally ask for .volunteers, or at least ask those selected whether they have any solid objections or whether there is any impediment in the way, of which the superiors perhaps do not know. But they generally do not ask the subjects whether they have any special prefer-ence for the work, whether they feel attracted to it. If they do, it is merely a concession to human weakness. It should be each one's preference to have the example of the Divine Savior before his eyes. "In the head of the book it is written of me that I should do thy will, O God." "Not my will but thine be done." The transfer of religious from one house to another is a matter of special attention also on another score, one that vitally concerns the welfare of the whole order. It sometimes happens that superiors hesitate to transfer subjects, with resultant stagnation. Theoretically the superiors know that, if the constitutions of the respective order provide for it, and according to such provisions, any member may be transferred to any house of the province or order; but, when it comes to practice, they are often reluctant to transfer subjects unless there is a grave and manifest reason for doing so. They have the feel-ing that they must give the subject a reason why they are transferring him, because of the false notion that a transfer is a sort of a penalty. Were such an attitude of hesitancy or apology to prevail in a given province or order to the extent that it would become a sort of custom or a thing that is understood ("He couldn't get along there, so the major superior had to transfer him!"), it would be to the common detriment of the order; indeed, it is not too much to say that it would be the beginning of a gradual decline. Not to be transferred may never be the privilege of any individual .religious. Things would have come to a sorry pass when a remark like this could be made: "So, you transfer me; just transfer X and Y and you will see what happens." Of course, a transfer is not a casual matter. Each superior must give much prayerful thought to the matter, decide before the Lord where each one is needed or where he can best be used--and then act accordingly. It is simply taken for granted everywhere, particularly in the matter of transfers, that a religious must obey. Even the Holy See stresses this, as in the reply to an appeal made to the Sacred Con- 203 WINFRID HERBST Review fo~" Religious gregation for Religious. "He should submit to his superiors." ¯ Certainly, it is sometimes hard to obey. But Christ goes before us and we know the reward, as we read in that famous passage: "He humbled himself and became obedient to death; yes, to death on a cross. This is why God has exalted him and given him the name above all names" (Phil. 2:8, 10). Now, when a superior needs new men in his house, he has his own ideas of what they should be--ideas usually shared by all local superiors. These are some of the marks that should distinguish them: 1. They should be humble, unpretentious men who let them-selves be told a few things, who understandingly adapt themselves to their surroundings, who do not think that they know everything better but silently learn to weigh the pros and cons of things as they are. They are not men of whom the philosopher says, "'Statira sapit~nt, statiro sciunt omnia!'" It is hard to translate this, but the expression means something like "The. smart aleck knows it all and spouts high and far all that he thinks he knows!" Such characters can be extremely irri(ating. 2. They should be men who are not afraid of sacrifice, who are not afraid of a bit of rough going. The timorous, hesitant, weak-ling type who sees difficulties everywhere and hesitates to do and dare is as undesirable as the overbold and the conceited. In many ways the life of a religious is a life of real sacrifice, and pampered and spoiled individuals will hardly find conditions suitable to their liking in any house anywhere. Such, no matter where they are, will, to a greater or lesser extent, be a cross to themselves and to others. 3. They should be men who pitch right in to do the work .that is to be done, not the kind that give it a wide berth, always presup-posing that they ar~ fulfilling the superior's wishes and are not in-terfering in the affairs of others. Men who close their eyes to the work that is awaiting willing hands or, if they see it, unconcernedly pass by and let it be loaded onto others, are of no help to a house; on the contrary, the burden is doubly heavy when one sees that others who ought to help do not do so. "A brother who is helped by a brother is like a strong city," says Holy Writ; and only when all do their generous share is anything worthwhile accomplished. Indeed, such unified action is of the very essence of a community. Get a number of people together, and you have a group or a multi-tude or perhaps a mob but not yet a community. In order that they may be a community in the real sense of the word, they must work together, uniting their efforts for the attainment of a common goal. 204 July, 1956 THOUGHTS ON TRANSFERS If in one way or another a religious does not apply himself to the promotion of the common cause, he is not doing his bounded duty, no matter what other' qualifications he may have. 4. The men should be capable of doing the work for whicl~ they were assigned to the house. It stands to reason that that work differs greatly. One is the task of the teacher, another that of the spiritual director, the retreat master, the missionary, and so on down the line to the least (?) lay brother peeling potatoes in an isolated corner of'the kitchen. This means, too, that the men should as far as possible be specially trained and prepared for the work they are to do; for, as the expressive Latin phrase hasit, non omnia possumus omnes--we cannot all do everything. 5. The men should have a spirit of mortification. It is .prob-ably too much to .expect that they should be so advanced in the spiritual life as directly to long for and avidly seek the cross, that is, suffering and sacrifice, as did, for example, St. Andrew the Apostle, who greeted the cross on which be was to die with "O good cross, so long desired!" or St. Ignatius the Martyr, "I know what is good for me; I would be ground by the teeth of beasts that I may be found a pure bread!" or St. Teresa of Avila, "Either to suffer or to die!" or St. John of the Cross, "To suffer and to be despised for Thee!" Yes, it is too much to expect that of the men. Saints such as we have mentioned were rare blossoms in the garden of God; and, when we ordinary religious contemplate anything like that, we are heartily ashamed of our pitiable weakness. They were spiritual giants and followers in the truest sense of the word of the Savior who carried the cross and died upon it for us men and for our salvation. We are, generally speaking, merely delicate members of the Mystical Body of Christ. When it comes to the patient endurance of suffering for the love of God and to be mbre like Jesus, who died upon the cross, we really ought to strive after this ideal: to desire to be naturally very sensi-tive to suffering and at the same time to be placed in such circum-stances as will put our endurance to the test--and by the grace of God to come forth from the test triumphant. But this ideal postu-lates a degree of perfection which, alas! we generally do not possess. Since we are as a rule not so advanced in spirituality, are in fact the kind of men who have to reckon with marked weaknesses, we shall do well if from the start we learn to overcome ourselves in little things: to bear bodily discomforts (heat, cold, hunger, thirst, pains and aches and indispositions, misunderstandings, false imputations, 205 COMMUNICATIONS Review [or Religious or whatever it may be) and to harden ourselves at least to the ex-tent that we carry on in the patient endurance of what simply has to be borne. Eventually we may reach that degree of perfection in which we no longer feel very much. the disagreeable things of daily religious life. This may sound very much like advice unto imperfection! But no--there will still be a healthy spirit of mortification, considering the variety of circumstances in the various countries of the world and the different religious houses of the order. St. Paul says to Tim-othy, "Train yourself in piety." And with that as a foundation we might add: Train yourself also in self-denial and mortification, to bear heat and cold and hunger and thirst and labors out of love for God; otherwise you will be disappointed with yourself and will be a disappointment to others; otherwise you will experience as true of yourself the words of Solomon: "He that nourishes his servant delicately from his childhood, afterwards shall find him stubborn" (Prov. 29:21). This servant is your body. Unless it is kept down, hardened, it becomes more and more rebellious, querulous, demand-ing. It will be hard to meet all its demands, impossible to satisfy them fully. 6. In a word, they should be men who, if an assignment calls for it, can take whatever is demanded of them as regards climate, oc-cupation, primitive housing conditions, poor or distasteful food, and such like hurdles. With the Apostle Paul they should be able to say: "In whatever circumstances I am, I have learnt to be con-tent. I know how to live in privation, and I know how to live in abundance. I have been initiated into each and every condition: of satiety and of hunger, of abundance and of want. I can do all things in him who strengthens me" (Phil. 4:11-13). Communica :ions Reverend Fathers: A rather peculiar situation presents itself annually in religious communities as a result of new assignments, wherein an individual suddenly finds himself a member of a new household. Ordinarily, the mere physical and exterior adjustments offer no special difficulty, but their psychological counterparts are quite another matter, and it may take months, perhaps years, before an individual religious finds himself completely "at home" in his new surroundings. In 206 dulg, 195 6 COMMUNICATIONS such circumstances we may be too prone to intimate that any diffi-culty encountered is solely on the side of the individual entering the community. This, it seems to me, is an over-simplification, because the community, the individual, or both together, may be at fault. Let us presume that the community is a normal one, composed of religious who, with high ideals of personal perfection and of their apostolate, are striving in a concrete manner to perfect themselves therein. Such a religious house presents a solid, integral supernatural organism with unity of pursuit and of purpose. However, one must ¯ remember that the individual members of which it is composed, though leading the supernatural life perhaps on a high level, remain human beings. As such they are not exempt from personal foibles, character weaknesses, prejudices, and in extreme instances, wild ec-centricities. Naturally these will present a more or less serious hurdle to the smooth psychological adjustment of the newcomer. Problems may arise variously, depending on the qualities of the particular in-dividual and also on those of the community into which he is en-tering. An awkward and at times almost impossible circumstance of ad-justment might exist in the setting of a community in which through many years changes have been few. Certain offices and privileges have been apportioned in the same way over a long period of time. Those holding positions of trust--spiritual, academic, or otherwise --have not only kept them, but hold to them tenaciously. A species of religious "aristocracy" has been built up which constitutes a "block" in the lives of others. This need not be a large group or clique; even a "two-some" that works behind scenes, or openly for that matter, may not only dominate but actually tyrannize an en-tire community. By their judgment is arbitrarily determined who is and who is not to be accepted. Anyone on whom they chance :o frown is regarded as of little consequence. A newcomer entering such a house is, in common parlance, automatically "in" or "out." If he meets favor with the "aristocracy" he is definitely "in," though from the standpoint of virtue, integrity of character, and personality, he may be far lower in any objective scale of values than his less favored companions. Contrariwise, if the individual be not favored by this "'upper stratum" he is automatically "out," and it may be for his whole religious life, though ~he possess personal qualities of a high caliber. This situation is understandably aggravated when the same su-periors remain in office over long periods of time, by means of a 207 COMMUNICATIONS Review /'or Religious circle of superiorships from one house to another of their order. No one with a different outlook; mentality, or background is ever allowed to rule; this makes for an unfortunate system of inbreeding detri-mental to any religious congregation. Things never change; the same abuses remain; nothing is ever done to break down the "block." On entering a community operating under such a regime, a religious may find himself through no fault of his own, ostracized, and relegated to the "out" members of the lower stratum. Though be possess su-perior qualities of intellect, heart, and will, he is never consulted, nor are matters ever discussed with him. Should obedience require that a religious remain in such an environment his only way to peace is within--in the living of an intense interior life. And, if he has been accustomed to find his spiritual sustenance in doctrine and in truth, not in pious emotionalism and sentimental devotions, he should, with God's grace, which may come down on him like an avalanche, be able to work out for himseif a reasonably happy life. But it will have to be led on an almost purely supernatural level, since for him, any compensation on the~-human level scarcely exists. This is his only solution, and one dare not say it is an unfortunate one. It may be a special dispensation of grace leading to a marvelous culmination of his whole spiritual life. On the other hand, there is the religious who, on receiving his transfer to a new house, is of the opinion that it is solely the re-sponsibility of its resident community to see to it that he is adjusted thereto happily. He may entirely overlook the fact that he too has a personal responsibility in the matter. Instead of assuming the at-titude of one who waits to receive everything from others, such an individual must go out of himself and become aware that he too has a contribution to make to the happiness and well-being of others. To state it bluntly, instead of "Here I am. What are you going to do or not do to make me happy?" let him reverse the pronouns and the emphasis to "What can I do to make others happy?" Such an attitude is intuitively perceived by the other religious, and he will be accepted automatically. Or, by way of a positive approach, a re-ligious may, on entering a new community, pause to make an honest personal evaluation: "Do I possess spiritual, intellectual, social gifts, perhaps, by way of the virtues of prudence, humility, compassion, for instance, by which I might enrich the hearts and minds of my fellow religious?" It may be some specific human gift of a charm of manner, or a social grace, which will not only endear him to others, but also enhance the cultural texture of his community. God 208 ,lul~l, 1956 COMMUNICATIONS may have placed him here precisely to share these gifts with this particular group of religious. Or it may be that some one person here, yet a stranger, has, in God's designs, need of him. This may be the most important reason why God sent him to this place. Not infrequently an individual has a fellow-religious approach him in later life and say, "The remark that you made on such and such an occasion has made all the difference in my life!" In any event, a whole-hearted bestowal of oneself will be irresistible and at once break down all defenses. Whereas should the newcomer begin by shutting himself up ~vithin himself, and present himself as a closed cosmos, he will never arrive at that true rapport which charity re-quires. It may also happen that a religious skilled in a certain field such as journalism, drama, music, or the like, is sent to a house in which there is another who, without his qualifications and benefit of de-gree has, over a period of years, adequately performed that service. Even before the newcomer arrives the individual whom he is obvi-ously not to assist but, in all likelihood, to replace, forgetting the vir-tues of his calling, looks forward to him as little less than an intruder, and strives to alienate the community against him. On the other hand, the newcomer may be a shade too conscious of his training and skills, assume a superior attitude, and act as if nothing of good had been done before. He proceeds to a complete turnover. Though this is likely an extreme case, it nevertheless can result in much unhappi-ness for both religious concerned. A heart-to-heart talk between the two might be indicated, the overtures being made by the newcomer. But only the spirit and charity of Christ in whose name they serve, can eliminate the unpleasantness of such a situation. A last emphasis, though by far not the least important, is the crucial role of a religious superior in such situations. He must be alert to the problem as it exists for both parties concerned. \Vith a deep human insight and true supernatural solicitude for all of his subjects, he will intervene and, having carefully determined on which side the blame chiefly rests, take immediate and if need be, stringent measures to remedy matters. If he be just, prudent, and God-fearing, showing no preferences, his attitude of mind will be at once apparent to both parties to the problem and they will be docile to his counsel. This may be difticult, but where prejudice is concerned, rooted as it is in the emotions, reason will not easily break through. Nor should he stoop to a solution of mere expediency. So too in the problem ¯ of community adjustmenL rather than circumvent it by expediency 209 BOOK REVIEWS Review for Religious the superior will act as a sort of referee between the members.' For the situation not only objectively, but most probably subjectively as well, is reciprocal. Finally, for religious of either sex who, because of their work and the structure of their communities are of necessity moved from place to place in the course of their lives, a reflection on Christ's, words, "i was a stranger and you took me not in," may prove highly pertinent. ,Also, "what you have done to these . . . you have done to me!" The truth of these words is so direct, so simple, that it is a marvel how we miss it! A noted master of the spiritual life once questioned. "Are we so busy being religious, that we fail to be Christians?" The answer to this question, as regards the newcomer in our midst, can be given a pointed application.--A SISTER. (Material for this department should be sent to Book Review Editor, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, West Baden College, West Baden Springs, Indiana.) FATHER VINCENT McNABB, O.P. Por÷rolt of a Grea÷ Dominican. By Ferdinand Volenfine, O.P. Pp. 418. The Newman Press, West-minsCer, M~r~l~nd. I%~. $~.00. Father Valentine deserves the gratitude of all, both within and outside his Order, for the excellent book he has offered us. It is ex-cellent because it succeeds so well in achieving precisely that goal which Father Valentine clearly sets for himself. He does not intend to write a biography. But he wants to produce a "portrait of a great Dominican"--and he does. For here is the portrait of a "very great Dominican"--to borrow the appraisal of the present provincial, Father Carpenter. The book will inspire the diligent reader and make him grateful for this unveiling of the workings of grace in the impetuous, childlike soul of Father Vincent McNabb. As Father Valentine says, "the one and only person who could fittingly and adequately write the biography of any man would be his guardian angel." But xqithin the limits of human competence. Father Valentine has painted a masterful portrait of Father Vincent dynamically cooperating with the Holy Spirit working as the artiste merueilleux within his soul. The author achieves his goal by his very extended research. He seems to have tapped almost every conceivable channel which might 210 July/, 1956 BOOK REVIEWS carry some reflected image of Father McNabb's character. He uses many direct quotations, a large number of letters from Father Mc- Nabb, some of his articles, together with historical backgrounds, recollections by intimates, and even handwriting analyses. Added to this rich amassing of the facts on Father Vincent's life, the book is marked by a rather successful approach to that impossible ideal of perfect objectivity in interpreting facts. The author is careful to dis-tinguish between the particular theory of character development which he uses to explain Father McNabb's life and the facts themselves. Of these latter he records some that favor Father Vincent, but a good number that are not very flattering to him. The book is composed of four parts with appendices. The first part sketches more of the external historical picture of Father Mc- Nabb's life. It stresses the psychology of the growing youngster and his character formation, particularly under the influence of his mother. Part two shows us more fully the heart of Father McNabb. How the brethren viewed their fellow Dominican and superior, what he was in the e~'es of the people to whom he ministered so charitably, and what activities his own zeal, social ideas, and humiliations led him to are here presented to the reader. Part three lets that reader see Father McNabb through the eyes of those xvho either were near-est him, like his family, or were very apt to form just appraisals of the man, such as Hilaire Belloc and Gilbert K. Chesterton. The last part is a collection of Father McNabb's letters, covering a period of almost fifty years and giving many an insight into his character. This section also corroborates the author's sketching of the spiritual development that occurred in Father McNabb's life. The book makes interesting private reading. There are lines memorable for their local color or for the vividness with which they picture Father McNabb in one of his many moods. With careful screening of some of the more documentary parts, the book might make profitable refectory reading. One specially enriching section is entitled "Father Vincent's Reminiscenses of His Priestly Life." From it the reader possibly will gain his greatest appreciation of the stature and spirit of Father McNabb. As a substitute for the somewhat loose connection of the four parts and of their subdivisions, some readers might desire a more closely knit narrative which in a unified procedure would portray all the facets of the hero's character. But this would seem to be ask-ing for something that approaches a biography. Again some readers may not agree with the author's confidence or the method employed 211 BOOK REVIEWS Review for Religious when he analyzes the dominant factors forming Father Vincent's character. But the author himself is the first to admit that this is an optional part of his theory and not an essential in the foundation of the facts he has established. If you pick up the book, you will find that in Mmost every chap-ter you will be in violent disagreement with one of Father McNabb's views or practices and then suddenly be in love with him for some sacrifice or statement he makes; and yet through it all, you will be delighted and inspired by this unique character striving heroically for humility and obedience because of his deep love for Jesus, Mary, and Josepb.~FRANK M. OPPENHEIM, S.J. GOD AND HIS CREATION. Theology Library, Vol. II. Edi÷ed by A. M. Henry, O.P. Transla÷ed from fhe French by Charles Miltner, C.S.C. Pp. 511. Fides Publishers Association, Chicago. 1955. $6.50. The s~cond volume of the Theology Library, following the plan. of the Summa, treats of God and His creation. It is divided into three books: Book I, God Exists, has three chapters which con-sider the revelation about God, His existence and essence, and the Trinity. Book II, God Creates, presents, in five chapters, the doctrine of creation, of evil, of the angels, of the octave of creation, and of man. Book III, God Governs, studies the mystery of divine govern-ment, the angels and divine government, the two economies of divine government. The different chapters are all by different theologians. Certain features call for special praise. Before the treatment of each of the twelve general topics, we are given a r~sum~ of the scriptural basis for the truths involved. The very first chapter is an excellent ex-ample of this. It takes the reader through the whole of Scripture to showy him the growth in the idea of God, and to emphasize the tremendous deepening of the concept in the New Testament through the Incarnation of the Second Person. Father Paissac's development of the theology of God's attributes has many deep and helpful in-sights. One of the best is his close association of the notions of the good and the beautiful (pp. 62 and ~3). The idea of the beautiful helps very much to see the meaning of the truth that a thing is "good in itself." Another feature is the clear way in which each topic is approached so as to highlight the essentials of theological method. The second chapter furnishes an instance: first the question is stated, then the data of revelation are gathered as the answer to the question of fact (An est?), and finally the theological explanation is given (Quid est?). A word of criticism is, however, iri order here. In the 212 Julg, 1956 BOOK REVIEWS first volume Father Liege had made it clear that the starting point in any theological investigation must be the teaching of the magis-terium. As Pius XII insisted in the Encyclical Humani Generis this is the starting point even for the theologians. Yet, in the places where the data of revelation are gathered preparatory to theological elabor-ation, we find the order of the older manualists used: Scripture comes first, then the Fathers of the Church, then the documents of the magis-terium follow in their historical place. But it is imperative to show even in the scheme of presentation that the first of the theological loci is the teaching of the rnagisterium. A third feature is the con-sciousness of modern problems manifested in the treatment of each topic. Added to this is the presence at the end of each chapter of a few pages called reflections and perspectives in which topics for further study and for discussion are suggested. Finally, a short bibliography of easily available works in English is given after the reflections and perspectives. In the review of the first volume of the Theology Library doubt was voiced as to whether the work was adapted to those who had not had formal training in philosophy or theology. These doubts must be raised again. For the treatment of the matter is, in general, too compressed, and the style is full of technical terms or of allusions which only a person trained in philosophy would understand. The translation is very disappointing. Not that there are many inaccuracies. Rather it is the presence in the English of so many features that smack of the original French, features which make the reading unnecessarily difficult, confusing and exasperating, which leads to this criticism. For example: the plethora of nominative ab-solutes is retained; the inversions of French style remain; the use of the English it to refer to antecedents which the French clearly marks either by pronouns of different genders or by words with different suffixes retard the reader and often leave him undecided as to just what the antecedent is; the rather common use of the present tense in French in passages of somewhat animated narration is kept in the use of the English present.--JAMES J. DOYLE, S.J. PASTORAL PSYCHOLOGY IN PRACTICE: By Willlbald Demal, O.S.B., D.D. Pp. 249. P. g. Kenedy and Sons, New York. 1955. $4.00. This is a difficult book to review, and not merely because its print is so fine. It is addressed to priests and "educators "to whom God has entrusted the task of pastoral care." (p. ix) This audience has a degree of competence and professional alertness. The author seems tO count heavily on the discriminating powers of his prospec- 213 BOOK REVIEWS Review for RMigious tive readers, for he says many things that are, at best, questionable. He is anxious to score a point, and to do it he will at times exag-gerate: or" use a universal negative, when he must know that an exception, will come readily to mind and so convict him of falsity. He is dogmatic on matters that are merely probable, and it is only the refusal of the informed reader to take him literally that saves some statements from being unorthodox. No clerical reader will get far into the book before turning to its beginning to find out if it has an imprimatur. And many, I think, will be surprised to find that it has. It must be said in justice that the text itself contains the cor-rective of, and antidote for, many of the extreme positions, which would, then, seem to be advanced for the sake of good, clean argu-ment. There is, of course, a danger that the unwary will carry away some false impressions. Before giving a critical analysis of a few of the author's tenets, let me indicate, with some passing observations, the range of topics one is asked to consider ~vhile reading this book. His remarks on the psychology of the sexes are penetrating, though one will not always agree with what he says. Assessing re-sponsibility for acts that are commonly considered grievously sinful is often beset with difficulties. Kindness and understanding, tact and charity are well insisted on as requisites for work in the confessional. When he tells us that the Holy Ghost is the real guide of souls and that God guides them through the priest as His instrument, he seems to contradict his position that the priest needs psychiatric lore. He seems to concede an overpowering influence to the unconscious and to be too ready to admit that men are "determined" and consequently are not free. He opposes coeducation because it tends to destroy the polarity of the sexes, but then goes on to say that both sexes benefit from mutual contact. Judgment weakens in old age, which, sur-prisingly, is characterized by good judgment (p. 124). He gives a good test to determine if our ruling passion is sensuality or pride (p. 126). The temperaments are well done and the reader will be sure to classify all his acquaintances--and perhaps himself-~ as choleric, sanguine, melancholic, phlegmatic, or a mixture of them. A brief outline is given of the contributions of Kretschmer, Kiinkel, Freud, dung, and Spranger. It is a disappointment that the author makes no attempt to. digest this mass of theory and evaluate it, per-haps in terms of temperament. He has some rather penetrating re-marks on the scrupulous and some which will occasion debate. Should a priest discourage a psychopathetic person from marryin.g? 214 dulg, 1956 ¯ ¯ BOOK REVIEWS Few pe6ple are healthy and most people are in one way or another psychopathetic (pp. 210, 237). Let me now give .a few illustrations of the author's penchantto exaggeration. Conversion is well said to be "the triumph of divine grace over human nature with its inclination to sin." Teresa of Avila was converted at the age of 40, though she entered the convent at the age of 18. When conversion finally does occur, "it excludes the possibility of oscillations and relapses." (p. 7) This seems to be our idea of confirmation in grace. What of St. John Fisher's remark about the condemned criminal being led out to execution, "There but for the grace of God, go I"? "Man is incapable of true resignation to and union with God before 40." After that, presum-ably, he can be converted. Father Demal may quote mystics for his opinions, but he is out of touch with the battles human nature must wage to get into heaven, even after the age of forty and bulwarked with the best of resolutions. A conversion such as he envisages would spread endless sunshine over this de facto vale of tears. The author is little tolerant of "casuists who pass moral judg-ments on human acts by means of stop watch, yard-stick and scales." (p. 9) "It is impossible to formulate exact laws and directives which would clearly separate venial from grievous sins . . . the just de-cision will be made by God, not by moral theologians." (p. 118) Even St. Alphonsus comes in for some mild criticism, since he is said to have "underrated the importance of natural disposition for the preservation of chastity and overrated the importance of divine grace." (p. 181) In sober fact there are times when a prudent confessor is in doubt whether a sin is mortal or venial and this is the point Father Demal must be striving to make. He does not seriously mean that a con-fessor can never know that an infraction was mortal, for he tells us that when penitents come to confession "without any sincerely spiritual intention of amendment . . . the only course is the refusal of absolution." (p. 11) When an infraction is venial, one scarcely refuses absolution. If one searches diligently, he will find in Father Demal most of the accepted canons of the "moral theologians." In his final chapter the author notes that some priests are suc-cessful in their treatment of psychopathic persons and others are dismal failures, and offers this as the explanation: "Of first im-portance is the priest's knowledge of the various psychopatbies, their distinguishing symptoms and the indicated therapy." (p. 237) This is questionable. Were a priest to fancy himself as a psychiatrist, his 215 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS Review [or Religious thought would tend to be concentrated on the discovery and listing of symptoms rather than on a manifestation of genuine sympathy.
In my doctoral thesis, I demonstrate i) how the demand and supply side respond to the (first time) availability of product information for mutual funds and ii) how actions and personal characteristics of portfolio managers impact investors and fund management. Essays (1) and (2) extend the scarce evidence on the utility of investor information disclosure by means of a comprehensive investigation into the disclosure practices of the mutual fund industry. Using product information with different degrees of salience and obligation, ranging from comprehensive mandatory pre-contractual product information to complementary fund characteristics only disclosed by selective players, the essays document the importance of thoroughly written and designed information. Specifically, on the demand side, I analyze i) whether retail investors can understand mutual fund product information and ii) if investors are able to benefit from novel disclosure initiatives. Moreover, on the supply side, I show if and to what extent mutual fund companies react to novel disclosure regulations. Essays (3) and (4) shift the focus towards the individuals in charge of managing retail investors' money, i.e. the portfolio managers, analyzing the impact of incentive mechanisms and personality traits on fund management and investor behavior. The overarching contribution of my research is threefold. First, by addressing information salience and understandability, I shed light on retail investor limitations not explained by the classical efficient market framework assuming investors to be fully rational utility-maximizing decision-makers (e.g., Fama 1970). Thus, my research adds to the rich behavioral finance literature dealing with cognitive capacity and information processing constraints (e.g., Kozup et al. 2012, Agnew and Szykman 2005). Second, by analyzing investor behavior from an objective point of view, I contribute to the understanding of determinants which affect flows of mutual fund investor (e.g., Sirri and Tufano 1998, Barber et al. 2005). Third, methodically my research adds to the quantification of qualitative data in the finance domain (e.g., Loughran and McDonald 2016, 2019) by applying advanced textual analytics (essays (1), (3) and (4)), allowing to investigate large samples of written (verbal) information. How do policy makers help consumers make sound investment decisions? Regulations which require disclosure of information are among the most ubiquitous interventions in investor protection. The popularity of mandatory information disclosure follows standard economic theory which suggests that disclosure can help avoid instances of market failure in situations characterized by asymmetric information and a risk of misaligned incentives (e.g., Akerlof 1970, Ross 1973). However, although broadly advocated as an appropriate policy measure, there is a paucity of data supporting the efficiency of mandatory information disclosure. For example, individuals' information processing abilities have been shown to be limited and, thus, the increasing extent of mandatory information likely leads to an 'information overload', where the marginal utility of information for the decision-maker becomes negative (e.g., Eppler and Mengis 2004). In my dissertation, I focus on investor information disclosed by actively managed equity mutual funds, since holdings in this asset class represent the by far largest fraction of household investments: in 2017, worldwide retail assets under management by equity mutual funds totaled at $21.8 trillion with the large majority being actively managed (Investment Company Institute 2018). Moreover, disclosure requirements are pervasive for fund companies and the market is a prime candidate for unintended consequences of mandatory disclosure such as information overload: investors face a dizzying number of product options and each product carries a host of characteristics, which should be considered in order to make an informed decision. Especially when investing in an actively managed mutual fund which is tantamount to delegating the management of a securities portfolio. I investigate four types of investor information which regulatory authorities have qualified as decision-relevant when it comes to this delegation task. First and foremost, investor should understand the fund's key features. For this to be the case, mandatory product information has to be easy to understand for the average investor (essay 1). The introduction of Key Investor Information Documents (KIIDs) for mutual funds in the European Union is the regulator's response to the quest for a more comprehensible description of the essential product features and we examine if these documents live up to their purpose. Following Loughran and McDonald (2014), we assess the comprehensibility and regulatory compliance of KIIDs and thereby extend the scarce academic evidence on the importance of product information documents (e.g., Habschick et al. 2012, Oehler et al. 2014, Walther 2015). We use a comprehensive sample of roughly 38,000 product information documents for mutual funds pre and post the introduction of KIIDs to capture the regulations impact on fund information comprehensibility. We find that while mutual fund product information remains difficult to read requiring on average 13 years of formal education from readers, textual readability significantly improved with the introduction of KIIDs. Furthermore, we show that the introduction of KIIDs translated into a 'clearer' writing style. By contrast, we detect that the relative usage of financial jargon increased in the new short form disclosure document. Moreover, the improvement on readability and the significant reduction in length seem to be achieved at the expense of an appealing font. Only half of the KIIDs comply with regulators' guidelines on font type and size. Taken together, we document mixed results on the regulations' effectiveness in creating clear and comprehensible pre-contractual information that enable retail investor to read and understand those documents. Second, unlike index funds, actively managed funds sell the potential to beat their benchmark (usually a market index) and investors who select this type of mutual fund are typically looking for an opportunity to outperform the market index. However, actively managed funds usually charge significantly higher fees than passive funds (e.g., Morningstar 2018). This cost difference may be justified by the fund manager's effort to manage the portfolio in a way which creates an opportunity to generate excess returns. Thus, assessing the fees charged by an actively managed fund in light of the actual level of activeness is a worthwhile screening exercise for investors: prior literature documents substantial underperformance for funds with low levels of activeness (e.g., Petajisto 2013, Cremers et al. 2016, Cremers and Pareek 2016). However, and even though fund companies employ Active Share (AS) , a metric to capture the degree to which a fund deviates from its benchmark, for a variety of purposes and provide AS information to institutional investors, they did not disclose it to retail investors and were not required to do so by regulators. The lack of equal access to AS information can be regarded as an information asymmetry, which prevents retail investors from fully evaluating the potential value proposition of an actively managed equity fund. Consequently, the New York Attorney General (NYOAG) revealed dubious index-hugging practices and unequal access to AS information for several of the largest US mutual funds and subsequently imposed disclosure of AS on them (NYOAG 2018). We make use of this unique intervention and thereby extend the few existing studies on funds' activeness (essay 2). In particular, we are the first to demonstrate if and how individual investors react to AS information once they (can) learn about it. We find that retail investors strongly respond to the NYOAG intervention, but not in the way intended by the regulators. We document a significant increase in investor flows into funds of fund companies affected by the intervention. The effect is most pronounced in the days after the intervention became public. However, rather than 'rationally' re-allocating assets away from 'high fee/low activeness' and into truly actively managed funds, investors are subject to a media attention bias. Fund companies that are prominently covered in the press following the disclosure intervention experience high net inflows, irrespective of the degree of AS. These findings are hard to square with the notion that retail investors have understood the concept behind AS and rationally traded on this newly available information. On the supply side, we do not observe a change in portfolio management habits following the intervention. Even for funds with the lowest AS levels—i.e. arguably those funds with the highest pressure to act in an attempt to legitimate 'active' fees—we do not observe any measurable effort to increase AS post-intervention. In sum, our evaluation of the NYOAG intervention documents a number of unintended consequences and reveals substantial limits to the effectiveness of this disclosure initiative. Third, investors face ongoing uncertainty about the standard of care fund managers exercise when managing their savings and whether they act in their best interest. Following the rationale "(…) that a portfolio manager's ownership of a fund provides a direct indication of his or her alignment with the interests of shareholders in that fund" (SEC 2004, section II, part D), managers of US mutual funds are required to disclose the amount of their private investments in all funds they manage. However, information about the beneficial holdings of portfolio managers (their skin-in-the-game) is far from readily accessible for the average retail investor. Instead, managers' private investments are disclosed in a supplementary fund information document that is only provided upon request and, at best, can be considered a secondary source for the average investor. Yet, interestingly, fund managers regularly use another medium to voluntarily disclose skin-in-the-game to their investors: the Letter to the Shareholder (LS). The LS is a non-mandatory–however commonly enclosed–component of the mutual fund's semi-annual or annual report. It is typically authored by the fund management, addresses the fund shareholders directly and thus constitutes a key element in communication with their shareholders (e.g., Hillert et al. 2016, Chu and Kim 2019). Unlike prior studies (e.g., Khorana et al. 2007, Ma et al. 2019, Evans 2008, Ibert 2018), who find that funds with managerial ownership yield higher risk-adjusted returns, I exploit verbal signaling of the managers in the LS to analyze aggregate investor fund flows applying advanced textual analytics (essay 3). With this, I contribute to prior research on the effects of fund manager skin-in-the-game by observing how retail investors respond to their managers' signaling activities. I find that signaling of skin-in-the-game in the LS triggers substantial net inflows from retail investors. The effect is most sizeable in the days after investors receive the LS and persistent throughout time. On the other side, I show that retail investors' asset allocation is unaltered by the actual amount invested by fund managers –an information the average retail investors most probable is unable (or unwilling) to find. Finally, I document that signaling of fund managers in the LS affects only retail investors. Professional investors, on the other hand, regularly have access to licensed fund data providers and potentially can easily obtain valuable information on fund manager investments. Fourth and lastly, we explore the consequences of a well-researched personality trait –narcissism– on fund managers' portfolio management. Unlike 'hard facts' of a fund, such as past performance, cost or investment style, investors do know little about their fund managers personality. Yet, looking into the literature on corporate managers (e.g., Chatterjee and Hambrick 2007, Kumar and Goyal 2015, Aktas et al. 2016), personality traits might also affect the job of fund managers. Applying text-mining techniques on verbatim fund manager interviews retrieved from The Wall Street Transcript, we find that narcissism is even more severe among professional fund managers than in the corporate context. We show that narcissistic fund managers are significantly more likely to deviate from their advertised investment style. Moreover, we document that while the realized performance of narcissistic fund manager is virtually identical to their non-narcissistic counterparts, we find that they exhibit a worse risk-return profile. Furthermore, we identify that large funds, i.e. those associated with higher compensation and prestige in the business, are more often managed by narcissistic managers, which is in line with prior literature documenting 'empire-building' behavior of narcissists. Given our evidence pointing to a rather negative relation of narcissism on portfolio management, we would expect investors to refrain investing with a narcissistic manager. However, we find that this is not the case. Most probable, investors do not know about personal traits of their fund managers and consequently are unable to act upon this information. Taken together, the findings of my essays stress the importance of salient information disclosure in order for retail investors to arrive at a wise investment decision. The empirical evidence provided highlights certain shortcoming in current disclosure practices and regulations. Essay (1) indicates that summary product information accompanied by formatting and language guidelines are a first step in the right direction to ensure investors comprehensibility of product information for mutual funds. However, we still detect linguistic barriers that potentially prevent investors from reading and understanding relevant product characteristics. Essay (2) provides insights on the effect of a non-standardized information disclosure intervention. As can be inferred from investors' (non-) response to the availability of information on funds' activeness, we observe that local interventions that address information asymmetries and therefore should benefit retail investors decision making, proof almost inefficient when not requiring a standardized, comparable and well-thought through information layout. Essay (3) supports this notion in documenting a prevalent mismatch between information availability and information usage. Finally, essay (4) points on the importance of personality traits. For retail investors it might be important to know more about the character of their fund managers given the evidence that personality traits, such as narcissism, affect day-to-day portfolio management. In sum, decision relevant information for investors, from the explanation of funds' investment style in the prospectus (essay 1), funds' 'true' degree of activeness (essay 2), an indication of manager private wealth investment (essay 3) or hints on the managers personality (essay 4), remains useless as long as the understandability, salience and transparency of disclosure stays low.
L'objectiu del document és esbossar les circumstàncies de l'establiment de la galeria d'escultures de Łódź al carreró de Rubinstein (anteriorment: Aleja ZMP) i el seu impacte en l'estètica de Łódź.Tot i la història de la ciutat que es remunta a principis del segle XV, la primera escultura de ple dret a l'espai públic només va aparèixer el 1912. Al començament de la Segona Guerra Mundial, el nombre d'escultures va augmentar fins a una dotzena aproximadament, però totes aquestes obres van ser destruïdes pels alemanys en els primers anys de l'ocupació.En el període 1945-1970, van aparèixer dos monuments i una dotzena de formes més petites. La cara escultòrica de la ciutat només va ser canviada per la Galeria d'escultures de Łódź, que es va centrar en els temes més importants de l'urbanisme de la postguerra, la política, les tendències artístiques i les necessitats socials. Tot i el seu curt període de funcionament (1972-1978), els seus efectes encara són visibles a gairebé tot arreu a Łódź. Mai abans ni mai després s'havia estetitzat el mitjà de l'escultura a tal escala a la ciutat.El record d'aquest lloc i de diverses desenes d'escultures (i dels seus creadors) gairebé s'ha esvaït. Actualment, s'estan realitzant activitats per restaurar la galeria d'escultures de Łódź a la seva posició deguda en la història de la ciutat i continuar les seves activitats al mateix lloc. ; The aim of the paper is to outline the circumstances of the establishment of the Łódź Sculpture Gallery in Rubinstein's Alley (formerly: Aleja ZMP) and its impact on the aesthetics of Łódź. Despite the city's history dating back to the beginning of the 15th century, the first fully-fledged sculpture in public space appeared only in 1912. By the beginning of World War II, the number of sculptures increased to a dozen or so, but all of those works were destroyed by the Germans in the first years of the occupation.In the period 1945–1970, two monuments and a dozen or so smaller forms appeared. The sculptural face of the city was changed only by the Łódź Sculpture Gallery, which focused on the most important issues of post-war town planning, politics, artistic trends, and social needs. Despite its short period of operation (1972–1978), its effects are still visible almost everywhere in Łódź. Never before and never after has the medium of sculpture been aestheticised on such a scale in the city.The memory of this place and several dozen sculptures (and of their creators) has almost faded away. Currently, activities are under way to restore the Łódź Sculpture Gallery to its due position in the history of the city and to continue its activities in the same place. ; El objetivo del artículo es describir las circunstancias del establecimiento de la Galería de Esculturas de Łódź en Rubinstein's Alley (antes: Aleja ZMP) y su impacto en la estética de Łódź. A pesar de que la historia de la ciudad se remonta a principios del siglo XV, la primera escultura completa en el espacio público apareció solo en 1912. Al comienzo de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, el número de esculturas aumentó a una docena más o menos, pero todas esas obras fueron destruidas por los alemanes en los primeros años de la ocupación. En el período 1945-1970, aparecieron dos monumentos y una docena de formas más pequeñas. La cara escultórica de la ciudad fue cambiada solo por la Galería de Esculturas de Łódź, que se centró en los temas más importantes del urbanismo, la política, las tendencias artísticas y las necesidades sociales de la posguerra. A pesar de su breve período de funcionamiento (1972-1978), sus efectos aún son visibles en casi todas partes en Łódź. Nunca antes y nunca después se ha estetizado el medio escultórico a tal escala en la ciudad. El recuerdo de este lugar y de varias decenas de esculturas (y de sus creadores) casi se ha desvanecido. Actualmente, se están llevando a cabo actividades para restaurar la Galería de Esculturas de Łódź a su debido lugar en la historia de la ciudad y continuar sus actividades en el mismo lugar. ; L'objectif de cet article est de décrire les circonstances de la création de la galerie de sculptures de Łódź dans Rubinstein's Alley (anciennement : Aleja ZMP) et son impact sur l'esthétique de Łódź.Malgré l'histoire de la ville remontant au début du XVe siècle, la première sculpture à part entière dans l'espace public n'apparaît qu'en 1912. Au début de la Seconde Guerre mondiale, le nombre de sculptures passe à une dizaine, mais toutes ces ouvrages ont été détruits par les Allemands dans les premières années de l'occupation.Dans la période 1945-1970, deux monuments et une dizaine de formes plus petites sont apparus. Le visage sculptural de la ville n'a été modifié que par la galerie de sculptures de Łódź, qui s'est concentrée sur les questions les plus importantes de l'urbanisme d'après-guerre, de la politique, des tendances artistiques et des besoins sociaux. Malgré sa courte période d'exploitation (1972-1978), ses effets sont encore visibles presque partout à Łódź. Jamais auparavant et jamais après le médium de la sculpture n'a été esthétisé à une telle échelle dans la ville.Le souvenir de ce lieu et de plusieurs dizaines de sculptures (et de leurs créateurs) s'est presque évanoui. Actuellement, des activités sont en cours pour redonner à la Galerie de sculptures de Łódź la place qui lui revient dans l'histoire de la ville et pour poursuivre ses activités au même endroit ; Lo scopo del documento è delineare le circostanze della creazione della Galleria di sculture di Łódź nel Vicolo di Rubinstein (precedentemente: Aleja ZMP) e il suo impatto sull'estetica di Łódź.Nonostante la storia della città risalga all'inizio del XV secolo, la prima scultura a tutti gli effetti nello spazio pubblico apparve solo nel 1912. All'inizio della seconda guerra mondiale, il numero di sculture aumentò a una dozzina circa, ma tutte quelle opere furono distrutte dai tedeschi nei primi anni dell'occupazione.Nel periodo 1945-1970 apparvero due monumenti e una dozzina di forme più piccole. Il volto scultoreo della città è stato cambiato solo dalla Galleria delle sculture di Łódź, che si è concentrata sulle questioni più importanti dell'urbanistica del dopoguerra, della politica, delle tendenze artistiche e delle esigenze sociali. Nonostante il suo breve periodo di attività (1972-1978), i suoi effetti sono ancora visibili quasi ovunque a Łódź. Mai prima e mai dopo il medium della scultura è stato estetizzato su tale scala in città.Il ricordo di questo luogo e di diverse decine di sculture (e dei loro creatori) è quasi svanito. Attualmente sono in corso le attività per riportare la Galleria di Sculture di Łódź alla sua giusta posizione nella storia della città e per continuare le sue attività nello stesso luogo. ; O objetivo do artigo é descrever as circunstâncias do estabelecimento da Galeria de Esculturas Łódź no Beco de Rubinstein (anteriormente: Aleja ZMP) e seu impacto na estética de Łódź.Apesar da história da cidade remontar ao início do século XV, a primeira escultura totalmente desenvolvida em espaço público apareceu apenas em 1912. No início da Segunda Guerra Mundial, o número de esculturas aumentou para cerca de uma dúzia, mas todas essas obras foram destruídas pelos alemães nos primeiros anos da ocupação.No período de 1945 a 1970, dois monumentos e uma dúzia de formas menores apareceram. A face escultural da cidade foi mudada apenas pela Galeria de Esculturas de Łódź, que enfocou as questões mais importantes do planejamento urbano do pós-guerra, política, tendências artísticas e necessidades sociais. Apesar de seu curto período de operação (1972-1978), seus efeitos ainda são visíveis em quase todos os lugares em Łódź. Nunca antes e nunca depois o meio da escultura foi estetizado em tal escala na cidade.A memória deste lugar e de várias dezenas de esculturas (e de seus criadores) quase desapareceu. Atualmente, estão em andamento atividades para restaurar a Galeria de Esculturas de Łódź ao seu devido lugar na história da cidade e continuar suas atividades no mesmo local.
Αυτή η διπλωματική εργασία ερευνά τη σημαντικότητα της ποιότητας στην ναυτιλιακή βιομηχανία σε συνδυασμό με την απαραίτητη ασφάλεια και την προστασία του θαλάσσιου περιβάλλοντος. Η ποιότητα στο χώρο της ναυτιλίας δεν αφορά μόνο το προϊόν αλλά και τις υπηρεσίες, τις διαδικασίες, το προσωπικό και γενικά με οτιδήποτε εμπλέκεται για τη σωστή διεξαγωγή των επιθυμητών αποτελεσμάτων. Προκειμένου να υπάρξουν επικερδή αποτελέσματα και επίτευξη των στόχων, θα πρέπει κάθε ενέργεια, σύστημα και υλικά να διακατέχονται από ποιότητα. Μέσα από μία αναλυτική περιγραφή γίνεται σαφές πόση σημαντική είναι η ποιότητα στο χώρο της ναυτιλίας. Ένα ενδιαφέρον ζήτημα που έρχεται πολλές φορές σε σύγκρουση με τη ζητούμενη ποιότητα στη ναυτιλία είναι αυτό της ασφάλειας. Προκείμενου να επιτευχθεί η απαραίτητη ασφάλεια, αυτό αυτομάτως συνεπάγεται σε αύξηση των κόστων. Η ασφάλεια απαιτεί συνεχής εκπαίδευση και ενημέρωση του προσωπικού (εν πλω και στις εταιρείες), σύγχρονα συστήματα πλοήγησης και τεχνολογίας καθώς και πολλά άλλα σημαντικά θέματα ασφάλειας που αναλύονται εκτενώς στην παρούσα διπλωματική εργασία. Πολλές ναυτιλιακές εταιρείες επιλέγουν να μειώσουν την ασφάλεια προκειμένου να ανταποκριθούν όσο το δυνατόν καλύτερα στην ποιότητα. Όταν τίθενται ζητήματα ασφάλειας τότε οι διαδικασίες είναι πιο χρονοβόρες και πολυέξοδες. Παρατηρήθηκε όμως ότι όταν αμελείται η ασφάλεια, δημιουργούνται ατυχήματα. Γι αυτό το λόγο δημιουργήθηκαν κανόνες και νόμοι από τον Διεθνή Οργανισμό Ναυτιλίας και πολλούς άλλους οργανισμούς οι οποίοι υποχρεώνουν τις ναυτιλιακές εταιρείες να τηρούν και να εφαρμόζουν συγκεκριμένα μέτρα ασφάλειας. Ο Διεθνής Κώδικας Διαχείρισης Ασφάλειας, το Σύστημα Διαχείρισης Ασφάλειας και ο Διεθνής Οργανισμός Τυποποίησης περιγράφουν λεπτομερώς τις υποχρεώσεις κάθε ναυτιλιακής εταιρείας. Τα τελευταία χρόνια, έχει δοθεί έμφαση στην προστασία του περιβάλλοντος. Τα θαλάσσια ύδατα χρήζουν άμεσης αντιμετώπισης μιας και η ρύπανση τους είναι μεγάλη και επικίνδυνη για πολλά ζώα, φυτά και ακόμη και για τον άνθρωπο. Ως γνωστόν, τα ναυτικά ατυχήματα προκαλούν τεράστιες οικολογικές καταστροφές, αυτό όμως δεν σημαίνει ότι η διέλευση των πλοίων στους ωκεανούς γίνεται χωρίς επιπτώσεις για το θαλάσσιο περιβάλλον. Σε αυτό το σημείο, γίνεται μεγάλη αναφορά στις οικολογικές καταστροφές που προκαλεί η ναυτιλία με σκοπό να γίνει αντιληπτό η σοβαρότητα της κατάστασης όπως και οι τρόποι αντιμετώπισης τους. Και σε αυτό το θέμα έχουν καθιερωθεί σχετικές νομοθεσίες που επιβάλλουν στις ναυτιλιακές εταιρείες να λαμβάνουν μέτρα για την προστασία του θαλάσσιου οικοσυστήματος. Αυτά τα ζητήματα είναι ιδιαίτερα σημαντικά για πολλούς λόγους. Αρχικά, για μια ναυτιλιακή εταιρεία καθώς καθορίζουν την ανταγωνιστικότητά της στο χώρο αλλά και την επιβίωση της. Ύστερα, για την ασφάλεια του προσωπικού και του εμπορεύματος και τέλος για την προστασία του θαλάσσιου περιβάλλοντος το οποίο επηρεάζει άμεσα και έμμεσα όλον τον κόσμο. ; This paper serves as an enquiry into the importance of quality in the shipping industry in combination with the necessary safety and protection of the marine environment. Quality in the field of shipping is not only about the product but also the services, the procedures, the staff and in general with everything involved for the correct execution of the desired results. In order to have profitable results and achieve the goals, each action, system and materials must be possessed by quality. Through a detailed description it becomes clear how important quality is in the field of shipping. An interesting issue that often comes into conflict with the required quality in shipping is that of safety. In order to achieve the necessary safety, this automatically entails an increase in costs. Safety requires continuous training and information of staff (on board and in companies), modern navigation systems and technology as well as many other important safety issues that are extensively analyzed in this dissertation. Many shipping companies choose to reduce safety in order to respond as well as possible to quality. When safety issues arise then the procedures are more time consuming and costly. However, it has been observed that when safety is neglected, accidents occur. For this reason, rules and laws were created by the International Maritime Organization and many other organizations that oblige shipping companies to comply with and implement specific safety measures. The International Safety Management Code, the Safety Management System and the International Organization for Standardization describe in detail the obligations of each shipping company. In recent years, emphasis has been placed on environmental protection. Seawater needs immediate treatment as its pollution is high and dangerous for many animals, plants and even humans. Maritime accidents are known to cause enormous ecological disasters, but this does not mean that the passage of ships in the oceans has far-reaching effects on the marine environment. At this point, great reference is made to the ecological disasters caused by shipping in order to understand the severity of the situation as well as the ways to deal with them. In this regard, relevant legislation has been established that requires shipping companies to take measures to protect the marine ecosystem. These issues are particularly important for many reasons. Initially, for a shipping company as they determine its competitiveness in the field and its survival. Then, for the safety of personnel and goods and finally for the protection of the marine environment which directly and indirectly affects the whole world.
Competence-based education (CBE) has become a central topic in transnational education policy. The approach has been applied at various education levels around the world, and it has been promoted by various international actors, such as the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the European Union (EU). During the latest curriculum reform, the Finnish education system took a step towards CBE as new transversal competences were introduced into the national level core curricula (Uljens & Rajakaltio, 2017). Even though CBE has been studied widely, there is a need for contextual understanding (Nordin & Sundberg, 2016; Weninger, 2017b). In this dissertation, I focus on the contextualisation of CBE within the Finnish curricular framework of basic education. The results provide conceptual tools to understand, develop and implement a competencebased curriculum. This dissertation is constructed on two interrelated levels following the inductive logic of grounded theory research. Firstly, on a more specific—micro—level, I focus on the individual concept of multiliteracy to understand how it is contextualised in curricular contextualisation of the CBE. Based on these research topics, I locate this dissertation to cross the following three areas of educational research: 1) on the micro level, the results offer new contextual knowledge about multiliteracy for literacy studies (Kulju et al., 2018; Mills, 2010; Zhang et al., 2019); on the macro level, the results provide new knowledge 2) in the field of curriculum studies, addressing curricular contextualisation in particular (Fernandes et al., 2013; Leite et al., 2020) and 3) in the field of education studies, focusing CBE (Priestley & Sinnema, 2014; Sinnema & Aitken, 2013; Voogt & Erstad, 2018). This dissertation consists of three published peer-reviewed research articles and an integrative chapter synthesising the dissertation. The curricular contextualisation of CBE is studied in this research using the method of qualitative content analysis. The broader methodological framework is oriented from qualitative grounded theory research. The research data consist of international peer-reviewed research articles collected in 2015 (n=14) and Finnish local curricula collected in 2017 (n=219) and in 2019 (n=220). The first sub-study (Palsa & Ruokamo, 2015) focused on the relationship between the conceptualisations of the concept of multiliteracy in the Finnish core curriculum and the international research discussion. The second sub-study (Palsa & Mertala, 2019) addressed the contextualisations of the concept of multiliteracy within the Finnish local curricula for basic education. The third sub-study (Palsa & Mertala, 2020) focused further on the contextualisation of multiliteracy in the specific disciplinary settings of social studies and mathematics in the lower secondary education. On the micro level, the findings clarify the relationship between the conceptualisations of multiliteracy between the national level core curriculum and the international research discussion. In addition, the research provides new contextual knowledge about how multiliteracy is contextualised in the local curriculum in general and in the disciplinary settings of social studies and mathematics on the levels of rationale (the 'why?'), definition (the 'what?'), and practice (the 'how?'). On the macro level I introduce new theoretical concepts—conceptual contextualisation and disciplinary contextualisation—and a theory, which helps in understanding the different dimensions of the conceptual contextualisation of CBE. The research findings support education through the development and implementation of the curriculum. ; Osaamisperustaisuus on noussut kansainväliseen koulutuspolitiikan keskiöön yhteiskunnallisten muutosten, kuten globalisaation ja digitalisaation myötä. Tämä näkyy opetussuunnitelmien kehittämisessä ympäri maailmaa. Maailman muutokseen on pyritty vastaamaan painottamalla opetuksen tuloksia, kuten määrittelemällä oppilaiden toivottua osaamista opetuksen sisältöjen kuvailujen sijaan. Osaamisperustaista opetusta on edistetty monen eri kansainvälisen organisaation, kuten OECD:n ja Euroopan unionin toimesta. Viimeisimmän opetussuunnitelmauudistuksen myötä osaamisperustaiseen opetukseen siirryttiin myös Suomessa (Uljens & Rajakaltio, 2017). Vaikka osaamisperustaiseen opetukseen on kiinnitetty paljon huomiota kansainvälisesti, on tuotu esiin tarve ymmärtää tarkemmin, kuinka käsitteitä on määritelty paikallisesti (Nordin & Sundberg, 2016; Weninger, 2017b). Tämän tutkimuksen tavoitteena on tarkastella laaja-alaisen osaamisen kontekstointia suomalaisen perusopetuksen opetussuunnitelmaviitekehyksessä. Tutkimustulokset tarjoavat käsitteellisiä työkaluja osaamisperustaisen opetussuunnitelman ymmärtämiseen, kehittämiseen ja implementoinnin tukemiseen. Tutkimus on rakennettu kahteen toisiinsa linkittyvään tasoon. Laajemmalla makrotasolla tarkastellaan osaamisperustaisen opetussuunnitelman kontekstointia yleisesti. Laaja-alaisen osaamisen kontekstointia tarkastellaan erityisesti monilukutaidon osalta. Tarkemmalla mikrotasolla tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan erityisesti monilukutaitoon liittyviä ulottuvuuksia. Tutkimuksellisten tasojen myötä väitöskirja osallistuu eri tutkimuskeskusteluihin ja -perinteisiin. Mikrotasolla tutkimuksen tulokset tarjoavat uutta tietoa lukutaitotutkimuksen kentälle erityisesti monilukutaidosta ja siihen liittyvistä näkökulmista paikallisella tasolla (Kulju et al., 2018; Mills, 2010; Zhang et al., 2019). Makrotasolla opetussuunnitelmatutkimuksen osalta tulokset tarjoavat uutta tietoa opetussuunnitelmakontekstoinnista (Fernandes et al., 2013; Leite et al., 2020) erityisesti käsitteellisestä näkökulmasta sekä osaamisperustaisesta opetuksesta (Priestley & Sinnema, 2014; Sinnema & Aitken, 2013; Voogt & Erstad, 2018). Väitöskirja koostuu kolmesta kansainvälisestä vertaisarvioidusta artikkelista sekä yhteenveto-osiosta. Osaamisperustaisen opetuksen kontekstointia suomalaisessa perusopetuksen opetussuunnitelmaviitekehikossa tutkitaan tässä väitöskirjassa laadullisen sisällönanalyysin avulla. Tutkimuksen laajempi metodologinen viitekehys pohjautuu laadulliseen Grounded theory -tutkimukseen. Tutkimusaineisto koostuu vuonna 2015 kerätyistä kansainvälisistä vertaisarvioiduista tutkimusartikkeleista (n=14) sekä vuosina 2017 (n=219) ja 2019 (n=220) kootuista paikallisista suomenkielisistä perusopetuksen opetussuunnitelmista. Ensimmäisessä osatutkimuksessa (Palsa & Ruokamo, 2015) tarkasteltiin perusopetuksen opetussuunnitelman perusteiden määritelmää monilukutaidosta suhteessa kansainväliseen tutkimuskirjallisuuteen. Toisessa osatutkimuksessa (Palsa & Mertala, 2019) tarkasteltiin, kuinka monilukutaito oli määritelty yleisesti paikallisissa suomenkielisissä perusopetuksen opetussuunnitelmissa. Kolmannessa osatutkimuksessa (Palsa & Mertala, 2020) tarkasteltiin, kuinka monilukutaito oli määritelty oppiainekohtaisesti matematiikan ja yhteiskuntaopin osalta paikallisissa opetussuunnitelmissa erityisesti luokka-asteilla 7–9. Osaamisperustaisen opetuksen osalta makrotasolla tutkimuksen tuloksina esitellään kaksi uutta käsitettä—käsitteellinen kontekstointi sekä oppiainekohtainen kontekstointi—sekä teorian, jonka avulla voidaan tarkemmin ymmärtää osaamisperustaisen opetussuunnitelman kontekstointiin liittyviä ulottuvuuksia. Mikrotasolla tulokset osoittavat miten opetussuunnitelmaperusteissa esitetty monilukutaidon määritelmä suhteutuu kansainväliseen tutkimuskeskusteluun ja miten käsite kontekstoidaan paikallisissa opetussuunnitelmissa yleisesti sekä erityisesti matematiikan ja yhteiskuntaopin osalta perustelujen (miksi?), määritelmien (mitä?) sekä käytäntöjen (miten?) tasoilla. Tutkimustulokset tukevat opetussuunnitelman kehittämistä ja implementointia erityisesti käsitteellisen opetussuunnitelmakontekstoinnin osalta. Tutkimus avaa myös tarkemmin monilukutaitoon liittyviä paikallisia näkökulmia ja auttaa siten hahmottamaan syvällisemmin, miten käsite voidaan ymmärtää paikallisesti niin yleisesti kuin oppiainekohtaisesti matematiikan ja yhteiskuntaopin osalta.
This article is devoted to the relevant problem of development of innovative approaches to energy saving and the use of renewable energy sources in order to reduce the costs of agro-industrial enterprises. It is concluded that promising directions for achieving sustainable development of agro-industrial enterprises include minimizing costs, synergistic approach to the combination of natural and economic resources, maintaining balance among economic, ecological and social factors, innovative competitiveness, and long-term focus. On the basis of the materials described in the article, it is considered necessary to formulate the main conclusions: • the efficiency of the activity of economic entities (including agro-industrial and agricultural producers) depends on the presence of innovative approaches to their management. At present, innovative technologies should be considered not only as a source of competitive advantages, but also as a tool to reduce costs in production, logistics, marketing, and other business processes;• renewable energy, which is based on modern high-tech technologies of the transformation of primary energy into energy sources, can become one of the key directions of costs optimization of agro-industrial and agricultural producers; this is confirmed by the practice and statistics obtained in the studies of the agro-industrial sector of the European Union, Asia, Eurasia, and Latin America;• for the Russian agro-industrial sector, the task of reducing costs is particularly acute, as the level of expenditures on energy supply is steadily increasing, which affects not only the profitability of business, but also its competitiveness. A sectoral energy model based on a combination of conventional and renewable energy sources has been developed to tackle this problem;the transition to renewable energy in the agro-industrial sector should be accompanied by energy audit and implementation of power management systems. This will determine the rational combination of energy resources used to ensure the normal functioning and sustainable development ; Este artículo está dedicado al problema relevante del desarrollo de enfoques innovadores para el ahorro de energía y el uso de fuentes de energía renovables con el fin de reducir los costos de las empresas agroindustriales. Se concluye que las direcciones prometedoras para lograr el desarrollo sostenible de las empresas agroindustriales incluyen minimizar los costos, un enfoque sinérgico de la combinación de recursos naturales y económicos, mantener el equilibrio entre los factores económicos, ecológicos y sociales, la competitividad innovadora y el enfoque a largo plazo. Sobre la base de los materiales descritos en el artículo, se considera necesario formular las principales conclusiones: • La eficiencia de la actividad de las entidades económicas (incluidos los productores agroindustriales y agrícolas) depende de la presencia de enfoques innovadores para su gestión. En la actualidad, las tecnologías innovadoras deben considerarse no solo como una fuente de ventajas competitivas, sino también como una herramienta para reducir los costos en producción, logística, mercadeo y otros procesos comerciales;• La energía renovable, que se basa en tecnologías modernas de alta tecnología para la transformación de la energía primaria en fuentes de energía, puede convertirse en una de las direcciones clave de la optimización de costos de los productores agroindustriales y agrícolas; Esto se confirma por la práctica y las estadísticas obtenidas en los estudios del sector agroindustrial de la Unión Europea, Asia, Eurasia y América Latina;• Para el sector agroindustrial ruso, la tarea de reducir costos es particularmente aguda, ya que el nivel de gastos en suministro de energía aumenta constantemente, lo que afecta no solo la rentabilidad de las empresas, sino también su competitividad. Se ha desarrollado un modelo de energía sectorial basado en una combinación de fuentes de energía convencionales y renovables para abordar este problema;La transición a la energía renovable en el sector agroindustrial debe ir acompañada de una auditoría energética y la implementación de sistemas de administración de energía. Esto determinará la combinación racional de los recursos energéticos utilizados para garantizar el funcionamiento normal y el desarrollo sostenible de los productores agroindustriales y agrícolas. ; Данная статья посвящена актуальной проблеме разработки инновационных подходов к энергоресурсосбережению и применению возобновляемых источников энергии с целью сокращения издержек агропромышленных предприятий. Сделан вывод, что перспективные направления достижения устойчивого развития агропромышленных предприятий включают в себя минимизацию издержек, синергический подход к сочетанию природных и экономических ресурсов, поддержание баланса между экономическими, экологическими и социальными факторами, инновационную конкурентоспособность и ориентированность на долгосрочную перспективу. Наосновании изложенных в статье материалов авторы считают необходимым сформулировать основные выводы:• эффективность деятельности хозяйствующих субъектов (в том числе агропромышленных и сельскохозяйственных производителей) зависит от наличия инновационных подходов к управлению ими. В настоящее время инновационные технологии следует считать не только источником получения конкурентных преимуществ, но и инструментом, позволяющим снизить уровень издержек в производственных, логистических, маркетинговых и прочих бизнес-процессах;• возобновляемая энергетика, которая основана на современных наукоемких технологиях преобразования первичной энергии в энергоресурсы, может стать одним из ключевых направлений оптимизации издержек агропромышленных и сельскохозяйственных производителей, это подтверждает практика и статистика, полученная в ходе исследований агропромышленного сектора стран Европейского Союза, Азии, Евразии, Латинской Америки;• для российского агропромышленного сектора задача снижения издержек стоит особенно остро, поскольку уровень расходов на энергоснабжение неуклонно возрастает, что влияет не только на доходность бизнеса, но и на его конкурентоспособность. Для решения этой проблемы разработана отраслевая энергетическая модель, основанная на сочетании традиционных и возобновляемых источников энергии;• переход на возобновляемую энергетику в агропромышленном секторе должен сопровождаться энергетическим аудитом и внедрением систем энергоменеджмента. Это позволит определить рациональное сочетание энергоносителей, используемых для обеспечения нормального функционирования и устойчивого развития агропромышленных и сельскохозяйственных производителей.
Der bei COP21 in Paris erreichte Konsens eines 1.5°-2°C Ziels impliziert, dass große Teile der heute als Reserven verfügbaren fossilen Rohstoffe im Boden verbleiben müssen. Gegenwärtig zielt eine Vielzahl der Maßnahmen, die der Reduktion des Konsums fossiler Rohstoffe dienen soll, auf die Nachfrageseite ab. Ohne ein verbindliches globales CO2-Budget, sind diese Politiken jedoch anfällig für Emissionsverlagerungen und andere unerwünschte Effekte. Angebotsseitige Maßnahmen stellen alternative Politikinstrumente dar, die durch Angebotsreduktion direkt eine Reduktion des Konsums fossiler Rohstoffe bewirken können. Dabei spielt gerade die Kohle als einerseits emissionsintensivster und anderseits reichlich vorhandener fossiler Rohstoff, eine zentrale Rolle. Im ersten Teil dieser Dissertation nutze ich ein Modell des internationalen Kesselkohlemarkts (COALMOD-World), um die Effekte verschiedener angebotsseitiger Politikmaßnahmen auf die Nachfrage nach Kohle zu untersuchen. Dabei wird betrachtet, inwieweit diese dazu geeignet sind, angestrebte Reduktionen des Kohlekonsums zu erreichen. Das für die Untersuchung genutzte, partiale Gleichgewichtsmodell ist in der Lage sowohl das globale Angebot als auch die Nachfrage sowie internationalen Kesselkohlehandel zu simulieren. Über mehrere Zeitschritte hinweg umfasst es endogene Investitionen in Produktions-, Export- und Transportkapazitäten und ermöglicht die Substitution zwischen einheimischer Produktion und Importen. Das erste Politikszenario untersucht die Einführung von Export- bzw. Produktionssteuern auf Kesselkohle. Dieser Politik liegt die Idee zugrunde, dass dadurch einerseits der Konsum reduziert, andererseits, die Terms-of-Trade verbessert werden können. Zur Umsetzung des Szenarios wird COALMOD-World zu einem zweistufigen Setting erweitert. Ergebnisse zeigen, dass durch die Steuer zwar signifikante Erlöse erzielt werden können, jedoch für eine substanzielle Reduktion des Kohlekonsums eine große Koalition von Ländern, die gemeinsam eine Produktionssteuer erheben, notwendig ist. Als weitere Politikmaßnahme untersuche ich den Wegfall von Subventionen für die Kohleproduktion. Zwar zeigt die Maßnahme einen geringen positiven Effekt auf die Nettowohlfahrt, jedoch bewirkt sie keine erhebliche Steigerung des Kohlepreises. Diese wäre allerdings notwendig, um den Kohlekonsum nachhaltig zu reduzieren. Eine weitere angebotsseitige Politikmaßnahme, die aktuell diskutiert wird, ist die Einführung eines Moratoriums auf neue Kohleminen. Hierfür habe ich einen einzigartigen Datensatz zusammengestellt, der die Reserven in bereits bestehenden Minen zusammenfasst. Basierend auf verschiedenen Annahmen zu Reserven in China und Indien, untersuche ich zwei Szenarien. Die Ergebnisse deuten darauf hin, dass eine Beschränkung auf aktive Minen - unter der Annahme geringer Reserven in China und Indien - zu einer Nachfrage nach Kohle führen würde, die mit dem 2°C Ziel vereinbar wäre. Dabei wird angenommen, dass die CO2-Abscheidungs-, Transport- und Speichertechnologie (engl. Carbon Capture, Transport, and Storage - CCTS) nicht zur Verfügung steht. Im zweiten Teil dieser Dissertation wird die CCTS-Technologie, die lange Zeit dafür genutzt wurde, um neue Investitionen in Kohlekraftwerke zu rechtfertigen, kritisch beleuchtet. Ergebnisse des gemischtganzzahligen, kostenminimierenden Multiperiodenmodells CCTS-Mod zeigen, dass die Technologie keine große Rolle bei der Dekarbonisierung des europäischen Strommarkts spielen wird, selbst wenn das abgeschiedene CO2 zur tertiären Ölgewinnung (engl. CO2-enhanced oil recovery - CO2-EOR) wertsteigernd eingesetzt wird. Die Technologie könnte jedoch eine Alternative für Emissionen aus industriellen Prozessen darstellen, bei denen das CO2 zu geringeren Kosten abgeschieden werden kann. Des Weiteren zeigen die Modellergebnisse, dass Koordination für das Erzielen von Skaleneffekten bei Transport und Speicherung von CO2 eine zentrale Rolle spielt. Zuletzt wird mit ELCO ein integriertes Framework vorgestellt, welches für die Untersuchung unterschiedlicher regulatorischer Ansätze auf die Ausgestaltung eines zukünftigen Strommixes genutzt werden kann. Dabei ist die CCTS-Technologie mit ihren Prozessschritten im Detail abgebildet. Das Modell wird zur Untersuchung der UK Electricity Market Reform genutzt, um die abgebildeten Mechanismen und mögliche Modellergebnisse vorzuführen. ; The international consensus regarding the 1.5-2°C target in the COP21 Paris Agreement entails that most fossil fuel reserves must remain unburned. Currently, a majority of climate policies aiming at reducing fossil fuel consumption are directed toward the demand side. In the absence of a global carbon regime, these policies are prone to carbon leakage and other adverse effects. Supply-side climate policies present an alternative and more direct approach to reduce fossil fuel consumption by addressing its production. Here, coal, as both the most abundant and the most emission-intensive fuel, plays a pivotal role. In the first part of this dissertation, I use a model of the international steam coal market (COALMOD-World) to examine the effects of different supply-side climate policies and the extent to which they can achieve desired reductions in coal consumption. The partial equilibrium model is designed to replicate global patterns of coal supply, demand, and international trade. It features endogenous investments in production, export, and transportation capacities in a multi-period framework, while allowing for substitution between imports and domestic production of steam coal. The first policy examines the introduction of taxes on steam coal exports and, alternatively, on steam coal production, based on the rationale of reduced consumption and improved terms-of-trade. To this end, COALMOD-World is extended to a two-level setting. Results show that while significant revenues can be generated through a tax, substantial reductions in coal consumption can only be induced if a large coalition of producers jointly introduces a tax. A second policy analysis investigates the effects of removing subsidies for steam coal production. While the policy has a small positive net welfare effect, prices do not increase by the magnitude required to drive down coal consumption. Another supply-side policy currently discussed is a moratorium on new coal mines. I compile a unique dataset of reserves in currently active mines. Using different estimates of reserves in China and India, I set up two scenarios. I find that the low estimate of reserves would result in a coal consumption pattern compatible with a 2°C target in the absence of the Carbon Capture, Transport and Storage (CCTS) technology. CCTS technology has been used to justify prolonged use of coal for electricity generation. In the second part of this dissertation, I take a critical view on CCTS. Scenario results from the mixed-integer, multi-period, cost-minimizing network model CCTS-Mod suggest that - even in combination with CO2-enhanced oil recovery (CO2-EOR) - the technology will not play a major role in decarbonizing the European electricity system. It might be an alternative for industrial processes where CO2 can be captured at lower cost, especially in the iron and steel industry and in the cement industry. Coordination in developing transport and storage infrastructure is found to be crucial for realizing the associated economies of scale. Lastly, ELCO, an integrated modeling framework that is able to assess the implications of various regulatory approaches on the development of a future electricity mix with a detailed representation of CCTS is presented. The framework is applied to a case study of the UK Electricity Market Reform to illustrate the mechanisms and potential results attained from the model.
Governments, research organisations, cultural institutions, and commercial entities have invested substantial funds creating digital assets to enable new research in the arts and humanities. These assets have grown to include millions of items and petabytes of material covering all forms of content – manuscripts, monographs, maps, images, sound, and more. Unfortunately, scholars have been unable to fully exploit these digital assets. The supporting infrastructures are restrictive. The assets are distributed unevenly across organisations and systems. Access restrictions unpredictably limit where, how and who can use items. This poster will outline a pathway to remedy this unacceptable state of affairs. It will explore the need for a simple-to-use infrastructure for digital scholarship. Built primarily using off-the-shelf technologies and services, we argue that such an interoperable infrastructure should, as far as possible, work like something the user already knows: it should allow the researcher to bring their own content, tools and creativity to a familiar environment. Where we envisage it differing from a local PC setup is by hosting otherwise difficult to obtain and too big to download digital content, offering the computational capacity required to quickly analyse big data using automated processes, and providing network services capable of robustly supporting digitally-driven research. A key context of this proposed poster is research infrastructure developments around cloud, virtual and remote workflows. Notable among these are ongoing cyber-infrastructure work at the HathiTrust Research Centre1 and the deployed cloud research infrastructure used by the European Bioinformatics Institute.2 Whilst these observations and experiences point to a potentially crucial role for infrastructure in humanities research, we remain mindful of the robust critiques of recent digital humanities infrastructure projects. Quinn3 These critiques have highlighted how infrastructure development should not make strong assumptions about how researchers work, what tools they need, the sorts of problems that they will strive to solve, or even the specialised standards that they will employ. Our proposed pathway avoids these known problems by suggesting that researchers must be enabled to bring their own tools, work in whatever way they want, use any workflow, and address any sort of problem. We envisage this being achieved by infrastructure development that works with many digital content providers, supports a wide range of content types, and is embedded within arts and humanities research that uses a variety of data-driven methodologies. It would support growth in big data research in the arts and humanities using researcher appropriate standards and guidelines. The informal, conversational setting of a poster session will prove a valuable opportunity to visit the key questions and problems around digital research infrastructure. These include: What are the benefits of scholars being able to use off-the-shelf technologies to work with big data across major content holders?How can these infrastructures enable transformative research?Do hybrid cloud infrastructures provide a sustainable approach to service provision? Such infrastructure could establish the foundation for scholarly work with large scale content collections for years to come, enabling in turn transformative research that uncovers the value hidden in these digital assets and society to benefit from its investment. Such transformation requires leading-edge researchers, and eventually the majority of researchers, to adopt, learn and use new methods and techniques; to not just answer old questions in new ways but to arrive at new answers and to start asking entirely new questions as a consequence. This proposed infrastructure pathway aims to explore the next steps towards making this transformation a reality This poster builds on experience providing researchers with digital content. Scholars increasingly demand scalable access to large quantities of digital content – big data – that they can analyse using their own software and tools. Early on, the amounts of digital data were small; it was possible to provide copies or enable network downloads. With the growing volumes of big data, this is no longer plausible. Instead of moving hundreds of terabytes of data to researchers, we must allow researchers to bring their tools to the data. This is consistent with changes in the broader IT landscape. We have established five principles to guide our pathway: Keep it simple. Any new infrastructure should be simple to use and understand.Lower the bar. Any new infrastructure should not expose or require users to understand new or complex technologies or processes. It should, as much as possible, work like something they already doBring your own tools. Users should be able to employ the tools that they already understand and work with. For example, if a researcher uses Mathematica for image analysis in her office, she should be able to use it on large collections of digital assets distributed across multiple content organisations.Be creative. Users should be able to use data in creative, novel, unexpected ways. Many systems and infrastructures limit what users can do.Start small and grow big. Users should be able to try things out; explore, experiment and debug; and then deploy on large content sets. References 1. Beth Plale, Opportunies and Challenges of Text Mining HathiTrust Digital Library, Koninklijke Bibiotheek, 15 November 2013 www.hathitrust.org/documents/kb-plalehtrc-nov2013.pdf 2. Creating a Global Alliance to Enable Responsible Sharing of Genomic and Clinical Data, 3 June 2013 www.ebi.ac.uk/sites/ebi.ac.uk/files/shared/images/News/Global_Alliance_White_Paper_3_June_2013.pdf 3. Quinn Dombrowski, What ever happened to Project Bamboo?, DH2013
[cat] El principal objectiu d'aquesta tesi és oferir una panoràmica completa sobre l'evolució de la distribució de la renda a llarg termini a Portugal. Portugal és actualment un dels països més desiguals d'Europa i aquí volem determinar quins són els orígens d'aquest fenomen. Per tal d'assolir aquest objectiu s'han estimat una àmplia varietat d'indicadors proposats per la literatura sobre les desigualtats. Els principals resultats d'aquest treball són els següents. En primer lloc, les desigualtats salarials segueixen una corba en forma de N ajustant-se a la pauta internacional a partir de la segona meitat del segle XX i a les prediccions de la Corba estesa de Kuznets. Per altra banda, els top income shares han caigut fins als anys 1980, però d'aquí en endavant han crescut amb molta intensitat ajustant-se a la pauta distributiva dels països anglosaxons. La desigualtat personal de la renda va augmentar amb molta intensitat durant la primera meitat del règim Salazarista i es va mantenir en uns nivells molt elevats fins al final de la Dictadura. Va caure amb intensitat durant la Revolució del 1974 i va tornar a créixer durant el període democràtic. La ràtio d'extracció també va créixer amb molta intensitat durant els primers anys de la dictadura definint clarament aquest règim com a molt regressiu en l'esfera distributiva. És important destacar que la ràtio d'extracció era més elevada al 2006 que als anys 1920, un fet absolutament extraordinari. Finalment, aquesta tesi també aporta noves estimacions sobre els PIBs regionals de Portugal des de 1890 fins al 1980. Aquestes noves dades mostren com les desigualtats regionals van créixer fins al 1970 per caure durant la següent dècada. També es pot observar una concentració molt intensa de l'activitat econòmica a les regions costeres. Per acabar, el ràpid creixement econòmic de Portugal al llarg del segle XX hauria de ser re-avaluat des del punt de vista social si es mira a l'interior de la caixa negra de la renda per càpita. Aquesta tesi ha il•luminat aquesta caixa negra i ha mostrat com els fruits del creixement econòmic han estat distribuïts persistentment de forma molt desigual. ; [eng] This thesis aims to provide a complete picture on the long term evolution of economic inequality in Portugal. Indeed, Portugal is today one of the most unequal European countries and in this thesis we look at the historical roots of this phenomenon. Last decades, economic historians have provided a wide variety of indexes to estimate the long term evolution of income inequality. In this thesis we estimate all those indexes of inequality proposed by the literature. More concretely, we provide long term series on the evolution of top income and wealth shares, wage inequality, personal income inequality, functional income distribution, the Williamson index, the Extraction ratio, Economic polarization, Welfare and Regional inequality. Wage inequality in Portugal followed an N-curve, increasing until the late 1950s to decline until the 1980, when it turned to increase again. The Portuguese experience fits to the international pattern since the 1950s onwards. The Portuguese case also fits to the Extended Kuznets Curve hypothesis, according to which, wage inequality may follow an N-curve during the transition from an agrarian to a post-industrial society. Top income shares decreased until the 1980 to increase intensively thereafter following the international pattern, and specially the Anglo-Saxon countries experience. Although Leigh (2007) stated that top income shares were a good proxy of income inequality, the Portuguese case shows that this relation may not always hold. In this sense, during Portuguese industrialization top income shares decreased continuously whereas income inequality followed an inverted U-curve, which fits the predictions made by the well-known paper by Kuznets (1955). All approaches to inequality are relevant although this finding shows that they are not equivalent and may evolve in opposite directions. Personal income inequality increased intensively during the first half of the Salazar regime and remained in high levels until the end of the dictatorship. It fell dramatically during the Portuguese revolution of the 1970s and it turned to increase thereafter. The Extraction ratio, which measures the capacity of the economic elites to gather the surplus of an economy also increased intensively during the first half of the dictatorship, clearly defining this regime as deeply regressive in distributional terms. It decreased intensively after the 1950s due to rapid economic growth and turned to increase during the democratic period. The global balance is striking because this index uses to decline in the long term. In Portugal, however, the ER was higher in 2006 than in the 1920s. Finally, this thesis also provides the first long term estimates of regional pc GDP for Portugal since 1890 onwards. Regional inequality increased until the 1970s to decrease afterwards. Increasing regional inequality was due to a long term process of regional specialization, whereas the declining trend was associated to the industrialization of the more backward Portuguese regions. During the period analysed, economic activity concentrated intensively on the Atlantic Coastal regions whereas the inner (and overall northern) regions fell behind. To conclude, Portuguese fast economic growth over the twentieth century should be re-evaluated from the social point of view if we look inside the black box of income per capita. This thesis has enlightened this black box and the vision is rather negative. The fruits of economic growth have not trickled down to most of the population during most of the period studied. As a result, most of the Portuguese have been largely excluded from the growing prosperity of the country.
