This Review focus, pointed towards the subject of the organization, has triggered a heated debate with original discussion topics about the traits and models that governments assume (or should assume) both in the public and private sphere. The no longer exploratory theorization, that focuses on popular sovereignty as a construction and finalization criteria for republican institutions, finds other important declinations, such as in the duty of the administrative action's organization or as fundamental opposition to any higher-order project that is not conform to the systematics originated from the normative dimension of the person. This is the background in which it is possible to reconstruct a recent story, characterized by two deep crisis (the first of a financial nature and the second concerning health) that determined, in a decade, profound changes, also in organisational terms, with common interesting traits. The analysis below focuses on the selected structures for the monetary and credit government, with the aim, on the one side, of giving summary of the main innovative governance and regulation mechanisms introduced recently in the EU, and, on the other side, of illustrating the main critical aspects emerged from the point of view of their operation and of the correct functional exercise. Even if it is still an evolving phase, the revealed models show coordination and uniformity limits in the operation, relatively difficult to solve: for those reasons, it is proposed, next to the operation and the function, a third analysis parameter to identify external purposes from the mercantilistic[1]economic horizon. A perspective, where the protection of fundamental rights of the person has been made center of any economic policy, means assuring an alignment of the base principles of any Charte and Treaty, and ensures also a guarantee of stability of the system itself – compared to the dynamism of economic activities – insofar as this last accepts and is inspired from the reality to whom it is directed. ...
In un mondo dove la complessità e l'incertezza degli eventi è in continuo aumento, la sicurezza alimentare e nutrizionale possono essere garantite solo se l'intero sistema alimentare diventa capace di rispondere ai crescenti e sempre più rigidi requisiti di sostenibilità e resilienza. In tal senso, nonostante le numerose controversie, l'agricoltura biologica è spesso riconosciuta come un approccio olistico ed innovativo, capace di garantire uno sviluppo sostenibile di tutto ciò che ruota intorno al settore agricolo ed alimentare. Nell'ultimo trentennio, l'agricoltura biologica ha sperimentato una crescita considerevole in Europa, dovuta principalmente agli sforzi sia da parte del settore politico che dei diversi attori presenti all'interno dello stesso. Nonostante ciò, ad oggi il biologico rimane un mercato di nicchia e un suo ulteriore sviluppo è messo a rischio da tutta una serie di sfide a carattere economico, ambientale e sociale. Ciò è dovuto sia alle caratteristiche proprie del settore sia a varie perturbazioni e disturbi esterni. In vista di queste sfide, sorgono le seguenti domande: "Quali sono le maggiori vulnerabilità all'interno del mondo dell'agricoltura biologica e come può essere implementata la sua resilienza?" "L'agricoltura biologica può garantire e provvedere alla sicurezza alimentare e nutrizionale in Europa, garantendo uno sviluppo sostenibile e resiliente del sistema alimentare?". La natura del settore è estremamente complessa e perciò non si può dare una risposta a queste domande tramite i comuni approcci unidimensionali a rapporto causa-effetto. La struttura dinamica ed eterogenea del sistema biologico richiede un metodo di analisi sistemico. A tal proposito, all'interno di questa tesi approfondisco l'utilità di quelli che sono definiti archetipi sistemici, utilizzando sei di questi come strumenti sia per approfondire quelle che sono le maggiori vulnerabilità che interessano l'agricoltura biologica che per derivare possibili soluzioni e suggerimenti per aumentare la resilienza del sistema. Sarà poi compito del settore politico e di tutte le parti coinvolte esplorare e valutare le diverse soluzioni ad oggi presenti, in modo da poter agire sul piano pratico. L'analisi rivela che l'attuale struttura del sistema biologico è fragile e vulnerabile: per renderlo resiliente ed in grado di fronteggiare le sfide attuali e future che interessano l'Europa è perciò necessario agire applicando solide soluzioni di base e non correzioni rapide e transitorie, che portano facilmente a conseguenze inattese e non ricercate.
The invasion of Ukraine will change the economic and political scenarios. Together with the sanctions, it will accelerate the 'de-globalization' process already triggered by the 2008 financial crisis and the pandemic. In this paper, we analyze the effects that economic sanctions will have, in particular, on the international monetary system. In recent years, the dominance of the dollar as the default international currency has weakened albeit slowly. However, in the new scenario, alternative systems to SWIFT (particularly the Chinese one) will receive a strong boost as will the use of payments in currencies other than the dollar. As has already happened in other historical periods, the change in the dominant international currency is linked to epochal events and to a change in the technological paradigm: the war and the development of a digital currency in China and then in other countries could form the basis of this turning point. ; L'invasione dell'Ucraina cambierà profondamente gli scenari economici e politici. Assieme alle sanzioni, accelererà il processo di 'de-globalizzazione' innescato dalla crisi finanziaria del 2008 e dalla pandemia. In questo lavoro analizziamo gli effetti che le sanzioni avranno su questi processi, in particolare sul sistema monetario internazionale. Negli ultimi anni il dominio del dollaro come valuta dei pagamenti internazionali è declinato ma lentamente, e i tentativi soprattutto della Cina e della Russia di emarginarlo non hanno avuto grande successo. Tuttavia, nel nuovo scenario i sistemi alternativi a SWIFT, particolarmente quello cinese, riceveranno un forte impulso così come l'utilizzo di pagamenti in valute diverse dal dollaro. Come già successo in altre epoche storiche, il cambiamento della valuta di riferimento degli scambi internazionali è legato a eventi epocali e a un cambio di paradigma tecnologico: la guerra e la valuta digitale cinese e poi di altri paesi potrebbero costituire le basi di questa svolta.
La tesi sottopone a disamina la normativa italiana e spagnola in tema di organizzazione e gestione dei porti nella cornice comunitaria. Nella prima parte si tratta del quadro legislativo della U.E. con particolare attenzione agli istituti della tutela della libera prestazione dei servizi e della libertà di concorrenza, alla luce del Libro Verde sui Porti Europei. La seconda parte è dedicata alla normativa italiana nel suo complesso dal profilo demaniale alle problematiche connesse con la evoluzione ancora incompiuta della normazione in materia di struttura del sistema portuale dei servizi, operazioni e lavoro portuale, al reperimento delle risorse finanziarie. L'analisi della legislazione spagnola prende spunto da una ricostruzione storica della stessa e sottopone ad indagine tutto l'ordinamento vigente, con speciale riguardo alle LPEyMM del 92, Ley 48/ 2003, Ley 33/2010. La trattazione prosegue con una parte dedicata alla TEN-T ed alla definizione dei porti come nodi delle reti di trasporto, in relazione alla proposta di Regolamento del 23/05/2013 del Parlamento Europeo e del Consiglio che istituisce un quadro normativo per l' accesso al mercato dei servizi portuali e la trasparenza finanziaria dei porti. Viene infine esposto il disegno di legge governativo riguardante la riforma della legislazione in materia portuale. This thesis examines Italian and Spanish legislation with regard to port organization and governance in a European context. The first part considers the EU legislative framework with special emphasis on measures safeguarding freedom of service provision and of competition in the light of the Green Paper on European Ports. The second part covers the relevant Italian legislation as a whole, ranging from state-owned property issues to problems relating to the so far unaccomplished enactment of laws regulating the system of port services, operations and work, to the raising of financial resources. The analysis of the Spanish port legislation begins with a historical introduction and examines all the regulations in force, with particular reference to these laws: LPEyMM of 92, Ley 48/ 2003, Ley 33/2010. Our discussion continues with a part devoted to TEN-T and the definition of ports as transport hubs, in line with the proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council (of 23 May 2013), establishing a legislative framework for market access to port services and the financial transparency of ports. To conclude, an outline of the Government Bill on Italian port legislation reform is given.
This work aims to shed lights on a writer and politician of 18th century judged as a fool, a gambler and a swindler by his contemporaries but who nowadays may be considered instead one of the first monetary economists in the history of economic thought: John Law. Using the current stream of literature on this topic, as well as several other chronicles, this work will present the historical facts that brought John Law to become the financial minister of France in 1720 and to put in place a system, the Missisipi System, where he had the rare chance to translate his theories into economic policies, threatening the very foundations of the ancien régime. After elucidating the reasons of the collapse of the System, we will focus on the economic explanations of this failure, showing under which conditions Law's scheme could have been sustainable. A deep analysis of his early writings and of his later memoires will be carried on in order to assess the discrepancies between Law-"the economist" and Law-"the policy-maker". A further study will be conducted to inspect the reasons of Law's uncelebrated role in the subsequent history of economic thought and to present the modernity of his ideas regarding the nature and the role of money, with a particular attention to financial securities and paper and fiat money. The final part will build a singular parallel between Law's revolutionary experiment and Bitcoin, the most recent and influential attempt to reshape the current payment system, explaining both the similarities and the underlying economic differences.
Nine years have passed from the explosion of the most severe financial crisis since the Great Depression, yet most European economies are stagnating if not sinking. Given the constraints on fiscal policies, the burden of restoring growth and employment has shifted from governments to the European Central Bank, which at first implemented a loose monetary policy by lowering short-term interest rates. Once the zero lower bound was attained, the ECB decided to purchase government securities and private bonds. The effects of such unconventional measures on investment, inflation and employment is what this Master's dissertation will assess. Post-keynesian economics will provide the main theoretical reference to better understand how central banks operate in a developed credit-based economy and how the economic environment is supposed to react. The mainstream view will be challenged by arguing that unconventional monetary policies such as the Quantitative Easing have no significant effects in increasing aggregate demand. It will be showed that asset purchasing programmes lead to perverse outcomes consisting in increasing financial instability via the substitution of safe with risky assets. At last, this encourages corporations in exploiting carry trade opportunities and accelerates the already worrisome dominance of the financial sector.
We work with a newly developed method to empirically assess whether a specified new-Keynesian business cycle monetary model estimated with U.S. quarterly data is consistent with a unique equilibrium or multiple equilibria under rational expectations. We conduct classical tests to verify if the structural model is correctly specified. Conditional on a positive answer, we formally assess if such model is either consistent with a unique equilibrium or with indeterminacy. Importantly, our full-system approach requires neither the use of prior distributions nor that of nonstandard inference. The case of an indeterminate equilibrium in the pre-1984 sample and of a determinate equilibrium in the post-1984 sample is favored by the data. The long-run coefficients on inflation and the output gap in the monetary policy rule are found to be weakly identified. However, our results are further supported by a proposed identification-robust indicator of indeterminacy.
Dopo oltre un decennio di crisi globale, prima finanziaria, poi economica, il sistema del welfare è entrato in un periodo di rimeditazione. Da una fase di ricorso sfrenato all'indebitamento da parte degli Stati per alimentarlo si è passati ad una draconiana contrazione di spesa pubblica e riduzione del deficit. La prima parte della tesi ha lo scopo di delineare gli elementi essenziali alla base della relazione fondamentale tra sistema di istruzione e vincoli di finanza. A tale fine, si approfondisce il quadro teorico in materia di diritti sociali e di istruzione, sul piano nazionale ed europeo, da un lato; dall'altro, viene studiata la relazione tra diritto europeo e diritto nazionale, mediante la quale si è pervenuti all'attuale sistema di rigore sulla finanza pubblica. Infine, viene valutata la giurisprudenza costituzionale, chiamata ad armonizzare gli opposti valori costituzionali in gioco. La seconda parte della tesi ha l'obiettivo di descrivere gli elementi che connettono i termini della relazione descritti nella prima parte: organizzazione del sistema istruzione (attori) e competenze legislative stato/regioni in materia, da un lato; meccanismo di finanziamento all'istruzione, in generale e mediante il sistema dei fondi strutturali europei, dall'altro. Le finalità sono tre. La prima è quella di comprendere i rapporti tra nucleo essenziale del diritto all'istruzione e vincoli di finanza pubblica. La seconda è quella di definire un'identità europea all'istruzione. La terza è quella di determinare quali soluzioni possano rendere più efficiente l'investimento di spesa pubblica nel sistema istruzione. ; After last financial crisis, all States reconsidered their own welfare systems to get a debt brake. The firs part of the thesis has the purpose to describe the basic elements concerning the relationship between education system and budjetary constraints: from theoretical aspects of social and education rights in Italy and in Europe; to european hard law in monetary politics. Lastly, in this part of the thesis, we explored constitutional court sentences about harmonization between opposite values in italian Constitution relative to the described relationship. The second part of the thesis describes the elements that connect education system and budjetary constraints: education organization and financial mechanism. We pursue three objectives: first, to understand mutual restrictions and insurmuntable spaces between education and budjetary constraints; second, to recognize an european identity to education; third, to make more efficient public spending on education.
[La costituzione economica europea. Osservazioni sulla storia di un'idea irrealizzabile] This essay deals with the development of the integration project in the light of Polanyi's insights, first, with its so-called formative phase. Thereafter it addresses the post-foundational phase, which was characterized by enormous efforts to transform Europe's economy into a "highly competitive social market economy". Finally, it deals with the consummation of market integration by the establishment of Monetary Union. The monetary Union included an erosion of the notion of rule-oriented economic governance and, more drastically, the replacement of the economic constitution by emergency governance. A Governance that represents a technocratic exercise or a praxis that escapes the quest for democratic legitimacy and the constraint of the rule of law.
Nel presente lavoro si fornisce una descrizione della disciplina della revisione dei conti come delineata dal D. Lgs. 39/2010 - ponendo particolare attenzione alle evoluzioni che deriveranno dall'attuazione della riforma europea del 2014. L'analisi si basa, in particolare, sulla valutazione del ruolo che il revisore svolge nei problemi di agency nel contesto societario e del c.d. modello del gatekeeping - sottolineando le interconnessioni esistenti tra le due funzioni -. A conclusione del lavoro, si traggono alcune valutazioni, in termini di efficacia ed efficienza, riguardo al sistema vigente, ipotizzando alcune possibili riforme future. ; In this dissertation, the Author describes the Italian legal regime of auditing, as laid down in Legislative Decree No. 39 of 2010 with a specific reference to European overhaul enacted in 2014. Such analysis is grounded on a preliminary evaluation of the role that the auditing plays in the corporate agency relations and the gatekeeping model (and, most notably, the strong ties between them). Given the foregoing, some conclusions are drawn both with regard to the effectiveness of the current regulatory system and envisioning some proposals for reform.
In today's world where fewer and fewer barriers and borders limit relationships, interactions between things, people, services, it is no wonder that in a globalized economy like ours, interests, connections, needs of various aspects from people all around the world, happen to coexist and working their way out in certain defined places. There are indeed, some places which more than others, for various reasons ranging from political situation, location, economy rather than taxation, have the ability to attract capital and resources from other countries, giving rise to international financial hubs. One on all in Europe is definitively the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg which with an area of 2,586 km² and a population of only 602,005 people, it is home to more than 130 international banks, Europe's number one investment fund centre, World's top ten largest Private Equity houses, Europe's number one cross-border insurance center, and EU-regulatory framework and EU-wide licensing of financial services. The following chapters, indeed, aim to disclose the main features which bring Luxembourg to be that leading financial center in Europe, the reasons why so many international banks and firms choose the Grand Duchy as their home, the most relevant aspects of the country economy with a focus on the leading sectors. The first two chapters will give a global overview of what the situation is in Luxembourg in order to have a picture of today business and highlighting the strength of the grand duchy economy, bringing on aspects and achievements globally acknowledged. The second chapter however will give more insights on the specific of Luxembourg tax system, detailing the appealing tax regime and even so, the support and protection of the double tax conventions signed with countries worldwide, strengthen the business climate in this country. The analysis will go through the key factors that make Luxembourg so attractive, like favourable tax treaty agreements with 57 countries, a very competitive company taxation at 28.59%, no withholding taxes on dividends, paid to EU or double tax treaty resident, lowest VAT rate in Europe at 15%. Will together be analysed, the most used incentives for the entities, as the investment tax credits (Luxembourg tax law, indeed provides a tax credit available and amounts to 13% of the increase in investments in tangible depreciable assets made during the tax year), or the new regime of the intellectual properties which give the possibility to have on a net income from qualifying IP assets, a benefits of an 80% exemption from income taxes. The essay will continue with the coverage of the core business of Luxembourg financial activity; the third chapter will give a detailed analysis of banking and wealth management, asset management services offered, the corporate finance services required by all the entities which are created and have the registered office in the Grand Duchy, followed by the analysis pf private equity and venture capital investments, real estate investment vehicles, and hedge funds which can be considered the main features of the country financial activity. The last two chapters will analyze and emphasize the international character of the system and the future prospective on how the economy, the activities and the services may evolve, giving more insights on which the priorities will be in the near futures and where the efforts will be made in other achieve some certain standard of sustainability. The fourth chapter indeed will focus on the constantly growing relationship established with the Chinese economic world the Arabic world, which both play a very important role in the today economy and happen to be two of the main actors of Luxembourg financial system. The fifth and last chapter will highlight how Luxembourg has a comprehensive domestic climate finance agenda which since 2015, have seen the government and the financial services industry, working together in a dedicated climate finance task force to implement a coherent and fully integrated climate finance strategy. The Luxembourg government contributes to the technical support facility of the Amundi Planet Emerging Green One, the largest green bond fund in the world. This Luxembourg based investment fund targets green bonds emitted by banks in developing countries and at the same time helps develop green bond policies, training programs, and best practices in such markets through the technical support facility.
Within the panorama of considerable development shown by the countries of Northern Europe in the field of public libraries, the situation of Finland was until recently characterized by a state of a certain marginality and little importance. Today the situation in Finland is, on the contrary, one of considerable structural and functional development and widespread distribution of the institutes, both at university and research level and at the level of public libraries In Finland, political-administrative action regarding cultural institutions is under the control of the Ministry for Education, which is divided into two departments, one for culture and one for education. The first of these administrations is responsible for state programmes and interventions for public libraries, while the second looks after the university, research and school libraries. There was a radical change in the field of public libraries starting from the Sixties, with the establishment of a model of Welfare State, the peculiarity of which was a strong impulse given to all kinds of structures, especially cultural structures. This led to a firm commitment of joint financing between State and municipality for the development of the library system. The Seventies saw a real boom in State cultural investments. This meant a process of centralization that led to a drastic reduction in the number of independent local libraries and a considerable expansion in the services of mobile libraries. Above all, the district library systems which hinge on the local libraries were developed and the latter were attributed the role of "provincial" libraries. This type of semi-decentred and cooperative organization was ratified in the 1986 library law. This legislation made municipal library service obligatory and confirmed the joint financing of the State and local bodies on the basis of parameters fixed by the same law.Even more recently, the 1998 law made an important contribution to the subject of the development of the services as a necessary and obligatory factor. The basic results of these must be made public and the entire operation is entrusted to the Ministry, with assistance from the state provincial offices and the municipal libraries at local level. The effects of these legislative and administrative interventions have been considerable and allows Finland to take its place today among the countries that have one of the most advanced library systems. An important example is that of the urban library system of the city of Tampere.Generally speaking, even in the smaller towns the country has modern and efficient library structures that have been built with advanced architectural criteria and which have good library collections, audiovisual material and computer equipment. ; Nel panorama di notevole sviluppo che presentano, nel campo delle biblioteche pubbliche, i paesi del Nord Europa, la situazione della Finlandia appariva, fino a qualche tempo fa, segnata da una certa marginalità e da un'importanza minore. La situazione che oggi si presenta nel Paese è invece quella di un notevole sviluppo strutturale e funzionale e di una diffusione capillare degli istituti, sia a livello universitario e di ricerca, sia a livello di biblioteche pubbliche. L'azione politico-amministrativa relativa alle istituzioni culturali fa capo in Finlandia al Ministero dell'educazione, diviso in due dipartimenti, uno per la cultura e uno per l'educazione. Alla prima di queste amministrazioni appartiene la competenza in materia di programmi e interventi statali per le biblioteche pubbliche, alla seconda quella per le biblioteche universitarie, di ricerca e per le biblioteche scolastiche. Nel campo delle biblioteche pubbliche un salto di qualità si è determinato a partire dagli anni Sessanta, insieme all'affermarsi di un modello di Welfare State, la cui peculiarità è consistita in un forte impulso dato alle strutture di ogni genere, in particolare a quelle culturali, che ha portato alla decisa affermazione del finanziamento congiunto da parte dello Stato e delle municipalità per lo sviluppo del sistema bibliotecario. Negli anni Settanta si è prodotto un vero e proprio boom di investimenti culturali statali. Si è trattato di un processo di centralizzazione che ha visto una drastica riduzione del numero delle biblioteche locali autonome e una forte espansione dei servizi di biblioteche mobili e, soprattutto, il potenziamento dei sistemi bibliotecari comprensoriali che si imperniano sulle biblioteche locali, alle quali è stato attribuito il ruolo di "provinciali". Questo tipo di organizzazione, semi-decentrata e cooperativa, è stata ratificata nella legge bibliotecaria del 1986, che dichiarava obbligatorio il servizio bibliotecario comunale e confermava il finanziamento congiunto dello Stato e degli enti locali sulla base di parametri fissati dalla stessa legge.Ancora più recentemente la legge del 1998 ha introdotto significativamente il tema della valutazione dei servizi come prassi necessaria e obbligatoria, i cui risultati essenziali devono essere resi pubblici e che viene affidata al Ministero, con la collaborazione degli uffici provinciali statali e delle biblioteche municipali per quanto concerne il livello locale. Gli effetti di questi interventi legislativi e amministrativi sono stati considerevoli e permettono di collocare oggi la Finlandia tra i paesi dotati di un servizio biblioteche pubbliche tra i più avanzati. Un esempio significativo è costituito dal servizio bibliotecario urbano della città di Tampere.In linea generale, il paese dispone anche nei centri minori di strutture bibliotecarie moderne ed efficienti, costruite con criteri architettonici avanzati e dotate di buone raccolte librarie, di materiale audiovisivo e di attrezzature informatiche.
«I felt that the time had come to have a fresh look at the European VAT system. There were indeed a number of reasons which in my view justified taking this step»: da queste parole del Commissario Europeo Algirdas Šemeta trae ispirazione tale ricerca che ha l'obiettivo di ripercorrere, in primo luogo, le ragioni che hanno portato alla creazione di una imposta comunitaria plurifase sui consumi, ed in secondo luogo, i motivi per cui oggi è necessario un ripensamento sul tema. Le spinte ammodernatrici provengono anche dagli stessi organismi europei, che sono impegnati da anni in discussioni con gli Stati membri per arrivare alla definizione di una normativa che riesca a disegnare un sistema snello ed efficiente. Il primo importante passo in tale direzione è stato effettuato dalla stessa Commissione europea nel 2010 con l'elaborazione del Libro Verde sul futuro dell'IVA, in cui vengono evidenziati i profili critici del sistema e le possibili proposte di riforma. L'obiettivo di dare origine ad un EU VAT SYSTEM in grado di rendere la tassazione più semplice, efficace, neutrale ed anti frode. In questo lavoro si intendono sottolineare i principali elementi critici della normativa IVA comunitaria, ideando anche le modifiche che potrebbero migliorarli, al fine di creare un'ipotesi normativa capace di essere un modello ispiratore per la modifica del sistema di imposizione indiretta esistente nella Repubblica di San Marino che ad oggi si trova a doversi confrontare con una imposta monofase alle importazioni anch'essa, come l'IVA, oramai in crisi. ; «I felt that the time had come to have a fresh look at the European VAT system. There were indeed a number of reasons which in my view justified taking this step»: these words of the EU Commissioner for Taxation and Customs Union Algirdas Šemeta inspired this research that aims to examine, first, the reasons that led to the creation of a common multi-phase tax on consumption, and secondly, why today we need to rethink this issue. Pressures to modernize come even by European organizations, who are engaged for years in discussions to reach the definition of a legislation that is able to draw an efficient tax system. The first important step in this direction was made by the European Commission itself in 2010 with the drafting of the Green Paper on the future of VAT, which highlights the critical profiles of the system and possible reform proposals. The objective is to adopt an EU VAT SYSTEM able to make taxation more simple, effective, neutral and anti-fraud. In this research the aim is to highlight the main critical aspects of the Community VAT rules, highlighting also changes that could improve them in order to create a legislation capable of being a model for changing the existing system of indirect taxation in the Republic of San Marino that today is faced with a single-phase tax on imports that is, like VAT, now in crisis.
The debates that preceded the Lisbon Treaty (2009), still marked by the failure of the Constitutional Treaty (2004), were strongly influenced by the intention to take a further step forward in building a political Europe. And this intention is evident both in a number of provisions in the current Treaty - such as Article 8-A TEU, which states that the functioning of the Union is based on representative democracy - and in the multiplicity of practices and methods developed to increase the political legitimacy of the institutions - such as the Barroso Procedure. The Lisbon Treaty went further, attributing a series of powers to the European Parliament (and extending some of them it already possessed), most of which fall within the classic parliamentary powers of information, scrutiny and legislative construction - in the latter case, consisting of participation as co-legislator with the Council in the Ordinary Legislative Procedure. But, in addition to this, in 2014, an attempt was made to establish the practice of the Spitzenkandidaten, i.e. to appoint to the presidency of the European Commission the main candidate of the European political party that had obtained the highest number of seats in Parliament. Unfortunately, this practice, which would have brought the political system in Europe and the parliamentary political systems of the individual member states closer together, ended up not being repeated after the 2019 elections. The Treaty, always having as its premise the attempt to resolve the problem of input legitimacy, also took into consideration the issue of strengthening national parliaments, granting them some relevant competences, so as to bring them closer to European decision-making. The logic was very simple: since national parliaments were endowed with a considerable degree of legitimacy, making them participants in the decision-making process in Europe guaranteed the latter a greater degree of legitimacy. This would be a kind of bottom-up transmission of democratic legitimacy. In this sequence of events, the Early Warning System, which is nothing more than an elaborate system for monitoring compliance with the principle of subsidiarity in Europe (Art. 5(3) TEU), was created. Through this system, each Parliament of each Member State would have two votes (in the case of the bicameral systems, one vote for each Chamber), and the reasoned opinions expressed by them, drawing a certain threshold, would activate the yellow card (1/3 of the votes) or the orange card (majority of the votes), obliging the European Commission to re-examine the matter of law and to justify itself - in the latter case, before the European Parliament and the Council. It is not, therefore, a veto mechanism, but a sort of instrument of preventive alert, which in a certain way ends up integrating itself fully into the dialogic and polycentric spirit of the European multi-level system and the "Euro-national parliamentary system". Summing up, in the present Work, the evolution and expectations of the post-Lisbon Treaty have been analysed, more specifically in the context of the coveted strengthening of European and national Parliaments, democratic legitimacy and politics in the European Union, as opposed to the historical intergovernmental, bureaucratic and technical dominance that occurs there.
The essay deals with the topic of the relationship between parties and electoral systems. The author chooses to follow a historical perspective, leaving out both the influence of parties on electoral systems and the impact of electoral systems on the role and the organization of political parties. In the first part, the essay focuses on the transformation of the electoral law for the Chamber of Deputies from a proportional system to a majority system, untill the current "Italicum" system, remitted to the Constitutional Court for a legitimacy judgement. The second part deals with the characteristics of the new electoral system and with the (also paradoxal) effects that it could produce on the Italian political system. In the conclusions, the author mentions the law proposal concerning the discipline of political parties which is structured considering that the traditional model of party's organization is progressively disappearing. ; Il saggio affronta il tema dal rapporto tra partiti e sistemi elettorali secondo un approccio evolutivo, tralasciando sia il tema relativo all'influenza dei partiti sui sistemi elettorali, sia quello concernente i riflessi e i condizionamenti dei sistemi elettorali sulla vita, il ruolo e l'organizzazione dei partiti.In una prima parte è affrontata l'evoluzione storica del sistema elettorale per la Camera dei deputati delineando come, dopo una prima parte improntata al sistema proporzionale, le esigenze di maggiore stabilità politica abbiano spinto ad una svolta in senso maggioritario, culminata nel cd. "Italicum", il sistema elettorale attualmente vigente per la sola Camera.Nella seconda parte sono illustrate le caratteristiche fondamentali del nuovo sistema elettorale, tutt'ora sub iudice dinanzi alla Corte Costituzionale, mettendo in evidenza il possibile impatto e gli effetti distorti che potrebbero prodursi sul sistema politico italiano. Nelle conclusioni, si dà conto della proposta di legge di disciplina dei partiti politici attualmente all'esame del Parlamento e di come questa tenga conto del fatto che il modello classico di organizzazione di partito stia progressivamente scomparendo. ; Niniejszy artykuł poświęcony jest ewolucji relacji zachodzących między partiami a systemami wyborczymi. Autor pomija zarówno tematykę wpływu partii politycznych na systemy wyborcze, jak i wpływu systemów wyborczych na rozwój, rolę i organizację partii. W pierwszej części pracy przedstawione zostały poszczególne systemy wyborcze do włoskiej Izby Deputowanych, począwszy od ordynacji proporcjonalnej, poprzez przyjęcie większościowego systemu wyborczego i kończąc na obecnie obowiązującej ordynacji zwanej Italicum. W drugiej części pracy Autor omawia najważniejsze cechy nowej ordynacji wyborczej, której konstytucyjność jest obecnie badana przez Sąd Konstytucyjny, podkreślając przy tym jej, być może niekorzystny, wpływ na włoski system polityczny. W podsumowaniu Autor odnosi się do projektu ustawy o partiach politycznych, nad którą właśnie pracuje Parlament, stwierdzając, że projekt ten daje wyraz postępującemu zanikowi tradycyjnego modelu organizacji partii.
