Energy taxes are one of the main market-based tools directed toward mitigating climate change in the European Union (EU). Therefore, the aim of this article was to analyze whether energy taxes really contribute to the reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and the successful implementation of climate change policy. Applying the Granger causality test on time series and using panel data analysis, the direct and indirect (via the reduction of fossil energy consumption (FEC) and energy intensity (EI), as well as the increase of renewable energy consumption (REN)) impacts of energy taxes on GHG emissions in EU countries were analyzed in the present study. The results showed that energy taxes did not Granger-cause fossil energy consumption, energy intensity, renewable energy consumption, and GHG emissions in almost all EU countries. Regarding the panel data analysis, the results showed that energy taxes did not, directly and indirectly, influence GHG emissions. Therefore, this paper shows that generally, energy tax policy in EU countries is ineffective. Thus, tax policy should be reformed and matched with an emissions trading system in seeking climate change mitigation.
EU law is multilingual and multi-cultural. It is initially drafted in one language, now frequently English, often by non-native speakers and then translated into the other EU languages. Amendments may be proposed that are drafted in a different language. The result is a single multilingual text created in 23 language versions that are authentic within the context of the EU legal order. These circumstances have led EU legal language to develop its own terminology and legislative style as a separate genre. One question is to identify different national cultural drafting styles and traditions that lie behind the creation of EU legislative texts and terminology. The Member State traditions vary, yet they merge in the EU legislative texts. In order to assist in the understanding of EU legislative texts, it is useful to reflect on how they are constructed and the features and requirements lying behind their creation, interpretation and transposition. One approach is to consider a specific piece of EU text in a range of languages and consider how the text is reproduced in each language in terms of structure and terminology. Since the original draft is frequently made by non-native speakers and then translated into the other EU languages, which are bound by the structure of the base version, we obtain little information from it about divergent national linguistic and legislative methods. However, if the EU text is a directive which is transposed into national law, we should be able also to look at the national implementing legislation intended to implement the directive. The implementing texts are produced within the national legal context and, one assumes, aim at similar results, as laid down by the directive. Thus it could be expected that they should provide vehicles for study between the national systems and between each national system and the EU legal order. The paper explores these ideas to see where they lead.
The circular economy is a much discussed pathway towards sustainability. While some scholarly work has been carried out on barriers towards a circular economy, there are relatively few academic studies on policies that may accelerate a transition towards a circular economy. Those that focus on policies mostly scrutinize existing policies. The study at hand utilizes data from semi-structured interviews with 47 public and private sector circular economy experts from the European Union to explore expectations regarding circular economy policies, with expectations possibly going beyond existing policies. Expectations identified via this work include more robust standards and norms in production, expansion of circular procurement, tax relief for circular products, liberalization of waste trading and its facilitation through virtual platforms, support for eco-industrial parks, and awareness campaigns. The set of policy recommendations is presented from a life-cycle perspective that is necessary for a transition towards a circular economy. The study aims to contribute to the nascent body of circular economy literature concerning policies and may be of particular interest to practitioners.
Scope of the study: This study investigates concrete and realizable ways towards a Euro-pean electricity sector in line with the goal of keeping global warming below 2°C. It analyzes the development of the electricity sector in the EU 27, Norway and Switzerland up to the year 2050. The study is carried out by the Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation Research ISI for the German Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety. Focus: The study focuses on two major aspects. First of all, it provides a detailed picture of possible developments in the electricity sector with low carbon emissions and high diffusion of renewable electricity generation. The analysis is carried out on an hourly basis for three year-round meteorological datasets in order to ensure the reliability of the system. Secondly, the study analyzes the impacts of increased efficiency in electricity consumption on the required infrastructure, the structure of the electricity supply and the cost of the system. Therefore, two scenarios are developed. Scenario A "High efficiency" presumes a very ambitious reduction of electricity demand, based on the ADAM study (Jochem & Schade 2009). The second Scenario B "Moderate efficiency" is based on the electricity demand of the TRANS-CSP study (DLR 2006), projecting higher electricity consumption than in Scenario A. In both scenarios, a cap of 75 Mt is applied to the average annual CO2 emissions in 2050, relating to a 95% reduction compared to 1990 levels. Both scenarios do not rely on additional nuclear capacity and CCS in the electricity sector, since both op-tions are connected with substantial political, economic and technical uncertainties. In both scenarios the given CO2 target is achieved without relying on these technologies. Main findings: The study shows in detail that an ambitious greenhouse gas reduction can be achieved solely by high diffusion levels of renewable electricity generation of more than 90%. A cost-efficient solution for the given task requires considerable increases in the transmission capacity of the electricity grid. The demand for additional storage capacity is limited if the electricity grid is strong enough and renewable electricity generation is adequate for the given emission cap. A balanced regional distribution of renewable generation leads to lower total system costs than a distribution which is based on minimization of RES-E generation costs. Increased efforts to reach a high efficiency in electricity demand can be valuable, since lower demand reduces the cost of electricity supply considerably. This also includes less need for sometimes contested infrastructures such as power lines and electricity storage facilities.
The consumer field is widespread and often encompasses different legal fields on a single market, especially when it comes to the field of consumer protection. In fact, the consumer mostly remains a weaker party in resolving consumer disputes, especially in administrative proceedings. Traditional court proceedings do not always offer the most cost-appropriate way of resolving consumer disputes, because the damage with legal costs is disproportionate, especially in Small Claims (20 EUR). In theory, Alternative Dispute Resolution (hereinafter: ADR) is considered more flexible, faster and cheaper for disputes between consumers and businesses. Insofar, Consumer ADR (hereinafter: CADR) is seen as a useful tool that helps consumers realize their right of access to justice. It is argued that CADR systems provide valuable information on the needs of disputants, while preserving confidentiality, increasing consumer satisfaction, equality and grater trust. While CADR is praised in theory as an added value, in practice it still remains unrecognizable and therefore is seen as an ineffective formalism in some EU countries. It seems that consumers and businesses lack awareness of the CADR schemes and their benefits, which have effects on the efficient use of CADR in different public and private institutions. The focus of this paper is on the field of Public Administrative Law, which, through different approaches of scientific analysis, combines the main administrative aspects of CADR systems in the EU. Special attention is given to different administrative barriers in the development of various CADR schemes, which cause the formation of administrative dilemmas in some Member states. The new EU legal regulation on Consumer ADR, Online Dispute Resolution (ODR) and EU Administrative law have set flexible rules and principles that would assure the quality of dispute resolution between EU entities with private or public interests. Similarities in proposed principles would lead us closer towards a common European Administrative Space. However, so far such EU initiatives have left many questions unanswered regarding the supervision and financing of CADR schemes, as well as the administrative issues about the purely internal harmonization of "administrative" CADR practices in Member States. An example of the substantial administrative dilemmas in CADR practices, mostly in the field of universal services, can be recognized in existing CADR systems in selected EU countries, e.g. Slovenia and Croatia. POINTS FOR PRACTICIONERS: Special attention is paid to the interplay between the CADR and public administration in the EU, which introduces us to various definitions of the concept of CADR in administrative proceedings. The theoretical view shows that the parties in consumer dispute resolution produce various legal relationships (C2B/G or G/B2C, B2B or G2B) of different legal natures (public or private interests), whether under administrative or civil law. Through comparative analysis of the concept of CADR in administrative proceedings among selected EU countries, divergences are shown in the legal framework of CADR procedures, existing CADR schemes and measuring efficiency tools for CADR procedures, which causes key administrative dilemmas in the main sectors of universal services. Despite divergences, some similarities appear between new principles of proposed new EU regulation, which could lead us closer to a common European Administration law. Unfortunately, the statistical analysis of existing CADR cases in selected Member states indicates an inefficient use of these pledged mechanisms. The given guidelines and improvements with one coherent CADR model contribute to the achievement and pursuit of the set goals towards an efficient European Administrative space.
