Peacekeeping operations are nowadays an important phenomenon in international relations and especially in conflict-ridden regions. The concept and framework of such operations has been constantly evolving in the past and one of the milestones of this evolution was the fall of the communist system and the end of the cold war. In Europe, this historic moment coincided with establishment by the Maastricht Treaty of the new organism within the process of western Europe's integration: the European Union. Both these facts triggered a reaction of the somewhat passive and hardly visible European defence organisation of the Western European Union. Its Petersberg Declaration of 1992 redefined security and sought to change peace obligations of the member states of WEU, as they accepted a broader responsibility and a broader concept of security in the European region. This was an important first step in making defence integration a part of the mainstream integration process. On the legal basis of the Petersberg Declaration, six operations were carried out. The paper discusses them, showing striking similarities, which actually comprise a special philosophy of intervention by WEU. This philosophy reflects both strengths and weaknesses of WEU's role in the European integration.
Peacekeeping operations are nowadays an important phenomenon in international relations and especially in conflict-ridden regions. The concept and framework of such operations has been constantly evolving in the past and one of the milestones of this evolution was the fall of the communist system and the end of the cold war. In Europe, this historic moment coincided with establishment by the Maastricht Treaty of the new organism within the process of western Europe's integration: the European Union. Both these facts triggered a reaction of the somewhat passive and hardly visible European defence organisation of the Western European Union. Its Petersberg Declaration of 1992 redefined security and sought to change peace obligations of the member states of WEU, as they accepted a broader responsibility and a broader concept of security in the European region. This was an important first step in making defence integration a part of the mainstream integration process. On the legal basis of the Petersberg Declaration, six operations were carried out. The paper discusses them, showing striking similarities, which actually comprise a special philosophy of intervention by WEU. This philosophy reflects both strengths and weaknesses of WEU's role in the European integration.
Ensuring internal security is one of the core objectives of European integration in thecontext of the establishment of an area of freedom, security and justice of the EuropeanUnion (E.U.). The aim of the internal security policy of the E.U. is to support MemberStates with regard to the maintenance of law and order and the safeguarding of internalsecurity. In the last 20 years in the area of internal security of the E.U. many importantinitiatives, political agendas and legal instruments at the E.U. level have arisen. Thisarticle aims to show the development of the internal security policy of the E.U., its mostimportant guidelines and the challenges in the coming years. ; Zapewnienie bezpieczeństwa wewnętrznego jest jednym z podstawowych celów integracjieuropejskiej w kontekście tworzenia na terytorium Unii Europejskiej przestrzeni wolności, bezpieczeństwa i sprawiedliwości. Celem polityki bezpieczeństwa wewnętrznegoUE jest wspieranie państw członkowskich w zakresie utrzymania porządku publicznegoi ochrony bezpieczeństwa wewnętrznego. W ostatnich 20 latach w obszarze bezpieczeństwawewnętrznego UE odnotowano duże zmiany, zrodziło się wiele inicjatyw, programówpolitycznych oraz instrumentów prawnych na szczeblu Unii. Celem artykułu jest ukazanie rozwoju polityki bezpieczeństwa wewnętrznego UE, jej najważniejszych założeńi wyzwań na nadchodzące lata.
The first part of the article deals with questions concerning the oncoming enlargement of the European Union by former eastern-bloc countries such as Poland, Hungary, the Czech and Slovakian Republics, Romania, Bulgaria as well as Slovenia and the three Baltic states. It focuses upon the "europe-Treaties" which the European Union has concluded or is going to conclude the countries obove. The question being raised is whether these treaties can be regarded as sufficient preparation for future membership in the European Union. The treaties' specific deficiencies, such as the existence of a safeguard-clause, as well as the exclusion of a unitary competition right and of the agrarian market are mentioned. The enormous differences between the GDP per capita of the most advances Vysehrad-countries and least developed members of the European Union, as well as the non-compatible structure of these countries' national economies are expected to cause extraordinary problems of adjustment. Furthermore the question is raised if the option of further integration without membership would not be a viable alternative for the oncoming 8 to 10 years. The second part of the article deals with the future perspective of an enlarged Union. First the specific three-structure of the Union is described; the Union being characterized as a "compound" of supranational and intergovernmental elements. Questions concerning the oncoming reforms of the institutions are raised. Furthermore, the article deals with the aspect of a guiding principle for future political development of the Union. The Author concludes that the idea of a European State cannot be regarded as a realistic perspective for the oncoming decades. The objective of a general supranationalisation in the field of European cooperation would inevitably lead to a fundamental conflict with the principles of democracy; this being due to the lack of a unitary European nation as the sovereign and the subject of democracy. A mixed structural "compound" not unlike the present three-pillared structure is therefore the only realistic alternative in the foreseeable furure. Moreover the entire process of cooperation demands a stronger diversification in that not all members have to participate in all fields of integration at the same time. ; Digitalizacja i deponowanie archiwalnych zeszytów RPEiS sfinansowane przez MNiSW w ramach realizacji umowy nr 541/P-DUN/2016
Celem monografii jest analiza procesu reformowania Unii Europejskiej. Badaniom poddano trzy kolejne konferencje międzyrządowe, które zakończyły się przyjęciem traktatu amsterdamskiego, traktatu nicejskiego i traktatu konstytucyjnego. Rozdział pierwszy dotyczy istoty, zakresu i uwarunkowań procesu reform traktatowych UE a rozdział drugi odnosi się do stanowisk wybranych państw członkowskich wobec reformy Unii Europejskiej w połowie lat 90. XX wieku. W kolejnych rozdziałach dokonano bardzo szczegółowej analizy procesu negocjacji i zawartości kolejnych traktatów, tj. traktatu amsterdamskiego ("niedokończona reforma"), traktatu nicejskiego ("kompromis w obliczu poszerzenia") i traktatu konstytucyjnego ("nieudana próba określenia finalité politique Unii Europejskiej"). Na tej podstawie monografia oferuje model teoretyczny reform traktatowych w ramach Unii Europejskiej. ; The aim of the monograph is to analyse the process of reforming the European Union. Three successive Intergovernmental Conferences are examined, which resulted in the adoption of the Amsterdam Treaty, the Nice Treaty and the Constitutional Treaty. The first chapter concerns the essence, scope and conditions of the EU treaty reform process, and the second refers to the positions of selected Member States towards the reform of the European Union in the mid-1990s. In the following chapters a very detailed analysis of the negotiation process and the content of successive treaties, i.e. the Treaty of Amsterdam ("an unfinished reform"), the Treaty of Nice ("a compromise in view of enlargement") and the Constitutional Treaty ("an unsuccessful attempt to define the finalité politique of the European Union"), is made. On this basis, the monograph offers a theoretical model of treaty reforms within the European Union.
Celem monografii jest analiza procesu reformowania Unii Europejskiej. Badaniom poddano trzy kolejne konferencje międzyrządowe, które zakończyły się przyjęciem traktatu amsterdamskiego, traktatu nicejskiego i traktatu konstytucyjnego. Rozdział pierwszy dotyczy istoty, zakresu i uwarunkowań procesu reform traktatowych UE a rozdział drugi odnosi się do stanowisk wybranych państw członkowskich wobec reformy Unii Europejskiej w połowie lat 90. XX wieku. W kolejnych rozdziałach dokonano bardzo szczegółowej analizy procesu negocjacji i zawartości kolejnych traktatów, tj. traktatu amsterdamskiego ("niedokończona reforma"), traktatu nicejskiego ("kompromis w obliczu poszerzenia") i traktatu konstytucyjnego ("nieudana próba określenia finalité politique Unii Europejskiej"). Na tej podstawie monografia oferuje model teoretyczny reform traktatowych w ramach Unii Europejskiej. ; The aim of the monograph is to analyse the process of reforming the European Union. Three successive Intergovernmental Conferences are examined, which resulted in the adoption of the Amsterdam Treaty, the Nice Treaty and the Constitutional Treaty. The first chapter concerns the essence, scope and conditions of the EU treaty reform process, and the second refers to the positions of selected Member States towards the reform of the European Union in the mid-1990s. In the following chapters a very detailed analysis of the negotiation process and the content of successive treaties, i.e. the Treaty of Amsterdam ("an unfinished reform"), the Treaty of Nice ("a compromise in view of enlargement") and the Constitutional Treaty ("an unsuccessful attempt to define the finalité politique of the European Union"), is made. On this basis, the monograph offers a theoretical model of treaty reforms within the European Union.
One of the consequences of Poland's membership in EU is the necessity to pursue politics, within the union, which is optimal for EU's interest. This involves, among other things, identifying potential gains, challenges or threats, making choices and decisions, formulating goals and selecting tools to achieve them. This article is an attempt at indentifying major dilemmas and challenges facing Poland as a EU member country in the second decade of the 21st century. They pertain to the following issues: membership in the eurozone, diversification of integration in EU, further deepening of integration within the organization and of its model, development of EU's safety and defence policy, energy and climate policy, accepting new members and the exit of Great Britain from the union. The author outlines some conditions and options that Poland has to take into consideration as a EU member country.
Parliament – an institution of a democratic state – a member of the Union – is not only an authority but also, as in the case of the European Union, the only directly and universally elected representative body of the European Union. The article presents questions related to the essence of parliament and that of a supranational parliament which are vital while dealing with the subject matter. It proves that the growth of the European Parliament's powers was the direct reason for departing from the system of delegating representatives to the Parliament for the benefit of direct elections. It presents direct and universal elections to the European Parliament in the context of presenting legal regulations applicable in this respect. It describes a new legal category – citizenship of the European Union – primarily in terms of active and passive suffrage to the European Parliament, as a political entitlement of a citizen of the European Union. ; Parliament – an institution of a democratic state – a member of the Union – is not only an authority but also, as in the case of the European Union, the only directly and universally elected representative body of the European Union. The article presents questions related to the essence of parliament and that of a supranational parliament which are vital while dealing with the subject matter. It proves that the growth of the European Parliament's powers was the direct reason for departing from the system of delegating representatives to the Parliament for the benefit of direct elections. It presents direct and universal elections to the European Parliament in the context of presenting legal regulations applicable in this respect. It describes a new legal category – citizenship of the European Union – primarily in terms of active and passive suffrage to the European Parliament, as a political entitlement of a citizen of the European Union.
Publikacja recenzowana / Peer-reviewed publication ; Unia Europejska, po impasie instytucjonalnym spowodowanym odrzuceniem traktatu konstytucyjnego, po wysiłku, jakim był proces rozszerzenia na nowe – często nieprzygotowane do tego kraje, oraz po latach kryzysu gospodarczo-finansowego powoli wychodzi na prostą. Wydaje się, że "diabelska alternatywa" – rozpad albo głębsza integracja – przestaje być aktualna. Unia Europejska wybrała zdecydowanie tę drugą opcję. Krok po kroku, szczyt po szczycie, Unia posuwa się mozolnie w kierunku głębszej integracji finansowej i fiskalnej, w kierunku zacieśnienia oraz koordynacji współpracy gospodarczej, a także bardziej rygorystycznego egzekwowania kryteriów konwergencji finansowej. De facto strefa euro, a wraz nią cała Unia Europejska, w zakresie spraw gospodarczo-finansowych, najgorsze ma za sobą. Niepokojący z punktu widzenia całej Unii Europejskiej jest Brexit. Wyjście Brytyjczyków z UE jest ogromnym politycznym, militarnym, gospodarczym i wizerunkowym osłabieniem Unii, a może nawet czymś więcej – porażką Unii, a zapewne także i Brytyjczyków. Innym niepokojącym i trwającym problemem Unii jest kryzys migracyjny. Jednak powoli i z opóźnieniem UE zaczyna z niego wyciągać wnioski i urealniać politykę migracyjną. Coraz bardziej niepokojąca staje się kwestia przestrzegania praworządności przez niektóre kraje unijne, jak również jej ocena i zdolność władz UE do uporania się z tym problemem. Unia Europejska nie powróci już zapewne do dyskusji na temat finalite, czyli finalnego celu: czym być – federacją, superpaństwem, czy też konfederacją państw, Europą Ojczyzn? Jednak integracja w głąb będzie postępować z tymi, którzy chcą, a bez tych, którzy nie chcą. Integracja finansowo- -gospodarcza w ramach UGW, wojskowa w ramach WPBiO, także w sprawach imigracyjnej, regionalnej i wymiaru sprawiedliwości. ; European Union, having back constitutional treaty refusal crisis, enlargement problems with new EU members and economic-financial crisis, seems to have overcome the most difficult period. Looks like "the devil alternative" – breaking up or deepen integration – is no more actual. Step by step, through EU leaders summit after summit recovery decisions, European Union is crawling towards deepen financial and fiscal integration. A number of diff erent long-term proposals have been put forward to deal with Eurozone crisis, as European Fiscal Union, a package for European bank recovery and other measures going to strict respect of financial convergence criteria. Brexit, the ongoing process of withdrawal of United Kingdom from EU will have deep impact on UK and EU mutual political-economic relations, being at the same time deep repulse of EU itself. The other unquiet and still lasting problem for EU was a sharp increase in the migration fl ows into European Union territory, making a lot of problems to EU countries. However, after bad results and the lack of proper approach to that problem European Union is preparing new common immigration policy. EU is also facing the impact of accession to office of a Eurosceptic party/governments violating the principles of law and EU values which makes a problem of EU infringement procedure efficiency. Having in mind all EU aspects of crisis, actually, it is difficult to foresee the return to the debate about finalite politique of European Union, which means answering the questions: what does EU have to be? Federation, super-state or only the Europe of Homelands?
Zmiany polityczne, społeczne i gospodarcze zapoczątkowane w Polsce w 1989 r. stworzyły podstawy do dynamicznego rozwoju sektora działalności usługowej. Istotnym aspektem przemian organizacyjnych w sferze usług jest także rozwój nowych form świadczenia tradycyjnych usług z zastosowaniem technik komputerowych i sieci internetowej (usługi elektroniczne), np. elektroniczna administracja, zdalna edukacja czy handel elektroniczny. Rozwój nowych form świadczenia usług był możliwy dzięki postępowi w technologii informacyjno-komunikacyjnej (ICT). Głównym celem artykułu jest analiza poziomu rozwoju usług elektronicznych w Polsce na tle innych państw Unii Europejskiej. Formułuje się następujące cele szczegółowe: (1) systematyzacja terminologii związanej z usługami elektronicznymi, (2) określenie uwarunkowań rozwoju usług elektronicznych w Polsce i innych państwach UE, (3) charakterystyka poziomu rozwoju wybranych typów usług elektronicznych dla odbiorców indywidualnych i przedsiębiorstw w Polsce, (4) porównanie poziomu rozwoju wybranych typów usług elektronicznych w Polsce z innymi państwami UE. ; Political, social and economic changes initiated in Poland in 1989 formed basis for dynamic development of service activity. An important aspect of organizational change in services is the development of new forms of services provision with the use of computer technology and the Internet (electronic services), such as e-government, e-learning and e-commerce. The development of new forms of service provision has been possible by advancement in the development of information and communication technology (ICT). The main purpose of this article is to analyse the level of development of electronic services in Poland in comparison to other European Union countries. The following specific objectives can be formulated: (1) systematization of terminology related to e-services, (2) defining of the development conditions of e-services in Poland and other EU countries, (3) characteristic of the level of development of selected types of e-services for individuals and enterprises in Poland (4) comparing the level of development of selected types of e-services in Poland to other EU countries.
The paper presents the issue of the varied standards o f living in the European Union. The first part of the paper discusses theoretical matters concerning the measurement of various dimensions of the quality o f life examined by the European Union (EU-SILC, EQLS) and an international organization HelpAge International (GAWI). The second, fundamental part of the paper analyzes selected objective and subjective indicators, such as equivalent levels o f disposable income (Gini coefficient), the situation o f households in different countries as well as the quality of life o f senior citizens (aged 60 plus). The third part o f the paper is an analysis of the assessment of the threat o f poverty and social exclusion in the European Union. ; W artykule przedstawiono problematykę zróżnicowania poziomu życia mieszkańców Unii Europejskiej. W pierwszej części zaprezentowano zagadnienia teoretyczne dotyczące mierzenia różnych wymiarów jakości życia w ramach badań prowadzonych przez Unię Europejską (EU-SILC, EQLS) oraz międzynarodową organizację HelpAge Intermational (GAWI). W drugiej zasadniczej części artykułu analizie poddano wybrane obiektywne i subiektywne wskaźniki: poziomu ekwiwalentnych dochodów do dyspozycji (współczynnik Giniego), sytuacji gospodarstw domowych w poszczególnych państwach, a także jakości życia mieszkańców w wieku 60 lat i więcej. Trzecia część artykułu przedstawia analizę oceny poziomu zagrożenia ubóstwem i wykluczeniem społecznym w Unii Europejskiej.
On August 1, 1994 the Cooperation Agreement between the European Community and the Republic of India on partnership and development entered into force. On June 16, 2004, in the tenth anniversary of the partnership, the European Commission presented the communication "An EU-India Strategic Partnership" in order to intensify cooperation with India. The Republic of India was regarded as a regional and global leader, being able to have equal relations with EU members. This paper is to analise signs of cooperation aimed at stategic partnership, and to present that despite legal and institutional frameworks of cooperation, no comprehensive concept of partnership was implemented. Moreover, years of relations have showned that partners are not equal, as well as that course and speed of cooperation are shaped unilaterally by the European Union. ; On August 1, 1994 the Cooperation Agreement between the European Community and the Republic of India on partnership and development entered into force. On June 16, 2004, in the tenth anniversary of the partnership, the European Commission presented the communication "An EU-India Strategic Partnership" in order to intensify cooperation with India. The Republic of India was regarded as a regional and global leader, being able to have equal relations with EU members. This paper is to analise signs of cooperation aimed at stategic partnership, and to present that despite legal and institutional frameworks of cooperation, no comprehensive concept of partnership was implemented. Moreover, years of relations have showned that partners are not equal, as well as that course and speed of cooperation are shaped unilaterally by the European Union.
Preparations to membership and then Poland's entry to the European Union and an active participation in its structures – these are the main factors that have determined and will still determine changes and adjustments in the institutional area. Before starting the research it was assumed that changes on a local level are a part of institutional adjustments on the state level. The aim of this work is a general identification of these adjustments on the central level and on the level of local government, with the example of the city of Elbląg. Adjustments in five areas on the central level, which are directly connected with economic activity, are presented in this work. A total amount of local governments' investments and their institutional background on a city level is given here. The whole work ends with a summary and conclusions. ; Przygotowania do członkostwa, a następnie wejście Polski do Unii Europejskiej i dalej aktywne uczestnictwo w jej strukturach, to główne czynniki, które już zdeterminowały i nadal będą wymuszać zmiany i dostosowania w sferze instytucjonalnej. Przystępując do badań założono, że zmiany na szczeblu samorządowym wpisują się w dostosowania instytucjonalne na szczeblu krajowym. Celem opracowania jest ogólna identyfikacja tych dostosowań na szczeblu centralnym, a także na poziomie samorządu lokalnego, gdzie jako przykład przyjęto miasto Elbląg. W opracowaniu zaprezentowano dostosowania w pięciu dziedzinach na szczeblu centralnym, które są bezpośrednio związane z działalnością gospodarczą. Podano też ogólną wartość inwestycji samorządowych oraz ich instytucjonalne umocowanie na szczeblu miasta. Całość kończy podsumowanie i wnioski.
Preparations to membership and then Poland's entry to the European Union and an active participation in its structures – these are the main factors that have determined and will still determine changes and adjustments in the institutional area. Before starting the research it was assumed that changes on a local level are a part of institutional adjustments on the state level. The aim of this work is a general identification of these adjustments on the central level and on the level of local government, with the example of the city of Elbląg. Adjustments in five areas on the central level, which are directly connected with economic activity, are presented in this work. A total amount of local governments' investments and their institutional background on a city level is given here. The whole work ends with a summary and conclusions. ; Przygotowania do członkostwa, a następnie wejście Polski do Unii Europejskiej i dalej aktywne uczestnictwo w jej strukturach, to główne czynniki, które już zdeterminowały i nadal będą wymuszać zmiany i dostosowania w sferze instytucjonalnej. Przystępując do badań założono, że zmiany na szczeblu samorządowym wpisują się w dostosowania instytucjonalne na szczeblu krajowym. Celem opracowania jest ogólna identyfikacja tych dostosowań na szczeblu centralnym, a także na poziomie samorządu lokalnego, gdzie jako przykład przyjęto miasto Elbląg. W opracowaniu zaprezentowano dostosowania w pięciu dziedzinach na szczeblu centralnym, które są bezpośrednio związane z działalnością gospodarczą. Podano też ogólną wartość inwestycji samorządowych oraz ich instytucjonalne umocowanie na szczeblu miasta. Całość kończy podsumowanie i wnioski.
The article brings up the issue of the attitude of the Polish liberal community towards integration with the European structures. Its objective is to show the attitudes, opinions and argumentation of the liberal pro-integrative option after the year 1989. In this regard, the standpoints of the following parties are analysed: Citizens' Movement for Democratic Action (ROAD), Democratic Union (UD), Liberal-Democratic Congress (KLD), Freedom Union (UW) and Civic Platform (PO). In further parts of the article, the author shows that to liberal parties Western Europe constituted a synonym of freedom, democracy, prosperity and progress. One can get an impression that this fascination was so strong that it was trusted without any critical reflections. As a result, the liberals contributed to the guiding of Poland's development, accepting the pro-western option that was maintained and consistently realised by all successive governments.
