Suchergebnisse

Bombardovanje Jugoslavije 1999. godine izazvalo je kontroverzna pitanja vezana za legitimnost, opravdanje svrhe, efikasnost i uticaj na zdravlje građana Srbije. Upečatljiv nedostatak jasnog i nedvosmislenog zajedničkog naučnog stava o uticaju i štetnosti upotrebe oružja sa osiromašenim uranijumom (DU - depleted uranium), kao i nedostatak jasnog političkog i pravnog stava međunarodnih i nacionalnih institucija, decenijama su podsticale javno mnjenje, povećavajući dvosmislenosti u rešavanju ovog izuzetno važnog pitanja. Očigledno je da će, bez dovoljnog i pouzdanog istraživanja o dugoročnom uticaju bombardovanja sa ovim oružjem, biti veoma teško oblikovati utemeljenu i verodostojnu međunarodnu politiku u vezi sa upotrebom oružja sa osiromašenim uranijumom. Štaviše, to će izazvati konflikte i povećati "javnu maglu" u kojoj neće biti moguće predstaviti objektivni obim štete i neće biti moguće dokazati ili odbaciti ako se oružje sa osiromašenim uranijumom zabrani. U slučaju Savezne Republike Jugoslavije, skoro 20 godina nakon bombardovanja, srpska vlada je uspostavila Komisiju sa ciljem procene ukupnog uticaja bombardovanja Srbije sa DU. Tokom ove dve decenije, izgubljene su šanse da se građani i područja koja su bila izložena DU temeljno i kontinuirano prate, uprkos činjenici da je bombardovanje SRJ bilo prvi slučaj u kome je NATO bio prinuđen da javno potvrdi upotrebu municije sa DU. Rad se bavi pitanjem: Kako je izgrađeno javno mnjenje u odsustvu pouzdanih podataka? Teorijska pozadina u ovom pristupu zasniva se na teorijama javnog mnjenja koje pretpostavljaju da se "pojedinci ne okreću medijima primarno zbog istine ili informacija, oni se okreću medijima kako bi sami sebi definisali društvenu stvarnost" (Moy & Bosch, 2013). To znači da je javno mnjenje, a posebno javno mišljenje o kontroverznim pitanjima koja nisu predstavljena na transparentan i objektivan način, izgrađena na stereotipima uokvirenim političkim pretpostavkama i afinitetima, bez jasne razlike između činjenica i preferencija. U radu je prikazan rezultat onlajn ankete sprovedene na uzorku od 534 građana Srbije, u kojoj smo pokušali da koristimo gore pomenuti pristup kao hipotezu i da je operacionalizujemo i dokažemo. Rezultati pokazuju da stav o štetnom uticaju oružja DU u velikoj meri zavisi od političke sklonosti ispitanika prema Istoku ili Zapadu i njihovih pogleda na to kako bi trebalo rešiti krizu na Kosovu. Takođe je snažno povezana sa njihovom pozitivnom / negativnom identifikacijom sa srpskim nacionalnim identitetom. ; The bombing of Yugoslavia in 1999 has raised controversial questions concerning its legitimacy, justification, efficacy, and its impact on the health of Serbia's citizens. A striking lack of a clear and unambiguous common scientific attitude concerning the impact and harm of employing DU weapons, together with the absence of a clear political and legal attitude of international and national institutions, have been stirring up public opinion for decades, magnifying the ambiguity in dealing with this extremely important issue. It is obvious that, without sufficient and reliable research into the long-term impact of bombing with DU munitions, it will be very difficult to shape a grounded and plausible international policy concerning the usage of depleted uranium weapons. Moreover, it will provoke conflicts and increase 'the public fog' making it impossible to present an objective scope of damage and prove or refute the argument that DU weapons should be banned. In the case of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, almost 20 years after the bombing, the Serbian government established a Commission aimed at estimating the overall impact of DU 'bombing' of Serbia. During these two decades, the chances of a thorough and continual monitoring of the citizens and areas which had been exposed to DU were missed, in spite of the fact that the bombing of the FRY was the first case in which NATO had been forced to publicly confirm their usage of DU munitions. The paper addresses the following question: How is public opinion built in the absence of reliable data? The theoretical background in this approach is based on the theories of public opinion which assume that "individuals turned to the media to help themselves define social reality." (Moy & Bosch, 2013). This means that public opinion, particularly public opinion on controversial issues which are not presented in a transparent and objective way, is built on stereotypes framed by political assumptions and affinities, without making a clear distinction between facts and preferences. The paper presents the results of an online survey conducted on the sample of 534 Serbian citizens, in which we tried to use the above-mentioned approach as a hypothesis and to operationalize and prove it. The results show that attitudes toward the harmful effects of DU munitions depend greatly on the respondents' political affinities for the East or the West and their views on how the Kosovo crisis should be resolved. It also correlates significantly to their positive/negative identification with the Serbian national identity.

Altres ajuts: This work was funded by grants from the National Institutes of Health (RO1AI46995 to P.G.) and the Wellcome Trust (WT104748MA to P.G.). This project has been funded in whole or in part with federal funds from the Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research under contract no. HHSN261200800001E (to M.C.). The content of this publication does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the Department of Health and Human Services, nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the U.S. Government. This research was supported in part by the Intramural Research Program of the NIH, Frederick National Lab, Center for Cancer Research. The MACS is funded primarily by the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), U01-AI35042 (Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health; Joseph Margolick, rincipal investigator [PI]), U01-AI35039 (Northwestern University; Steven Wolinsky, PI), U01-AI35040 (University of California, Los Angeles; Roger Detels and Oto Martinez, multiple principal investigators [MPI]), U01-AI35041 (University of Pittsburgh; Charles Rinaldo, PI), and UM1-AI35043 (Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health; Lisa Jacobson, PI). The SCOPE cohort was supported by the UCSF/Gladstone Institute of Virology and Immunology CFAR (P30 AI027763) and the CFAR Network of Integrated Systems (R24 AI067039). Additional support was provided by the Delaney AIDS Research Enterprise (DARE; AI096109 and A127966) and the amfAR Institute for HIV Cure Research (amfAR 109301). P.B. is a Jenner Investigator. I.W. and P.P. are funded by MRC Programme grant MR/K012037. ; The well-characterized association between HLA-B*27:05 and protection against HIV disease progression has been linked to immunodominant HLA-B*27:05-restricted CD8 + T-cell responses toward the conserved Gag KK10 (residues 263 to 272) and polymerase (Pol) KY9 (residues 901 to 909) epitopes. We studied the impact of the 3 amino acid differences between HLA-B*27:05 and the closely related HLA-B*27:02 on the HIV-specific CD8 + T-cell response hierarchy and on immune control of HIV. Genetic epidemiological data indicate that both HLA-B*27:02 and HLA-B*27:05 are associated with slower disease progression and lower viral loads. The effect of HLA-B*27:02 appeared to be consistently stronger than that of HLA-B*27:05. In contrast to HLA-B*27:05, the immunodominant HIV-specific HLA-B*27:02-restricted CD8 + T-cell response is to a Nef epitope (residues 142 to 150 [VW9]), with Pol KY9 subdominant and Gag KK10 further subdominant. This selection was driven by structural differences in the F pocket, mediated by a polymorphism between these two HLA alleles at position 81. Analysis of autologous virus sequences showed that in HLA-B*27:02-positive subjects, all three of these CD8 + T-cell responses impose selection pressure on the virus, whereas in HLA-B*27:05-positive subjects, there is no Nef VW9-mediated selection pressure. These studies demonstrate that HLA-B*27:02 mediates protection against HIV disease progression that is at least as strong as or stronger than that mediated by HLA-B*27:05. In combination with the protective Gag KK10 and Pol KY9 CD8 + T-cell responses that dominate HIV-specific CD8 + T-cell activity in HLA-B*27:05-positive subjects, a Nef VW9-specific response is additionally present and immunodominant in HLA-B*27:02-positive subjects, mediated through a polymorphism at residue 81 in the F pocket, that contributes to selection pressure against HIV. IMPORTANCE CD8 + T cells play a central role in successful control of HIV infection and have the potential also to mediate the eradication of viral reservoirs of infection. The principal means by which protective HLA class I molecules, such as HLA-B*27:05 and HLA-B*57:01, slow HIV disease progression is believed to be via the particular HIV-specific CD8 + T cell responses restricted by those alleles. We focus here on HLA-B*27:05, one of the best-characterized protective HLA molecules, and the closely related HLA-B*27:02, which differs by only 3 amino acids and which has not been well studied in relation to control of HIV infection. We show that HLA-B*27:02 is also protective against HIV disease progression, but the CD8 + T-cell immunodominance hierarchy of HLA-B*27:02 differs strikingly from that of HLA-B*27:05. These findings indicate that the immunodominant HLA-B*27:02-restricted Nef response adds to protection mediated by the Gag and Pol specificities that dominate anti-HIV CD8 + T-cell activity in HLA-B*27:05-positive subjects.

Given the current state of the EU, it can be concluded that the EU Member States are not yet prepared to move beyond their national interests, and invest their energies in the interest of the EU. So, the need for applying a new integration concept is more than necessary. Because, is more than obvious, that the modern reasoning of the EU Member States gradually destroys the great idea of European unification. One of the most popular approaches towards the "revolutionizing" of the EU is the concept of avant-garde Europe, predominantly promoted by Joschka Fischer, Hans-Dietrich Genscher, Jacques Delors, etc. This approach directly derives from the Kerneuropa concept (Core Europe), meaning that the future of the EU should be established on the scheme of core (avant-garde) and orbit. The core would need to be founded by those EU Member States who are most prepared and interested in European integration, and the orbit would be constituted only by those EU Member States, who are not prepared, or do not want to involve themselves in a deeper European integration. The core Member States would develop single and coherent foreign policy, and thus, playing the role of an avant-garde of the European integration. The others would join them when willing or able to do so. The core will create a federation, and the orbit, an association. But they will continue to communicate and co-operate between each other, on certain issues. This concept has many terms and labels, or as authors, Funda Tekin and Prof. Dr Wolfgang Wesseles emphasized: the best-known terms have been 'Core Europe', 'avant-garde, 'centre of gravity', and 'directoire', but these represent only an excerpt from a broad catalogue of such concepts" (Tekin and Wessels 2008, 1). Although "often used synonymously, these terms imply different forms of integration, with politically very different consequences for the EU and its Member States" (Ondarza 2013, 7). As is stated by Joschka Fischer, the "only possibility is a European avant-garde, a group of EU countries willing and able to advance. The willing and able participate, but the others shall not block progress anymore" (Fischer 2008). The avant-garde will be "decisive factor in driving forward the integration process, which will finally culminate in a European federation" (A Core, Avant-garde or Centre of Gravity). The former President of the European Commission, Jacques Delors, goes more ahead with his thinking about avant-garde Europe, urging for establishment of a "Great Europe". The "Great Europe", according to Delors would need to: "provide its members with an area of active peace, a framework of sustainable development and, lastly, an area of shared values lived out in the diversity of our cultures and our traditions" (Pusca 2004, 131). In an institutional sense avant-garde Europe: "would take the form of a federation of nation-states with its two dimensions: federal, for clarifying powers and responsibilities; national, for ensuring the durability and cohesion of our societies and our nations. This would of course be an application of the healthy principle of subsidiarity. The link with the Great Union would be ensured with the existence of a joint Commission, responsible for coherence between the two entities and for compliance with EU regulations and acquis communautaire [and acquis politique]. The avant-garde, however, would have its own Council of Ministers and its own Parliament" (Pusca 2004). Namely, the "center" (or the "core") Member States "would conclude a new European framework treaty, the nucleus of a constitution of the Federation (…) The Federation would develop its own institutions, establish a government which within the EU should speak with one voice on behalf of the members of the group on as many issues as possible, a strong parliament and a directly elected president" (Pusca 2004, 132). The avant-garde group of Member States is "'not élitist' but rather stands for and allows 'reinforced co-operation'." (Delors 2001, 3). The main idea is that the members of a smaller group would be both able and willing to go ahead immediately, while this would not be possible for all. Or as the former German Foreign Minister Hans-Dietrich Genscher emphasized: "no Member State can be forced to go further than it is able or willing to go, but that those who do not want to go any further shall not prevent others from doing so" (Fischer 2000, 9). Considering the current state of the EU, it can be stressed that the future upgrades of the EU should be directed towards the creation of avant-garde Europe, as most possible and logical direction, taking into account the current (internal or external) differences between the EU Member States, and their attitude towards the EU future.

This is the final version of the article. Available from the publisher via the DOI in this record. ; The Surface Ocean CO2 Atlas (SOCAT) is a synthesis of quality-controlled fCO2 (fugacity of carbon dioxide) values for the global surface oceans and coastal seas with regular updates. Version 3 of SOCAT has 14.7 million fCO2 values from 3646 data sets covering the years 1957 to 2014. This latest version has an additional 4.6 million fCO2 values relative to version 2 and extends the record from 2011 to 2014. Version 3 also significantly increases the data availability for 2005 to 2013. SOCAT has an average of approximately 1.2 million surface water fCO2 values per year for the years 2006 to 2012. Quality and documentation of the data has improved. A new feature is the data set quality control (QC) flag of E for data from alternative sensors and platforms. The accuracy of surface water fCO2 has been defined for all data set QC flags. Automated range checking has been carried out for all data sets during their upload into SOCAT. The upgrade of the interactive Data Set Viewer (previously known as the Cruise Data Viewer) allows better interrogation of the SOCAT data collection and rapid creation of high-quality figures for scientific presentations. Automated data upload has been launched for version 4 and will enable more frequent SOCAT releases in the future. Highprofile scientific applications of SOCAT include quantification of the ocean sink for atmospheric carbon dioxide and its long-term variation, detection of ocean acidification, as well as evaluation of coupled-climate and ocean-only biogeochemical models. Users of SOCAT data products are urged to acknowledge the contribution of data providers, as stated in the SOCAT Fair Data Use Statement. This ESSD (Earth System Science Data) "living data" publication documents the methods and data sets used for the assembly of this new version of the SOCAT data collection and compares these with those used for earlier versions of the data collection (Pfeil et al., 2013; Sabine et al., 2013; Bakker et al., 2014). Individual data set files, included in the synthesis product, can be downloaded here: doi:10.1594/PANGAEA.849770. The gridded products are available here: doi:10.3334/CDIAC/OTG.SOCAT-V3-GRID. ; Research vessel Tiglax in Columbia Bay, Alaska, is shown on the website for SOCAT version 3. The Columbia Glacier can be seen at the head of the bay, as well as calved ice from the glacier. The photo was taken by Wiley Evans. Pete Brown (National Oceanography Centre Southampton, UK) designed the SOCAT logo. IOCCP (via a US National Science Foundation grant (OCE-124 3377) to the Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research), IOC-UNESCO (International Oceanographic Commission of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization), SOLAS and IMBER provided travel and meeting support. Funding was received from the University of East Anglia (UK), the Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research (Norway), the Geophysical Institute at the University of Bergen (Norway) and the University of Washington (US). The US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) made important financial contributions via the Climate Observation Division of the Climate Program Office, the NOAA Ocean Acidification Program, the NOAA Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory (PMEL), the NOAA Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory (AOML) and the NOAA Earth System Research Laboratory. Funding was also received from Oak Ridge National Laboratory (US), PANGAEA® Data Publisher for Earth and Environmental Science (Germany), the Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research (Germany), the Antarctic Climate and Ecosystems Cooperative Research Centre (Australia), the National Institute for Environmental Studies (Japan) and Uni Research (Norway). Research projects making SOCAT possible included the European Union projects CarboChange (FP7 264879), GEOCARBON (FP7 283080) and AtlantOS (633211), the UK Ocean Acidification Research Programme (NE/H017046/1; funded by the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC) and the Departments for Energy and Climate Change and for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra)) and the UK Shelf Sea Biogeochemistry Blue Carbon project (NE/K00168X/1; funded by NERC and Defra). Numerous government and funding agencies financially supported SOCAT, notably the Australian International Marine Observing System, the U.S. Geological Survey, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) (US), the European Space Agency, the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF projects 01LK1224J, 01LK1101C, 01LK1101E, ICOS-D), the Japanese Ministry of the Environment, the Royal Society of New Zealand via the New Zealand–Germany Science and Technology Programme, the Norwegian Research Council (SNACS, 229752), the Swedish Research Council (project 2004-4034) and the Swedish Research Council for Environment, Agricultural Sciences and Spatial Planning (Formas, project 2004- 797). This is PMEL contribution number 4441. Finally, we thank the two anonymous reviewers for their thoughtful, constructive and insightful reviews

У статті аналізується участь Німеччини у вирішенні проблеми української кризи 2013-2015 рр. та представлені деякі підходи до визначення самого поняття «українська криза». Розкрито причини, які спонукають Німеччину займати активну позицію у вирішенні українського питання. Характеризується еволюція німецько-російських відносин від 90-х рр. до 2014 рр., в рамках якої розглянуто «Петербурзький діалог», «Пакт Путіна-Шрьодера», «Веймарський трикутник», «Партнерство для модернізації», російсько-грузинський конфлікт 2008 р. Надається аналіз нової стратегії зовнішньої політики Німеччини 2012 р. «Сприяти глобалізації – розвивати партнерство – розділяти відповідальність» та нової парадигми зовнішньої політики ФРН представленої в 2014 р.у рамках Мюнхенської конференції з питань політики безпеки. Розглядається роль ФРН у процесі євроінтеграції України протягом подій Євромайдану, підписання Угоди про асоціацію України з ЄС, її ратифікації та подальших перспектив розширення Європейського Союзу за рахунок країн Східного партнерства. Представлені результати суспільної думки населення Німеччини з цього питання. Аналізується позиція уряду Німеччини щодо анексії Криму, незаконних референдумів у Донецькій та Луганській областях та військової агресії Російської Федерації проти України. Надано характеристику ролі ФРН у процесі дипломатичного врегулювання військового конфлікту на Сході України в рамках Нормандської четвірки. На прикладі соцопитувань розглянута громадська думка населення Німеччини щодо можливих способів врегулювання української кризи. Представлена офіційна позиція президента ФРН Й. Гаука, канцлера А. Меркель, голови МЗС Ф.-В. Штайнмайєра та міністра фінансів В. Шойбле щодо окремих питань української кризи та продовження санкцій проти Російської Федерації як один зі шляхів її подолання. ; У статті аналізується участь Німеччини у вирішенні проблеми української кризи 2013-2015 рр. та представлені деякі підходи до визначення самого поняття «українська криза». Розкрито причини, які спонукають Німеччину займати активну позицію у вирішенні українського питання. Характеризується еволюція німецько-російських відносин від 90-х рр. до 2014 рр., в рамках якої розглянуто «Петербурзький діалог», «Пакт Путіна-Шрьодера», «Веймарський трикутник», «Партнерство для модернізації», російсько-грузинський конфлікт 2008 р. Надається аналіз нової стратегії зовнішньої політики Німеччини 2012 р. «Сприяти глобалізації – розвивати партнерство – розділяти відповідальність» та нової парадигми зовнішньої політики ФРН представленої в 2014 р.у рамках Мюнхенської конференції з питань політики безпеки. Розглядається роль ФРН у процесі євроінтеграції України протягом подій Євромайдану, підписання Угоди про асоціацію України з ЄС, її ратифікації та подальших перспектив розширення Європейського Союзу за рахунок країн Східного партнерства. Представлені результати суспільної думки населення Німеччини з цього питання. Аналізується позиція уряду Німеччини щодо анексії Криму, незаконних референдумів у Донецькій та Луганській областях та військової агресії Російської Федерації проти України. Надано характеристику ролі ФРН у процесі дипломатичного врегулювання військового конфлікту на Сході України в рамках Нормандської четвірки. На прикладі соцопитувань розглянута громадська думка населення Німеччини щодо можливих способів врегулювання української кризи. Представлена офіційна позиція президента ФРН Й. Гаука, канцлера А. Меркель, голови МЗС Ф.-В. Штайнмайєра та міністра фінансів В. Шойбле щодо окремих питань української кризи та продовження санкцій проти Російської Федерації як один зі шляхів її подолання. ; The article analyzes the participation of Germany in the matter of the Ukrainian crisis 2013-2015 and presents some approaches to the definition of the term «Ukrainian crisis». Reveals the reasons that lead Germany to take an active position in solving the Ukrainian question. Characterized the evolution of German-Russian relations from 90s to 2014, within which examined the St. Petersburg dialogue, «Pact of Putin-Schroeder», «Weimar triangle», «Partnership for modernization», Russian-Georgian conflict 2008. Available analysis of the new strategy of German foreign policy in 2012 «to support globalization – develop partnerships to share responsibility» and a new paradigm of German foreign policy presented in 2014 in the framework of the Munich conference on security policy. Examines the role of Germany in the European integration process of Ukraine during the Euromaidan events, the signing of the Association Agreement of Ukraine with the EU, ratification and future prospects of the enlargement of the European Union through the Eastern partnership countries. Presents the results of the public opinion of the population of Germany on this issue. Analyzes the position of the Germany government regarding the annexation of Crimea, the illegal referendum in Donetsk and Lugansk regions and the military aggression of Russian Federation against Ukraine. Presents description of the Germany role in the process of the diplomatic settlement of the military conflict in the East Ukraine in the framework of Norman four. On the example of polls are considered the public opinion of the population of Germany concerning possible ways of settlement the Ukrainian crisis. Presents the official position of the President of the Federal Republic of Germany. J. Gauck, Chancellor Merkel, Foreign Minister Frank-V. Steinmeier and Minister of Finance Schaeuble on certain issues of the Ukrainian crisis and the prolongations of sanctions against the Russian Federation as one of the ways to overcome it.

Предмет/тема.В статье проводится анализ замедления роста в промышленном секторе экономики России. По предварительным данным Росстата, величина ВВП России в 2014 г. составила 70,975 трлн руб. Рост экономики составил 0,6% по сравнению с аналогичным периодом 2013 г. в размере 1,3%. Несколько оживила внутренний спрос и стабилизировала ситуацию в бюджетной сфере девальвация рубля. Однако оборотной стороной такого процесса является ускорение темпа инфляции и еще большая концентрация ресурсов в топливно-энергетическом секторе. Методология. В работе с помощью эконометрических методов проанализированы различные аспекты деятельности предприятий основных секторов экономики и их финансовое состояние. Результаты. Действующие государственные программы по поддержке отдельных отраслей экономики функционируют не в полной мере. Существенным недостатком является разработка и ведение их в автономном режиме, без учета суммарного запроса на финансовые, материально-технические, кадровые и иные ограниченные ресурсы. Неопределенность экономической обстановки, способствующая снижению деловой активности, приводит к уменьшению прибыли. Не способствует росту инвестиций и отток капитала, при этом вывоз капитала в 2014 г. осуществлен в основном внебанковским сектором, что свидетельствует о нежелании предпринимателей вкладывать средства в развитие производства. Следовательно, это означает уменьшение капитальных вложений за счет собственных средств предприятий. Выводы/значимость. Проведенные исследования позволяют заключить, что с большой долей вероятности инвестиционные проблемы затронут автомобильную промышленность, машиностроение, серьезнейшие проблемы появятся в строительной отрасли и во всех производствах, связанных со строительством производстве всех стройматериалов, сталелитейной промышленности и производстве отделочных материалов. В рамках формирования современной национальной кредитно-финансовой системы необходимо следовать основным целям модернизации, развития российской экономики и замещения внешних кредитов. В этой связи предложен комплекс мер, направленный в среднесрочной перспективе на расширение денежно-кредитной системы, включая механизм формирования специальных институтов инвестиционного развития. Опираясь на зарубежный опыт стимулирования экономической активности субъектов малого и среднего бизнеса, необходимо расширить способы применения ускоренной амортизации основных средств, а также освободить от налогообложения полученный доход для предприятий, экспортирующих не менее 50% товаров, изготовленных с использованием российской интеллектуальной собственности (на период возврата инвестиций) или при условии выпуска импортозамещающей продукции и реализации ее внутри Российской Федерации. ; Importance The article presents the analysis of growth slowdown in the industrial sector of the Russian economy. According to the preliminary data of the Federal Service of State Statistics, the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in Russia amounted to 70.975 trillion rubles, i.e. the economy expanded by 0.6%. Compared with the same period in 2013, the economy grew by 1.3%. The devaluation of the Russian ruble slightly revived the domestic demand and stabilized the situation in the public sector. However, the downside of this process is accelerated pace of inflation and greater concentration of resources in the Russian fuel and energy sector. Objectives The objective of the work is to analyze the growth slowdown in the industrial sector of the Russian economy and its implications. Methods In the paper, using econometric methods, we analyzed various aspects of performance and financial status of enterprise operating in the major sectors of the economy. Results We highlighted that the government programs for promoting certain sectors of economy are not fully operational. The development and implementation of the programs independently, without taking into account the total demand for financial, material, technical, human and other limited resources, is a material weakness. Uncertainty of economic environment causing the general stagnation of business leads to profit shrinkage. The capital outflow does not promote investment growth either. At the same time, export of capital in 2014 was largely from the non-banking sector. This testifies to the reluctance of entrepreneurs to invest capital in production development. Therefore, this implies reducing capital investment at the expense of equity capital of enterprises. Conclusions and Relevance Using the findings, we conclude that investment problems will very likely affect the automobile industry, mechanical engineering, and construction industry. In addition, all industries involved in construction will definitely face serious problems, i.e. production of all sorts of construction materials, steel industry and production of finishing material. Within the framework of modern national credit and financial system, it is necessary to follow the basic goals of modernization, Russian economy development and substitution of external loans. We proposed a set of measures aimed at expanding the monetary and credit system over the medium term, including a mechanism for establishing special institutions for investment development. Relying on foreign experience in stimulating economic activity of small and medium-sized businesses, it is necessary to extend the application of accelerated depreciation of fixed assets, as well as to exempt from taxation the income of enterprises exporting at least 50% of products they manufacture using Russian intellectual property (for the investment's payback period) or, the enterprises manufacturing import-substituting products and selling them in the Russian Federation.

Предметом настоящей статьи является анализ норм федерального и регионального законодательства по вопросам закрепления ответственности высших должностных лиц исполнительных органов государственной власти субъектов РФ, а также складывающихся в результате этого правового регулирования отношения конституционно-правового характера. Цель: провести сравнительно-правовой анализ научных теорий и взглядов в совокупности с практикой правового регулирования вопросов ответственности руководителей органов исполнительной власти субъектов РФ, с целью дальнейших разработок наиболее приемлемых моделей организации государственного управления на региональном уровне. Методы исследования: В основе статьи положены основные методы познания правовых явлений, относящиеся к общенаучным методам. В ходе исследования также применялись такие группы методов как: общелогические, частнонаучные, частноправовые. Автор использовал системный метод, который способствовал выявлению взаимосвязей между различными правовыми элементами, входящими в структуру данной ответственности, при этом использован институциональный подхода к анализу ответственности органов исполнительной власти в субъектах РФ. Результаты исследования: на основе анализа нормативно-правовых актов, регламентирующих правоотношения между главой исполнительной власти в регионах его взаимодействия с законодательными (представительными) органами власти регионов и в целом с Президентом РФ, выявлены противоречия и пробелы в правовом регулировании государственного управления на региональном уровне, что явилось основанием для выработки конкретных авторских предложений по изменению российского законодательства, позволяющих повысить эффективность государственного управления, вопросов квалификации управленческих кадров, правоприменительной практики в данной области. Научная новизна: заключается в том, что обращено пристальное внимание на анализ и выявление пробелов в правовом регулировании ответственность руководителей органов исполнительной власти на региональном уровне. Выделены особенности взаимоотношений между органами законодательной и исполнительной властью в регионах. Практическая значимость: предложения, содержащиеся в статье, могут быть применены в сфере государственного управления в том числе и в субъектах РФ, а также для подготовки профильных законопроектов, их экспертизы и иной законопроектной деятельности. Выводы: во-первых, необходимо на уровне всех субъектов РФ принять специальные законы четкой детализацией применения института ответственности органов исполнительной власти (правительств, администраций) и привлечении к ответственности должностных лиц, осуществляющих управленческую деятельность. Во-вторых, следует разрешить вопросы персонифицированной ответственности должностных лиц отвечающих за ту или иную сферу жизни в регионе, а не всего исполнительного органа этого региона. В-третьих, исключение ситуаций через четко прописанные в законодательстве деликты за которые можно понести ответственность должностному лицу. ; The subject of this article is analysis of norms of the federal and regional legislation on assignment of responsibility of the high ranking officials of the executive bodies of state power of territorial entities of the Russian Federation, as well as emerging of the constitutional-legal relations as a result of this legal regulation. Purpose: to conduct a comparative-legal analysis of scientific theories and opinions in conjunction with practice of legal regulation of issues of responsibility of the heads of executive bodies of territorial entities of the Russian Federation with the aim to further develop the most appropriate models of public administration at regional level. Research methods: The basic methods of knowing legal phenomena, related to the general scientific methods constitute the framework of the article. Such groups of methods as: general-logical, specific-scientific, specific-legal were also used in the research. The author employed systematic approach, which helped to identify the relationship between various legal elements included in the structure of this responsibility, at the same time institutional approach was used to analyze the responsibility of the executive bodies in the territorial entities of the RF. Results of the research: based on the analysis of legal acts regulating legal relationships between the head of the executive power in the regions of its interaction with the legislative (representative) authorities of regions and with the President of the Russian Federation on the whole, contradictions and gaps in the legal regulation of public administration at the regional level were revealed, which was the basis for the development of the author's specific proposals to change the the Russian legislation allowing to improve the efficiency of public administration, issues of management qualification and law enforcement in this field. Scientific novelty: is in the fact that special attention is drawn to the analysis and identification of gaps in the legal regulation of the responsibility of the heads of executive bodies at regional level. Specific features of the relationship between the legislative and executive power in the regions are identified. Practical significance: the proposals given in the article can be applied in the field of public administration, including the territorial entities of the Russian Federation, and also for drafting relevant laws, their expert assessment and other legislative activities. Conclusions: first, at the level of all territorial entities of the Russian Federation it is necessary to pass special laws through clear specification of the application of the institution of executive bodies' (governments, administrations) responsibility and bringing the official executives in charge of administrative activity to responsibility. Second, the issues should be resolved of personalized responsibility of officials for this or that sphere of life in the region and not the whole executive body of the region. Third, to exclude situations through clearly defined in the law torts for which an official can be held liable.

the article presents the results of cost calculation on the drug supply of the patients with orphan diseases, included in the list of orphan diseases (24 diseases) by the RF Government Regulation of April 26, 2012 № 403. Calculation was performed based on the data of registered patients with orphan diseases (OD) in 83 territorial entities of the Russian Federation in 2013 and based on the average-weighted costs of their drug therapy. Data on registered patients with OD was obtained because of the official request of the Expert Board on Healthcare of the Council of the Federation Committee on Social Policy that was sent to healthcare regulatory bodies of the 83 territorial entities of the Russian Federation. Average-weighted cost calculation of drug treatment (or of specialized nutrition care) of the patients with OD was carried out in accordance with medical care standards and expert assessment. As part of the analysis of the standards the search for pathogenic therapy medications was carried out, in the absence of which – there was a search for supportive care medications that critically affect survivability of the patients with OD. According to the selected list of drugs, information about duration, frequency of prescription, average daily and course dose, was analyzed. In the absence of medical care standards, and in order to verify some questions concerning drug therapy of patients with OD consultations with experts were held. Because of conducted calculation, total average-weighted costs of pharmacotherapy for 24 orphan diseases were 15.73 bln rubles per year (6.36 bln rubles for children and 9.37 bln rubles for adults) for 11 173 registered patients that by 3.3 exceeds current amount of finance. Pathogenetic pharmacotherapy of Mucopolysaccharidoses type VI and II proved to be the most expensive treatment per one patient per year: average-weighted costs per one child with Mucopolysaccharidoses type VI amounted to 40.90 mln rubles, per one adult – to 71.50 mln rubles; for Mucopolysaccharidoses type II costs were 29.60 and 51.83 mln rubles respectively. In order to increase effectiveness of the system of drug supply of the patients with OD and to optimize state expenses for this group of patients it is necessary to approve the entire range of financially balanced and science based medical care standards, to define the legal status of orphan drugs and to carry out state regulation of prices, to ensure increase of regional funding supported by involvement of federal budget funds, to define the list of orphan drugs, to implement state regulation measures to create incentives for pharmaceutical companies to reduce prices for orphan drugs. ; в статье представлены результаты расчета необходимых финансовых затрат на лекарственное обеспечение больных с редкими заболеваниями, включенными в перечень редких заболеваний (24 заболевания) Постановлением Правительства РФ от 26 апреля 2012 г. № 403. Расчет проводился на основании данных о количестве зарегистрированных пациентов с редкими заболеваниями (РЗ) в 83 субъектах РФ в 2013 г. и средневзвешенных затратах на их лекарственную терапию. Данные о количестве зарегистрированных больных с РЗ были получены в результате официального запроса Экспертного совета по здравоохранению комитета Совета Федерации по социальной политике, направленного в органы управления здравоохранением 83 субъектов РФ. Расчет средневзвешенных затрат на лекарственную терапию (или специализированные продукты лечебного питания) больных с РЗ проводился на основании стандартов медицинской помощи и экспертных оценок. В рамках анализа стандартов осуществлялся поиск препаратов патогенетической терапии, а при их отсутствии – препаратов симптоматической терапии больных с РЗ, критически влияющих на их выживаемость. По выбранному перечню препаратов анализировались данные о сроках, частотах их назначения, средних суточных и средних курсовых дозах. При отсутствии стандартов медицинской помощи, а также для уточнения вопросов лекарственной терапии пациентов с РЗ проводились консультации с экспертами. В результате проведенных расчетов общие средневзвешенные затраты на фармакотерапию 24 редких заболеваний составили 15,73 млрд руб. в год (6,36 млрд руб. на детей и 9,37 млрд руб. на взрослых) на 11 173 зарегистрированных больных, что в 3,3 раза превышает текущие объемы финансирования. Наиболее дорогостоящей в расчете на одного больного в год оказалась патогенетическая фармакотерапия мукополисахаридоза VI и II типов: средневзвешенные затраты на одного ребенка с мукополисахаридозом VI типа составили 40,90 млн руб., на одного взрослого – 71,50 млн руб.; мукополисахаридозом II типа – 29,60 млн руб. и 51,83 млн руб. соответственно. Для повышения эффективности работы системы лекарственного обеспечения больных с РЗ и оптимизации государственных расходов на эту группу пациентов необходимо: утвердить полный набор финансово сбалансированных и научно обоснованных стандартов медицинской помощи, законодательно определить статус орфанных препаратов и осуществлять государственное регулирование цен, обеспечить увеличение регионального финансирования с привлечением средств федерального бюджета, утвердить перечень орфанных препаратов, выработать механизмы государственного стимулирования фармацевтических компаний снижать цены на орфанные препараты.

C 15 июля 2013 года Правительством Российской Федерации утверждена Федеральная целевая программа «Устойчивое развитие сельских территорий на 2014-2017 годы и на период до 2020 года». Основными целями программы являются улучшение жилищных условий граждан, проживающих в сельской местности, в том числе молодых семей и молодых специалистов; комплексное обустройство населенных пунктов, расположенных в сельской местности, объектами социальной и инженерной инфраструктуры. В связи с этим начались поиски новых технологий, позволяющие за короткий срок качественно и по доступной цене возвести здания и сооружения. Главной целью данной работы являлась разработка технологий для возведения зданий и сооружений на основе последних достижений науки и техники для предприятий агропромышленного комплекса. Одним из таких технологий является разработанная сотрудниками кафедры строительного производства и материаловедения новая технология «Деметр» (деревометалл). Технология «Деметра» имеет патентную защиту, и соединение элементов каркаса защищено петентами №58567 от 13.06.2006, №65526 от 14.03.207, № 78500 от 05.07.2008, №85922 от 14.04.2009. Технология «Деметр» представляет каркас, выполненный из деревянных элементов, которые армированы металлом. Все элементы каркаса стойки и балки унифицированы, что значительно снижает стоимость их изготовления. Способы соединения элементов каркаса защищены патентами. Предлагаемая технология позволяет использовать отходы деревообрабатывающей промышленности и древесину лиственных пород, которая сейчас почти не используется, в качестве несущих элементов каркаса. Сердечник внутри деревянных балок и стоек выполнен из профилированных оцинкованных листов. Элементы каркаса могут крепиться как на болтах, так и на врубках, что значительно снижает трудоемкость монтажа. При изготовлении конструкций этой технологии используется профилированный лист (сердечник конструкции) и снаружи дерево лиственной породы или отходов хвойной древесины. Ее можно освоить в любом хозяйстве края, которое имеет обученное звено 5-6 человек монтажников. Вес одного элемента не превышает 200 кг, на двух панелевозах можно поставить комплект дома площадью 100 м 2. Также значительно снижаются нагрузки на фундамент, и в 6-8 раз снижаются транспортные расходы. Благодаря новой технологии быстровозводимые здания можно изготавливать по доступной цене не выше 13 тысяч рублей 1 м 2. Проведенные испытания показали достаточную несущую способность элементов каркаса. Утепление стен предусмотрено жесткой минеральной плитой толщиной 250-300 мм, это позволяет снизить затраты на отопление здания. Срок службы каркасных зданий при нормальной эксплуатации 50 лет. Гарантия производителя 5 лет. ; Since July 15, 2013, the Government of the Russian Federation approved the federal target program "Sustainable development of rural territories in the 2014-2017 period and for the period up to the year 2020". The main goals of the programme are to improve the living conditions of citizens living in rural areas, including young families and young professionals; integrated construction of settlements located in the countryside, the objects of social and engineering infrastructure. This began the search for new technologies, allowing for a short period of time and at an affordable price to erect buildings and facilities. The main purpose of this work was the development of technology for the construction of buildings and structures on the basis of the latest scientific and technological achievements for the enterprises of the agro-industrial complex. One such technology is developed by employees of the Department for Construction and Materials Sttudy the new technology "Demeter" (timber-metal). The technology "Demetr" has the patent protection and the frame element connection is protected with patents No. 58567 from 13.06.2006, No. 65526 from 14.03.207, No. 78500 from 05.07.2008, No. 85922 from 14.04.2009. All the elements of the frame-rails and beams are standardized, this greatly reduces the cost of their manufacture. Connection methods of frame elements are protected by patents. The proposed technology allows the use of waste wood and hardwood, which is now almost is not used, the bearing elements of the framework. The core inside the wooden beams and pillars are made of profiled galvanized sheets. Structural elements can be attached as a bolt-on and or by notching, which greatly reduces the complexity of installation. When manufacturing the contruction on this technology we use corrugated sheet (construction core) and outside hardwood tree species or waste of coniferous wood. You can obtain it in any enterprise of the krai, which has a trained link of 5-6 employees. The weight of one item does not exceed 200 kg, on two trucks you can put the home set of 100 m2. The load on the basement is also considerably reduced, and transportation costs are 6-8 times lower. Thanks to new technology we can produce prefabricated buildings at an affordable price, not higher than 13 thousand rubles for 1 m2. The tests showed sufficient load-bearing capacity of the carcass elements. Thermal insulation of walls may be provided by rigid mineral plate thickness of 250-300 mm, this helps reduce the cost of heating the building. Lifetime of frame buildings is 50 years under normal use. The manufacturer warranty is 5 years.

Задача: Целью написания настоящей статьи является раскрытие отличительных особенностей органов прокуратуры от контрольно-надзорных органов исполнительной власти через призму универсального и всеобъемлющего характера прокурорского надзора. Проблеме выделения органов прокуратуры среди иных контрольно-надзорных органов посвящено немало работ (Буянский С.Г., Мельников Н.В., Рохлин В.И., Скуратов Ю.И., Смирнов А.Ф. и др.), однако в настоящей статье в качестве главной отличительной особенности рассматривается универсальный и всеобъемлющий характер полномочий анализируемого государственного института. Вопросам организации прокурорского надзора в соответствующих странах посвящены труды иностранных исследователей: Номейлера М., Фумиюми Ватанабе, Ли Ван Кана и др. Модель: В качестве предмета исследования выбраны положения Конституции РФ, Федерального закона от 17.01.1992 N 2202-1 "О прокуратуре Российской Федерации" и других нормативно-правовых актов, в том числе, относящихся к дореволюционному и советскому периоду развития российской государственности. Универсальный и всеобъемлющий характер прокурорского надзора показан через призму различных исторических периодов и действовавших в эти периоды правовых актов, регулирующих правовой статус прокуратуры. С этой целью в основу исследования положены исторически-правовой и сравнительно-правовой методы. Выводы: В результате проведенного исследования выявлена закономерность между широтой закрепленных за органами прокуратуры полномочий и состоянием законности и правопорядка в обществе. Установлено, что прокурорский надзор имел универсальный и всеобъемлющий характер в различные, но не во все периоды времени. При этом сокращение полномочий прокуратуры или наличие крена в сторону какого-либо одного из направлений ее деятельности неизбежно приводило к ухудшению состояния законности в обществе. Высказано предположение об особом положении, которое занимает прокуратура в системе государственных органов, что позволяет ей, не входя ни в одну ветвь власти, иметь рычаги воздействия на все из них, на все сферы жизни общества. Практическое значение: Научная работа может быть использована в последующем с целью обоснования расширения полномочий прокуратуры, закрепления за ней новых направлений деятельности. Социальные последствия: Исторический опыт показывает, что в случае сохранения и развития универсального и всеобъемлющего характера полномочий органов прокуратуры это положительным образом отразится на состоянии законности и правопорядка в обществе. Ценность: Настоящая работа ориентирована на широкий круг общественности, призвана обратить внимание представителей законодательной власти на необходимость сохранения и расширения компетенции прокуратуры. Новизна работы заключается в том, что универсальный и всеобъемлющий характер прокурорского надзора рассматривается в его исторической динамике и закладывается в основу различия прокуратуры и исполнительных органов контроля (надзора). ; Objectives: the aim of this article is to disclose some distinctive features of prosecution from regulatory authorities through the notion of the universal and comprehensive nature of the Prosecutor's supervision. The problem of selection of Procuracy authorities among other regulatory authorities is mentioned in many papers (by Buyansky S.G., Melnikov N.V., Rokhlin V.I., Skuratov Y.I., Smirnov A.F., etc.) But in this article the main distinctive feature is considered to be the universal and comprehensive nature of the authority of the State. The problems of organization of the Prosecutor's supervision are mentioned in the works of foreign researchers: Nomejler M., Fumijumi Vatanabe, Lee Van Kan et al. Model: as a subject of study we selected the provisions of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, Federal Law No. 2202-1 dated on January, 11 1992 "On the Procuracy of the Russian Federation" and other laws and regulations, including those relating to the pre-revolutionary and Soviet period of development of Russia. The universal and comprehensive nature of the Prosecutor's supervision is shown through different historical periods and acts regulating the legal status of the Procuracy of these times. With this aim the research is based on historical and comparative law methods. Conclusions: the study identified a pattern between the strengths of Procuracy's power and the state of law and order in society. The study found that the Prosecutor's supervision had the universal and comprehensive nature in many, but not all periods. The limiting of the power of the Procuracy or its move in any of the directions of its activities would inevitably lead to a deterioration of the rule of law in society. We suggested on a special position of the Procuracy in the system of State authorities that lets it, without entering any branch of the Government, have the leverage on all of them, on all areas of society. Practical value: This scientific work could be used in further study with the aim of justifying the expansion of the authority of the Procuracy and the establishment of its new spheres of authority. Social consequences: The historical experience shows that preservation and development of the universal and comprehensive nature of the powers of the Procuracy has a positive impact on the state of the law and order in society. Value: The paper is focused on a wide range of publicity. It is intended to draw the attention of legislators to the need of maintaining and enhancing the competence of the Procuracy. The novelty of the paper lies in the fact that the universal and comprehensive nature of the Prosecutor's supervision is observed through historical dynamics and is laid in the basis for differences in the Procuracy and Executive control (supervision).

В статье представлены результаты расчета необходимых финансовых затрат на лекарственное обеспечение больных с редкими заболеваниями, включенными в перечень редких заболеваний (24 заболевания) Постановлением Правительства РФ от 26 апреля 2012 г. № 403. Расчет проводился на основании данных о количестве зарегистрированных пациентов с редкими заболеваниями (РЗ) в 83 субъектах РФ в 2013 г. и средневзвешенных затратах на их лекарственную терапию. Данные о количестве зарегистрированных больных с РЗ были получены в результате официального запроса Экспертного совета по здравоохранению комитета Совета Федерации по социальной политике, направленного в органы управления здравоохранением 83 субъектов РФ. Расчет средневзвешенных затрат на лекарственную терапию (или специализированные продукты лечебного питания) больных с РЗ проводился на основании стандартов медицинской помощи и экспертных оценок. В рамках анализа стандартов осуществлялся поиск препаратов патогенетической терапии, а при их отсутствии препаратов симптоматической терапии больных с РЗ, критически влияющих на их выживаемость. По выбранному перечню препаратов анализировались данные о сроках, частотах их назначения, средних суточных и средних курсовых дозах. При отсутствии стандартов медицинской помощи, а также для уточнения вопросов лекарственной терапии пациентов с РЗ проводились консультации с экспертами. В результате проведенных расчетов общие средневзвешенные затраты на фармакотерапию 24 редких заболеваний составили 15,73 млрд руб. в год (6,36 млрд руб. на детей и 9,37 млрд руб. на взрослых) на 11 173 зарегистрированных больных, что в 3,3 раза превышает текущие объемы финансирования. Наиболее дорогостоящей в расчете на одного больного в год оказалась патогенетическая фармакотерапия мукополисахаридоза VI и II типов: средневзвешенные затраты на одного ребенка с мукополисахаридозом VI типа составили 40,90 млн руб., на одного взрослого 71,50 млн руб.; мукополисахаридозом II типа 29,60 млн руб. и 51,83 млн руб. соответственно. Для повышения эффективности работы системы лекарственного обеспечения больных с РЗ и оптимизации государственных расходов на эту группу пациентов необходимо: утвердить полный набор финансово сбалансированных и научно обоснованных стандартов медицинской помощи, законодательно определить статус орфанных препаратов и осуществлять государственное регулирование цен, обеспечить увеличение регионального финансирования с привлечением средств федерального бюджета, утвердить перечень орфанных препаратов, выработать механизмы государственного стимулирования фармацевтических компаний снижать цены на орфанные препараты. ; The article presents the results of cost calculation on the drug supply of the patients with orphan diseases, included in the list of orphan diseases (24 diseases) by the RF Government Regulation of April 26, 2012 № 403. Calculation was performed based on the data of registered patients with orphan diseases (OD) in 83 territorial entities of the Russian Federation in 2013 and based on the average-weighted costs of their drug therapy. Data on registered patients with OD was obtained because of the official request of the Expert Board on Healthcare of the Council of the Federation Committee on Social Policy that was sent to healthcare regulatory bodies of the 83 territorial entities of the Russian Federation. Average-weighted cost calculation of drug treatment (or of specialized nutrition care) of the patients with OD was carried out in accordance with medical care standards and expert assessment. As part of the analysis of the standards the search for pathogenic therapy medications was carried out, in the absence of which there was a search for supportive care medications that critically affect survivability of the patients with OD. According to the selected list of drugs, information about duration, frequency of prescription, average daily and course dose, was analyzed. In the absence of medical care standards, and in order to verify some questions concerning drug therapy of patients with OD consultations with experts were held. Because of conducted calculation, total average-weighted costs of pharmacotherapy for 24 orphan diseases were 15.73 bln rubles per year (6.36 bln rubles for children and 9.37 bln rubles for adults) for 11 173 registered patients that by 3.3 exceeds current amount of finance. Pathogenetic pharmacotherapy of Mucopolysaccharidoses type VI and II proved to be the most expensive treatment per one patient per year: average-weighted costs per one child with Mucopolysaccharidoses type VI amounted to 40.90 mln rubles, per one adult to 71.50 mln rubles; for Mucopolysaccharidoses type II costs were 29.60 and 51.83 mln rubles respectively. In order to increase effectiveness of the system of drug supply of the patients with OD and to optimize state expenses for this group of patients it is necessary to approve the entire range of financially balanced and science based medical care standards, to define the legal status of orphan drugs and to carry out state regulation of prices, to ensure increase of regional funding supported by involvement of federal budget funds, to define the list of orphan drugs, to implement state regulation measures to create incentives for pharmaceutical companies to reduce prices for orphan drugs.

В 1947 г. в результате национально-освободительного движения в Британской Индии возникли два суверенных государства – Индия и Пакистан. Сторонникам единой Индии пришлось согласиться на раздел бывшей колонии на основе принципа религиозного коммунализма. Провинции с преимущественно индусским населением вошли в доминион Индийский Союз (с 1950 г. – Республика Индия), а с преимущественно мусульманским населением – в Пакистан. Серьезные противоречия сложились у Пакистана с Афганистаном, чему были причины, лежавшие в историческом прошлом региона. Камнем преткновения здесь стала Северо-Западная пограничная провинция (СЗПП), которая при разделе бывшей британской колонии вошла в состав Пакистана. Провинция состоит из административных округов и полосы «свободных пуштунских племён». Эти территории были присоединены к Британской Индии в 1893 году по Соглашению между Британской Империей и афганским эмиром Хабибуллой Ханом. Граница между Британской Индией и Афганистаном была установлена вдоль т.н.«Линии Дюранда». После Первой мировой войны в Британской Индии возникло Национальное движение за деколонизацию. В СЗПП в то же время была создана организация «Божьи слуги» (по пуштунски «Худаи хидматгаран»), которая была частью Индийского национального конгресса (ИНК), британские власти называли их «краснорубашечниками». Партией, боровшейся за создание государства индийских мусульман, была Всеиндийская мусульманская лига. Во время деколонизации Индии борьба за федеративную Индию в СЗПП не имела успеха и провинциальное правительство возглавил лидер провинциальной организации Лиги Хан Абдул Кайюм Хан. После этого когрессисты начали борьбу за «Свободный Пуштунистан». Правящие круги Афганистана, желая получить выход к Аравийскому морю, поддержали эту борьбу, но территории восточных пуштунов вошли в состав Пакистана. После этого руководитель пуштунских националистов Хан Абдул Гаффар Хан начал борьбу за объединение всех пуштунских территорий в Пакистане в единую провинцию. Но эта борьба была уже не борьбой сепаратистов. После создания Пакистана афганские правящие круги заявили о непризнании «Линии Дюранда» как границы между Афганистаном и Пакистаном. Афганские власти стали поддерживать движение «За Свободный Пуштунистан» в полосе «свободных пуштунских племён» на территории Пакистана, которую возглавил один из авторитетных руководителей людей племён Факир из Ипи, с середины 30-х гг. боровшийся на территории племён против британского колониализма. Этот факт стал причиной глубоких противоречий между этими двумя странами. Реальной причиной афганского непризнания границы по «Линии Дюранда» было их стремление выйти к Аравийскому морю. ; In 1947 as the result of national liberation movement in the British India were created two independent states – India and Pakistan. Supporters of the United India had been agreed for partition of the former colony on the principle of the religious communalism. Provinces with mainly hindus population entered the Dominion Indian Union (from 1950 – The Republic of India) and with mainly muslim population entered Pakistan. Serious contradiction had been arisen between Pakistan and Afghanistan and the reasons of them were in the historical past. The main reason of the contradictions was North West Frontier province (NWFP) which entered Pakistan during the partition of India. It includes administered regions and the Belt of Free tribes. These territories had been entered the British India in 1893 with the Agreement between British Empire and Afghan emir Habibullah Khan. The frontier between British India and Afghanistan was created along «the Durand Line». After the First World War in the British India had been created the National Movement for decolonization. In the NWFP at this time was created the organization «Gods servants» (in Pakhtu – «Khudai Khidmatgaran»), which was a part of the Indian National Congress (INC). The party whish struggled for the state of Indian muslims was The All Indian Muslim League. The British Powers called them «Red Shirts». During the decolonization of India the struggle for federal India had not success in NWFP and the Provincial Government formed the leader of provincial League Khan Abdul Kayum Khan. Congressists of the NWFP had began the struggle for «Free Pakhtunistan». The ruling circles of Afghanistan who wanted to have the way to the Arab Sea supported this struggle but the territories of east pakhtoons were entered the Pakistan. After this the leader of pakhtoon nationalists Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan had began the struggle for unification of all pakhtoon territories in Pakistan into united province. It was already not separatist struggle. But after the foundation of Pakistan Afghanistan ruling circles stated that now east pakhtoon territories had not be belonged Pakistan. Afghan parliament stated about unacknoledgement of «the Durand Line» as the border between Afghanistan and Pakistan. Afghan powers begun to support movement for "the Free Pakhtunistan in the belt of free pakhtoon tribes at the territory of Pakistan. The leader of this movement was one of the most prestige leaders of tribesmen Fakir from Ipi who from 1930 was fighting against the British colonialism at the Belt of tribes. This fact was the reason of deep contradictions between these countries. The real reason of Afghan unacknoledgment of «the Durand Line» was their aspiration to have the way to Arab Sea.

Este artículo es un resumen del Trabajo de Fin de Máster en Dirección y Planificación del Turismo de la Universidad de Alicante que contó con la tutoría de la Dra. Ana Ramón de la Universidad de Alicante y el Dr. José Manoel Gonçalves Gândara (Universidade Federal do Paraná de Brasil). ; El escenario económico internacional es adverso (Fondo Monetario Internacional, 2012; The World Bank, 2012) y perjudicial a los negocios hoteleros en las principales economías del mundo. El volumen de inversiones ha disminuido fuertemente, conseguir financiación ya no es algo tan simple y predomina el clima de incertidumbre debido a la crisis (Ernst & Young, 2012; Horwath, 2012a; Jones Lang LaSalle, 2011a). Ya Brasil, después de haber pasado por profundos cambios socioeconómicos, vive en un entorno más estable y con buenas perspectivas de evolución a mediano plazo (Giambiagi et al., 2011; Brasil, 2012b). Las mejorías son notables también en el turismo (Brasil, 2010a) y actualmente players nacionales e internacionales estudian diversas posibles inversiones hoteleras en el país (Hotel Invest, 2011 y 2012b; JLLS, 2011b y 2012b). No obstante, hay una importante pregunta: ¿Cuál es el panorama actual y las reales perspectivas de desarrollo hotelero en Brasil? Para contestarla, se buscó analizar el panorama de la hotelería brasileña en cuanto a su caracterización, principales empresas presentes y desempeño de la oferta. Además, investigar las barreras, riesgos, oportunidades y perspectivas relacionados a inversiones hoteleras en el país. Entre los principales resultados, se ha concluido que Brasil vive un nuevo ciclo de expansión de la hotelería. Nuevamente con hoteles de bajo y mediano confort, destinados al mercado doméstico corporativo y de eventos, con probable predominio de alianzas estratégicas, modelo de desarrollo por condo-hotel y otras estrategias non-equity. No obstante, ahora de manera más descentralizada, en ciudades de pequeño a gran porte y con perspectivas de participación, aún tímidas pero con potencial de crecimiento, de nuevos players, como fondos de inversión internacionales e inmobiliarios. Además, el país camina hacia condiciones de financiación más favorables (sin embargo aún inadecuadas debido a las exigencias y burocracia para liberación de crédito), con disminución real e intensa de las tasas de interés (SELIC) y menores exigencias de rentabilidad por el inversor. Las perspectivas futuras son optimistas. No obstante, el riesgo de sobreoferta en ciudades puntuales y los GAPs de competitividad turística y hotelera en el país son una señal de alerta y debe ser estudiada con detenimiento por empresas, gobiernos y universidades. ; The actual international economic environment is adverse (International Monetary Fund, 2012; The World Bank, 2012) and unfavorable to business hotels in major world economies. The volume of investments has fallen harshly, getting funding is no longer as simple and dominates the climate of uncertainty due to the crisis (Ernst & Young, 2012; Horwath, 2012; Jones Lang LaSalle, 2011a). Brazil, having undergone deep socioeconomic changes, nowadays lives in a more stable environment, with good prospects for midterm evolution (Giambiagi et al., 2011; Brazil, 2012b). Improvements are remarkable also in tourism (Brazil, 2010a) and national and international players are currently studying various potential hotel investments in the country (Hotel Invest, 2011 and 2012; JLLS, 2011b and 2012b). However, there is an important question: What is the current situation and the real outlook of hotel development in Brazil? To answer this question, it was necessary to analyze the overview of the Brazilian hospitality industry regarding its characterization, performance and leading companies present supply. It is also necessary to investigate the barriers, risks, opportunities, and perspectives related to hotel investments in the country. This is an exploratory study based on literature review, surveys with 29 managing directors (of Brazilian and international hotel chains, consulting companies, sectorial entities, developers, and a REIT) and in-depth interviews with 10 of the surveyed experts. The 20 hotel chains that participated in this survey represent more than 73,000 rooms in nearly 450 hotels nationwide, approximately 72% of the supply chain available in Brazil. Essentially qualitative methods were used in the methodology, including the validation of the results by pattern-matching. Among the main results, it was concluded that Brazil is undergoing a new round of hotel expansion. Again with low and medium comfort hotels, intended for domestic and corporate market, with probable prevalence of strategic alliances, condo-hotels, and other non-equity strategies. However, now in a more decentralized manner, in cities from small to large size and with prospects of participation, even timid but with growth potential, of new players, such as REITs. Moreover, the country walks towards more favorable financing terms (though still inadequate due to the requirement and bureaucracy to release credit), with an intense decrease in interest rates and lower requirements of profitability from investors. Future perspectives are optimistic. However, a risk of oversupply in specific cities and competitive GAPs in the country's tourism and hospitality industry are a signal of alert and must be studied carefully by companies, governments, and universities.

Estimated to be worth more than 225 trillion USD in 2019, real estate is the world's largest investment class (Savills 2019). Yet, even within the same country, housing wealth is largely unequally distributed across space. Cities and high-amenity places typically account for the lion's share of it. This unequal distribution results from tension forces between the demand and supply side of the real estate market operating at the local level. On the demand side, perhaps the most crucial factor is the decision of households about where to live and work according to a variety of subjective and economic factors. Naturally, the demand for real estate concentrates in high-amenity areas. These areas are typically more productive and feature desirable characteristics such as natural amenities and proper public good provision. Unfortunately, the desire of households to increase their utility by sorting into these high-amenity areas, is not always met with a likewise propensity to supply housing in these areas. On the contrary, in many high demand areas, the supply side of the market has failed to keep up with the demand side. This has lead to skyrocketing prices and affordability issues. In that regard, the observed unequal value of real estate across space is the result of a congestion force that drives people away from more productive areas, thus imposing a burden on the whole society. A legitimate question is whether we can escape, or at least lessen, the congestion force coming from real estate markets. Many governments have tried to do so by implementing a variety of housing policies acting on both the demand and supply side of the market. Unfortunately, these policies usually neglect the local nature of the real estate and economic incentives driving the market. This has lead to unintended consequences. To understand these consequences, this thesis investigates the endogenous response of economic fundamentals in a spatial framework that accounts for the localized nature of housing demand and supply. Specifically, I employ either a theoretical structural approach featuring local areas or an empirical approach using fine-scale housing data to investigate housing supply elasticities, housing subsidies, redevelopment option value, and regulation at the local level. In Chapter 1, co-authored with Maximilian von Ehrlich and Olivier Schöni, we provide empirical evidence that increases in the periodic costs of housing lead to a larger supply response than price increases of the same percentage value. We rationalize this differential in supply responsiveness with an amplication mechanism arising from adjustments of capitalization rates to changes in the periodic costs. We document that the amplification of the housing supply price elasticity is less pronounced in geographically constrained and tightly regulated neighborhoods and areas having more sophisticated buyers. Our findings hold valuable lessons for public policies affecting the periodic cost of housing, such as rent control and housing subsidies. In Chapter 2, co-authored with Yashar Blouri and Olivier Schöni, we analyze such a public policy. Specifically, we investigate the spatially heterogeneous impact of the U.S. federal mortgage interest deduction (MID) on the location and tenure decisions of households. We develop a general equilibrium model at the county level featuring an endogenous itemization of housing subsidies. Despite being a vital tax expenditure, repealing the MID would only slightly lower homeownership rates while leaving welfare mostly unchanged. The policy is ineffective because it targets locations with congested housing markets, creating a spatial shift of the housing demand toward areas that capitalize the subsidy into higher prices. We provide evidence that a repeal of the MID is to be preferred to an increase of standard tax deductions as recently implemented under President Trump's administration. In Chapter 3, co-authored with Alex van de Minne, we analyze the impact of the redevelopment potential on commercial real estate transaction prices. First, using a probit model, we compute the fitted redevelopment potential. This potential is primarily determined by the difference in net operating income (NOI) per square foot of land (sql) to the potential highest and best use (HBU) of the property. This difference reflects the economic obsolescence of a property. Second, we run a 2SLS model with the fitted redevelopment potential as an instrument for the redevelopment dummy. We find that having a 100 percent redevelopment potential increases the property's price by nine to 17 percent. In Chapter 4, I develop a methodology and the corresponding survey to construct a land-use regulation index for over 2200 Swiss municipalities. This index documents how regulation of residential buildings varies across space. It is composed of ten sub-indices that capture the different aspects and degrees of local regulation. To develop these indices, I suggest using land-use regulation data and complementing it with answers from a comprehensive survey. These indices provide harmonized information about what local regulation entails and the local regulatory environment across municipalities

We report the results of decade-long (2008-2018) γ -ray to 1 GHz radio monitoring of the blazar 3C 279, including GASP/WEBT, Fermi and Swift data, as well as polarimetric and spectroscopic data. The X-ray and γ -ray light curves correlate well, with no delay ≳ 3 h, implying general cospatiality of the emission regions. The γ -ray-optical flux-flux relation changes with activity state, ranging from a linear to amore complex dependence. The behaviour of the Stokes parameters at optical and radio wavelengths, including 43 GHz Very Long Baseline Array images, supports either a predominantly helical magnetic field or motion of the radiating plasma along a spiral path. Apparent speeds of emission knots range from 10 to 37c, with the highest values requiring bulk Lorentz factors close to those needed to explain γ -ray variability on very short time-scales. The MgII emission line flux in the 'blue' and 'red' wings correlates with the optical synchrotron continuum flux density, possibly providing a variable source of seed photons for inverse Compton scattering. In the radio bands, we find progressive delays of the most prominent light-curve maxima with decreasing frequency, as expected from the frequency dependence of the τ= 1 surface of synchrotron self-absorption. The global maximum in the 86 GHz light curve becomes less prominent at lower frequencies, while a local maximum, appearing in 2014, strengthens toward decreasing frequencies, becoming pronounced at ∼5 GHz. These tendencies suggest different Doppler boosting of stratified radio-emitting zones in the jet. © 2020 The Author(s). ; We thank the referee for attentive reading and comments that helped to improve presentation of the manuscript. The data collected by the WEBT collaboration are stored in the WEBT archive at the Osservatorio Astrofisico di Torino -INAF (ht tp://www.oato.inaf.it/blazars/webt/); for questions regarding their availability, please contact the WEBT President Massimo Villata(massimo.villata@inaf.it).TheSt.Petersburg University team acknowledges support from Russian Science Foundation grant 17-12-01029. The research at BU was supported in part by National Science Foundation grant AST-1615796 and NASA Fermi Guest Investigator grants 80NSSC17K0649, 80NSSC19K1504, and 80NSSC19K1505. The PRISM camera at Lowell Observatory was developed by K. Janes et al. at BU and Lowell Observatory, with funding from the NSF, BU, and Lowell Observatory. The emission-line observations made use of the DCT at Lowell Observatory, supported by Discovery Communications, Inc., BU, the University of Maryland, the University of Toledo, and Northern Arizona University. The VLBA is an instrument of the National Radio Astronomy Observatory. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the US NSF, operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. This research has used data from the UMRAO which was supported by the University of Michigan; research at this facility was supported by NASA under awards NNX09AU16G, NNX10AP16G, NNX11AO13G, and NNX13AP18G, and by the NSF under award AST-0607523. The Steward Observatory spectropolarimetric monitoring project was supported by NASA Fermi Guest Investigator grants NNX08AW56G, NNX09AU10G, NNX12AO93G, and NNX15AU81G. The Torino group acknowledges financial contribution from agreement ASI-INAF n.2017-14-H.0 and from contract PRIN-SKA-CTA-INAF 2016. I.A. acknowledges support by a Ramon y Cajal grant (RYC-2013-14511) of the 'Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovacion, y Universidades (MICIU)' of Spain and from MCIU through the 'Center of Excellence Severo Ochoa' award for the Instituto de Astrofisica de Andalucia-CSIC (SEV-20170709). Acquisition and reduction of the POLAMI and MAPCAT data were supported by MICIU through grant AYA2016-80889-P. The POLAMI observations were carried out at the IRAM 30-m Telescope, supported by INSU/CNRS (France), MPG (Germany) and IGN (Spain). The MAPCAT observations were carried out at theGerman-Spanish Calar Alto Observatory, jointly operated by the Max-Plank-Institut fur Astronomie and the Instituto de Astrofisica de Andalucia-CSIC. The study is based partly on data obtained with the STELLA robotic telescopes in Tenerife, an AIP facility jointly operated by AIP and IAC. The OVRO 40-m monitoring program is supported in part by NASA grants NNX08AW31G, NNX11A043G, and NNX14AQ89G, and NSF grants AST-0808050 and AST-1109911. TH was supported by the Academy of Finland projects 317383 and 320085. AZT-24 observations were made within an agreement between Pulkovo, Rome and Teramo observatories. The Submillimeter Array is a joint project between the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory and the Academia Sinica Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics and is funded by the Smithsonian Institution and the Academia Sinica. The Abastumani team acknowledges financial support by the Shota Rustaveli National Science Foundation under contract FR/217950/16. r This research was partially supported by the Bulgarian National Science Fund of the Ministry of Education and Science under grants DN 081/2016, DN 18-13/2017, KP-06-H28/3 (2018), and KP-06-PN38/1 (2019), Bulgarian National Science Programme 'Young Scientists and Postdoctoral Students 2019', Bulgarian National Science Fund under grant DN18-10/2017 and National RI Roadmap Projects DO1-157/28.08.2018 and DO1-153/28.08.2018 of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Bulgaria. GD and OV gratefully acknowledge observing grant support from the Institute of Astronomy and Rozhen National Astronomical Observatory via bilateral joint research project `Study of ICRF radio-sources and fast variable astronomical objects' (head -G. Damljanovic). This work was partly supported by the National Science Fund of the Ministry of Education and Science of Bulgaria under grant DN 08-20/2016, and by project RD-08-37/2019 of the University of Shumen. This work is a part of projects nos 176011, 176004, and 176021, supported by theMinistry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia. MGM acknowledges support through the Russian Government Program of Competitive Growth of Kazan Federal University. The Astronomical Observatory of the Autonomous Region of the Aosta Valley (OAVdA) is managed by the Fondazione Clement Fillietroz-ONLUS, which is supported by the Regional Government of the Aosta Valley, the Town Municipality of Nus and the 'Unite des Communes vald 'otainesMont-Emilius'. The research at the OAVdA was partially funded by several `Research and Education' annual grants from Fondazione CRT. This article is partly based on observations made with the IAC80 and TCS telescopes operated by the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias in the Spanish Observatorio del Teide on the island of Tenerife. A part of the observations were carried out using theRATAN-600 scientific equipment (SAO of the Russian Academy of Sciences).