Suchergebnisse

As an alternative to mass tourism, yacht charter services are preferred by Families. Although it was preferred by young people who were used to the outdoor lifestyle initially for sailing, swimming and sportive activities, nowadays it is preferred by families with the increasing comfort on yachts. In the study, the effects of current developments, customer preferences, and market developments in yacht charter types have been examined. Observations are made in southern Aegean in Turkey, benefiting from unstructured interviews with summer fieldwork were created. One of the most important findings of the study is that families prefer it as a touristic journey. Most importantly, the reason for choices in social isolation can be more easily despite the contraction in the tourism sector during the pandemic crisis. As a negative development brought about by the pandemic crisis, the increase in travel bans and restrictions between countries has introduced extra obligations. Although the negative developments of 2020 prohibit the tourist season in 2020 the domestic market in Turkey has increased the number of charter yachts sailed in July. On the other hand, international yachting markets could perform their activities in a limited way because of travel bans.
Keywords Yacht Chartering, Yacht Management, Maritime Tourism, Pandemic, Covid 19

Der rassistische Brandanschlag in Solingen jährt sich 2023 zum 30. Mal. Eine fachliche, gesellschaftspolitische und wissenschaftliche Auseinandersetzung ist bisher jedoch kaum erfolgt. Die Beiträger*innen ordnen die Geschehnisse und Zusammenhänge um den Mordanschlag kritisch ein und diskutieren seine Nachwirkungen und Folgen aus unterschiedlichen Perspektiven reflexiv. Neben zivilgesellschaftlichen und wissenschaftlichen Stimmen kommen auch Überlebende und Angehörige der Familie Genç sowie andere Betroffene rassistischer und extrem rechter Gewalt zu Wort.

The Lusignan dynasty ruled in Cyprus for about three hundred dec from the XIII to the XV centuries. The Lusignan family administrative structure was similar to that of the Crusader states. In order to facilitate the administration, the Kings have appointed people they trust at the state level. In this article, the seneschals who served during the Lusignan period in Cyprus have been identified and examined in chronological order. Seneschals were important civil servants who occupied the first place in the hierarchy. In the early periods of the Kingdom of Lusignan of Cyprus, the people who served as seneschals were chosen from the Lusignans or Ibelins, who were from prominent families. Towards the end of the kingdom, other people from families of Catalan and Spanish origin also became seneschals. Although it is difficult to determine the names of seneschals in the early periods of the kingdom, the appointments made by the Kings in recent periods have been more clearly included in the sources. The duties of the seneschals were determined by examining the documents in the sources. Seneschals are appointed in cases of marriage of the royal family. It was also seen that they took part as representatives of the King when the expedition was to be launched. Besides, they were with the King and supported him.

Marriage plays an important role in the establishment of families, which are the basis of society. On the other hand, with the event happening of social changes, the perspective of marriage has changed, and the rate of marriage has gradually decreased. However, in most societies today, individuals are expected to marry. Thus, it is important to investigate attitudes towards marriage and related factors. This study discusses marital role expectations, which include thoughts of individuals about how they and their partners will behave in marriage. Marriage role expectations, in a sense, include their beliefs about what they will encounter in marriage, so it is thought that this may influence attitudes towards marriage. Accordingly, the main purpose of this study was to investigate the predictive role of marriage role expectations on the attitudes towards marriage. The sample comprised of 484 individuals over the age of 18 (70.2% female, 29.8% male, average age was 26.02, ±5.14). The findings of the study indicated that the proposed model significantly explained attitudes towards marriage (F(3,480)= 27.60, p

The use of mushrooms in Turkish and World cuisines is increasing rapidly, especially in recent years, there has been a significant increase in wild mushroom picking and consumption. The aim of this study is to investigate which types of edible wild mushrooms are consumed and mushroom dishes in Giresun cuisine. In the study, qualitative research method was preferred, and the population was determined as people who know edible wild mushrooms living within the borders of Giresun province and use these mushrooms in their kitchens, who have knowledge and experience on the subject, and snowball sampling method was used. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 23 people in Giresun Bulancak, Merkez, Keşap, Eynesil, Dereli, Yaglidere, Şebinkarahisar and Alucra districts. According to the results of the research, it has been determined that Giresun province has an ancient variety of edible mushrooms and food culture, 45 mushroom species belonging to 18 families are consumed in the province and a wide variety of dishes consisting of meatballs, roasting, frying, roasting, dip and rice are made from mushrooms.

Bu tez internet yasaklarinin Turkiye ve ornek ulkelerdeki benzerlik ve farkliliklariniincelemektedir. Amerika Birlesik Devletleri Avrupa Birligi cin Suudi Arabistanarastirilan ulkeler olarak secilmistir. Turkiye ve secilen ulkelerde var olan mevcutinternet yasaklari ve engelleyen sistemler arasinda karsilastirma yapilmistir. Yapilan calisma sonunda internet sansuru uygulayan ulkelerde aile ve cocugu korumaya yonelik yasalarin benzerligi gorulmustur. ulkesel bazda bir takim ozel hassasiyetler one ciksa da internet yasaklarinin yerel degil global oldugu sonucu elde edilmistir. ; This thesis, examines the similarities and differences of internet censorship in Turkey and other selected countries. United States of America, European Union, People's Republic of China and Kingdom of Saudi Arabia were selected as researched countries. The comparison was made between Turkey and the other countries for the existing internet censorship and the systems that prevent the internet censorship. This study shows, the similarities of laws to protect children and families for the researched countries with internet censorship. Despite the fact that there are some certain national sensitivities, the results of this thesis shows that prohibitions on the internet are global rather than local.

The foundation of writing skill, which has an important place in the academic and social lives of individuals, is laid in primary school. Examining the studies on the writing skills of primary school students provides information about the writing skill levels of the students, and also contributes to the examination of new methods and techniques in writing teaching. For this reason, in this study, it is aimed to examine the articles prepared on the writing skills of primary school students (1-4. grades) between the years 2012-2020 through thematic content analysis. In the research, 64 articles on the writing skills of primary school published between the years 2012-2020 were reached with the criterion sampling method. The articles were accessed from the ULAKBİM TR index and SSCI journals scanned in Turkey. Articles have been examined in accordance with 8 parameters including publication years, aims, methods, sample levels, data collection tools, data analysis methods, results and suggestions. The data obtained regarding the categories and sub-categories reached as a result of the analysis are presented in the tables together with the codes and frequency values given to the articles. As a result of the research; It has been determined that the articles examined were mostly published in 2018 and 2020, that were mostly studied with primary school fourth grade students and that research methods were used more frequently. In the articles examined, it was determined that suggestions were made for researchers, to the ministry of national education, families, schools, practices and universities.

University education may influence attitudes toward gender roles. The awareness of students in the field of health services about the gender inequalities they will encounter both during the education process and in the future while providing health services will play a role in providing health services in a more effective and equitable way. In order for university students to approach men and women with an egalitarian perspective at an early age, their gender stereotypes must first decrease and their perspectives on social relations must change positively. Therefore, university education can play an important role in influencing gender perception and attitudes towards gender roles. There is no special course on prejudice and discrimination in the training programs of Vocational Schools of Health Services that train health technicians in Turkey. Based on this, this study aimed to examine the effect of the training program given to raise awareness of prejudice, stereotypes and discrimination on the gender perception and attitude of students who will provide health care in the future. For this purpose, answers were sought to the following questions: Is there a difference in students' gender perceptions of prejudice and discrimination before and after training? Are there any differences in students' gender role attitudes regarding prejudice and discrimination before and after education? Is there a relationship between gender perception and attitudes towards gender roles? As a method, a single-group the pretest-posttest semi-experimental method was used. The research was conducted with students taking the Prejudice and Discrimination course at the Vocational School of Health Services. 95 second-grade students participated in the research. The reason why sophomore students from the Disabled Care and Rehabilitation program, the Pharmacy Services program, and the Occupational Therapy Program were selected in the study is that the "Prejudice and Discrimination" course is given in the second-grade student spring semester. Descriptive Information Form, Gender Roles Attitude Scale (GRAS), and Gender Perception Scale (GPS) were used to collect data. Before the course program started, GRAS and GPS were administered to the participants as a pretest. Afterwards, a fourteen-week course period on "Prejudice and Discrimination" was carried out. At the end of the course, GRAS and GPS were administered to the participants as posttests. According to the students' descriptive characteristics, it was found that the mean age of the participants in the study was 21.6±3.3, and that 73.7% of them were female. According to the study, most students' mothers (56.9%) and fathers (38.9%) had completed elementary school. The families of 73.7% of the participants are nuclear families. The students' average number of siblings was found to be 2.8±2.1, and the majority (51.6%) of them had both brothers and sisters. The investigation discovered that 43.2% of the students lived primarily in the city center. Most students who participated in the study said that the Black Sea region was where they spent most of their lives (46.3%). The research revealed that prejudice and discrimination training provided via online distance education methods did not affect the gender perception and gender role attitudes of second-year Vocational School of Health Services students (respectively; p = 0.890, p = 0.976). However, a positive relationship was found between gender perception and attitudes towards gender roles (pretest r = 0,825, p < 0,01; posttest r = 0,893, p< 0,01). While the total scale score of women was higher than men according to GPS and GRAS scores according to sex before the training (GPS, p = 0.002; GRAS, p

Filistin, sadece bir toprak savaşımı değildir. Aynı zamanda Filistin halkı yaşamsal varlık mücadelesi vermektedir. Her yitirilen toprak, binlerce ailenin yurtsuz kalması demektir. Oysa Batılı devletler meseleye, bir insani dramdan ziyade politik bir sorun olarak bakmaktadır. İsrail hakkında alınmış Birleşmiş Milletler Örgütü (BM) kararları olmasına rağmen, bunları göz ardı etmektedir. Filistinliler zorlu yaşam koşulları ve fiziksel bölünmenin yanı sıra, bir de siyasal açıdan iki farklı örgüt arasında bölünmüştür; Hamas ve El Fetih. El-Fetih, Batılı devletler ile kurduğu ilişkiler neticesinde bazı Filistinliler tarafından eleştirilmektedir. Hamas ise silahlı mücadeleyi bırakmaması nedeniyle meşruiyet krizi geçirmektedir. Hamas, Batılı devletlerin ve İsrail'in gözünde bir terör örgütü olarak görülmektedir. Bu çalışmanın amacı, bu iki örgüt arasındaki farklardan ve rekabetten söz ederek, iki aktör arasında bölünmüş olmanın Filistin direnişine olan etkisini ortaya koymaktır. Çalışmada örgüt liderlerinin ve Filistinli bürokratların resmi açıklamalarına da yer verilmektedir. ; Palestine is not only a struggle for land but it's also Palestinian people's fight for a vital being. Every land that has been losing means that thousands of families become homeless. But Western states view it as a political problem rather than a humanitarian drama. Even though there are decisions taken by the United Nations Israel ignores them all. In addition to physical division and a difficult life standard the Palestinians are divided between two different organizations politically; Hamas and Fatah. Fatah has been criticized by some Palestinians because of its relations with Western states. Hamas is experiencing a crisis of legitimacy because of not abandoning the armed struggle. Hamas has been seen as a terrorist organization in the eyes of Western states and Israel. The aim of this study is to reveal the effect of the split between the two actors on the Palestinian resistance by mentioning the differences and competition between these two organizations. The study will also include official statements of the leaders of the organization and Palestinian bureaucrats.

Cebel-i Lübnan, farklı dini ve etnik yapıya sahip toplulukların yaşadığı bir bölgedir. Geçmişten itibaren bu topluluklar arasında var olan iktidar mücadelesi bölgenin Osmanlı Devleti'nin idaresine geçmesi ile birlikte belli bir sisteme bağlandı. Veraset usulüne dayanan feodal yapılanma sayesinde güçlü aileler bölgenin yönetimini ellerinde tuttular. Özellikle Dürziler uzun süre yönetime hakim oldular. Bölgenin farklı etnik ve dini yapıya sahip olması Avrupa Devletleri'nin buradaki iktidar ve mezhep çatışmalarına müdahil olmalarına neden oldu. 1845 yılında bu çatışmaların hız kazanması üzerine Osmanlı Devleti bölgeye Hariciye Nazırı Şekip Efendi'yi gönderdi. Şekip Efendi'nin iki kaymakamlı idari yapıda yaptığı düzenlemeler bölgede huzur ve asayişi temin etti. Biz bu çalışmamızda bölgedeki idari düzenin teşkilinin yanı sıra Şekip Efendi'nin kurduğu idari yapının temelini teşkil eden nizamnâmenin 1850 yılındaki yeniden düzenlenmiş metnini vererek içeriğini açıklamaya çalışacağız. ; Mount Lebanon is an region populated by different ethnics and religious groups. After these region became under the Ottoman State administration, the running power struggle among these different groups linked with the Ottoman administrative organization. Powerful families governed these region due to the feudal structure based on line succession especially Druze dominated the ruling for a long time. The religious and ethnic variety of the population of the region led to European states intervention in the power strugle and sect conflicts. The Ottoman state send the minister of foreign officer named Şekip Efendi to the region after these conflicts ascended in 1845. The regulations laid down by Şekip Efendi in the administrative structure of Dual Kaim-makamate of the region provided the peace, law and order. In this study we will take into consideration the re-edited texts of the regulation of 1850, which was the bases of the administrative structure established by Şekip Efendi together with the formation of the administrative structure of the region.

Dengeli beslenmede oldukça önemli yeri olan zeytinyağı ve sofralık zeytin gerek sahip olduğu özellikler ve gerekse bu sektörde ürünün yetiştirilmesi ve pazarlanması ile uğraşan nüfus itibari ile Türkiye ve Avrupa Birliği'nde önem taşıyan ürünler arasındadır. Bu araştırma ile Türkiye ve AB'nde zeytin ve zeytinyağı sektörünün önemi belirtilmiş ve bu sektör analiz edilerek karşılaştırmalar yapılmıştır. Dünya zeytinyağı üretim ortalaması 1.850 bin ton'dur. Bunun 'lik kısmını AB karşılamaktadır. Diğer üretici ülkeler Tunus, Türkiye ve Fas'tır. Üretim yıldan yıla değişiklik göstermekle beraber dünya pazarını AB etkilemektedir. 1980 öncesi 9 üyeli topluluğun başlıca üretici ülkesi İtalya idi. 1981 'de Yunanistan'ın 1986'da İspanya ve Portekiz'in girişi ile Topluluk zeytinyağı üretimi yılda 1.000.000 ton'un üzerine çıkmıştır. AB'nde Yunanistan, İspanya ve İtalya başlıca üretici ülkelerdir. Bununla birlikte İtalya, aynı zamanda önemli dış alımcı ülkedir. 100 milyona yaklaşan zeytin ağaç varlığı, 90 bin üretici aile ve 1000'den fazla yağhanesi ile Türkiye, dünya zeytin ve zeytinyağı sektörü içinde önemli bir konuma sahiptir. Ancak görünüşte bu önemi belirgin iken, ülkemizin ürünler dünya üretimi ve ticaretinde istenilen konumda olduğunu söylemek güçtür. Bunun nedenleri arasında, üretim düzensizliği son yıllarda ortaya çıkan pazarlama organizasyonundaki olumsuzluklar ile dış ticarete ilişkin politikaların eksikliği ön sıralarda gelmektedir. Karşılaştırmalar sonunda Türkiye ve Avrupa Birliği'nde zeytin ve zeytinyağı sektöründe genel yapı, dış ticaret ve destekleme politikalarında bazı benzerlikler yanında önemli farklılıkların olduğu da tesbit edilmiştir.Bunun içinde öncelikle sektörde yapısal iyileştirmelerin sağlanması gerekmektedir. Türk zeytin ve zeytinyağı sektörünün geleceği, mevcut destekleme politikalarının gözden geçirilmesinin yanı sıra üretimdeki yıllık dalgalanmaları önleyecek tedbirlerin alınması ve sektördeki teknolojinin yenilenerek uluslararası standartlara uyumlaştırılması ile Türk zeytin ve zeytinyağlarının tanıtımının sağlanmasına bağlı olacağı sonucuna varılmıştır. ; Olive oil and table olive, owing to its important place in human nutrition has a significant place in Turkey and in the European Union. In this study, olive and olive oil sector has determined to important and analysed as comparative for Turkey and for the European Union. Average world production is some 1.850.000 tonnes, of which 80% comes from the European Union. The other producers are Tunusia, Turkey and Morocco. Production varies considerably from one year to another, but the world market fluctuates as a direct result of the Community market. In the early 1980 s, when the Community had nine Member States, Italy was the main producer. With the entry Greece in 1981, followed by Spain and Portugal in 1986, olive oil production to over a million tonnes a year. Greece and Spain normally the main suppliers and Italy, although on exporting producer, remains the main purchaser. Turkey has a very important position in the world olive oil sector with almost 100 million olive trees, 90.000 families, that grow olives as their sole crop and over 1000 olive oil processing plants. This importance is clear in terms of the physical wealthy it represents. However, it is not so apparent. In terms of Turkish olive oil production and exports. At first, this was because there were significant problems in production amongst other things. More recently, inadequate marketing organisation and foreign trade policy measures were the main reasons. Under the light of the comparisons, it is concluded that there are significant differences as well as a few similarities in the general formation and the foreign trade policies, in the support policies for olive and olive oil sector in Turkey and the European Union. Therefore, primarly, certain precautions mentioned in the study should urgently be taken to better and promote sector, Future of the olive and olive oil sector depends or to be modernize and existing support policies must be scrutinized besides preventive precautions must taken for years of roughness for productions. Aim of the olive and olive oil of Turkey is to introduced as like international Standard and working for promotions must be important.

Demokrasinin vazgeçilmez unsuru olan seçimler, seçmenlerin ülkenin yönetilmesinde söz sahibi olmasını istedikleri kişi ya da siyasi partiye yetki vermesi anlamına gelmektedir. Ancak seçmenlerin oy verme davranışını yönlendiren birbirinden farklı nedenler bulunabilmektedir. Sosyo-ekonomik, psikolojik birçok unsurun etkisiyle hareket eden bu seçmenlerin eğilimleri ülkelere, toplumlara hatta aynı bölge ve şehirlere göre farklılık göstermektedir. Türkiye'de seçmen tercihleri ile seçmen tercihlerini etkileyen sosyo-kültürel, ekonomik vb. etkenler hususunda çok sayıda ve geniş kapsamlı birçok araştırma yapılmıştır. Ancak seçmenlerin seçim zamanlarında gerçekleştirilen siyasal seçim kampanyalarında ortaya konulan vaatleri ne kadar dikkate aldığı ya da vaatlerin kaynağı hususunda ne kadar bilgili oldukları hakkında çok fazla bilgi bulunmamaktadır. Dolayısıyla Türkiye'de seçim kampanyalarında kullanılan seçim vaatlerinin seçmenler tarafından hangi siyasi partiye ait olduğunun bilinirliği bir problem olarak ortada durmaktadır. Bu çalışmanın amacı da bu çerçevede Türkiye'de seçim kampanyalarında kullanılan seçim vaatlerinin seçmenler tarafından bilinirliği ve kampanyalarda kullanılan seçim vaatlerinin hangi siyasi partiye ait olduğunun bilinirliğinin tespitini sağlamaktır. ; As an indispensable constituent of democracy, elections can be defined as the authorization of the individuals or political parties that voters favor most to rule the state. Nonetheless it is likely that a wide range of motives direct polling behavior of voters. Driven from a multitude of factors such as socio-economic and psychological the voters, in their polling behavior, may differ with respect to countries, social communities, regions, provinces and expectations. As an outcome of the differentiation of expectations, it became inevitable that parties with different inclinations would introduce polyphony into political life. A good number of comprehensive studies have been conducted on voter preferences in Turkey as well as socio-cultural, economic and similar factors playing role in voter preferences. Nevertheless it has been detected that there are limited number of researches focusing on to what extent voters pay heeds to the promises outspoken during political campaigns or their knowledge on the party origins of such promises. Hence it appears that the awareness of voters regarding the origin of election promises used by each party in Turkey during political campaigns stands as a problem. Within that scope the purpose of current study is to detect whether the promises given during political campaigns in Turkey are paid attention by voters and the level of awareness on the political party origins of these promises. Current research unveiling the general attitudes and inclinations of Konya voters shall meanwhile offer a general evaluation whether voters take declarations of election into consideration and how attentively they follow the party they vote for. Data essential for this research have been collected from a questionnaire which is listed amongst the resources of secondary data. In this questionnaire, there are close-ended questions in addition to Likert scale questions. Field study has been conducted through face-to-face survey method. Field study has covered collectively 1907 subjects from total 22 districts in Konya; 3 central districts and 19 sub districts. Population includes all the voters in Turkey who bear the ability of electing and being elected. After tabulating basic information and inclination of voters in districts, by taking certain criteria into account such as age, profession and income level, the evaluation shall be based on detecting certain issues voters need urgent solutions and also partial analyses shall be aimed to detect how attentively some populations follow campaign promises while voting for their parties and how attentively they analyze declarations of elections. In this questionnaire, aside from questions directed to gather information on the general evaluation of voters, there are some questions as stated below in order to uncover how attentively relevant populations follow campaign promises of the parties. "All living places shall be disabled-friendly", "A high-quality life standard shall be provided to senior citizens", "A new Constitution underscoring personal freedom and judicial independence", "Per capita income shall rise to 25 thousand dollars", "Low-income families shall be granted houses with no advance payments", "Poor newly-wed farmers shall be aided with zerointerest loan", "The dormitories in KYK (Credit and Dormitories Agency) shall reach to 600-thousand capacity", "All citizens shall be covered with health insurance", "Fight against terrorism and state aid for the victims of terrorism", "Personnel cadre ambiguity shall be stopped", "Small size farmers shall receive support", "Chauffeurs shall pay no VAT (Value added tax), SCT(Special consumption tax)", "SMEs shall pay no VAT", "Poor families shall be assisted with Hilalkart", "Wages for the disabled shall be boosted to 450 TL", "Net minimum wage shall be increased to 825 TL", "The aids for the poor shall be increased", "Poor and middle income citizens shall be provided with full mortgage", "Poor Women shall be granted assistance", "Adaptation Law shall pass and better conditions shall be provided to the retired", "University fees shall be nullified", "Istanbul shall be proclaimed as the new prestige finance center". Accordingly the answers of the voter populations to determine the origin -AKP, CHP or MHP- of the most leading promises in declarations of election and fields have been sought. Declaration of election -which is a partnership treaty signed between political parties to be elected and the voters whose polls they need- has been annexed to the relevant questionnaire because of being an issue ignored in our country. In the analysis part of research, a couple of tables that reflect the thoughts of voters regarding the political party origins of the promises that we deem to have been in relation to certain populations are illustrated. Research sampling consists of subjects bearing the ability to elect and be elected selected via simple random sampling method from voters in Konya. The questionnaire which constitutes in the introduction part general questions such as the age, gender, educational background, marital status, profession and monthly income level of participants has been divided into various groups of questions. Thus it has been aimed to detect the issues voters demand urgent solution and also how attentively voters follow election campaigns and whether they are aware of the political party origins of campaign promises. In the end it has been feasible to reach a conclusion regarding the voter population in Konya, political parties that are popular on the basis of districts. Elections are acknowledged as an indication of democratization for countries since it is verified that national will shall eventually rise as the winner from ballot box. However it is indeed hard to detect how many of the voters demonstrate a conscious attitude. Some voters bear an ideological attitude and partisan identity whereas some voters vote for the party whom they believe to be most beneficial for their own sake. The causes that lead a person to different inclinations are not only psychological but can be attributed to a wide range of variables like economic factors, family, educational level, income level, profession, religious tenets (even ethic origins during the latest ages). As regards the outcome with respect to Turkey it seems challenging to arrive at a certain conclusion for the voter population since other than entrenched votes there are also amphibian votes for the parties and no equal stability can be ensured for each party. Therefore it can be argued that the majority of Turkish voters act pragmatically rather than ideologically. In this questionnaire that constitutes the scope of current research data gathered from 22 districts of the sampling city Konya are supportive of this finding. To illustrate, the collected responses manifest that voters select with no awareness of the programs of parties and actually pay no heeds to such issues. Furthermore on the basis of such data it can reasonably be argued that the majority of voters in Konya province unite around the very same parties.

06.03.2018 tarihli ve 30352 sayılı Resmi Gazetede yayımlanan "Yükseköğretim Kanunu İle Bazı Kanun Ve Kanun Hükmünde Kararnamelerde Değişiklik Yapılması Hakkında Kanun" ile 18.06.2018 tarihli "Lisansüstü Tezlerin Elektronik Ortamda Toplanması, Düzenlenmesi ve Erişime Açılmasına İlişkin Yönerge" gereğince tam metin erişime açılmıştır. ; Afganistan coğrafî, tarihi, sosyo-kültürel yapısı, ekonomik konumu itibariyle çeşitli çalışmalara ve bilimsel araştırmalara konu olmuşsada, İran ve Suudi Arabistan'ın bölgedeki rekabetinin Afganistan üzerindeki etkilerini açıkça ortaya çıkaran bir çalışma yapılmamıştır. Dolayısıyla bu araştırmada iki ülke arasındaki rekabetin güvenlik ve siyasal açılardan Afganistan üzerindeki etkilerinin ortaya çıkarılması hedeflenmektedir. 11 Eylül 2001 saldırısı dolayısıyla ABD'nin Afganistan operasyonu sonrasında Taliban yönetimi iktidardan uzaklaştırılmış ve ülkenin yeniden yapılandırılmasında Suudi Arabistan ve İran bölgedeki birçok ülkede yaptıkları gibi Afganistan'da da oluşan güç boşluğu üzerinde rekabet etmeye başlamışlardır. Dolayısıyla Suudi Arabistan ile İran'ın bölgedeki rekabeti Afganistan'ı siyasal ve güvenlik açılardan olumsuz etkilemektedir. Ayrıca ekonomik açıdan da oldukça zayif konumda olan Afganistan iki ülke başta olmak üzere dışa bağımlı bir konudadır. Bu bağlamda İran ekonomisinin batılı ülkeler tarafından uygulanan ambargolar dolayısıyla zayıflaması hem İran'da bulunan üç milyona yakın Afgan işçileri hem de onların desteklemekle yükümlü oldukları ailelerini dolayısıyla Afganitan'ı olumsuz etkilemektedir. Aynı zamanda ülkedeki farklı etniksel ve mezhepsel grupların bu ülkeler tarafından desteklenmesi ülke güvenliğinin istikrara kavuşmasındaki en büyük engel olarak ifade edilmektedir. Bu araştırma deskriptif analitik bir yöntemle yazılmış olup teori olarak da Ortadoğu'nun rekabete ve çatışmaya dayalı bir bölge olduğunu gösteren realist yaklaşım çerçevesinde devlet içi dinamikleri ile uluslararası sistemi bir arada değerlendiren neoklasik realizm esas alınmıştır. Araştırmada varılan sonuç ise Ortadoğu'da Suudi Arabistan ile İran rekabetinin Afganistan'ın güvenliğini olumsuz etkilemekte olduğudur. Zira Afganistan'ın hem coğrafi hemde kültürel açıdan İran ve Suudi Aarabistan ile kopmaz bağlarının mevcudiyeti sebebiyle bu iki ülke kaynaklı bir değişikliğin bölgede meydana gelmesi sonucunda doğrudan etkilemektedir. ; Even though Afghanistan's geography, history, socio-cultural structure and economic situations has been the subject of various studies and scientific researches, unfortunately no study has been conducted that clearly reveals the effects of Iran and Saudi Arabia's competition in the Middle East concerning Afghanistan. Therefore the main aim of this study is to reveal the effects of competition between these two countries on the security and political aspects. After the US operation in Afghanistan in September 11, 2001, the Taliban government was removed from power, and in the country's reconstruction Saudi Arabia and Iran began to compete on the power gap as did many other countries in the region. The aim of this study is to examine the effects of Saudi Arabia and Iran's competition in the region on Afghanistan in terms of security and political aspects and to provide an important research document. Saudi Arabia-Iran's competition in the region adversely affects Afghanistan in terms of political and security. Afghanistan, which is extremely weak in economic terms is dependent on foreign countries, especially those countries(Saudi Arabia and Iran).The weakening of the Iranian economy due to the embargoes imposed by Western countries negatively affects both the Afghan workers working in Iran and the families they are obliged to support back home. Moreover, the fact that different ethnic and sectarian groups in the country are supported by these countries (Saudi Arabia and Iran) is the biggest obstacle in stabilizing the country's security. The research was written using descriptive and analytical methodology. within the framework of the realist approach explaining that the Middle East is a region based on competition and conflict. Neo-classical realism, as a theory is used as an example in this reasearch to evaluate the dynamics of the state and the international system. As a result of the study, it was concluded that Afghanistan was affected negatively from the competition of Saudi Arabia and Iran.The fact that the changes from these two countries is taking place it directly affects Afghanistan for the existence of an inseparable link with these two countries both geographically and culturally.

Doktrinde anlaşmazlık ve uyuşmazlık terimlerini genellikle birbirinin yerine kullanılmasına rağmen, bu iki terim arasında önemli bir farklılık bulunmaktadır. Anlaşmazlık, birbirine zıt veya düşmanca bir durum ya da bir mücadele veya kavga olarak tanımlanır. Bir uyuşmazlık, dava konusu olabilen meseleler şeklinde ortaya çıkan bir anlaşmazlık çeşidi olarak görülebilir. Uyuşmazlık, müzakere, arabuluculuk veya üçüncü kişinin hüküm vermesi yoluyla çözülebilecek meseleler üzerinde anlaşmazlığa düşülmesini gerektirir. Uyuşmazlık karşı tarafa açıklanan, kişiler arası bir anlaşmazlıktır. Bir anlaşmazlık, birbirine uyumayan bir durumun anlaşılması veya çatışan bir talepte bulunulması şeklinde bir kişiye beyan edilmedikçe uyuşmazlığa dönüşmeyebilir. Alternatif uyuşmazlık çözümü (ADR), mahkemeler tarafından uygulanan şeklî mücadeleci usûllerden, şeklî olmayan usûllere doğru bir yönelişi temsil eder. ADR, dünya çapındaki adalete ulaşma hareketinin çatısı altında görülebilir. ADR nin doğuşu Birleşik Devletler de 1970 e kadar uzanır. Federal bölge mahkemelerinde uygulanan ilk arabuluculuk ve tahkim programı 1970 tarihlidir. Buna ek olarak ADR de diğer bir gelişme 1988?de Birleşik Devletler Kongresinin on adet bölge mahkemesinde zorunlu tahkim programı kurması ve diğer on adet bölge mahkemesini gönüllü tahkim programı oluşturması için yetkilendirmesiyle görülmüştür. ADR nin hızlı gelişimine katkıda bulunan büyük bir etken, 1976 da Amerika Barolar Birliğince düzenlenen Adalet Yönetimindeki Kamusal Tatminsizliklerin Nedenleri Hakkında Ulusal Konferans olmuştur. Bu konferansta, uyuşmazlık çözümündeki alternatif usûllerin, özellikle arabuluculuk ve tahkimin, tıkanmış halde bulunan mah-kemeleri rahatlatacağı, uyuşmazlıkların çözüm süresini kısaltacağı ve giderlerini asgariye indireceği sonucuna varılmıştır. Arabuluculuk hizmeti sunan mahalli adalet merkezlerinin ve çok seçenekli mahkeme teşkilatı programlarının kurulması teşvik edilmiştir. Çok seçenekli mahkeme teşkilatı terimi (ya da çok seçenekli ADR), bir dizi seçimlik uyuşmazlık çözüm usûlü sunan mahkemeleri ifade eder. Bu programlar, ihtilaflı tarafları, onlar için en uygun olan uyuşmazlık çözüm yöntemine yönlendirirler. Bunlar: Kolaylaştırma, arabuluculuk veya tahkimdir. Bazı çok seçenekli mahkeme teşkilatı prog-ramları belli türdeki bütün davaları belirli bir ADR programına havale et-mekteyken, diğer bazı programlar davacılara seçimlik bir liste sunmaktadırlar. ADR, uyuşmazlık çözümü için mahkemeler vasıtasıyla yürütülen davalarda alternatif olarak işleyen, genellikle tarafsız bir üçüncü kişinin aracılığı ve yardımını içeren bir dizi usûller olarak tanımlanır. Doktrine göre ADR usûlleri aşağıdaki yararları içerebilir: 1. Mahkemelerin iş yükünü ve giderlerini azaltmak, 2. tarafların yargılama için harcadıkları giderleri ve zamanı azaltmak, 3. topluluklara veya tarafların ailelerine zarar veren uyuşmazlıkların hızlı bir şekilde çözümünü sağlamak, 4. bireylerin adalet sisteminden daha iyi bir şekilde tatmin olmasını sağlamak, 5. tarafların ihtiyaçlarına uygun olan çözümleri teşvik etmek, 6. tarafların uyuşmazlık çözüm usûllerine gönüllü olarak uymalarını sağlamak, 7. komşuluk ve topluluk değerlerini ve toplulukların ilişkilerini onarmak, 8. ihtilaflı taraflarca ulaşılabilecek usûller oluşturmak, 9. halka, uyuşmazlıkların çözümünde ihlâl ya da dava yolu yerine daha etkili olan usûlleri denemelerini öğretmek, ADR tarafların bir araya getirilmesinde pek çok farklı yöntem gerektirir; bununla birlikte temel ADR usûlleri arabuluculuk ve müzakeredir. Arabuluculuk ve uzlaştırma terimleri eş anlamlı olarak kullanılırlar. Arabuluculuk (veya uzlaştırma), tarafların bir anlaşmayı müzakere etmeleri için onlara yardım eden tarafsız bir üçüncü kişice gerçekleştirilen bağlayıcı olmayan bir müdahaledir. Üç tür arabuluculuk vardır. Bunlar geleneksel arabuluculuk, yargısal arabuluculuk ve modern arabuluculuktur. Arabulucunun yapısı ve işlevi, arabuluculuk usûlünü diğer uyuşmazlık çözüm usûllerinden ayırmaktadır. Arabulucu bir kolaylaştırıcıdır. Arabulucu, ihtilaflı konular üzerindeki kendi kararını taraflara dikte etmemelidir. Arabulucululuk esnek yapısıyla şekillenerek farklı bir usûl haline bürünür. Arabulucunun yaklaşımı doğrudan veya dolaylı ya da bunların arasında bir usûlde kendini gösterebilir. Arabuluculukta bir ya da birden fazla oturum olabilir. Arabuluculuyla caucuses adında ayrı toplantılar yapılabilir. Arabuluculuk oturumları gizlidir ve tarafların iletişimine yadım etmek amacıyla gerçekleştirilir. Arabuluculuk geliştikçe, kolaylaştırma ve değerlendirme arabuluculuğu gibi farklı arabuluculuk türleri ortaya çıkmaktadır. Mahkeme veya arabulucu tarafından hangi arabuluculuk modelinin izlendiğine bakılmaksızın, arabuluculuk usûllerinin çoğu aşağıdaki aşamaları izler: Arabuluculuk öncesi aşama, arabuluculuk aşaması ve arabuluculuk sonrası aşama. Türk hukuk sisteminde Avukatlık Kanunu, Ceza Muhakemesi Kanunu, İş Kanunu, Tüketicinin Korunması Hakkında Kanun ve Vergi Usûl Kanunu gibi kanunlarda ADR ile doğrudan ilgili düzenlemeler bulunmaktadır. Türk hukukunda, ADR ye ilişkin iki temel düzenleme mevcuttur. ADR yi destekleyen ilk yasal düzenleme Avukatlık Kanunundadır. Avukatlık Kanunu nun 35/A maddesine göre, müvekkilin talep etmesi halinde bir avukat, dava veya duruşma başlamadan önce ihtilaflı tarafları uzlaştırabilir. Kanun, tarafların uzlaştırma süreci sonunda bir anlaşmaya varmaları halinde, taraflar ve avukatların uyuşmazlığı çözen bir yazılı anlaşma yapmalarını hükme bağlamıştır. Uzlaşma tutanağı olarak adlandırılan bu anlaşma avukatlar ve müvekkillerince imzalanır. Uzlaşma tutanağı diğer mahkeme hü-kümleri gibi icra edilebilir. İkinci düzenleme, 1 Nisan 2005 te yürürlüğe giren yeni Ceza Muhake-mesi Kanunu ve Ceza Kanununda bulunmaktadır. Ceza Muhakemesi Kanununun 253. maddesi ve Ceza Kanununun 73. maddesi, savcının veya hâkimin kararına bağlı olarak, bir ceza davasında mağdur-fail uzlaştırmasına ilişkin hükümler içermektedir. Sadece takibi şikâyete bağlı suçlar uzlaştırmaya uygundur. Kanımca, ADR Türk yargı sisteminde medenî hukuk, ticaret hukuku ve ceza hukuku uyuşmazlıklarının çözümünde temel bir işleve sahip olacaktır; zira, yargılama üzerinde çalışan veya dava yolunda büyük güçlüklerle karşılan avukatlar, ADR nin, hukuk davalarının tamamına teşmil edilmesini be-lemektedirler. Hukuk Muhakemeleri Kanunu hâlen, ADR nin kullanılması için gereken yetkiyi vermemektedir. Ancak, ADR yollarının hukuk davalarının tamamında kullanılması için, Hukuk Muhakemeleri Kanunda geniş bir yetki verilmesi gereklidir. Yakın bir gelecekte, özel hukukun bütün alanlarında ADR nin daha önemli ve merkezî bir rol oynayacağı açıktır. There is an essential distinction between conflicts and disputes, though the literature often uses the two terms interchangeably. Conflict is defined as a stole of opposition or hostilities a fight or struggle. A dispute may be viewed as a class or kind of conflict which manifests itself in distinct, justiciable issues. It involves disagreement over issues capable of resolution by negotiation, mediation or third party adjudication. A dispute is an interpersonal conflict that is communicated or manifested. A conflict may not become a dispute if it is not communicated to someone in the form of a perceived incompatibility or a contested claim. Alternative dispute resolution (ADR) represents a movement, away from formal adversarial proceedings on the part of the courts, toward informal processes. ADR can be seen as lying within the framework of the world-wide access-to-justice movement. The beginning of ADR is usually traced to the 1970s in the United States. In the federal district courts, the first mediation and arbitration programs date from the 1970s. Additional expansion of ADR occurred in 1988 when the United States congress authorized ten district courts to implement mandatory arbitration programs and an additional ten to establish voluntary arbitration programs. A major impetus for ADR s rapid growth was a 1976 American Bar Association sponsored National Conference on the Causes of Popular Dissatisfaction with the Administration of Justice. The Conference concluded that alternative forms of dispute resolution, in particular mediation and arbitration, would ease congested courts, reduce settlement time, and minimize costs. The development of neighborhood justice centers (which practice mediation) and multi-door courthouse programs were encouraged. The terms of multi-door courthouse or multi-option ADR describe courts that offer an array of dispute resolution options. These programs direct disputants to the most appropriate dispute-resolving mechanism: facilitation, mediation or arbitration. Some multi-door courthouses refer all cases of certain types to particular ADR programs, while others offer litigants a menu of options. ADR is defined as a range of procedures that serve as alternatives to litigation through the courts for the resolution of disputes, generally involving the intercession and assistance of a neutral and impartial third party. Accordingly in literature the benefits provided by ADR processes may include: 1. lower court caseloads and expenses, 2. reduce the parties? expenses and time, 3. provide speedy settlement of those disputes that were disruptive of the community or the lives of the parties? families, 4. improve public satisfaction with the justice system, 5. encourage resolutions that were suited to the parties? needs, 6. increase voluntary compliance with resolutions, 7. restore the influence of neighborhood and community values and the cohesiveness of communities, 8. provide accessible forums to people with disputes, and 9. teach the public to try more effective processes than violence or litigant for settling disputes. ADR involves many different techniques of bringing parties together, however the main ADR processes are negotiation and mediation. The terms mediation and conciliation are used synonymously. Mediation (or conciliation) is the non-binding intervention by a neutral third party who helps the disputants negotiate an agreement. These are traditional mediation, judicial mediation and modern mediation. The nature and role of the mediator is what distinguishes the process of mediation from other dispute resolution processes. The mediator is a facilitator. The mediator should not impose his or her own judgment of the issues upon that of the parties. Mediation is characterized by its flexibility, taking shape in a variety of models. Mediator approach may manifest in either directive or non directive fashion, or somewhere in between. There may be only one session or several. There may or may not be separate meetings, called caucuses, with the mediator. Mediation sessions are confidential and structured to help parties communicate. As mediations develops, distinct mediation strategies such as facilitative and evaluate are emerging. Regardless of which mediation model a court or mediator follows, most mediations progress through the following stages: Pre-mediation phase, the mediation proper and post-mediation phase. There are direct interested provisions about ADR in the Turkish law system such as Code of Lawyer, Code of Criminal Procedure, Code of Labor, Code of Consumer Protection, and Code of Tax Procedure. There are two main provisions on ADR in the Turkish Law. The first statutory provision that supports ADR is in the Code of Lawyer. According to the article 35/A of the Code of Lawyer if the client claims for conciliation, an attorney may invite the opposite sides to conciliation when the case or the trial is not commenced. If the parties reach an agreement at the end of the conciliation, the statue provides that the parties and the attorneys will execute a written agreement disposing of the dispute. The agreement called conciliation minute? signed by clients and their attorneys. Conciliation minute is enforceable in the same manner as any other final judgment. The second provision is in the new Code of Criminal Procedure and in the Penal Code which came into force on June 1, 2005. Article 253 of the Code of Criminal Procedure and article 73 of the Penal Code, contain provisions about victim-offender mediation in a criminal case, depend on a decision by the prosecution or the judge. Only offenses which can be prosecuted by the public prosecutor only upon complaint of the injured party are suitable for mediation. In my view, ADR will be recognized in Turkish judicial system as having a fundamental role to play in the resolution of civil, commercial and criminal disputes. Because lawyers who work on trials or those who encounter enormous difficulties in litigation expect the ADR to be extended to all civil cases. Nowadays, the Code of Civil Procedure does not provide necessary authority to use ADR. However, a broad authority for using ADR process in all civil actions must be given in the Code of Civil Procedure. It is clear that in all fields of civil dispute resolution ADR will play a central and rather important role in the near future.