Acrylamide is a monomer which has a molecular formula of C3H5NO (CH2=CH-CONH2) and has a molecular weight of 71.08 g, is colorless, odorless and has crystalline form (IARC, 1994).The acrylamide used in the production of polyacrylamide is also extremely used in the treatment of drinking and waste water, paper production, petroleum industry, the production of mine, mineral, asphalt and the treatment of land and soil. Moreover, it is also commonly used as an additive in cosmetic industry, in electrophoresis, the production of photographic film, the manufacturing of adhesive, varnish and dye and in the preparation of some alloys in dentistry European Union Risk Assessment Report (EURAR, 2002).In early 2002, high concentrations of acrylamide were reported in certain fried, baked, and deep-fried foods Swedish National Food Agency (SNFA, 2002). This discovery dramatically increased the interest in no industrial sources of acrylamide exposure to the general public. Subsequent research in many European countries and the United States determined that acrylamide is formed primarily in carbohydrate-rich foods prepared or cooked at high temperatures (i.e., >120°C) (Tareke et al., 2000 and 2002). Acrylamide has neurotoxic and genotoxic properties (Capuano and Fogliano, 2011). The contents of acrylamide vary among different types of food. Fried potato chips, coffee and toasted chicory contain much higher levels of acrylamide than other high temperature-processed foods (Delatour et al., 2004 as well as Capuano and Fogliano, 2011). The levels of acrylamide varies considerably between single foodstuffs within food groups, with crisps and chips generally containing high levels 1000 µg/kg and 500 µg/kg respectively (Kelly, 2003).Factors affecting acrylamide formation and degradation in foods are acrylamide precursors such as free amino acids (mainly asparagine), reducing sugars and processing conditions, (baking time and temperature, moisture content and matrix of product).The obvious toxicological implications of food-borne acrylamide has initiated substantial public and scientific concern (World Health Organization Meeting, 2002 June and United States Food and Drug Administration (US FDA) meeting, 2002 September) and has significantly increased interest in the toxic effects of acrylamide.The importance of acrylamide in food was mentioned for the first time by Tareke et al. (2002) who showed that feeding rats with fried feed led to a large increase in the level of the haemoglobin adduct, which was concluded to be N-(2-carbamoyl methyl) valine.In human, acrylamide has some mutagenic and carcinogenic effects. Hence, it is classified in class 2A of carcinogenic materials as an agent that increases the probability of endometrial, pulmonary, and pancreatic cancers (El-Kholy et al., 2012 as well as LoPachin and Gavin, 2012). Studies indicated that liver, kidney, brain and erythrocyte GST have significant binding capacity with acrylamide, with liver GST is three times more efficient in conjugating acrylamide compared to brain GST in rats (Alturfan et al., 2011).Acrylamide have significant binding capacity to liver, kidney, brain and erythrocyte (Sumner et al., 1997). The other additional toxicological effects reported are depletion of adipose tissues, decreased liver and kidney, mottled lungs, atrophy of skeletal muscle, distension of urinary bladder, thickening of stomach and decrease in red blood cell (RBC) count and packed cell volume (PCV) (Miller et al., 1982), making it an important researchable substance.The neurotoxic effects of acrylamide can be observed at low dose with long exposures (Erkekoglu and Baydar, 2014), suggesting that dietary acrylamide is harmful to humans, especially children. The presence of acrylamide in food remains a health risk. According to WHO, the mean margin of exposure (MOE) value based on the carcinogenic effect of acrylamide in mammary glands is 300 -310 (Pedreschi et al., 2014), which is lower than 10,000, a criterion regarded as low health concern. Moreover, the detected concentrations of acrylamide and glycidamide haemoglobin adducts in Canadian teenagers indicate the need to reduce acrylamide exposure in the population (Brisson et al., 2014).Grape (Vitis vinifera ) leaves have been used in medicine due to various biological activities including stop bleeding, inflammation, and pain (Baytop, 1999), hepatoprotective, spasmolytic, hypoglycemic and vasorelaxant effects, as well as, antibacterial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, antiviral and particularly antioxidant properties (Xia et al., 2010). In addition, Orhan et al. (2009) reported that V. vinifera leaves have role in the formulation of dietary antioxidant supplements.The objective of the present study is to estimate acrylamide levels in some different food samples obtained from Egyptian local market and to determine the levels of acrylamide formation during different processing conditions, in addition, to investigate the effects of pre-frying treatments on acrylamide reduction of acrylamide in some Egyptian foods. Thus an investigation of acrylamide effects on biochemical and pathological effects become vital. In present studies, investigation of the effect of acrylamide formed in fried rice and different concentrations in drinking water. The monitoring of the thyroid hormone levels and hematological values in the plasma collected from the experimental animals. The preventive effect of feeding grape leaves as a source of antioxidant was also studied.b. Material and MethodSurvey of acrylamide levels in some Egyptian foods. Samples were taken from the Egyptian market, prepared and homemade samples, i.e., Potato, Toast, Coffee, Peanut, Fried onion, Falafel, Fried noodles, Fried rice and Cooked Rice .Then evaluation effect of different temperatures and/or times on acrylamide formation in fried rice and fried potatoes. From previous results showed significant increases in the concentrations of acrylamide in rice compared with potatoes. Frying rice is one of the methods used by Egyptians, so we went to study the effect of temperatures and time on the rice in more details. Several treatments were carried out on rice before frying on reduction of acrylamide formation of fried rice at 180 °C for 10 min, i.e., (1) Untreated rice was used as a control. (2) Rice was washed under tap running water for 2 min. (3) Rice was washed and soaking in water for 20 min. (3) Soak rice in citric acid (1%) for 20 min. (4) Soak rice in acetic acid (1%) for 20 min. (5) Soaking rice in water "resulting from grape leaves soaking" for 20 min. (6) Soaking rice in water "resulting from grape leaves boiling" for 20 min. (7) Soaking rice in water "resulting from poached grape leaves soaking" for 20 min. Determination of acrylamide in foods performed using GC /MS technique.SamplesDifferent types of market samples (potato samples, toast samples, coffee samples and peanut sample) were purchased from local markets. Prepared samples were divided into two brands, first brand is used in Egyptian popular prepared meals i.e. "onion in Koushari" and "Falafel", second brand is used in Egyptian homemade meals i.e. fried noodles, fried rice and cooked rice.Determination of acrylamide by GC/MSSamples were allowed to swell adding water in an amount normally corresponding to 3 times the weight of the sample (more for exceptionally dry samples). Taking into consideration homogeneity and availability of the sample, often 25 g of sample and 75 ml of water were combined in a 150 ml beaker glass. After mixing, the homogenate was allowed to swell during 30 min at 70 °C in a water bath (GFL, German). The glass beaker was covered by aluminium foil to prevent evaporation of water.Ten grams of the homogenate was weighed into a 100 ml centrifuge glass with a screw cap and thoroughly mixed with 40 ml of 1-propanol at 4000 rpm for 10 min (Sigma, German). When the solids form lumps, mixing was supported by a blender (Polytron). 10 ml (8.4 g) of the supernatant (possibly after centrifugation of about 12 ml of turbid supernatant) was transferred to a 25 ml pointed flask. Fifteen droplets (about 200 mg) of a vegetable oil were added and the water/propanol removed in a rotary evaporator at about 50 Torr (unit) and 60-70 °C in a water bath. Evaporation was stopped as soon as no liquid was left. The residue from the evaporation, consisting of fat/added oil and often much salt, was extracted with acetonitrile and defatted with hexane. 3 ml acetonitrile and 20 ml hexane were added and mixed with the sample with the help of an ultrasonic bath for 15 min (JEIOTECH, Canada). The acetonitrile (lower) phase was transferred into a 10 ml reagent glass with screw cap by means of a Pasteur pipette, losing acetonitrile rather than carrying along hexane. The acetonitrile phase was extracted by another 5 ml hexane, now transferring 1.5 ml of the acetonitrile phase (assumed to be half) into a 1.5 ml autosampler vial (Biedermann et al., 2002). The samples were analyzed in Organic Pollutants Laboratory, Regional Centre for Food and Feed, Agriculture Research Centre, Giza.Chemical examination of grape leavesGrape leaves and its ethanolic extract preparation The leaves were cleaned and dried in shade at room temperature for 3 days then coarsely powdered with the help of a hand-grinding mill. 20 g dried powder of plant leave was weighed and transferred into a beaker. 100 mL of ethanol 70% was added into the beaker and the mixture was shaken using mechanical shaker (Thermo, Canada) for 12 h at room temperature. The extract was filtered using Whatman No.1 filter paper. The filtrate was collected and the residue was re-extracted twice. Then 0.2 ml of the mixture was diluted with 2 ml of ethanol and injected in the GC/ MS/ MS. The sample was analyzed in Organic Pollutants Laboratory, Regional Centre for Food and Feed, Agriculture Research Centre, Giza.GC/ MS analysis programThe analysis of the grape leaves extract was using preference mention GC/MS above. The carrier gas was helium with the linear velocity of 1ml/min. The oven temperature was set at 55 oC for 3 min and then programmed until 280 oC at a rate of 11 oC/min. The injector and detector temperatures were 220 oC and 220 oC respectively. Injection mode, splitless, volume injected 1 μl. The MS operating parameters were as follows: ionization potential 70 eV, interface temperature 280 oC. Selected ion monitoring (Scan) mode was applied used m/z at start mass 35 and end mass 600.The identification of components was based on a comparison of their mass spectra and retention time with those of the authentic compounds and by computer matching with NIST and WILEY library as well as by comparison of the fragmentation pattern of the mass spectral data with those reported in the literature (Santana et al., 2013).Evaluation of radical scavenging activityThe free radical scavenging effect of grape leaves ethanolic extract was assessed by the decolouration of a methanolic solution of 1, 1 –diphenyl-2- picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical (violet colour) according to the method of Blois (1958).Various concentration of test solution in 0.1ml was added to 0.9 ml of 0.1 mM solution of DPPH in methanol. Methanol only (0.1ml) was used as experimental control. After 30 minute of incubation at room temperature, the reduction in the number of free radical was measured, reading the absorbance at 517nm. Ascorbic acid was used as reference standard by concentration of 200, 400, 600, 800 and 1000 ppm. The scavenging activity of the samples corresponded and to the intensity of quenching DPPH.Preparation of blood samplesFive blood samples were collected from rats of each group from eye plexus after 28 days in clean dry sterile and labeled centrifuge tubes. Each collected sample was divided in to two parts, one for serum was collected in heparinized tube and the other for plasma was collected in non- heparinized tube .Rats were fasted for 12 h, and then slightly anaesthetized with carbon dioxide gas. Separating serum was done by centrifugation at 1500 r.p.m for 5 min. Organs of rats were weighted and extracted for dissection.
Yazarı ABNO. OTTO SCHMIDT Arno Schmidt 18.1.1914 yılında bir polis komiserin oğlu olarak Hamburg 'ta doğdu. İlk yazarlık denemelerine orta öğrenimi sırasında Hamburg'ta başladı. Liseyi bitirdikten sonra 1933 yılında üniversitede Matematik ve Astronomi öğrenimine başladı, ancak politik nedenlerle ve kız kardeşinin bir yahudi tüccarla evlenmesine kızarak bir yıl sonra üniversiteyi terketti. 1934-1939 yılları arasında geçimini sağlamak üzere tekstil iş kolunda çalıştı. Bu arada 1937 yılında Âlice Murawski ile evlendi. 1940-1945 yılları arasında Fransa ve Norveç'te savaşa katıldı ve İngilizlere esir düştü. Savaş sonrasında tek varlığı ve serveti olan kütüphanesini ve kendi yazdığı teksirlerini yitirdi.Bir süre bir polis okulunda tercümanlık yaptı; daha sonra bu işini de kaybetti ve serbest yazarlığa başladı. İlk yapıtı "Leviathan" 1949'da yayınlandı. 1958 yılında Celle-Bargfeld kasabasına yerleşerek 1979 yılında 65 yaşında iken bir kalb krizi sonucu ölene kadar bu küçük kır kasabasından ayrılmadı. Başlıca eserleri: Leviathan (1949), Brand's Haide (I95l) Aus dem Leben eines Fauns (1953), Das steinerne Herz (l956), Die Gelehrten- republİk (1957), Kaff öder Mare Crisium (l960), Hobodaddy,s Kinder (1963), Trommler beim Zaren (l966),Zettel's Trsum (1970 ), Die Sohulo der Atheisten (1972) ve Abend mit Goldrand (1975). Ödülleri: 1950 yılında dört yazar ile ortaklaşa olarak Leviathan için Mainz Akademisi Büyük Edebiyat Ödülü; 1964'de Berlin Fontane Edebiyat Ödülü, I965 de Alman Federal Endüstri Birliği'nin verdiği Kültür- Yazın Şeref Ödülü ve 1973 yılında da Frankfurt Kenti Goethe Ödülü.Eser: DIE GELEHRTENREPUBLIK (Bilginler Cumhuriyeti) A) İçerik: Büyük Savaş sonrasının sosyal ve toplumsal sorunlarını cesaretle ve yılmadan işlediği 'Das steinerne Herz' (Katı Yürek) romanının ardından; pervasız ve cüretkâr buna karşılık sübjektif yazar Arno Schmidt, bu kez dönemin yazın eğilimine kapılıp,geleceğe yönelik kişisel tasarımlarıyla oluşturduğu ve "Die Gelehrtenrepublik"adını verdiği bir ütopik eser vermekle okuyucu ve edebiyat çevrelerinde hayal kırıklığı yaratmış gibiydi. Romantizm döneminin yazarlarından Hauff 'un 'Kaltes Herz' yapıtına çağrışım yapan 'Das steinerne Herz' romanı gibi, 'Die Gelehrtenrepublik' te adını 'Aydınlanma Dönemi' yazarlarından olan Kloppstook'un bir makalesinden almıştır. Anlaşılması zor ve pek kolay yorumlanamıyan çoğu zaman rasyonalist, bazen de idealist bir yazar olan Arno Schmidt'in bu yapıtı ''Gulliver'in Seyahatleri''ni andırmakta ve hayal ürünü bir adadaki olayları konu almakta ve bunları çarpıcı ve abartmalı bir biçimde sergilemektedir. Yazar bu yapay adasında, 1958 yılından geleceğe bir sıçrama yaparak, bir yandan Savaş sonrasının zor dönemini ve insanların çaresizliğini ima ederken, öte yandan 2009 yılının dünyasını yansıtmaya çalışmıştır. '1990 Atom Savaşında' tarih boyunca kabına sığmayan ve sürekli huzursuzluk kaynağı olan Avrupa Kıtası Ural Dağları'na kadar radioaktiv bir çöle dönüşmüş ve bir bakıma cezalandırılmıştır. Oysa iki süper güç Amerika ve Busya,içinde yaşanması olanaksız bu atom koridoruna uzak,Pasifik Denizi ortasındaki bu yeni dünyaya bilim adamlarını ve sanatçılarını çıkararak,onlara muhtemel yeni bir atom savaşına ve başkaca tehlikelere karşı korumasını bilmiş ve bunu sağlamıştır. Ancak bu iki süper güç'e mensup kişilerin yanısıra hintli,çinli ve afrikalının da yer aldığı; bu modern, enerji kaynakları, ormanları, tarım alanları, spor sahaları, tiyatroları, televizyon vericileri, hava alanı, füze üssü ve geto'ları bulunan bu çelik ve yüzer adada Rusların dışında,yok oldukları veya cezalandırıldıkları için diğer avrupalılar temsil edilmemiştir. Avrupalıya ancak cezalandırılmış ve atomar etki sonucu mutasyona( değişim) uğramış insan başlı dev örümoek, insan başlı büyük kuş ve beygiri andıran (kentaur) yarı insan biçiminde (hominid) olarak rastlamaktayız. Radyoaktiv etki sonucu oluşan bu yaratıklar,bir başka açıdan yazarın kendince yarattığı yeni dünyasındaki kitleleri simgelemektedir denilebilir. Yazarın bu hayal ürünü ve abartmalı kurgusunun ardında aslında gizli ve öfkeli bir yergi, dönemle ilgili sosyal bir eleştiri ve yeni bir dünyaya yönelik tasarımları yatmaktadır. Bu nedenle,yapıtın okuyucu ve toplumda hayal kırıklığı izlenimini yaratması görünüşte kalmış, inceleme ve irdeleme sonrasında,derin düşünce ve sosyal çekirdek nihayet ortaya çıkmıştır. Tüm ibret verici olaylara ve zayiatları çok büyük savaşlara rağmen insanların dolayısı ile güçlülerin sorumsuzlukları, nemelazımcılıkları, benclllikleri, ikiyüzlülükleri ve insanlığın geleceğini etkileyecek olan tehlikeli fikir ve planları sürüp gitmektedir. Sözde inandırıcı gerekçeler ve mazeretler bulunarak silahlanma yarışı sürdürülmekte, geliştirilen yeni ve yokedici silahlar gezegenlerde denenmekte, insanoğlu geleceğe ilişkin bazı deneylerde kendisini kobay yapmakta ve bu kobay insan neslini yoketmek üzere bir araç olarak kullanılmaktadır. İşte, yazar bu gerçeğe duyduğu öfkeyi delice vizyonlarla işliyor bu eserinde. Ama sonuçta birey olarak ne kadar güçsüz olduğunu ve bu büyük sorunların üstesinden her şeye rağmen gelinmediğini görüp,kendi iç dünyasında yarattığı ve özlemini duyduğu dünyasını da yokoluşundan kısa süre önce terketmek zorunda kalıyor. B) Bicimsel Kurgu ve Üslûp: Arno Schmidt bu eserinde içeriği zenginleştiren, okuyucuyu yer yer şaşırtan ve anlam çıkmazlarına neden olan bir dizi biçimsel yenilik yapmaktadır: Yazar anlatım ve sunuşuna,mitolojik bir figür olan insan başlı bir dişi atı(ken- taur)kapak yaparak başlamaktadır. Fiziksel ve ruhsal değişime (mutasyon) uğramış bir insanı temsil eden bu yarı insanın (hominid) elindeki zeytin dalı dikkati çekmektedir.Alışılmış kapaklardan farklı olarak barış bayraktarlığı yapan bu yabancı ve garip figür kompozisyonu okuyucuyu bir süre oyalayıp, hemen ilk sayfayı çevirmesini engellemektedir. Kapak içindeki zeplin biçiminde şema-harita karışımı ve simetrik olarak ikiye bölünmüş bir şekilde anlatıma dahil bir bölüm olarak konulmuş ve okuyucuya ilgi çekici, çarpıcı yeni bir öge sunulmuştur. Yazar yapıtını;Pasifik Okyanusu'nda 25-35 derece kuzey meridyenleri arasında yer alan, rüzgâr almaz tropik bir bölgeye ilişkin 'Kısa Roman' olarak tanımlamakta ve böylelikle yeni ve edebî bir türden sözetmektedir. Aslında olay zinciri ve konusal bütünlüğü zayıf olan bu roman iki ana bölüme ayrılabilmekte ve bölümler genelde fragman olarak kalmaktadır. Bir film jeneriğini andırırcasına romanın giriş kısmında, yapımcı (yazar) ve yönetmen(çevirmen) olarak gösterebileceğimiz olay kahramanlarına ilişkin bazı kişisel bilgileri kapsayan bir tablo;yapım(üretim) lisansının dayandırıldığı yasa maddesiyle ve yapım tekniği ile ilgili bir açıklama bulunmakta ve radyasyon sonucu yaşanmaz hale gelen Avrupa ile birlikte ölü diller arasına giren Almanca'yat eseri çeviren,Chr. M. Stadion'un bir önsözü yer almaktadır. Önsöz de ayrıcalık sağlamakta ve roman türünde çok ender olarak kullanılan bir şekil unsuru olmaktadır. 2008 yılına yapılan bir sıçrama ile başlayan anlatım kısmı, hatırlama veya hatırlatma tekniğine dayanan yeni bir üslûp ve anlatım yöntemi öngörmektedir. Kronolojik bir sıra izlemesine rağmen, yinede aralarında kopukluk ve boşluk bulunan anlatım birimileri-ki bunlar aslında başka hiçbir yazarda görülmeyecek şekilde sayıları 6ll'e ulaşan roman bölümlerini oluşturmaktadır-, aslında bir fotoğraf albümündeki mazi ile ilgili fotoğrafların tek tek açıklanması gibi bir izlenim yaratmaktadırlar veya başka bir deyişle, zamanında tutulan ayrıntıları içermeyen bir günlük defterinin nice zaman sonra okunmasını anımsatmaktadırlar. Yazarın kendine özgü anlatım biçiminde büyük yer tutan ve onun karakteristik üslûp özelliğini oluşturan unsurların en önemlisi kullandığı noktalama işaretleridir. İfade aracı olarak sıklıkla başvurduğu noktalama işaretleri bir yandan okuyucuya zor ve anlaşılmaz görünürken, öte yandan ifade zenginliğine ve orijinalliğine ne katkıda bulunmaktadırlar. Sade vatandaşın bozuk,kırık ve şive unsurlarını kapsayan konuşma dilini edebi bir tür olan romanda baştan sona hakim kılmak istemesi ve bu nedenle uzun tasvir ve gereksiz anlatımlardan kaçınması yazarın bu eserinde geliştirdiği yeniliklerden bir diğeri ve en önde gelen amacıdır. Edebiyatın seçkin bir yansıtım aracı olan roman çerçevesinde bilinçli olarak yazarın birtakım imla hatalarına başvurması, bir yandan dilin, katı kuralcılığına karşı oluşunun, diğer yandan sokaktaki insanın konuşma dilini aslına uygun olarak tüm hatalı, fonetik kusurlu ve canlılığı ile yazı diline resmetmek ve yansıtmak isteğinin sonucudur. 227 sayfalık ve 1957'de yayınlanan Arno Schmidt'in bu yapıtı, bir Ben- Anlatım olarak büyük kuzeni Mr.Winer'in ağzından önce ingilizce olarak kaleme alınmış, sonra almancaya çevrilmiş şeklindeki bir açıklama yardımı ile de, yer yer ve kasıtlı konan dipnotlara ve kitap sonuna eklenen bir düzeltme sayfasına hem bir mazeret bulunmuş oldu hemde kendini bir deha,tüm sorunların çözümünü görev edinmiş biri (Trismegistos) ve düzen kurucu olarak gören yazara bir dayanak ve vesile sağlanmış oldu.Böylece 'Kısa Roman' adını alan,ancak biçisel kurgusu, üslûbu ve sunuş biçimi ile alışılagelmiş yazın geleneği içersinde bir başvuru kitabı veya bir dokümanter kitap görünümü veren yapıt ortaya çıkmış oldu. C) Çalışmanın Amacı: Konusal ve biçimsel olarak çok yönlülük arz- eden eser üzerinde ağırlıklı olarak yazarın kullandığı dili ve üslûbunu, belirleyen özellikleri saptayıp neden ve fonksiyonları ile ortaya koymak ve yaratılmak istenen yeni dilin klasik ve geniş çerçevede geçerli dilden olan sapmalarını bulmak bu çalışmanın esas amacı olmuştur. Normal dil ve üslûptan büyük farklılıkları olan ve yazara özgü tipik bir karakter gösteren bu dil ve yazım biçiminin analizinden sonra da bu eserde işlenmek istenen temanın irdelenmesine ve yeni dil teorisi ile yazarın dünya görüşü ve yaşam biçimi arasında ne gibi bir bağ bulunduğunu ortaya koymak istenmiştir. D) Varılan Sonuç: II. Dünya Savaşından sag çıkmış olmasına rağmen, Arno Schmidt de çağdaşları Nossack,Andersch,Küepen ve Çenetti gibi,birçok bakımdan bu savaşın kurbanları arasına katılmış bir alman yazarıdır. Felaketlere yol açan hatalardan dolayı büyük bir karamsarlığa kapılarak ve çaresizlik içersinde toplumdan uzaklaşarak inzivaya çekilmiş ve kendi sübjektif dünyasında girdiği ı bunalım ve sosyal hayata uyumsuzluğu yüzünden yeni bir dünya kurmak istemiştir. Savaş sonrası 'Uyumsuzluk Tiyatrosu' akımı içinde ifadesini bulan bireyin bedbinliği, umutsuzluğu ve öfkesi Arno Schmidt'te başka bir biçimde kendini göstermiş; o, varolan yaşama ve sosyal değerlere karşı olmanın ötesinde tüm kurum ve yapısı ile eski dünyayı ve dünya görüşünü mahkum etmiş yeni bir dünya kurmak gereğini duymuştur. Yeni bir toplum, insana yaraşır bir ortam ,düşünce ve amaç, yeni kurumlar ve yeni sosyal değerler öngörmektedir yazar bu kendine özgü dünyasında. Bu yenilik zincirinin bir halkasını da yazar tarafından geliştirilen bir yeni dil ve üslup,anlatım ve biçimlendirme teorisi oluşturmaktadır. Öyle ki,yazar geliştirdiği bu teorinin ayrıntılarını ayrı bir klavuz kitapta (Berechnungen I, II, III) açıklayıp yayınlamak gereğini duymuştur. Genelde yüksek ve sanatsal yazın diline de cephe alarak, geleneğe ve normlara aykırı olarak sade insanın sübjektif düşünce ve konuşma biçimini kitleye empoze etme ve egemen kılma eğilimi ve amacı bu eserde ağırlıklı olarak göze çarpmaktadır.Bu amacı noktalama işaretleri, imla hataları,yabancı sözcükk kullanımı ve yeni sözcük türetimi yöntemleri ile gerçekleştirirken, yazar hem sade ve doğal konuşma dilini aslına uygun biçimde edebî dile yansıtmak istemekte hemde uzun ve gereksiz gördüğü anlatımlardan kaçınarak mesajını en kısa yoldan ve en uygun sözcükle anlatım ve aktarım yoluna gitmektedir. Yapısı ve anlatım biçimi açısından bu eser hiçbir şekilde uykuya dalmadan önce okunabilecek bir kitap olarak gösterilemez. Taşıdığı birtakım dilsel ve uslûp özellikleri ile okuyucuyu düşündüren, satır satır, sözcük sözcük irdelemeye yönelten, yoran ve zaman zamanda anlam ve konu çıkmazlarına sokarak öfkelendiren bu suretle de okuyucuyu sürekli uyanık ve dikkatli olmaya zorlayan bu roman, yazarın için de bulunduğu zorluğu ve çözümünü dil bazında ararken yalnız kalmak istemeyişini ve okuyucuyu da birlikte düşünmeye ve ortak eyleme geçirme isteğinin bir sonucu dur. Sistemli ve akılcı bir yöntemle iyileştirici ve yapıcı olmaya uğraşan yazar,bu amacını gerçekleştirme yolunda dili ve biçimlendirme yöntemini araç olarak kullanmaktadır. İçerik bakımından günümüzün en güncel ve evrensel sorunu olan silahlanma yansını ve tam insanlığı tehdit eden nüklear savaşın korkunç sonucunu işlediği "Die Gelehrtenrepublik'' romanı vasıtasıyla, daha 50'li yıllarda hemen tüm yapıtlarında uyguladığı tipik anlatım biçimi ve dili o zamanlar anlaşılamayıp, yadırganırken, Arno Schmidt'in geliştirdiği bu üslup modern edebiyat alanında artık benimsenmeye,yeşermeye ve yerleşmeye başlamıştır.
Стаття присвячена дослідженню та визначенню основних напрямків розвитку ринку гнучкої упаковки в світі та в Україні; процесу впровадження європейських і світових пакувальних тенденцій в українських реаліях за допомогою впливу виставкових галузевих заходів. Для досягнення мети розглянуті особливості і роль ринку упаковки, значення пакувальних матеріалів у розвитку світового господарства, маркетингова сутність гнучкої полімерної упаковки, її переваги у використанні, а також стан і розвиток індустрії м'якої упаковки в Україні. Визначено шляхи розповсюдження дифузії світових пакувальних тенденцій на український ринок упаковки, зокрема використання галузевих виставок як маркетингового інструменту політики комунікацій промислових підприємств. Наведено сучасні актуальні фактори розвитку європейської та світової пакувальної індустрії та визначено основні проблеми застосування таких інновацій на ринку упаковки України, а також можливі перспективи впровадження світових тенденцій українськими виробниками гнучкого пакування. ; The article is devoted to the research and determination of the main directions of development of the market of flexible packaging in the world and in Ukraine; to the process of implementation of European and world packaging trends in Ukrainian realities through the influence of exhibition industry events. To achieve the goal, features and the role of the packaging market, the importance of packaging materials in the development of the world economy, the marketing essence of flexible polymer packaging, its advantages in using, the state and development of the soft packaging industry in Ukraine were considered.Today, the packaging industry is one of the most important business areas around the world. Each product gets to the consumer or place of its use in the package. At the same time, packaging products are used for almost any product. Therefore, it significantly depends on the state of their production and consumption in the regional markets. Consequently, it can be argued that the Ukrainian packaging market is under the influence of global factors in the development of the world economy.In order to meet the demand of the external market and at the same time to be competitive, national companies need to take on the experience of international, in particular European packaging companies. In Europe, the packaging market is developing dynamically and it began to be actively formed much earlier than in the territory of the former USSR. The article defines an imbalance between the Ukrainian and international packaging market, and identifies specific problems of the industry on a national scale.Since independence, the attitude of producers, sellers and consumers towards packaging has changed in Ukraine. Now the Ukrainian packaging has a functional application, and the consumer of the product knows all its economic, ergonomic, environmental properties, the period of its storage and use. This was due to the emergence in the country of modern packaging, made of modern materials, in most cases also Ukrainian production. Instead, high-quality packaging is produced using the technological know-how and equipment of world leaders of foreign companies. In this case, it is often necessary to apply imported raw materials.Now in the conditions of competition, the Ukrainian packaging market began to focus on the trends of world packaging markets, in particular on European ones. In Ukraine, the predominance of ideology of marketing over the ideology of increasing the volume of production, regardless of its market demand, began to emerge. This has resulted in an increase in packaging production and the emergence of thousands of different types of packaging from modern packaging materials using technology and equipment from world leaders.One of the important advantages of packaging in the current markets is its variety in all possible aspects: form, size, materials, mass, color, technology, etc. An objective assessment of packaging from various materials in relation to its economic and environmental attractiveness gives a comparison of material consumption and energy costs for its production per unit of packaged products. The best grades have a flexible package.In the group of soft polymeric packaging of single-layer films made of polyethylene and polypropylene, multilayer (3-8 layers) of various polymers, aluminum foil, paper, decorated with flexographic or rotogravure printing, in Ukraine there are up to 100 enterprises of different production capacity, but it is possible to allocate the main players of the market.The main Ukrainian manufacturers of flexible polymer materials and flexible packaging:1. Volyn region: Lutskhim.2. Khmelnitsky region: Sirius Extrusion.3. Zhytomyr region Grief: Flexibles Ukraine.4. Kherson region: Almateya.5. Kyiv region: Tandem, Ithac, Pentopack, Aventine, Plastmodern, Ukrplastik.6. Dnieper region: Mega Pack MonoPack.7. Kharkiv region: Deltana, Nargus, Aris.An important competitive factor in the packaging market is its safety. The problem of production, regulation and control of safety and quality of products is directly related to the system of technical regulation in Ukraine.The organizational and normative basis of the system of technical regulation in Ukraine does not meet the requirements of a market economy, the main provisions of the legislation of the European Union and the World Trade Organization, and as a result does not promote economic competitiveness, complicates the introduction of new technologies and innovations, does not fully protect the Ukrainian market from low-quality products and hinders the international exchange of goods.Ukraine has not yet formed and no declared state policy in the field of packaging. Ukraine's packaging industry is self-regulated in a market economy with the help of information support of several professional associations.The development of international economic relations should force national packagers to introduce European and world standards and innovative packaging solutions in order to maintain and enhance competitiveness on both the domestic and foreign markets.The world packaging industry is one of the largest, diversified and competitive sectors of the global economy that is developing rapidly and steadily.In the future, the greatest growth will be observed in the sectors of packaging for food and beverages. This is facilitated by technological innovations, changes in the cost price of products, environmental initiatives. But one of the most important reasons is the increase in the middle class and the growth of incomes in developing countries.Raising living standards leads to an increase in consumption of consumer goods, as increased use of packaging for these products.For the world packaging market, it is important not only how quickly technologies are improved for the production of packaging and packaging products, but also how quickly they are diffused.Thanks to modern communications, opportunities for regular exchange of technological developments at world exhibitions, manufacturers of packaging equipment open up new markets and opportunities for themselves.The development of packaging in the world depends on the demand for it, which is constantly increasing. The reason for this is globalization as a kind of economic integration between companies and countries, which leads to the merger of individual national markets into one global market. Its catalyst is international trade. As a result, consumers in a variety of regional markets are faced with numerous new products and their packaging. In such conditions, globalization incives manufacturers of packaging products to find innovative technological solutions aimed at increasing competitiveness not only on the national but also on external markets.In Ukraine there is a small number of national manufacturers of flexible packaging, so the main players will set trends to the entire Ukrainian packaging market, while pursuing their own economic motives and in order to meet the demand abroad.One of the ways to take over the experience of international manufacturers and learn about the latest developments in the field of packaging is international exhibitions. They are a powerful marketing tool in the industrial market.For Ukrainian manufacturers of flexible packaging the most relevant are international European industry exhibitions. It is in Europe that significant exhibition events are devoted to the packaging industry and technology. For Ukraine, the European market is currently the most attractive in terms of export development, and European exhibitions can reach a huge number of potential consumers. If the firm is aimed at developing and increasing its competitiveness, it must be present at sectoral exhibitions, thus changing and shifted the entire national market.At the time of the writing of this work, the latest closing event in the field of the packaging industry was the FachPack - September 25-27, 2018.According to the materials provided by the organizers of the exhibition, about two thousand exhibitors of various sizes took part in the event, including Ukrainian companies Aris and Aventine. The exhibition was attended by 45,000 participants, including representatives of both small and large industrial businesses.On the FachPack exhibition site, the main trends that have emerged at this event are in open access: minimization of material and energy resources in packaging production for many years will determine the competitiveness of the business as the main trend in the development of modern packaging; increasing the informativeness of the package and the convenience of use make the relationship between consumers and the producer of the product understandable and trustworthy; the safety of packaging for humans and the environment at all stages of its life cycle is a guarantee of improvement of the life of the population and a thrifty attitude to natural resources; the individualization of goods and products remains relevant; the attention is paid to the means and technologies of utilization of packaging from polyethylene, polypropylene, PET, foil; open to everyone: in the design of flexible packaging there is an increasing number of transparent windows, cutouts, through which one can see or feel the product to the end user; the use of natural, natural texture in the design of flexible packaging, the widespread use of craft paper.As a result of the research demands of consumers of quality characteristics of packaging, noted the emergence of "mythical" trends that are set unsubstantiated and often technically incorrect beliefs visitors, such as environmental, biodegradable packaging, and also false claims of "less harmful" material. The problem is that people have realized the negative impact of their activities on the planet, but they are involved in superficial propaganda on the issue of environmental friendliness, without deepening the technical aspects of this issue.The main mistake of packaging consumers is the belief in the thesis that paper and bioplastics are more environmentally friendly than plastic. People, who are relatively indirectly connected with the packaging industry, believe that the paper package is more environmentally friendly, because it decomposes faster than plastic. But nobody thinks about how cardboard and paper production affects the nature, which pollutes water bodies and causes deforestation.Bioplastics is made from a material of plant origin, which is actually relatively quickly decomposed. But this process occurs only under certain conditions. In the European market, trends in bioplast packaging development will be justified and in fact relevant, but as far as Ukraine is concerned, there are currently no conditions for thoroughly sorting and further processing of packaging waste. In this case, the whole nature of the so-called biopacket is lost - they are not able to decompose on the general landfill next to other materials.In the domestic market of Ukraine, not all European trends will be relevant and feasible in the implementation due to deficiencies in the state regulation of the packaging industry and the unsatisfactory state of the regulatory framework, especially as regards the sorting and processing of garbage. If the Ukrainian producer is more focused on exports to developed countries, the trend towards biodegradable materials can significantly increase the company's profitability.So the ways of diffusion of world packaging tendencies on the Ukrainian packaging market are determined, especially using of exhibitions as a marketing tool of the communications policy of industrial enterprises. The actual factors of development of the European and world packaging industry are presented. The main problems of application of such innovations in the packaging market of Ukraine are determined. Also, possible prospects for the implementation of world trends by Ukrainian manufacturers of flexible packaging are determined.
10/28/2020 Professor Asao Inoue selected for top teaching award – Fresno State News www.fresnostatenews.com/2012/05/01/professor-asao-inoue-selected-for-top-teaching-award/ 1/6 PROFESSOR ASAO INOUE SELECTED FOR TOP TEACHINGAWARD Home | PRESS RELEASES | Professor Asao Inoue selected for top teaching award Previous Next Professor Asao Inoue, an associate professor of English, has beenawarded the top teaching honor at Fresno State. William A. Covino, provost and vice president for Academic Aairs, namedInoue as recipient of the 2012 Excellence in Teaching Award. The Provost's Awards announced Tuesday, May 1, also honored: Amanda Adams, assistant professor of Psychology, recipient of theFaculty Service Award Saúl Jiménez-Sandoval, professor of Modern and ClassicalLanguages, Gradvuate Teaching and Mentoring Award William Bommer, professor of Management, Research, Scholarshipand Creative Accomplishment Award Bryan Berrett, associate professor of Communicative Disorders andDeaf Studies, Technology in Education Award. Search . SECTIONS ACADEMICS CAMPUS &COMMUNITY RESEARCH ALUMNI PRESS RELEASES FEATURED VIDEOS NEWS SOURCES Fresno StateMagazine CommunityNewsletter Fresno State The Collegian Bulldog Blog ACADEMICS CAMPUS & COMMUNITY RESEARCH ALUMNI ATHLETICS FEATURED VIDEOS ABOUT PRESS RELEASES MEDIA GUIDE ARCHIVES10/28/2020 Professor Asao Inoue selected for top teaching award – Fresno State News www.fresnostatenews.com/2012/05/01/professor-asao-inoue-selected-for-top-teaching-award/ 2/6 Four faculty members received the Promising New Faculty award,recognizing exemplary achievements in teaching, research/creativeactivities and/or service among nontenured, tenure-track faculty. Thehonorees are: Juan-Carlos Gonzalez, assistant professor of Educational Researchand Administration. Elizabeth Payne, assistant professor of Theatre Arts. Jason Bush, assistant professor of Biology. Kim Youngwook, assistant professor of Electrical and ComputerEngineering. Asao Inoue , associate professor of English, receives the Excellence inTeaching Award. He has been at Fresno State since 2007. He approachesthe challenge of teaching high-level writing skills with an innovativepedagogy that emphasizes students' roles in their own education. Hefrequently asks students to evaluate and challenge traditionalinstructional environments and to examine alterna tive teaching methodsthat foster greater individual success. One important aspect of histeaching philosophy is getting students to talk about their writing inrhetorical and reexive ways. Inoue's on-campus service includes work asorganizer and facilitator for the Symposium on Remediation in Englishand as a committee member for the Improving Student Writing Initiative,Criterion As sessment Committee. His community service includes work ascurriculum designer, teacher, and program assessment coordinator forUniversity 20 (Academic Reading course), Summer Bridge Program, andthe Educational Opportunity Program. He has active memberships in theCon ference on College Composition and Communication, NationalCouncil of Teachers of English, Asian American Studies Association,Rhetoric Society of America, and Council of Writing ProgramAdministrators. In 2000, he received the Faculty Development SeminarAward. His national hon ors and awards include the Ford FoundationPredoctoral Fellowship for Minorities in 2003. Amanda Adams , assistant professor of Psychology, receives the FacultyService Award. She has been at Fresno State since 2006. Her passion forhelping families who have children with autism drives her to createopportunities for students' development, both as practitioners of appliedbehavior analysis and as researchers that disseminate new knowledge.She has worked tirelessly to develop and secure support for the CentralCalifornia Autism Center (CCAC) on campus. The center pro videsopportunities for students to learn to apply Applied Behavior Analysisprinciples, conduct research, and learn important professional skills.Adams provides important service to the local community by educatingpractitioners who treat autism, families who are aected by autism, andpolicy makers who develop programs and provide nancial support fortreating autism. For four years, she has worked with students to plan and Go Bulldogs Videos Social MediaDirectory 10/28/2020 Professor Asao Inoue selected for top teaching award – Fresno State News www.fresnostatenews.com/2012/05/01/professor-asao-inoue-selected-for-top-teaching-award/ 3/6 implement Autism Awareness Field Day. She is involved in otherawareness/fundraising events, including the CCAC Gala Fundraiser andannual golf tournament. She is a member of the California Chapter of theAssociation for Applied Behav ior Analysis and received the Provost'sAward for Promising New Faculty in 2009. Saúl Jiménez-Sandoval , professor of Modern and Classical Languagesand Literatures, receives the Graduate Teaching and Mentoring Award. Hehas been at Fresno State since 2000 and has a well-established record ofexceptional graduate teaching. Jiménez-Sandoval has been a driving forcein the development of the Spanish M.A. curriculum, personally developingand teaching ve new seminars for the program. In his teaching, hestresses the basic human emotions of love, despair, and hope. He isdescribed as a prolic thesis director and has served on the Spanish M.A.exam com mittee each semester since his arrival. Jiménez-Sandovalbelieves in students' ability to push them selves and excel. His studentshave been accepted to Ph.D. programs at UCLA, Irvine, Berkeley, Stanford,Arizona, British Columbia, and Alberta. He was the recipient of the 2003-04 Research, Scholarship, and Creative Activity Award. Through hisexemplary scholarship, he serves as a model of the teacher-scholar tostudents and faculty. His public lectures include the 2005 InternationalCoee Hour presentation on the sacred role of poetry in Aztec culture,and his articles include his recent publication on the canonical Mexicancoming-of-age novel, Las batallas en el desierto William Bommer , professor of Management, receives the Research,Scholarship and Creative Ac complishments Award. He has been at FresnoState since 2008. Bommer uses his research on a regular basis in theclassroom. His research spans a number of topics in the eld of manage -ment and applied psychology. Two primary areas of research for which heis known internationally are the areas of transformational leadership andorganizational citizenship. Widely published, his research is impressive.His work is commonly cited in college texts and is regularly assigned indoctoral-level seminars. In the past two years, he has been the principalinvestigator on three di erent external grants. These grants have totaledmore than $600,000. His work has been used for doctoral training in theelds of management, psychology, marketing, education, andmanagement information systems. He also served as the outside experton two dierent dissertation committees in Australia. Bryan Berrett , associate professor of Communicative Disorders and DeafStudies, receives the Technology in Education Award. He has been atFresno State since 1998. In 2010, he was one of four CSU faculty to beawarded Sony's multimedia award. Berrett has demonstratedtremendous leadership in the use of technology at Fresno State,particularly in the development of online classes. He has established a10/28/2020 Professor Asao Inoue selected for top teaching award – Fresno State News www.fresnostatenews.com/2012/05/01/professor-asao-inoue-selected-for-top-teaching-award/ 4/6 remarkable track record of innovative and practical uses of technol ogy.For example, over the last several years, he has been the recipient ofmultiple Digital Campus grants to convert traditional classes into onlinecourse oerings. He coordinates the sign language interpreting program,which now has approximately 30 percent of its coursework oered online.He also has integrated the use of audio and visual multimedia into theAmerican Sign Language computer lab. Most recently, Berrett has beenthe department's leader in converting the education graduate programinto an 80 percent online 20 percent face-to-face format. Promising New Faculty Awards 2011-2012 Juan-Carlos Gonzalez , assistant professor of Educational Research andAdministration, has been at Fresno State since 2009. A skilled professorand scholar, he has fully engaged in service to the university and thecommunity. He serves on multiple editorial boards for peer-reviewedjournals and as a proposal reviewer on a national level. He has beenactive in accreditation activities, chaired the International Committee, andorganized a faculty study trip to Costa Rica. Gonzalez has mentored aMcNair Scholar and worked with the Central California Children's Instituteon research projects. He is an enthusiastic participant in the life of theKremen School and the university as a whole. In addition to his regularcourses, he has taught classes in qualitative research methods and criticalrace theory in education. He has already published four articles andpresented at 23 conferences in the United States. He has also presentedin China and in Mexico. Gonzalez has received numerous awards andhonors, including the Dandoyd Research Award for spring 2012. Elizabeth Payne , assistant professor of Theatre Arts, has been at FresnoState since 2008. A highly tal ented designer, she continues to workprofessionally in theatre in New York and in television, where she hasconsulted on the Conan O'Brien Show. She brings to Fresno State herconsiderable skills in design, teaching, mentorship, and communityoutreach. She is a demanding teacher who has transformed the existingcostume design and technology courses and created new ones, such asCostume History and Design Focus on Film. Seamlessly integrating socialand political issues into her discussion of fashion, she demonstrates tostudents why broad cultural knowledge is crucial to successful designwork. Her classes bring together academics and practical, skill-basedtraining. Payne has also been proactive in generating grants, including aFresno State Enhancing Student Information Literacy Grant, which sheintegrated into her Costume History class. In the area of mentorship, shehas had considerable impact — her door is open to all. She is the recipientof the 2012 Fresno County Board of Education Artist in Residence Grant.10/28/2020 Professor Asao Inoue selected for top teaching award – Fresno State News www.fresnostatenews.com/2012/05/01/professor-asao-inoue-selected-for-top-teaching-award/ 5/6 By llarson | May 1st, 2012 | Categories: PRESS RELEASES | 3 Comments SHARE THIS STORY, CHOOSE YOUR PLATFORM! RELATED POSTS Jason Bush , assistant professor of Biology, has been at Fresno State since2006. Bush has enriched the university environment through his serviceand demonstrated excellence and leadership within the Biol ogyDepartment, the College of Science and Mathematics, and the university,with service on the Cur riculum Committee and the Graduate ScholarshipCommittee. Bush is one of the leading researchers in cancer andproteomic research. He has made 31 presentations since his arrival.Through Dr. Bush's 20 national collaborations, he has been able to extendFresno State resources to develop a broader and resource-richenvironment for his students. He has received $1.5 million in nationalgrants from ve externally funded proposals, including NIH, AmericanCancer Society, Keep-A-Breast Foundation, Susan G. Komen for the Cure,and CSUPERB. Bush was also a co-principal investigator in the $4.5 millionRIMI grant for the development of a research facility in the Central Valley.In addition to ex ternal funding, he has augmented his research with$120,000 in internal grants. He is a consultant and grant reviewer for theSusan G. Komen for the Cure, as well as an active member of theUniversity of California, San Francisco-Fresno Research Group. Youngwook Kim , assistant professor of Electrical and ComputerEngineering, has been at Fresno State since 2008, demonstrating hisdedication to high quality teaching, research and creative activities, andstudent involvement in his research. He has taught a wide repertoire ofundergraduate and graduate courses focusing primarily on highfrequency electronics. Through online methodology, he provides studentswith the opportunity to learn at their own pace. Kim's research focuses onelectromagnetics and the application of Doppler and ultra-wide bandradar systems to human detection applications, such as security,surveillance operations, and search-and-rescue missions. While at FresnoState, he has published several journal papers and six conference papers.His research totals $167,659 in external funding. Currently, Kim ispreparing a proposal on data fusion and target sensing models in wirelesssensor network environments. He is also serving as a grant developmentchair for the Untenured Faculty Organization and is a member of theProfessional Development Committee, the Honors Committee, and theResearch and Grant Review Committee within the Lyles College ofEngineering.10/28/2020 Professor Asao Inoue selected for top teaching award – Fresno State News www.fresnostatenews.com/2012/05/01/professor-asao-inoue-selected-for-top-teaching-award/ 6/6 SAÚL JIMÉNEZ-SANDOVALAPPOINTEDINTERIM PRESIDENTOF FRESNO STATE October 28th, 2020 | 0Comments TRANSPORTATIONINSTITUTE RELEASESPROMISINGFINDINGS OFCOVID-19 PUBLICTRANSIT STUDY October 28th, 2020 | 0Comments NURSING MUNIT CONTFREE HEALSERVICES OWEST FRES October 27th, Comments Fresno State News Hub isthe primary source ofinformation about currentevents aecting CaliforniaState University, Fresno, itsstudents, faculty and sta;providing an archive ofnews articles, videos andphotos, as well as links tomajor resources on campusas a service to theuniversity community. CONTACT US CALIFORNIA STATEUNIVERSITY, FRESNO 5241 N. Maple Ave. Fresno, CA 93740 P: 559.278.4240 Email Us SECTIONS ACADEMICS CAMPUS & COMMUNITY RESEARCH ALUMNI PRESS RELEASES FEATURED VIDEOS Sign up for theCommunity Newsletter Fresno State NewsArchives Copyright 2012 - 2016 Avada | All Rights Reserved | Powered by WordPress | Theme Fusion
This guide accompanies the following article: Annamaria Csizmadia, 'The Role of Racial Identification, Social Acceptance/Rejection, Social Cognition, and Racial Socialization in Multiracial Youth's Positive Development', Sociology Compass 5/11 (2011): 995–1004, 10.1111/j.1751‐9020.2011.00418.x.Author's introductionMultiraciality has been garnering growing public and scholarly attention since 2000. For the first time in Census history, the 2000 U.S. Census allowed individuals to identify with more than one race. The latest Census revealed that over 9 million individuals identified with two or more races (Humes, Jones, & Ramirez, 2011), and that they were one of the fastest growing racial groups in the last decade. Multiraciality has also become the topic of frequent public discussion thanks to the election of Barack Obama, the first Black, that is, biracial, president of the United States in 2008. Historically, multiracial individuals have been automatically relegated to the racial group of their minority parent (also known as the rule of hypodescent). Black‐White biracial people were identified as Black due to the one‐drop rule, which considered any person with a trace of African ancestry to be Black. Sociological and developmental research that has been burgeoning since 2000 revealed that contemporary multiracial youth identify in a variety of ways. They may identify as multiracial or as monoracial. They may choose to shift their racial identity depending on their social context. Finally, some refuse to identify themselves in racial terms altogether. In addition to this body of research, scholars have begun to examine the implications of racial identity choices for contemporary multiracial youth's psychosocial adjustment. This paper reviews findings of this emerging body of research and suggests ways in which parents, school counselors, teachers, and social workers can support the positive development of the growing population of multiracial youth.Author recommendsTo develop an understanding of how contemporary Black‐White multiracial young adults understand themselves racially in private and identify themselves in public, I recommend the series of publications that summarize Rockquemore and Brunsma's research on Black‐White biracial young adults from the Midwest, South, and East. A good place to start is their book Beyond Black: Biracial Identity in America published in 2002. This book provides a thorough background to the literature, their multi‐stage research design, and includes a copy of the Survey of Biracial Experience. This survey has been used in several recent studies to assess multiracial youth's racial identification. Rockquemore and Brunsma elaborated on different facets of multiracial youth's lived experiences in several peer‐reviewed publications. They investigated the roles of physical appearance (Brunsma & Rockquemore, 2001); geographic location (Brunsma, 2006), and gender (Rockquemore, 2002) in contemporary multiracial youths' racial identification. For sociologists, social psychologists, and race scholars, who want to delve into the complexity of the multiracial experience, I recommend Daniel's More than Black? Multiracial Identity and the New Racial Order and Brunsma's 2006 edited volume, titled Mixed Messages: Multiracial Identities in the "Color‐Blind" Era. Brunsma's edited book contains highly insightful chapters contributed by renowned scholars from the field (e.g., Davis, Bonilla‐Silva, Yancey, Spencer, Dalmage, and Rockquemore and colleagues). For family scholars, developmentalists with an interest in parenting issues, and parents of multiracial children, Rockquemore and Laszloffy's Raising Biracial Children will be very informative.Brunsma, D. L. and K. A. Rockquemore. (2001). 'The New Color Complex: Appearances and Biracial Identity.'Identity: An International Journal of Theory and Research 1(3): 225–46.Brunsma, D. L. (2006). Mixed Messages: Multiracial Identities in the "Color‐Blind" Era. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc.Brunsma, D. L. (2006). 'Public Categories, Private Identities: Exploring Regional Differences in the Biracial Experience.'Social Science Research 35: 555–76.Daniel, G. R. (2002). More than Black? Multiracial Identity and the New Racial Order. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.Rockquemore, K. A. (2002). 'Negotiating the Color Line: The Gendered Process of Racial Identity Construction among Black/White Biracial Women.'Gender & Society 16(4): 485–503.Rockquemore, K. A. and D. L. Brunsma. (2002). Beyond Black: Biracial Identity in America. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.Rockquemore, K. A. and T. A. Laszloffy. (2005). Raising Biracial Children. New York, NY: Altamira Press.Online materialsThere are several organizations that are dedicated to providing support to multiracial children, youth, and their families. Websites of these organizations provide useful and practical information for parents, youth, and practitioners. They also allow multiracial people to connect with other multiracial peers. For scholars, they often serve as a starting point for recruitment of multiracial research participants.1. The Mavin Foundationhttp://mavinfoundation.org/2. The Mixed Heritage Centerhttp://www.mixedheritagecenter.org/3. AMEA: Association of MultiEthnic Americanshttp://www.ameasite.org/4. Race: The Power of an Illusionhttp://www.pbs.org/race/000_General/000_00‐Home.htmFor students and scholars of race and multiraciality, the accompanying website to the three‐part PBS documentary on race is a good source of information. The site contains sample discussion questions, historical facts, and self‐quizzes to assess one's view on race. It also contains short clips to the film. Understanding how the racial classification system and hierarchy of the United States evolved is essential to studying contemporary multiracial youth's lives in context.Sample syllabusTopics for lecture and discussion and recommended readingsWeek I: Introduction and overviewDefinitions, Problems and Issues: Who is Multiracial?Reading:Daniel, G. R. (2002). More than Black? Multiracial Identity and the New Racial Order. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.Week II. The history of race in the United StatesReadings:Bonilla‐Silva, E. (1996). 'Rethinking Racism: Toward a Structural Interpretation.'American Sociological Review 62: 465–80.Omi, M. and H. Winans. (1994). Racial Formations in the United States: From the 1960s to the 1990s. New York, NY: Routledge.Week III. The multiracial population of the United StatesReadings:Humes, K. R., N. A. Jones, and R. R. Ramirez. (2011). Overview of race and Hispanic origin: 2010. 2010 Census Briefs. http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br‐02.pdf.Jones, N. A. (2005). We the people of more than one race in the United States: Census 2000 special reports, U.S. Census Bureau. http://www.census.gov/prod/2005pubs/censr‐22.pdf.Week IV. What are you? – How do multiracial youth identify?Readings:Harris, D. R. and J. J. Sim. (2002). 'Who is Multiracial? Assessing the Complexity of Lived Race.'American Sociological Review 67(4): 614–27.Rockquemore, K. A. and D. L. Brunsma (2002). Beyond Black: Biracial Identity in America. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.Week V. Changes in racial identification over timeReadings:Brown, J. S., S. Hitlin, and G. H. Elder, Jr. (2007). 'The Importance of Being "Other": A Natural Experiment about Lived Race over Time.'Social Science Research 36: 159–74.Doyle, J. M. and G. Kao. (2007). 'Are Racial Identities of Multiracials Stable? Changing Self‐identification among Single and Multiple Race Individuals.'Social Psychology Quarterly 70(4): 405–23.Terry, R. L. and C. E. Winston (2010). 'Personality characteristic adaptations: Multiracial adolescents' patterns of racial self‐identification change.'Journal of Research on Adolescence 20: 432–55.Week VI. Influences on multiracial youth's racial identification: physical appearanceReading:Brunsma, D. L. and K. A. Rockquemore (2001). 'The New Color Complex: Appearances and Biracial Identity.'Identity: An International Journal of Theory and Research 1(3): 225–46.Week VII. Influences on multiracial youth's racial identification: geographic region and neighborhoodReading:Brunsma, D. L. (2006). 'Public Categories, Private Identities: Exploring Regional Differences in the Biracial Experience.'Social Science Research 35: 555–76.Week VIII. Influences on multiracial youth's racial identification: historical timeReadings:Davis, J. F. (1991). Who is Black? One Nation's Definition. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press.Khanna, N. (2010). ' "If You're Half Black, You're Just Black": Reflected Appraisals and the Persistence of the One‐Drop Rule.'The Sociological Quarterly 51: 96–121.Week IX. Multiracial youth's peers/friendsReadings:Doyle, J. M. and G. Kao (2007). 'Friendship Choices of Multiracial Adolescents: Racial Homophily, Blending, or Amalgamation?'Social Science Research 36: 633–53.Quillian, L. and R. Redd (2009). 'The Friendship Networks of Multiracial Adolescents.'Social Science Research 38: 279–95.Week X. How do parents identify their multiracial offspring?Readings:Brunsma, D. L. (2005). 'Interracial Families and the Racial Identification of Mixed‐Race Children: Evidence from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study.'Social Forces 84(2): 1131–57.Qian, Z. (2004). 'Options: Racial/Ethnic Identification of Children of Intermarried Couples.'Social Science Quarterly 85(3): 746–66.Roth, W. D. (2005). 'The End of the One‐Drop Rule? Labeling of Multiracial Children in Black Intermarriages.'Sociological Forum 20(1): 35–67.Week XI. Parenting multiracial childrenReadings:Rockquemore, K. A. and T. A. Laszloffy (2005). Raising Biracial Children. New York, NY: Altamira Press.Rockquemore, K. A., T. A. Laszloffy, and J. Noveske. (2006). 'It all Starts at Home: Racial Socialization in Multiracial Families.' Pp. 203–17 in Mixed Messages: Multiracial Identities in the "Color‐Blind" Era, edited by D. L. Brunsma. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc.Weeks XII–XIII. Multiracial youth's social‐emotional adjustmentReadings:Campbell, M. E. and J. Eggerling‐Boeck. (2006). 'What about the Children? The Psychological and Social Well‐being of Multiracial Adolescents.'The Sociological Quarterly 47: 147–73.Lusk, E. M., M. J. Taylor, J. T. Nanney, and C. C. Austin. (2010). 'Biracial Identity and its Relation to Self‐esteem and Depression in Mixed Black‐White Biracial Individuals.'Journal of Ethnic & Cultural Diversity in Social Work 19: 109–26.Phillips, L. (2004). 'Fitting in and Feeling Good: Patterns of Self‐evaluation and Psychological Stress among Biracial Adolescent Girls.'Women & Therapy 27(1/2): 217–36.Sanchez, D. T., M. Shih, and J. A. Garcia. (2009). 'Juggling Multiple Racial Identities: Malleable Racial Identification and Psychological Well‐being.'Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology 15(3): 243–54.Suzuki‐Crumly, J. and L. L. Hyers. (2004). 'The Relationship among Ethnic Identity, Psychological Well‐being, and Intergroup Competence: An Investigation of Two Biracial Groups.'Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology 10(2): 137–50.Week XIV. Supporting multiracial youth's positive developmentReadings:Csizmadia, A. (2011). 'The Role of Racial Identification, Social Acceptance/Rejection, Social Cognition, and Racial Socialization in Multiracial Youth's Positive Development.'Sociology Compass.Khanna, N. (2004). 'The Role of Reflected Appraisals in Racial Identity: The Case of Multiracial Asians.'Social Psychology Quarterly 67(2): 115–31.Week XV. Methodological issues in multiracial researchReadings:Root, M. P. P. (2002). 'Methodological Issues in Multiracial Research.' Pp. 171–93 in Asian American Psychology: The Science of Lives in Context, edited by G. C. N. Hall and S. Okazaki. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.Shih, M. and D. T. Sanchez. (2005). 'Perspectives and Research on the Positive and Negative Implications of Having Multiple Racial Identities.'Psychological Bulletin 131(4): 569–91.Focus questions How do you determine a person's race? How do you determine if a person is multiracial? How do multiracial people fit into the racial classification system of the United States? What are the advantages and disadvantages of being multiracial? How does multiracial youth's physical appearance influence the way others relate to them? How do you explain regional variations in how multiracial young adults identify themselves racially? Is there a racial identity type that is psychologically ideal for multiracial youth: why or why not? What topics should scholars of multiracial youth investigate in the future? Why do you think these topics are important to study? How will they inform our understanding of multiracial youth's development? What role do others play in how multiracial youth choose to identify racially? Based on the assigned readings for this week (Csizmadia, 2011 and Khanna, 2004), make a list of suggestions of how parents can support their multiracial children's healthy racial identity development and psychosocial adjustment. Seminar/Project ideas1. Class activityTo introduce the complexity of multiracial youth's lived experience, ask students to answer the race questions on the U.S. Census form. After students complete the relevant questions, ask students to discuss how they identified on the Census form, whether it was easy for them to select a category, and in what ways the answer choices influenced their responses.2. Class activityStudents view the PBS documentary: Race: The Power of an Illusion Part I and II in class. Use the contents of these two episodes to discuss how racial categories evolved in the U.S. and how multiracial youth have been treated historically.
As a Caribbean institution of Higher Learning, the University of the West Indies is seen as a major contributor to integration efforts in the Region very often mandated by CARICOM to carry out educational missions to that effect. Working in a geographically fragmented and multilingual space, foreign language education is a major preoccupation for academic departments or sections in the respective campuses. The Mona Campus, based in Jamaica, was very one of the earliest to recognize the need to add LSP courses in its curriculum as electives (Business) or as 'service courses' for other programmes (Tourism and Hospitality Management). To these existing LSP courses, the French Section at the Mona Campus added in 2003 a new LSP course geared toward International Relation students. The originality of the course lays its chosen method of delivery by total simulation. The course was offered twice since its approval and under two different schedules (two-week intensive and semester-long). This chapter discusses the impact of these two schedules on the course delivery and learning process. The comparison shows the importance of student's motivation and learning autonomy. The study also comments on the use of blended learning (on-line module complementing face-to-face delivery) and suggests that virtual reality may offer a new addition to Total Simulation for LSP. ; To cite the digital version, add its Reference URL (found by following the link in the header above the digital file). ; TOTAL SIMULATION IN TEACHING LSP Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 73 French for International Conference at The University of the West Indies, Mona: Total Simulation in the Teaching of Languages for Specific Purposes Marie-José Nzengou-Tayo The University of The West Indies, Mona Gilles Lubeth The University of The West Indies, Mona Abstract: As a Caribbean institution of Higher Learning, the University of the West Indies is seen as a major contributor to integration efforts in the Region very often mandated by CARICOM to carry out educational missions to that effect. Working in a geographically fragmented and multilingual space, foreign language education is a major preoccupation for academic departments or sections in the respective campuses. The Mona Campus, based in Jamaica, was very one of the earliest to recognize the need to add LSP courses in its curriculum as electives (Business) or as 'service courses' for other programmes (Tourism and Hospitality Management). To these existing LSP courses, the French Section at the Mona Campus added in 2003 a new LSP course geared toward International Relation students. The originality of the course lays its chosen method of delivery by total simulation. The course was offered twice since its approval and under two different schedules (two-week intensive and semester-long). This chapter discusses the impact of these two schedules on the course delivery and learning process. The comparison shows the importance of student's motivation and learning autonomy. The study also comments on the use of blended learning (on-line module complementing face-to-face delivery) and suggests that virtual reality may offer a new addition to Total Simulation for LSP. Keywords: CARICOM, French for international trade, international conferences, Language for Specific Purposes (LSP), methodology Introduction Language for Specific Purpose (LSP) has developed with the expansion of international trade and the development of multilingual and multicultural working teams. Short language courses are designed at the request of enterprises or institutions in order to meet the specific demands related to the work environment. Though LSP courses have been in existence for more than three decades, their introduction in the academic programs of language majors is quite recent and has been a hot debate for several years at MLA and ADFL meetings. In the Caribbean, with the development of integration, the need for LSP has been felt as the CARICOM (Caribbean Community) started to look beyond the English-speaking Caribbean and opened itself to non-English-speaking territories (Surinam and Haiti joined the organization in 1995 and 2002 respectively while Cuba and the Dominican Republic have observer status). These political trends impacted on our foreign language offerings, stressing the need to open our curriculum to professionally oriented courses. The Department of Modern Languages and Literatures and the language sections of the two other campuses TOTAL SIMULATION IN TEACHING LSP Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 74 had various responses: at the St. Augustine Campus (Trinidad and Tobago), a Latin American Studies program was developed; at Cave Hill (Barbados), a cross-faculty program in Management Studies with a minor in a foreign language was approved; at Mona, LSP courses were developed and students from other faculties were allowed to declare minors in French or Spanish. In this article, we present the circumstances surrounding the design of the latest addition to French for Specific Purpose courses offered at the University of The West Indies, Mona (UWI, Mona), the methodological choices made and their implication for assessment. Because the course has been offered twice since its approval by the University Academic Quality Assurance Committee and with two different schedules, we will compare and discuss these two delivery modes. Language for Specific Purpose at the UWI, Mona At the UWI, Mona, the introduction of French for Special Purpose came out of a pragmatic approach at a time when high schools were experiencing a high turnover of French teachers and a reduction of schools offering A-level French (equivalent to the Baccalauréat). Noting that our graduates were being hired in the insurance and tourism industries, it was thought that equipping them with professional language skills would give a 'practical' touch to our program. The recruitment of a colleague with professional experience in translation led to discussions about a more professionally oriented program. "French for Business" was the first LSP course to be designed in 1991–1992 with the creation of a level III course of French for business or "Business French." The course was developed as an elective in response to a situation in which French graduates were moving toward the business sector instead of education. In the subsequent years, other LSP courses were introduced: "French for Hospitality" in 1998–1999 and "French for International Conferences" in 2003. The introduction of this last course coincided with a drastic overhaul of the French curriculum. The offering of "French for International Conferences" came at a time when the French section of the Department was repositioning itself and revising its offerings. The course was designed with a view to attracting International Relations (IR) students while capitalizing on the latest trend in French foreign language teaching methods. The decision was based on the fact that IR majors and French majors minoring in IR outnumbered students majoring in French only. It was taken at a time when the section was going into a survival mode, taking drastic measures and moving away from the traditional language curriculum (36 credits equally divided between language and literature). The section opted for a mix of language, literature, film and culture, and French for specific purpose courses. It was a drastic choice since the section was moving away of the traditional literary offerings. Though the section has not fully recovered, it has increased its numbers and the majority of students pursuing French are double majors (French and Spanish) with a professional objective of becoming translators or interpreters, followed by IR and Linguistics majors. Total Simulation in French Foreign Language Teaching and Learning Even though Total Simulation in French Foreign Language Education was initiated in the 1970s at the BELC (Bureau d'Enseignement de la Langue et de la Civilisation Françaises à l'Étranger / Office for the Teaching of French Language and Civilization TOTAL SIMULATION IN TEACHING LSP Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 75 Abroad) it did not really become mainstream until the late eighties. This approach to language teaching evolved from role playing and the need to expand role playing over a longer period of time with a view to involving diverse aspects of communication (Yaiche, 1996). Total Simulation was borrowed from continuous professional education where staff received specific training to deal with job-related situations. Total Simulation for French Foreign Language Teaching was first conceptualized by Francis Debyser, a professor at the CIEP (Centre International d'Études Pédagogiques / International Center for Peda-gogical Studies). In the 1980s, Total Simulation became more broadly accepted and moved from experimental to established status. Publishers become interested and several textbooks were published by Hachette between 1980 and 1990 (Yaiche, 1996). By the 1990s, Total Simulation was redirected toward the teaching of French for Specific Purpose (Business French, French for International Relations, Hospitality French). Total Simulation benefits today from IT and its use in the classroom. It is still at the experimental stage as is the case of 'Virtual Cabinet' for the teaching of English, which has been developed by Masters' students at University of Lyon II (http://sites.univ-lyon2.fr/vcab/demo/) or 'L'auberge' developed by University Lille III for incoming French Foreign Language Students (http://auberge.int.univ-lille3.fr/). Characteristics of a Total Simulation Course in Foreign Language Learning Total Simulation in Foreign Language Teaching and Learning could be considered revolutionary in its approach and methodology. First, the role of the teacher is transformed as he or she becomes a facilitator and a participant in the simulation instead of an instructor. For instance, in the International Conference Simulation, the teacher plays the part of the Secretariat. He or she compiles and archives the material needed for the progress of the conference. He or she also provides documents and the linguistic tools needed for the project. Secondly, simulation follows a set pattern of five stages (See Bourdeau, Bouygue, & Gatein, 1992; Yaiche, 1996). The first stage is the creation of the setting. In the case of the International Conference, it means, choosing the theme and the place of the conference. The second stage is to identify the participants. At this point, the role playing starts as the learners have to choose an identity and the country that they will represent. Learners will have to play several roles: delegates from their chosen countries (Minister of Foreign Affairs or High Ranking Civil Servant or Ambassador). At one point, they also play the part of journalists. The countries are fictitious but based on the characteristics of real countries. During this stage, learners choose their identity and civil status; they invent a short biography indicating two physical, moral, psychological, intellectual characteristics, two distinctive objects, (Yaiche, 1996). The third and fourth stages consist in conducting the simulation: the official opening ceremony and the working sessions. At this point, learners are to present their country's respective position paper. Interaction takes place as well as negotiations for a common position and action plan. During this stage, the facilitator plays an important part in ensuring the archiving of all productions and the elaboration of a data bank for the progress of the conference. Students are provided with documents and assisted in acquiring the mastery of the linguistic tools needed for the exercise (e.g., mastery of high language register for official speeches; mastery of diplomatic lexicon for the phrasing of the final resolution and the press release, TOTAL SIMULATION IN TEACHING LSP Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 76 ability to write an abstract or a synthetic report from a news article, etc.). The final stage is geared toward ending the simulation. In the case of the International Conference, it is marked by the writing of the final resolution and a press conference. Since IR students are to be prepared to face and manage diplomatic incidents/crisis during negotiations, elements that could lead to such incident are introduced between the fourth and fifth stage of the simulation when students are drafting the final resolution of the conference. Students are expected to draw on their negotiating skills in order to solve the problem or assuage the potential conflict and bring the conference to a positive closing ceremony. Assessment is blended in the simulation: oral expression is assessed during the opening ceremony (a five-minute presentation) and during the press conference. Students are video recorded and marking takes place afterwards. (See evaluation sheet in appendix B). Both examiners are present to abide by University Examination Regulations. Writing proficiency is assessed through a press release and the conference final resolution, which is done individually during a traditional in-class test. It is also assessed 'outside' of the simulation through the submission of a take-home assignment, the format of which is either a précis writing or a critical review of a newspaper article related to the theme of the conference. Students are provided with a choice of articles from Le Monde Diplomatique, a well-established and recognized reference journal from which they will select an article for review or summary. LSP and Total Simulation in Jamaica and at the UWI, Mona French teachers in Jamaica were introduced to Total Simulation in 1993 thanks to a new French Linguistics Attaché who was also appointed at The University of the West Indies from 1992–1997. A specialist in Total Simulation, she organized two workshops for the Jamaica Association of French Teachers and one for the Tourism Product Development Company (TPDCo), a Jamaican state agency responsible for the training of the workforce in the tourism sector. The co-authors received additional training at the annual training seminar organized by the Centre International d'Études Pédagogiques (CIEP) held in Caen in July 1996 (Nzengou-Tayo) and July 2009 (Lubeth) respectively. The first total simulation course at the UWI was developed in 2003. Two factors contributed to the choice of this methodology. One was the renewed interest in LSP with the review of the French program. After a quality assurance review in 2003, the French section, threatened by low numbers in registration, revised its program with a stronger professional component (introduction of an additional LSP course and translation modules). The second was the institutionalization of summer courses, which offered the possibility of using an intensive format. The idea was to design a course that could imitate a real life situation: an international conference taking into account that such an event is usually limited over a period of time (1–2 weeks) and requires a full work day. The course was submitted to the University Quality Assurance Committee for approval (See course proposal in Appendix A). In the initial submission, evaluation was by 50% coursework and 50% final examination (Appendix A). However, when the course was first taught in 2006, we requested a change of the evaluation scheme to 100% coursework (50% oral presentation and 50% written assignment). The reason for this change was directly related to the philosophy behind total simulation, which required a formative form of assessment that would blend seamlessly in the simulation. TOTAL SIMULATION IN TEACHING LSP Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 77 Case Study: The 2006 and 2009 Experiences Since its creation, French for International Conferences (FREN 3118) has been offered twice: first, in 2006 as an intensive summer course over two weeks, and secondly, in 2009 as a regular semester course over thirteen weeks. These two modes of delivery will be compared and discussed in this section. Course delivery schedule. In 2005–2006, during the two-week period during which the course was offered, the timetable averaged 25 hours per week with 5 daily contact hours. FREN 3118 was the only course attended by the students. Students were put in an immersion situation as they interacted with a native speaker of French during the week. During the second week, ten hours were set aside for independent research in an attempt to give students an opportunity to develop learning autonomy. In 2009–2010, the course was taught during the first semester according to the regular schedule. The timetable featured 3 one-hour sessions per week. In addition to FREN 3118, students were simultaneously registered for four other courses whose demands were competing with the French course. The fast pace of the semester (13 weeks) did not allow for a scheduled independent research. Students had to use their free time for independent research to develop their learning autonomy. The difference between the schedules of the 2006 and 2009 course delivery had an impact on the course management as well as the students' learning experience. It is evident that 2009 students did not have the same learning stimulus as the 2006 ones. They had the pressure of their other courses in term of time and workload. In addition, regular attendance was an issue since students sometimes missed classes either due to timetable clashes or assignment deadlines to meet in other courses. The running of the course was affected as each student had a part to play in the progress of the simulation and absence from class meetings affected the proceedings of the conference. Student profile and number. The course targets third-year students and requires a general language module at level III as a co-requisite. However, the co-requisite can be waived depending on the level of the students. For instance, when the course was offered during the summer 2006, it was waived for second-year students who had received a B+ in the two modules of the level II language courses. In 2009, a third-year International Relations student who had completed level I of the French language courses with A and was reading the level II language course was allowed to register. The waiver was granted based on his outstanding results at level I and also after an interview in which he demonstrated a high level of motivation and learning autonomy. In 2006, the course was offered with 9 students and in 2009 there were 14 registered students. Numbers can be an issue for conducting a total simulation course. For instance, our experience taught us that, even though Cali, Cheval, & Zabardi (1992) suggest a number of 20 participants divided according to a ratio by type of countries1 in La Conférence Internationale et ses Variantes, country-ratio balance can still be observed TOTAL SIMULATION IN TEACHING LSP Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 78 with lesser numbers. Based on our 2006 experience, we recommend a minimum of 8 students. Indeed, a lesser number would not allow their distribution according to the recommended country ratio. In addition, work in commissions, which is part of the simulation process, would be less productive. Similarly, 20 is the maximum manageable number of students during total simulation. The attention to be devoted to students' progress and the group dynamics become a challenge with larger numbers. Therefore, beyond 20, the group would be divided and two concurrent simulations conducted, provided that staffing is not an issue for the institution. Topics and scenarios. On both occasions, the theme of the conference was inspired by current affairs relevant to the Caribbean region. In 2006, the conference was titled "Libre circulation des travailleurs à l'échelle mondiale: Faisabilité et conditions" (Feasibility and Conditions for a Global Free Movement of Labour). The theme was inspired by discussions taking place in the media about the Caribbean Single Market and Economy (CSME) put in place by CARICOM countries that year. The scenario was developed to involve a group of 9 countries, members of a regional organization seeking to achieve integration through free movement of workers. The 2009 edition of the conference, "Réchauffement climatique: Stratégies et équité" (Global Warming: Strategies and Equity) was inspired by the then ongoing international negotiations on global warming. The course started in September, just three months before the Copenhagen Summit. The scenario was based on the creation of an international organization, the Group of 14 (G14) specially dedicated to addressing the issue of global warming, and therefore holding its first conference accordingly. The choice of topics related to current international or regional issues stimulates the students' interest as they can have access to current reference material. They develop their critical thinking as they are exposed to various diverging opinions and asked to present their country's position at the start of the conference. For example, at the 2009 conference, the delegate of "Bonangue" expressed the country's position as follows: Conscient des graves effets [du réchauffement climatique] sur l'environnement, nous tenons à prendre action immédiatement parce que les effets poseront un problème pour le pays. Par le passé, la Bonangue a donné priorité aux revenus, dans certains cas, au détriment de l'environnement. Le pays est disposé à porter [sic] les changements nécessaires. The delegate of "Kalasie," on the contrary, indicated, "La Kalasie est favorable au recours aux crédits d'émission de gaz utilisables par les investisseurs." Another delegate from "Lisérbie" chose to stress the social impact and the importance to reach a consensus on the matter. The multiple and sometimes diverging country positions will contribute to the life of the conference as the objective is to find a common ground and sign a final resolution, which would bring the conference to a close. TOTAL SIMULATION IN TEACHING LSP Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 79 Resources and methods. The course outline was developed in accordance with the prescribed textbook La Conférence Internationale et ses Variantes (Cali et al., 1992). The authors' recom-mendations were followed with some adjustments, which will be presented below. Since countries have to be fictitious to respect the principle of Total Simulation, two websites, CIA: The World Factbook, and Quid were used to establish the profile of these invented countries.2 Using the principle of 'mots-valises' students invented the name of the countries they were representing. For instance, "Lisérbie," "Kalasie" or "Dukenyah" were obviously created in reference to existing countries or regions. Other names were arbitrary and left to the students' imagination as "Cadeaux d'Ouest," "Amapour" or "Kadia." Other web resources were used in accordance with the theme of the conference and a companion website was developed on the University Virtual Learning Environment (OurVLE) (UWI, Mona "Virtual Learning Environment") to take advantage of information technology at our disposal at the Mona Campus. The 2006 intensive format. We introduced some slight variations from the standard format of the simulation. First, the course started with a screening of the French movie Saint-Germain ou la Négociation (2003) with Jean Rochefort. The objective was to highlight the objectives, modalities of diplomatic negotiations as well as to insist on the high-language register used during negotiations, which the students would have to use. Despite the historical context (the 16th century), the film was particularly suitable as it showed protocol and behind-the-scene events taking place during political negotiations. Secondly, students were given an introductory lecture on the processes of international conferences coupled with a tour of the Jamaica Conference Centre in Kingston. This was facilitated by a colleague and professional translator who worked at international conferences and was familiar with the facility. Various documents were made available online on a range of topics: international organizations pursuing regional integration through implementation of free movement of labor (the European Union, CARICOM) and a compilation of documents on immigration and globalization. In 2006, the course page on OurVLE was used only for archival purposes. The instructor, playing the part of the conference Secretary, uploaded for future reference documents that had been identified as relevant to the conference. Since the students' time were dedicated to the course, it was easy to simulate the rhythm of a conference with meetings in commission and plenary sessions. The course outline was design to be the "agenda" of the conference. The intensive format helped to develop a group dynamic based on solidarity and conviviality, which stimulated weaker students to make efforts to improve their proficiency. The 2009 semester-long format. The semester-long delivery of FREN 3118 differed from the intensive summer course on some points. The presentation by the guest lecturer and the film screening were maintained, but, due to timetable constraints, the tour of the Conference Centre did not take place. The main innovation was in the extensive use of the online module and the exploration of the functionalities offered by the Moodle platform supporting OurVLE TOTAL SIMULATION IN TEACHING LSP Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 80 where all the material necessary for the presentation of the theme and the conduct of the activities of the conference were uploaded. All documents were made available online via OurVLE, expanding from print and website links to audio and video. Students' productions were added to the resources identified by the instructor. The instructor/facilitator provided the following resources: explanatory documents on global warming (its geopolitical implications and the negotiation process); documents with terminology used in diplomatic language; and audiovisual documents from France2, France3, and YouTube. A link to Yann Arthus-Bertrand's documentary Home (2009) was also put on the course portal. As Secretariat, the instructor/facilitator uploaded reports of sessions held during the preparatory phase (the preconference meetings). These reports gave students a regularly updated overview of progress made, a review of notions covered as well as the calendar of events (the schedule of meetings). Using the functionalities offered by Moodle, students were able to contribute to the development of the course portal. Using the 'upload a single file' and the forum features, they uploaded their own production, including country and delegate profiles, reports resulting from the sessions in commission and plenary sessions, and draft resolutions. The course portal was useful for archiving the various activities conducted during the course. Students were able to refer to a central repository outside of the contact hours. This tool also had financial and ecological benefits as it reduced the cost of photocopying. Indeed, whereas all documents had to be printed in 2006, only documents produced during the conference (student-generated commission and plenary reports, agenda and list of speakers) were printed for circulation in 2009. Because of the discontinuity of the timetable (3 hours spread over 13 weeks), the 2009 conference did not flow as harmoniously as the 2006 one. With competing interests, students found it difficult to dedicate themselves to the conference. Running from one class to another, they sometimes lost track of the conference objectives, which in turn had an impact on the group dynamics and progress as indicated by the results of the continuous assessment (i.e., the coursework). Evaluation and students' results. As mentioned earlier, the course assessment was done by 100% coursework. The percentage was equally divided between oral and writing proficiency (50% each). Oral proficiency was assessed as follows: delegate's address at the opening ceremony weighting 25%; delegate's interview at the press conference (15%); and one intervention as a journalist interviewing the delegates at the press conference (10%). Writing proficiency was assessed through a press release (10%), an individual proposal for the final resolution (15%), and one précis writing/critical review of document(s) (25%). Students' oral and written productions were graded using a criterion-referenced assessment grid (See Appendix B for details). In 2006, we got a 100% pass rate with results ranging from A+ to C. In 2009, the pass rate was 71.42%. With the intensive format, students demonstrated their mastery of high-level register. Students who were considered 'weak' based on their low grade in the general language courses, managed to improve their proficiency level and achieve acceptable performances in oral presentations. In 2009, there was a large gap between the TOTAL SIMULATION IN TEACHING LSP Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 81 best and the weakest students (2 students got As, 4 students failed, and 8 students' grades ranged from B+ to D). Group average was 49.79%. When comparing the two groups' results, we have to admit that we had some doubts initially about the intensive format because of the limited time given to students to properly absorb the notions and the various tasks required in the course. Yet, it appears that stretching the process over a semester is not a decisive factor for improved performance. The role of group dynamics in total simulation is yet to be measured though it is generally recognized in class interaction and learning. During the regular semester, the group dynamics did not play a cohesive role as it did in the summer course where more proficient students helped to strengthen the weaker ones. Competing academic interests and irregular attendance during the regular semester also had an impact on students' low performance. Conclusion At the UWI, Mona, we introduced LSP courses in our academic programs as part of our major from a pragmatic standpoint in reviewing our curriculum. Though we are aware that LSP courses generally target professionals already in the field, as a result, the design and offering of such courses is usually preceded by a need analysis and the identification of the language processes (i.e., register, lexicon, syntax, speech acts) needed to achieve the requested proficiency (Mangiante & Parpette, 2004). Both "Business French" and "French for International Conferences" count toward the major, though only one can be taken as a core course, the other being an elective. Because LSP courses have a professional orientation, they give undergraduates the impression of being prepared for the world of work. The use of total simulation comforts this impression because of its task-based approach and the fact that it recreates a work environment with its idiosyncrasies. Combined with information technology (OurVLE), it becomes an original and valuable method. The dual-mode adds flexibility to the course and expands access to authentic material. However, success depends heavily on students' learning autonomy, which is enhanced by a tool like OurVLE. Motivation and participation are essential for the success of students as evidenced by the results of the third-year student who was accepted while doing the first module of level II French and was one of the top two students in the course. Our experience suggests that the intensive format yields better results because it reinforces student concentration, dedication, and performance, which also benefit from the positive impact of the group dynamics. Recent development in the field shows an orientation toward multimedia and information technology to create virtual worlds where Total Simulation is made possible on a large scale. The combination of the two is very promising for language learning and teaching but presents new challenges to foreign language teachers and course developers. Notes 1Cali, Cheval, & Debardi (1992) identify the following categories: developing countries, developed countries, least developed countries, and Central or Eastern European countries in transition towards market economy. The latter category being now obsolete, the decision was made to replace it with countries in the same geographical region. TOTAL SIMULATION IN TEACHING LSP Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 82 2See https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/ and http://www.quid.fr. References Arthus-Bertrand, Y. (2009). Home. Home Project. Retrieved (September–November 2009) from http://www.youtube.com/homeprojectFR L'auberge. Retrieved February 21, 2010 from http://auberge.int.univ-lille3.fr/ Bourdeau, M., Bouygue, & M., Gatein, J. J. (1992). Le congrès médical: Simulation globale sur objectifs spécifiques. Ministère des affaires étrangères, sous direction de la coopération linguistique et éducative, CIEP-BELC, 1991/92. Sèvres: CIEP. Cali, C., Cheval, M., & Zabardi, A. (1992). La conférence internationale et ses variantes. Paris: Hachette, Français langue étrangère. Mangiante, J. M., & Parpette, C. (2004). Le français sur objectifs spécifiques: De l'analyse des besoins à l'élaboration d'un cours. Paris: Hachette. Le Monde Diplomatique. 2009. Paris: Editions "Le Monde." Retrieved from http://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/ Virtual Cabinet. Retrieved February 21, 2010 from http://sites.univ-lyon2.fr/vcab/demo/ Yaiche, F. (1996). Les simulations globales: Mode d'emploi. Paris: Hachette, Français langue étrangère. TOTAL SIMULATION IN TEACHING LSP Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 83 APPENDICES Appendix A Original submission to the Academic Quality Assurance Committee of the UWI, Mona Campus in 2003–2004. The assessment was subsequently modified to 100 percent coursework in 2005–2006. DEPARTMENT OF MODERN LANGUAGES & LITERATURES COURSE PROPOSAL Course Title: French for International Conferences Course Code: FREN 3118 Level: 3 Semester: 1 Credits: 3 Prerequisite: A Pass in F24A (FREN 2001) Co-requisite: F34A (FREN 3001) Contact hours: 4 hours per weeks (1 lecture, 1 writing tutorial, 1 oral expression, 1 listening comprehension) Rationale: French is one of the major languages of the United Nations and other inter-national institutions. In response to increased demand for specialized foreign language courses, this course will introduce students to the technical French of international relations and negotiations Course description: This course is designed to reproduce an international conference setting during which various aspects of diplomatic negotiations will be envisaged with a view to using French at the formal/foreign affairs level. Objectives: At the end of the course students should be able to Demonstrate understanding of French spoken in a formal/diplomatic setting Read articles in French on international issues. Write press reviews, press releases in French about an international issue. Express a personal view about a topical International issue in French Express a simulated official view about a topical International issue in French Simulate an official address in French Simulate a press conference in French TOTAL SIMULATION IN TEACHING LSP Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 84 ASSESSMENT 50% in-course: 3 one-hour in-class tests: Reading comprehension (15%); Writing (20%); Listening comprehension (15%) 50% Final Examination: Oral presentation (25%) and 2-hour written examination (25%) TEXTS La Conférence Internationale et ses Variantes. Chantal Cali, Mireille Cheval and Antoinette Zabardi. Paris: Hachette Livre, Français Langue Étrangère, 1995. Audio-visual material from TV5 (such as Kiosque, Une fois par mois, Le dessous des cartes). Articles from journals such as Le monde diplomatique. REFERENCES Plaisant, François. (2000). Le ministère des affaires étrangères. Toulouse: Editions Milan, Les Essentiels Milan, 2000. Kessler, Marie-Christine. (1998). La politique étrangère de la France. Paris: Presses de Sciences-Po. http://www.france.diplomatie.gouv.fr Appendix 2. Assessment grid for oral presentation Official Address: (5-minute presentation at the Opening Ceremony). Press Conference Part 1 and 2: Presentation of Country Position followed by Questions and Answer session). Students plays the country official and then the journalist parts. FREN 3118: Oral Presentation Assessment Grid NAME: Grade Comments Relevance of Arguments /5 Fluency /5 Consistent use of high-language register /3 Communicative skills /2 Accuracy and richness of vocabulary /5 Accuracy and use of complex syntactic structures /5 Accurate pronunciation /5 FINAL GRADE (25%) /25 TOTAL SIMULATION IN TEACHING LSP Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 85 FREN 3118: Press Conference Assessment Grid—Presenter NAME: Grade Comments Relevance of Arguments (5 pts. x 3 = 15) Presentation Answer (1) Answer (2) Fluency (5 pts. x 3 = 15) Presentation Answer (1) Answer (2) Consistent Use of High Language Register (3 pts. x 3 = 9) Presentation Answer (1) Answer (2) Communicative skills (2 pts. x 3 = 6) Presentation Answer (1) Answer (2) Accuracy and Richness of Vocabulary (5 pts. x 3 = 15) Presentation Answer (1) Answer (2) Accuracy and Use of Complex Syntactic Structures (5 pts. x 3 = 15) Presentation Answer (1) Answer (2) Accurate Pronunciation /5 marks x 3 = 15 Presentation Answer (1) Answer (2) Unconverted Total (90 pts.) / FINAL GRADE (15%) TOTAL SIMULATION IN TEACHING LSP Scholarship and Teaching on Languages for Specific Purposes (2013) 86 FREN 3118: Press Conference Assessment Grid—Journalist NAME: Grade Comments Relevance of question (5 pts. x 4 = 20) Question 1 (Name) Question 2 (Name) Question 3 (Name) Question 4 (Name) Fluency (5 pts. x 4 = 20) Question 1 (Name) Question 2 (Name) Question 3 (Name) Question 4 (Name) Consistent use of high-language register (3 pts. x 4 = 12) Question 1 (Name) Question 2 (Name) Question 3 (Name) Question 4 (Name) Accuracy and richness of vocabulary (5 pts. x 4 = 20) Question 1 (Name) Question 2 (Name) Question 3 (Name) Question 4 (Name) Accuracy and use of complex syntactic structures (5 pts. x 4 = 20) Question 1 (Name) Question 2 (Name) Question 3 (Name) Question 4 (Name) Accurate pronunciation (5 marks x 4 = 20) Question 1 (Name) Question 2 (Name) Question 3 (Name) Question 4 (Name) Unconverted Total (112 pts.) FINAL GRADE (10%)
SITTENGESCHICHTE DES WELTKRIEGES. 2 Sittengeschichte des Weltkrieges (-) Sittengeschichte des Weltkrieges. 2 (II. / 1930) ( - ) Einband ( - ) [Abb.]: ( - ) Titelseite ( - ) Impressum ( - ) Dreizehntes Kapitel Die Erotik des Hinterlandes Prostitution und Geschlechtskrankheiten in den Hauptstädten - Das Liebesleben der Kriegsjugend - Die Zerrüttung der Ehe - Wohin die Millionen der Kriegsgewinner wanderten - Nachtleben, Geheimclubs und Nacktbälle während des Krieges - Männliche Prostitution (1) [Abb.]: Hausball beim Heereslieferanten Zeichnung (1) [Abb.]: Der englische Kriegsgewinner zum deutschen: "Sie, armer Kollege, werden eingesperrt - mir geschieht nichts!" Aus "Punch", 1916 (2) [Abb.]: Zündholzmangel in Paris Zeichnung von A. Guillaume, 1917 (3) [2 Abb.]: (1)Das Hinterland Holzschnitt (2)Europa im Kriege Zeichnung (4) [Abb.]: Die vermännlichte Kriegerbraut Der Standesbeamte: "Entschuldigen Sie, meine Herren - wer von Ihnen ist nun die Braut?" Zeichnung von E. Huldmann in "Lustige Blätter", 1918 (5) [Abb.]: Marguerite vor dem Entblättern Zeichnung von S. Montassier in "Le Sourire de France", 1917 (6) [Abb.]: "Tauben" über Paris Bild aus den Tagen der deutschen Fliegerüberfälle (7) [2 Abb.]: (1)Hunger und Liebe Zeichnung (2)Budapester Kriegsgewinner "mulatieren" Zeichnung (8) [Abb.]: Der Tod und der Kriegskapitalist Zeichnung von Albert Hahn in "De Notenkraker", 1915 (9) [2 Abb.]: (1)Urlaubsfreuden Titelblatt der "Jugend", 1915 (2)Nacktkultur aus Stoffmangel in Frankreich "Ein Meter Stoff genügt, sich anständig zu kleiden." Zeichnung von G. Pavis in "La Vie Parisienne, 1917 (10) [Abb.]: Die Marraine "Heute kommt mein Patenkind von der Front, massieren Sie mir, den Bauch weg!" (11) [Abb.]: Der vielumworbene Gurkha Deutsche Karikatur auf den Rassenfetischismus der Engländerin im Kriege Zeichnung von H. Strohofer in "Muskete", 1915 (12) [2 Abb.]: (1)Kriegsgewinnermoral Aus "Hallo! Die große Revue" (2)Postkarte aus der Kriegszeit Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (13) [2 Abb.]: (1)"Gott der Gerechte! Wird doch nicht ein Frieden ausbrechen, jetzt wo ich noch 10.000 Paar Stiefel und 1000 Rucksäcke auf Lager habe!" Zeichnung von D. R. André in "Glühlichter", 1915 (2)Gold nahm er für Eisen Zeichnung aus "Krieg dem Kriege", Prolet, Freidenker, Leipzig (14) [2 Abb.]: (1)(2)Eisenbahnfahrt im Kriege "Die Passagiere" haben auf die Bequemlichkeit der Mitreisenden Rücksicht zu nehmen." Zeichnung von Martin in "La Vie Parsienne", 1918 (15) [2 Abb.]: (1)Erkennst du mich nicht? Ich bin dein Gatte." Zeichnung von G. Pavis in "La Vie Parisienne", 1916 (2)Gemüsegarten und Hühnerhof im Heim Zeichnung von D. R. André in "Glühlichter", 1915 (16) [2 Abb.]: Vom Bois de Boulogne zum Priesterwald (1)Auf dem Pfade der Tugend (2)Auf dem Wege zum Kriege Zeichnung von C. Hérouard in "La Vie Parisienne", 1912 ( - ) [6 Abb.]: Seine Kriegstrophäen (1)1. "Kommen Sie mit, ich zeige Ihnen meine Kriegstrophäen!" (2)2. "Diese Helme habe ich an der Marne den Boches vom Kopf gerissen!"(3)3. "Diese Granate hätte mir bei einem Haar das Lebenslicht ausgeblasen." (4)4. "Eine ganz hübsche Sammlung, nicht wahr"? (5)5. "Oh, Sie sind ein Held!" (6)6. "Jetzt haben Sie eine Kriegstrophäe mehr!" Aus "La Vie Parisienne", 1915 (17) [Abb.]: Stahlbad zu Hause Zeichnung (18) [Abb.]: Revanche für Kolumbus Die Entdeckung einer neuen Halbwelt in Paris durch amerikanische Seefahrer Zeichnung von G. Pavis in "La Vie Parisienne", 1918 (19) [Abb.]: Graf Bernstorff amüsiert sich Photographische Karikatur aus "Fantasio", 1916 (20) [Abb.]: Rassenverbrüderung in London Zeichnung von Th. Th. Heine in "Gott strafe England", Simplicissimus-Verlag, 1916 (21) [2 Abb.]: (1)Fühlungsnahme Zeichung in "Fidibus", 1917 (2)Französische Kriegswohltätigkeit Plakat im Musee Leblanc, Paris (22) [Abb.]: Kriegskinder beim Broterwerb Zeichnung (23) [2 Abb.]: (1)Beim Uniformschneider "Für den Schützengraben?" - "Nein, für den Boulevard." Aus "Le Rire rouge", 1917 (2)"Licht auslöschen, Zeppelin kommt!" Zeichnung von Raoul Vion in "Le Rire roug", 1915 (24) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die fallengelassene Brotkarte Zeichnung von Auglay in "Le Rire Rouge", 1916 (2)Hinterlandstaumel Holzschnitt (25) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Stratege in Paris Zeichnung von Fournier in "Sourire de France", 1917 (2)Plakat einer Wohltätigkeitsaktion der Pariser Restaurateure zugunsten der Urlauber aus den besetzten Gebieten Nach dem Original im Musee Leblance, Paris (26) [2 Abb.]: (1)Frau Hamster im Kriege Zeichnung von Th. Th. Heine, aus "Kleine Bilder aus großer Zeit" (2)Untauglich "Aus dem nämlichen Grunde, der die Musterungskommission veranlaßt hat, Sie zurückzustellen." Zeichnung von K. A. Wilke in "Muskete", 1915 (27) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Amerikaner und die Pariserin Aus "Lustige Blätter", 1917 (2)Das Kriegskind hungert Zeichnung (28) [Abb.]: Durchhalten Zeichnung von George Grosz in "Abrechnung folgt" (29) [Abb.]: Aus der großen Zeit der Lebensmittelkarten "Haben Sie vom Arzt eine Bezugskarte für Milch?" Zeichnung von G. Zórád in "Fidibus", 1917 (30) [Abb.]: "Dreißigtausend Tote? Kellner, noch 'n Schnaps!" Zeichnung von E. Thöny in "Franzos' und Russ' in Spiritus", Simplicissimus-Verlag. 1915 (31) [Abb.]: Der lustige Krieg Zeichnung (32) [2 Abb.]: Das Kriegskind bei Volk und Hautevolee (1)Verdächtige Fülle "Was haben Sie da unter ihrem Rock verborgen?" "n'lütten Kriegsjung', Herr Wachtmeister!" (2)Im Zweifel "O Gott, Herr Sanitätsrat! Glauben Sie den wirklich, daß ich in der Hoffnung bin?" Aus der Mappe eines Heimkriegers, Sammlung des Instituts für Sexualwissenschaft, Berlin ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)"Sie sagen, das Kind ist schwarz? Hätten sie Ihre Frau nicht in den Unterstand kommen lassen!" Zeichnung von M. Rodiguet in "Le Rire Rouge", 1916 (2)Das Lob das Unabkömmlichen "Unsere Jungens schlagen sich gut, das muß man ihnen lassen!" Zeichnung (33) [Abb.]: Erwünschter Zuwachs "Warum sind Sie den heut' so kreuzfidel, Herr Offizial?" - "Ja wissen S', Fräul'n Mizzi, meine Frau hat Drillinge kriegt, und da bekommen wir jetzt um drei Brotkarten mehr." Zeichnung von H. Krenes, 1917 (34) [Abb.]: Auf der Flucht vor dem "Raid" Die Luftüberfälle auf Paris, vor denen man sich in die Keller flüchtete, gaben dem Klatsch und dem Witz reichen Stoff und den Friedhöfen Tote Zeichnung (35) [Abb.]: "Oh, the Zeppelins!" Zeichnung (36) [Abb.]: Die Zuaven in Paris Zeichnung aus "L'Illustration", 1914 (37) [3 Abb.]: (1)"Das Mehl oder das Leben!" Zeichnung von D. R. André in "Glühlichter", 1914 (2)Der Kriegssäugling (3)Hochbetrieb bei der Wahrsagerin Zeichnungen von Th. Th. Heine in "Kleine Bilder aus großer Zeit" (38) [Abb.]: Atelierfest in den Kriegsjahren Sammlung C. Moreck, Berlin (39) [2 Abb.]: (1)Mit Blut begossen blüht das Kapital Zeichnung (2)Siegreich woll'n wir Frankreich schlagen! Zeichnung von George Grosz in "Abrechnung folgt" (40) [2 Abb.]: (1)Wer ist an der Teuerung schuld? "Was diese verfluchten Sozialdemokraten nur immer vom Zwischenhandel wollen? Soll ich die Ware vielleicht unterm Selbstkostenpreis hergeben?" Zeichnung von R. Herrmann in "Glühlichter", 1915 (2)Der unerschöpfliche Stoff für Pariser Karikaturisten: Vor dem Zeppelin in den Keller (41) [2 Abb.]: (1)Pariser Geselligkeit 1917 Zeichnung (2)Schlußvignette aus "Fidibusz", 1916 (42) Vierzehntes Kapitel Die Verwundeten und Kranken Hodenschüsse und Rückenmarksverletzungen - Die Eunuchen des Weltkrieges - Der Invalide und die Frauen - Perversionen und Impotenz als Kriegsfolge - Kriegsneurosen und Sexualität - Sadistische Behandlungsmethoden - Selbstverstümmelung durch venerische Selbstansteckung (43) [Abb.]: "Weißt du, Kamerad, was sie mir wegoperiert haben?" Zeichnung (43) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ein Geschenk vom Militär Zeichnung von M. Dufet in "Le Sourire de France", 1917 (2)"Ich danke schön! Wenn man sich seine Verwundeten nicht einmal aussuchen kann, da tue ich nicht mit!" Zeichnung von R. Herrmann in "Glühlichter", 1914 (44) [Abb.]: Der Neid (!) Zeichnung von J. Simont in "L'Illustration", 1916 (45) [Abb.]: "Man hat mir's abgeschnitten." Zeichnung (46) [Abb.]: Ein Kriegseunuch Der von einem Geschoß entmannte italienische Soldat zeigt in typischer Weise Enthaarung, Fettablagerung und Gesichtsausdruck des Geschlechtslosen. Aus Hirschfeld, Sexualpathologie I (47) [Abb.]: Plakatkrieg im Kriege Links: Eine Kundmachung des Bürgermeisters des besetzten Brüssel, worin er eine von deutscher Seite verbreitete "Stimmungsnachricht" dementiert. Rechts: Die deutsche Antwort. Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (48) [Abb.]: Der Invalide und die Frauen Zeichnung ( - ) [Abb.]: "Nur Mut, mein Lieber, in acht Tagen sind Sie wieder an der Front!" Zeichnung von R. Harrmann in "Glühlichter", Wien 1915 (49) [Abb.]: Für die Reichen ist die Beute, für das Volk die Not der Kriege Zeichnung von George Grosz in "Abrechnung folgt" (50) [Abb.]: Große und kleine Zeit "Jetzt hör' ma auf! Wiast Sodat warst, hast an Ausnahmspreis begehrt, und jetzt kummst mit der Ausred' als Heimkehrer." Zeichnung von D. Knapp in "Faun", 1919 (51) [Abb.]: "Den Kerl kenne ich, das ist ein Simulant, das falsche Bein ist nicht echt!" Zeichnung von R. Herrmann in "Bilder aus dem Alltagsleben" (52) [Abb.]: Die belohnte Tapferkeit oder der Singalese im Lazarett Zeichnung (53) [Abb.]: Der einbeinige Verehrer Zeichnung (54) [Abb.]: Ein von einer Granate verschütteter Soldat, der knapp vor dem Verhungern als Knochen und Haut gerettet und ins Lazarett geschafft wurde Photographische Aufnahme, Sammlung Dr. Sax, Wien (55) [Abb.]: Der Invalide Zeichnung von V. Erdey, 1915 (57) [Abb.]: Hoher Besuch im k. u. k. Kriegsspital Zeichnung (58) [Abb.]: Die Lesestunde Zeichnung von J. Simont in "L'Illustration", 1916 (59) [Abb.]: Die Kaufmannmethode In der Behandlung der Zitterneurose im Kriege lebten die mittelalterlichen Torturen mit modernsten Raffinement auf Zeichnung (60) [Abb.]: Hinter Lazarettmauern Zeichnung (61) [Abb.]: Dirne und Krüppel Zeichnung (62) [Abb.]: Der Pflichtvergessene Zeichnung (63) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Wunde Holzschnitt (2)Grabkarte eines jüdischen Soldaten im englischen Heer (64) [Abb.]: Das Brandopfer Aus dem russischen Antikriegsfilm "Der Mann, der sein Gedächtnis verlor" (65) [Abb.]: Freund Janosch hat es gut, seine Frau hat ihn besucht Zeichnung (67) [Abb.]: Der kriegsblinde Gatte Zeichnung (68) [Abb.]: Theatervorstellung der Patienten in einem englischen Kriegslazarett Photographische Aufnahme (69) [Abb.]: Frisch aus dem Stahlbad Zeichnung (70) [Abb.]: "Diese Leute könnten wohl - sie wollen bloß nicht arbeiten!" Zeichnung von George Grosz in "Gesicht der herrschenden Klasse" (71) [Abb.]: Verwundetentransport beim geschlagenen serbischen Heer auf mazedonischen Bauernkarren Aus "L'Illustration", 1916 (72) [Abb.]: "Der Dank des Vaterlandes ist euch gewiß!" Zeichnung von George Grosz in "Gesicht der herrschenden Klasse" (73) [Abb.]: Die Zarin und ihre zwei Töchter, die Großfürstinnen Olga und Tatjana, als Pflegerinnen Aus "L'Illustration", 1915 (74) [Abb.]: Die Nerven im Kriege 1. Vollkommen durchtrennter Nerv. 2. Scheinbar unvollkommen durchtrennter Nerv, der aber keinen Impuls mehr vermittelt. 3. und 4. Durch Geschoß zur Schwellung gebrachte funktionsunfähige Nerven. 5. und 6. Zerstörte Nerven (partielle Paralyse). Aus "The Graphic", 1916 (75) [Abb.]: Bordell in der französischen Etappe Zeichnung (77) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Klassenordnung Zeichnung (2)Es lebe Poincaré! - Es lebe Stinnes! Zeichnung von R. Minor, New York (79) [Abb.]: Das Kriegsbeil wird im Tintenfaß begraben Zeichnung (80) [Abb.]: Ernteurlaub Zeichnung von A. Stadler, 1916 ( - ) Fünfzehntes Kapitel Die Gefangenen Die Frauen und der Kriegsgefangene - Die Geschlechtsnot und ihre Folgen - Surrogatonanie und andere sexuelle Ersatzhandlungen - Homosexualität und Transvestitismus hinter dem Drahtzaun. (81) [Abb.]: Schönheitsparade vor dem Gefangenenlager Zeichnung (81) [2 Abb.]: (1)Hinter Stacheldraht Aus "L'Illustration", 1915 (2)Dämonen im Gefangenenlager Zeichnung eines Kriegsgefangenen Sammlung A. Munk, Subatica (82) [Abb.]: Deutsche Kriegsgefangene In "L'Illustration", 1915, als Photo zum Studium deutscher Physiognomien veröffentlicht (83) [Abb.]: Menschen im Käfig Szene aus dem amerikanischen Antikriegsfilm "Stacheldraht" (84) [2 Abb.]: Schwarze Franzosen in der Gefangenschaft Aus "Ill. Geschichte der Weltkrieges", Stuttgart (85) [Abb.]: "Russische Kriegsgefangene sterben Hungers!" Französisches Plakat Archives photographiques d'art et d'histoire, Paris (86) [3 Abb.]: (1)Der kriegsgefangene französische Maler Rogerol wurde wegen Rauchens in der Baracke in Holzminden drei Tage lang je zwei Stunden angebunden Nach der Originalaufnahme im Musée Leblanc, Paris (2)(3)Erlebnisse eines in Deutschland internierten japanischen Malers Links: Brotausgabe bei strömendem Regen, rechts: Eine Ausländerin wird eingeliefert Aus "The Graphic", 1915 (87) [Abb.]: Ein angeblich in deutscher Gefangenschaft während des Anbindens gestorbener Engländer Zeichnung von J. Touchet in "L'Illustration", 1916 (88) [Abb.]: Der Gefangenschaft entgegen Photographische Aufnahme (89) [Abb.]: Von englischen Luftballonen abgeworfene Botschaft an die deutschen Soldaten Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (90) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Künstler des Lagers bei der Arbeit Zeichnung (2)Der Starschi schmuggelt eine Frau ins Gefangenenlager Zeichnung (91) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Internierten in Deutschland Darstellung eines französischen Plakats, 1917 (2)Russische Kriegsgefangene als Bühnenkünstler Sammlung des Instituts für Sexualwissenschaft, Berlin (92) [2 Abb.]: Die deutschen Gefangenlager in Frankreich (1)für gewöhnlich . (2). und wenn der amerikanische Botschafter revidieren kommt Zeichnungen von O. Gulbransson in "Franzos' und Russ' in Spiritus", Simplicissimus-Verlag, 1915 (93) [Abb.]: "Fünfzig Kopeken für das Nachschauen!" Zeichnung (94) [2 Abb.]: (1)Geschlechtsnot und Geschlechtshunger hinter dem Zaun Zeichnung (2)Typen aus dem Jekaterinburger Freudenhaus Zeichnung eines Kriegsgefangenen Sammlung A. Munk, Subotica (95) [Abb.]: "Herbstmanöver" in einem russischen Kriegsgefangenentheater Photographische Aufnahme (96) [2 Abb.]: Typen aus einem französischen Gefangenenlager (1)Oben: Das Liebeslied. - (2)Unten: Der kleine Herrgott des Lagers. Zeichnungen von M. Orange in "L'Illustration", 1915 ( - ) [4 Abb.]: Französische und englische Kriegsgefangene spielen Theater Aus der Sammlung des Instituts für Sexualwissenschaft, Berlin (97) [Abb.]: Erotisches Ornament - ein häufiges Mittel der Ersatzbefriedigung im Gefangenenlager Zeichnung eines Kriegsgefangenen Sammlung des Instituts für Sexualwissenschaft, Berlin (98) [2 Abb.]: (1)Das dramatische Ensemble des österreichisch-ungarischen Mannschaftstheaters in Kresty (2)"Othello"-Aufführung im Gefangenenlager in Ruhleben Aus "The Graphic", 1916 (99) [2 Abb.]: (1)Szene aus einem Kriegsgefangenentheater deutscher Soldaten Sammlung des Instituts für Sexualwissenschaft, Berlin (2)Programm eines französischen Gefangenentheaters Sammlung des Instituts für Sexualwissenschaft, Berlin (100) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ein transvestitischer Gefangener in seiner Lieblingsrolle Photographische Aufnahme Sammlung K. F. (2)Der mannweibliche Star des Gefangenentheaters Sammlung des Instituts für Sexualwissenschaft, Berlin (101) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Transvestit des Lagers und seine Flamme Lichtbild aus dem Besitz eines Kriegsgefangenen (2)Kriegskinder spielen Zeichnung von Th. Th. Heine in "Kleine Bilder aus großer Zeit" (102) Sechzehntes Kapitel Erotik und Spionage Die Frauen im Geheimdienste - Berühmte Spionageaffären und Spioninnen des Weltkrieges - Märtyrinnen, Abenteurerinnen und Kokotten (103) [Abb.]: Das Schlafpulver der Spionin Zeichnung (103) [Abb.]: Das Feldgericht als Hinrichtungsmaschine Plakat aus dem besetzten Rußland Sammlung A. Wolff. Leipzig (104) [Abb.]: Leibesvisitation einer Spionin durch russische Soldaten Zeichnung (105) [Abb.]: Was die Liebe bei ihr kostet Zeichnung (107) [Abb.]: Miss Edith Cavell, deren Hinrichtung als Spionin durch die deutschen Besatzungsbehörden in Belgien der Ententepropaganda die besten Dienste erwies Photographische Aufnahme (108) [Abb.]: In London wird die Hinrichtung der Pflegerin Miss Cavell zu Rekrutierungszwecken benutzt Photographische Aufnahme (109) [Abb.]: Die Hinrichtung der Miss Cavell im Spiegel der englischen Propaganda Postkarte, Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (110) [Abb.]: Vor Landesverrat wird gewarnt! Photographische Aufnahme in "L'Illustration", 1915 (111) [Abb.]: Eine Kollektion deutscher Spione Zeichnung von L. Métivet in "Fantasio", 1915 (112) [Abb.]: Die Spionageangst auf einem deutschen Plakat Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig ( - ) [Abb.]: Typen deutscher Spione Pariser Straßenplakat zur Ankündigung eines Zeitungsromans über Spionage Archives photographiques d'art et d'histoire, Paris (113) [Abb.]: Das Schäferstündchen bei der Spionin Zeichnung (115) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ausschnitt aus der Wilnaer Armeezeitung Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (2)Warnung vor Spionen Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (117) [Abb.]: Der Kampf der deutschen Besatzungsbehörden gegen Spionage Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (118) [Abb.]: Mata Hari vom ritterlichen Frankreich hingerichtet Zeichnung von Trier (nach einem Gemälde von Manet) in "Lustige Blätter", 1916 (119) [Abb.]: Die Treuhänderin der Generalstabsgeheinisse Zeichnung (121) [Abb.]: Spionagepsychose Deutsches Plakat aus dem Jahre 1914 Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (122) [Abb.]: "Du warst vor dem Kriege Spion?" "Keine Spur, ich war Fräulein bei einem Generalstäbler in Verdun." Zeichnung von R. Joly in "Baionnette", 1916 (123) [Abb.]: Russische Strafjustiz an einer Spionin Zeichnung (125) [Abb.]: Sexus dominator Zeichnung (126) [Abb.]: Spionage und Liebe Zeichnung (127) [Abb.]: Französische Haß- und Hetzkarikatur anläßlich der Hinrichtung der Miss Cavell ( - ) [Abb.]: Die Töchter des französischen Generals: "O Papa, das neue Fräulein ist ein Wunder; sie hat ihre Augen überall!" (Die in Frankreich beschäftigten deutschen Erzieherinnen wurden nach Kriegsausbruch samt und sonders für Spioninnen erklärt) Zeichnung von Gerda Wegener in "La Baionnette", 1916 (129) [Abb.]: Die Bekanntmachung des Todesurteils der Miss Cavell Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (130) [Abb.]: Englische Soldaten verhaften in Frankreich einen Spion beim Signalgeben Zeichnung eines englischen Offiziers in "Illustrated London News", 1915 (131) [Abb.]: Der russische Militärattaché in Bern Oberst von Romejko-Gurko (x) im Dienst Aus Ronge, Kriegs- und Industriespionage, Amalthea-Verlag (133) [Abb.]: Die Spionin im Kurierabteil Zeichnung (135) [Abb.]: Brief des russischen Generalstabes an Oberst Redl Aus Ronge, Kriegs- und Industriespionage, Amalthea-Verlag (136) [Abb.]: Oberst Redl Photo aus M. Hirschfeld, Geschlechtskunde (137) [2 Abb.]: Russische Konfidentin (Ruthenin) (1)in der Stadt (2)an der Front Aus Ronge, Kriegs- und Industriespionage, Amalthea-Verlag (139) [Abb.]: Schnelljustiz gegen Spione in Galizien Photographische Aufnahme (140) [Abb.]: Ein Exempel wird statuiert Zeichnung (141) [Abb.]: Auch die Kenntnis des Aufenthaltes eines Spions kostet das Leben Plakat aus Russisch-Polen Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (143) [Abb.]: Damenduell in Paris 1916 Zeichnung aus "La Baionnette" ( - ) [Abb.]: Hinrichtung eines Südslaven Photographische Aufnahme (145) [2 Abb.]: (1)Irma Straub, die gefürchtetste deutsch Spionin des Weltkrieges Photographische Aufnahme (2)Augustine - Joséphine A., eine in Nantes hingerichtete Spionin (146) [Abb.]: Deutsche Bekanntmachung im besetzten Nordfrankreich Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (147) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eugéne T . in Gesellschaft eines ihrer Liebhaber (wahrscheinlich deutscher Spion) (2)Der deutsche Geheimkrieg gegen Frankreichs Armee Das deutsche Fräulein: "Merk dirs, Kleine, Kinder zur Welt zu bringen ist eine Dummheit - du wirst das später verstehen!" Zeichnung von P. Portelette in "La Baionnette", 1916 (148) Siebzehntes Kapitel Der Drill Sadismus und Masochismus im Drill - Erotik in Verbrechen und Strafe - Hinrichtung zur Kriegszeit - Psychologie der Fahnenflucht - Vorgesetzte und Untergebene (149) [Abb.]: Kriegsgreuel einst wie jetzt Aus "Los desastres de la Guerra" von Francisco Coya (1746 - 1828) (149) [Abb.]: Manneszucht Zeichnung (150) [Abb.]: Offiziers- und Mannschaftsdienst Zeichnung (151) [3 Abb.]: (1)(2)Gestörtes Rendezvous oder die stramme Ehrenbezeigung Zeichnung von Puttkammer in "Lustige Blätter", 1917 (3)Äh, bei Etappenbelichtung, Krieg jöttliche Einrichtung Hurra, bei Lieb und Suff immer feste druff!! Aus "Hallo! Die große deutsche Revue", Bilderbuch zur Reichstagswahl 1924 (152) [Abb.]: Der deutsche Militarismus Russische Karikatur von J. Griselli in "Solnze Rossij" 1915 (153) [Abb.]: "Wie soll ich ihn nur aufmerksam machen, daß die Frau nicht standesgemäß ist?" Zeichnung von Rajki in "Le Rire rouge",1916 (154) [Abb.]: Willies letztes Aufgebot Aus dem Bilderbuch "The sad experience of big and little Willie", London (155) [Abb.]: Erziehung zum Blutdurst im englischen Heer - "Hau hin! Bring ihn um! Du kitzelst ihn ja nur!" Zeichnung von F. Reynolds in "Punch", 1918 (156) [Abb.]: "Wenn die Soldaten nicht solche Dummköpfe wären, würden sie mir schon längst davongelaufen sein" (Fridericus Rex) Zeichnung von George Grosz in "Abrechnung folgt" (157) [Abb.]: Erziehung zur Wehrhaftigkeit Zeichnung (158) [Abb.]: Die Offiziere trinken - die Mannschaft draußen zitterte vor Kälte Zeichnung (159) [Abb.]: Das Kriegsgericht Kupferstich von Jacques Callot (1594 - 1635) (160) [Abb.]: Blutrausch und Geschlecht Zeichnung von P. Nanteuil, Pairs 1916 ( - ) [Abb.]: Der Sturmangriff Zeichnung von Ch. Fouqueray in "L'Illustration", 1915 (161) [Abb.]: Moderne Sklaverei Zeichnung von R. Herrmann in "Bilder aus dem Alltagsleben" (162) [Abb.]: Die Frau des Majors und ihre Zofe Zeichnung (163) [Abb.]: Aus "Sourire de France", 1917 (164) [Abb.]: Französische "Nettoyeurs" an der Arbeit Zeichnung (165) [Abb.]: Aus großer Zeit . und die, denen die Verbindungen zur Kirche, Militarismus und Kapital fehlten, die nahm der Herr zu sich Zeichnung von J. Danilowatz in "Faun", 1919 (166) [Abb.]: Angebunden! Zeichnung (167) [Abb.]: Der Feldherr in der Kaserne und zu Hause Zeichnung (168) [Abb.]: Lustmord im Bilde Aus der Kriegsmappe des französischen Zeichners J. S. Domergue "Die deutschen Greuel" (169) [Abb.]: Aus großer Zeit - Verdiensttauglich! Zeichnung (170) [Abb.]: Wie die Kriegspropaganda arbeitet Dem auf dem Bilde ersichtlichen russischen Unteroffizier sollen die Deutschen die Ohren abgeschnitten haben. (!) Wenigstens wurde das Bild mit diesem Kommentar in einer Anzahl Ententezeitschriften veröffentlicht. Aus "The Graphic", 1915 (171) [Abb.]: Das Spielzeug für brave Kriegskinder (172) [Abb.]: Notzucht Zeichnung von H. Paul, Paris 1916 (173) [Abb.]: Ein französischer Soldat zeigt den Deutschen drüben sein auf Bajonett aufgespießtes Brot Zeichnung eines englischen Soldaten 1916 (174) [2 Abb.]: Kriegslüge und Photographie (1)Die Originalaufnahme, in einer englischen Zeitung veröffentlicht, zeigt den russischen Einfall in Ungarn. (2)Die retouchierte Wiedergabe in der "Wiener Illustrierten Zeitung" soll bereits den Zusammenbruch der Russen in Galizien darstellen. Aus "L'Illustration", 1915 (175) [Abb.]: "Um Gotteswillen, was treibt ihr hier?" - "Wir machen einen Gasüberfall" Aus "Punch", 1916 (176) [Abb.]: Die Streichholzkrise Zeichnung von G. Léonnec, Paris 1917 ( - ) [Abb.]: Knüppelpost, durch die französische Truppen die Deutschen zur Übergabe aufforderten Photographische Aufnahme (177) [Abb.]: Die Rednerkunst im Kriege Holzschnitt (178) [Abb.]: Ist der Krieg schon zu Ende? - Hausfassade mit Kriegsgreueln in Leipzig Photographische Aufnahme, Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (179) [Abb.]: Der Zensor Zeichnung von R. Herrmann in "Glühlichter", Wien 1915 (180) [Abb.]: Vor der Schändung Aus der sadistischen Mappe von J. S. Domergue, "Les Atrocités Allemandes", 1915 (181) [Abb.]: Der Herr hat's gegeben, das Volk hat's genommen Zeichnung von Roland in "Faun", 1919 (182) Achtzehntes Kapitel Die Propaganda Die zwei Kategorien der Haß- und Lügenpropaganda - Haß und Sadismus in Literatur, Kunst und Pornographie - Wie Frauen und Kinder hassen - Die unbeabsichtigte Lüge im Weltkrieg - Massenpsychose in den Franktireurkämpfen - Einige sado-erotische Kriegslügen - Sexuelle Anwürfe gegen den Feind: die "deutsche" Päderastie und die "französischen" Perversitäten (183) [Abb.]: Der Sadismus in Kriegszeichnungen Das Blatt, der Mappe "Les Atrocités Allemandes" von J. S. Domergue entnommen, zeigt die Hinrichtung eines belgischen Soldaten, dem drei Deutsche den Halswirbel brechen. Der Bericht und seine Darstellung sind gleichermaßen bezeichnend für die sadistische Phantasie der Zeit (183) [Abb.]: Die Presse im Kriege Holzschnitt (184) [4 Abb.]: Vier Blätter aus der italienischen Mappe "Danza macabra". Die vor Italiens Kriegseintritt veröffentlichten, gegen alle Kriegsteilnehmer gerichteten Zeichnungen sind ausgesprochen sadistischer Art (185) [Abb.]: Deutsche Gedenkmünze - der Haßgesang in Metall Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (186) [Abb.]: Der Triumph des Hasses Zeichnung von Gordon M. Forsyth in "Labour Leader", 1915 (187) [Abb.]: Eine typische deutschfeindliche Hetzkarikatur Zeichnung von Emilio Kupfer in "Critica", Buenos Aires, 1915 (188) [2 Gedichte]: (1)Richard Dehmel wird nicht leugnen können, daß er einmal ein Gedicht geschrieben hat "An mein Volk": (2)Heute ist er Freiwilliger geworden und seine Begeisterung entzündet sich an dem Bersten des Schrapnells, an dem Zerschmettern des Fendes: (188) [Abb.]: "Wie sie Krieg führen!" Hetzgemälde (189) [Gedicht]: So kommt Arno Holz zu seinem "deutschen Schnadahüpfel": (189) [Gedicht]: Erwähnt sei noch H. Vierordts Aufruf "Deutschland, hasse"! (190) [Abb.]: Beitrag zur Franktireurpsychose: In Nordfrankreich werden Geiseln ausgehoben Plakat aus der Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (190) [Lied]: So, Sudermann, der über Nacht zum Bänkelsänger geworden war, mit einem Lied, das, von Humperdinck vertont, im Berliner Theater des Westens unter lebhafter Beteiligung des Publikums vorgetragen wurde: (190) [Abb.]: Neun Deutsche und eine Französin Aus der sadistischen Kriegsmappe "Les Atrocités Allemandes" (191) [Lied]: Das Lied, als dessen Herausgeber die "Vereinigung der Kunstfreunde" zeichnet, lautet: (191) [Gedicht]: Alfons Petzold schreibt: (191) [3 Gedichte]: (1)So feuerte ein dichtfroher französischer General, der wahrscheinlich niemals in der Kampflinie war, dafür aber allem Anschein nach als Sadist anzusprechen ist, seine Soldaten mit folgenden Versen zum Kampfe an: (2)Und in einem anderen "Chanson de route" überschriebenen Gedicht: (3)Der Choral der Gepeitschten. (192) [Abb.]: Flieger über Paris Zeichnung von A. Vallée in "La Vie Parisienne", 1918 ( - ) [Abb.]: Wie sie sich begeilen Zeichnung aus der sadistischen Hetzmappe von J. S. Domergue "Die deutschen Greuel", Paris 1915 (193) [Abb.]: Die Schreckensnacht in Löwen Französische Propagandapostkarte (194) [Abb.]: Die französische Propaganda gegen deutsche Waren. "Der Boche, der gemordet und geplündert hat und der Geschäftsvertreter, der seine Ware anbietet, sind ein und dieselbe Person" Nach dem Original im "Musée Leblanc", Paris (195) [Abb.]: Unterhaltung in Mußestunden Hetzkarikatur aus dem italienischen Kriegsalbum "Gli Unni e gli altri", Mailand 1915 (196) [Gedicht]: Wir zitieren als Beispiel ein Gedicht von Pierre Chapelle aus dem Jahre 1917 "L'horrible conception": (197) [Abb.]: Ein Beitrag zum Stahlbadhumor: Eine als Postkarte verbreitete Todesanzeige (198) [Abb.]: Das französische Mobilisierungsplakat in der Pariser Straße. Darunter gleich ein Plakat der Hetzpropaganda Archives photographiques d'art et d'histoire, Paris (199) [Abb.]: Die Stunde des Morgenhasses bei einer deutschen Familie Aus "Punch", 1915 (200) [Abb.]: Serbischer Knabe als Soldat Photo aus "La France héroique", Éd. Larousse, Paris (201) [Abb.]: Wie Kinder hassen! Zeichnung eines achtjährigen griechischen Mädchens. Der niedergestochene Feind ist ein Bulgare Aus "Fantasio", 1916 (202) [Abb.]: Helden fern vom Schuß "Haltet stand, ihr tapferen Soldaten - wir verspritzen begeistert unsere beste Tinte - tut ihr dasselbe mit eurem Blut!" Zeichnung von R. Herrmann, 1915 (203) [Lied]: Fast alle von uns hatten Frauen oder Geliebte, die zu Hause auf uns warteten, und es war ergreifend, eine Schar von Männern, deren Leben neun Pence von einem Pfund wert war, die Ballade singen zu hören: (203) [Lied]: Im übrigen stehe hier das unbestritten beliebteste und meistgesungene Lied der amerikanischen und englischen Soldaten des Weltkrieges, eine prächtige Blüte der Friedenssehnsucht: (203) [Abb.]: Englische Unschuld "O Mutter, ich möchte so gerne ein Engel sein!" - "Warum?" - "Weil ich dann fliegen und Bomben auf die Germans werfen könnte!" Aus "Punch", 1915 (204) [Abb.]: Von Pferden zerrissen Die Zeichnung, aus der sadistischen Hetzmappe von J. S. Domergue, "Die deutschen Greuel", zeigt die Hinrichtung eines französischen Offiziers, die zwar gemeldet wurde, aber natürlich niemals stattfand (205) [Abb.]: Russische Kinder spielen Soldaten Photo aus "Solnze Rossij", Petrograd 1915 (206) [Abb.]: Pariser Straßenplakat für einen deutschfeindlichen Roman aus den ersten Kriegswochen, von Abel Truchet Nach dem Original im Musée Leblance, Paris (207) [Abb.]: Die Französin zum französischen Offizier: Bring mir einen neuen Gummibusen aus Paris - der alte ist kaputt." - Der Offizier: "Ich schicke ihn ins Kriegsmuseum - es heißt ohnedies, die Deutschen schneiden unseren Frauen die Brüste ab!" Zeichnung (208) [Abb.]: Der erotische Kitsch in der Kriegspostkarten-Industrie der Entente ( - ) [Abb.]: Wo die Kriegsgreuel erfunden wurden Zeichnung (209) [Abb.]: Mit den Augen des italienischen Kriegskarikaturisten Zeichnung von Cesare Piris, 1916 (210) [4 Abb.]: Indische Kriegskarikaturen (1)Deutschland wird erdrosselt (2)Der britische Löwe und der Hunne (3)Indien betet für Englands Sieg (4)Indien und England einig Aus dem Witzblatt "The Hindi Punch", Bombay 1916 (211) [Abb.]: Feuilletonisten an die Front! "Behalten werden sie uns gewiß nicht. Wie könnten wir denn die Psychologie des Schützengrabens täglich beschreiben, wenn wir sie einmal selbst erleben müßten?" Zeichnung von Carl Josef in "Muskete", 1915 (212) [Abb.]: Anzeige einer Ausstellung über die "deutschen Verbrechen" in Paris (1917) Archives photographiques d'art et d'histoire, Paris (213) [Abb.]: D'Annunzios Manuskript zu seinem beim Flug über Wien abgeworfenen Flugzettel (214) [Abb.]: Der englische Schauspieler Salisbury als Wilhelm II. in einer englischen Kriegsposse, 1915 in London aufgeführt Phot. Foulshalm & Bonfield (215) [Abb.]: Die niedliche Marneschlacht Zeichnung von Hansi, 1915 (216) [Abb.]: Die Vergewaltigung Serbiens Nach einem Gemälde (217) [3 Abb.]: Das Hinterland soll Tabak, Zucker und Leder sparen! Plakatentwürfe französischer Schulkinder (218) [Gedicht]: Auch ein französisches, in einem Schulbuch abgedrucktes Gedicht von Flament berichtet in schlichten Worten: (218) [Abb.]: Der Haßgesang! Zeichnung von David Winar, London 1915 (219) [Abb.]: Plakat einer Ausstellung des begabten Kriegszeichners und Deutschenhassers Louis Raemaekers in Paris (1916) Archives photographiques d'art et d'histoire, Paris (221) [Abb.]: Französisches Plakat gegen den Ankauf deutscher Waren Nach dem Original im Musée Leblance, Paris (223) [Gedicht]: Ponsonby zitiert ein patriotisches Gedicht aus einem erst kürzlich erschienenen Band, worin die Leistungen des englischen Heeres im Kriege also gefeiert werden: (224) [Abb.]: Eine Kundgebung englischer Kinder zugunsten des freiwilligen Eintritts in die Armee - (Auf der Tafel "Mein Papa ist an der Front!") Aus "Illustrated London News", 1915 (224) [Abb.]: Erotische Karikatur auf die Entente Der Lord-Ober des Nachtcafés zum Viererverband: "Meine Herren, verhalten Sie sich nicht gar so neutral. Die Damen verlangen kein Geld, sondern bezahlen sogar ihre Liebhaber." Zeichnung von G. Stieborsky in "Muskete", September 1915 ( - ) Neunzehntes Kapitel Die Verrohung Regression als Kriegsfolge - Das Verhältnis der kriegsführenden Menscheit zum Tode - Schmutz und Laus im Schützengraben - Alkohol und Nikotin im Kriege - Verbrecher und Psychopathen in den Heeren - Religiöse Wiedergeburt oder Hochkonjunktur im Aberglauben? - Die erotische Verrohung (225) [Abb.]: Verrohung im Bilde Französische Karikatur auf die Fleischnot in Deutschland. Aus "La Baionnette", 1916 (225) [Abb.]: Englisches Familienidyll zur Kriegszeit - Die Damen wetteifern in der Herstellung von Dumdumgeschossen Aus dem "Simplicissimus", 1914 (226) [Abb.]: Kosaken verfolgen deutsche Soldaten, die in einem polnischen Dorf - Gänse requiriert haben Zeichnung von J. Waldimirow in "The Graphic", 1916 (227) [Abb.]: Der Papst und das Diplomatenkorps aller Länder beten in Rom für den Frieden Photographische Aufnahme (1915) (228) [Abb.]: Die beiden Geschlechter im Kriege Zeichnung von D. R. André in "Glühlichter", Wien 1915 (229) [Abb.]: Battisti und seine Henker Eine berühmte Aufnahme, die in Italien zu Ehren Battistis, in Österreich zur Abschreckung vor Landesverrat massenhaft als Postkarte verbreitet wurde (230) [Abb.]: "Herr Huber, n'Großvater haben's g'halten!" Zeichnung von D. R. André in "Glühlichter", Wien, 1915 (231) [Abb.]: So gebet dem Kaiser, was des Kaisers ist - und Gott, was Gottes ist Zeichnung (232) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Segen Zeichnung (2)Nenette und Rintintin, die wundertätigen Fetische der französichen Soldaten Aus "La Baionnette", 1918 (233) [Abb.]: Ein italienischer Priester segnet die Kanone Photographische Aufnahme, in "The Graphic", 1916, mit folgendem Zitat aus einer Rede Salandras veröffentlicht: "Ein atavistischer Rückfall in primitive Barbarei ist viel schwerer für uns, die wir zwanzig Jahrhunderte Kultur mehr hinter uns haben, als unsere Gegner" (234) [Abb.]: Eisernes Kreuz als Verzierung überall Eine kleine Kollektion von Kriegsgeschmacklosigkeiten (235) [Abb.]: Weihnachtsverbrüderung zwischen französischen und deutschen Soldaten Zeichnung eines französischen Frontsoldaten (1915) (236) [Abb.]: Russische Popen besprengen die Truppen vor dem Abgang an die Front mit Weihwasser Zeichnung von A. Garratt in "The Graphic", 1915 (237) [Abb.]: Der Feldkurat Zeichnung (238) [Abb.]: Die Kirche im Krieg Holzschnitt (239) [Abb.]: Kriegsannonce einer Wiener Likörfabrik (240) [Abb.]: Kriegskinder spielen Bilderbogen von Raphael Kirchner, Paris 1916 ( - ) [Abb.]: "Der Weg des Ruhmes" Französische Greuelkarikatur auf die Trunksucht im deutschen Heer. Aus "Le Rire Rouge", 1915 (241) [Abb.]: Läuse fraßen im Schützengraben den Soldaten auf - im Hinterland boten sie Anlaß zu solchen Spässen (242) [Abb.]: Gesellschaftsspiel bei der Kriegsmarine Zeichnung eines Kriegsteilnehmers in der Sammlung des Instituts für Sexualwissenschaft, Berlin (243) [Abb.]: Granatformen zum Hausgebrauch Photo aus "Geschichte des Völkerkrieges", Verlag Müller Nachf., Soest (244) [Abb.]: Mensch, Gott und Gaskrieg Szene aus dem russischen Film "Der Mann, der sein Gedächtnis verlor" (245) [Abb.]: Fronleichnamsgebet in einer deutschen Bomben beschädigten Kirche Zeichnung von J. Simont in "L'Illustration", 1918 (246) [Abb.]: Das Spiel mit Leichenteilen im Schützengraben Kriegsphantasie von L. Gedö 1916 (247) [Abb.]: Kriegsreklame einer ungarischen Bierbrauerei Plakat in der Sammlung der Nationalbibliothek, Wien (248) [Abb.]: Der Tschiksammler - ein Typus aus der Zeit der Tabaknot im Hinterland Zeichnung von R. Herrmann, 1917 (249) [Abb.]: Kinder hinter der französischen Front werden mit Gasmasken ausgerüstet (250) [Abb.]: Seite aus einem von Bédier in Faksimile veröffentlichten deutschen Soldatentagebuch, deren Inhalt sich auf Vergewaltigung bezieht Aus Bédier, Les crimes allemandes, Paris 1915 (251) [Abb.]: Einzug in eine polnische Stadt Zeichnung (252) [Abb.]: "Wie stolz sie einmal in der Heimat auf ihren Sieg sein werden!" Zeichnung aus "La Baionnette", 1916 (253) [Abb.]: Das Begräbnis zweier von Zeppelins getöteter Kinder Photographische Aufnahme (254) [Abb.]: Eine Strecke des Weges der deportierten Armenier, in der Nähe von Angora Sammlung des Mechitaristenstiftes, Wien (255) [Werbung]: Setzen wir also die Original-Anzeige hierher: (255) [Abb.]: Frauenraub Zeichnung (256) [Abb.]: Wilhelm II. in der russischen Karikatur. (Man beachte das Überwiegen des tierisch-satanistischen Elementes!) Fünf Blätter aus der Mappe "Wojna russkich s njemzami", Petrograd 1915 ( - ) [Abb.]: Worüber der Klerus sich ausschweigt: die Armeniergreuel Zeichnung (257) [Abb.]: "'s war so a zwölf vom 36 er Regiment" Zeichnung (258) [Abb.]: Szene aus dem Balkankrieg Zeichnung aus der Bildermappe "Balkangreuel" (259) [Abb.]: Der "Koltschaksche Handschuh" Koltschaksche Truppen zogen Gefangenen die Haut von den Händen und ließen ihre Oper verbluten. Originalphotographie (260) [Abb.]: "Bordell und Notzuchtslegende" Zeichnung (261) [Abb.]: "Die will ich haben!" Aus "Los desastres de la guerra" (262) Zwanzigstes Kapitel Grausamkeit und Sadismus im Weltkrieg Moderne und historische kriegsgreuel - Mordlust, Lustmord und Verstümmelung - Die primitiven Völker - Südslawische Kriegsbräuche - Die Armeniergreuel - Die Notzucht im Weltkrieg und die Frauen - Das Kapitel der Kriegskinder (263) [Abb.]: Der Zeppelin kommt! Pariser Straßenszene aus dem Kriege. Zeichnung von H. Lanos in "The Graphic", 1915 (263) [Abb.]: "Siehst du, Jumbi, zu uns kommen diese weißen Leite und predigen Nächstenliebe und sie selber töten hundertmal mehr, als sie auffressen können" Zeichnung von R. Herrmann in "Glühlichter", Wien 1915 (264) [Abb.]: In London lehrt man die Kinder, wie sie sich bei Zeppelinüberfällen zu verhalten haben Photographische Aufnahme (265) [Abb.]: Krieg! Zeichnung aus dem Balkankriege. Sammlung Prof. Fr. S. Krauss, Wien (266) [Abb.]: Serbien 1915 Nach einem Gemälde (267) [Abb.]: Der Neger mit der Zahnbürste Federzeichnung eines französischen Soldaten (268) [Abb.]: Vergast Zeichnung von Steven Spurrier in "The Graphic", 1915 (269) [Abb.]: Opfer des Ruhmes: Mangels Kohlen wirft Frankreich seine 17 jährigen ins Feuer Aus "Lustige Blätter", 1917 (270) [Abb.]: Die Zeppelins im Anzug! Zeichnung von David Wilson in "The Graphic", 1915 (271) [Abb.]: Gasvergiftete Soldaten, halb wahnsinnig, winden sich auf dem Boden vor dem Feldlazarett Photographische Aufnahme, Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (272) [Abb.]: Zimmer in einem belgischen Schloß Photographische Aufnahme, Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (273) [Abb.]: "Kolossal! Auch Frauen und Kinder gibt's darunter!" Französische Propagandapostkarte, Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (274) [Abb.]: Der Zukunftskrieg Zeichnung (275) [Gedicht]: dann leistete er aber auch noch ein übriges: (275) [Abb.]: Eine Frau in Verdun Aus "The Graphic", 1916 (276) [Lied]: fing laut zur allgemeinen Erheiterung seiner Kampf- und Leidgenossen folgendes Lied zu singen an. Es ist eigentlich eine Verhöhnung des Krieges. (277) Sonstiges (277) [Abb.]: Der Sohn des Grauens Zeichnung von Michael Gábor, 1915 (278) [Abb.]: Mord aus der Luft Zeichnung (279) [Abb.]: Kreuzland, Kreuzland über alles: Die Waisen Zeichnung (280) [Abb.]: Wenn Deutschland Bulgarien als Verbündeten weiterhaben will, so muß es sich in die Rolle Salomos versetzen und entscheiden, ob das Kind (Dobrutschka) entzweigeschnitten werden soll, wie die Türkei es will, oder lebendig seiner wahren Mutter übergeben werden soll Aus einem bulgarischen Kriegsbilderbogen, Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (281) [2 Abb.]: (1)Französisches Plakat Zur Ankündigung bombenfester Keller (2)Der Krieg mordet die Symbole des Friedens Kundmachung der deutschen Kommandantur in Kowno Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (282) [Abb.]: Der frisch-fröhliche Gaskrieg Zeichnung (283) [Abb.]: Stilleben in Schabatz nach Abzug des österreichischen Heeres Aus "L'Illustration", 1915 (284) [Lied]: ein altes Lied, das über die meuchlerische Ermordung des Cengic Smailaga durch die Schwarzenbegler berichtet. Da heißt es: (284) [Abb.]: Ein Kriegskind von Soldaten in den Trümmern eines abgebrannten Hauses aufgefunden Belgische Postkarte, Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (285) [Abb.]:"Sie gehen schon wieder von Wien fort?" - "O ja, und wie gern! Sie müssen nämlich wissen, daß die wienerische Gemütlichkeit jetzt in Galizien ist." Zeichnung von Willy Stiborsky in "Muskete", 1915 (286) [Abb.]: Wie die "wienerische Gemütlichkeit" in Galizien aussah Wegen angeblicher Spionage gehenkte Frauen Photographische Aufnahme (287) [Abb.]: Der deutsche Olymp: Mars in neuer Rüstung Karikatur auf den Gaskrieg von J. Kuhn-Régnier in "Fantasio", 1916 (288) [5 Abb.]: Plakate der ungarischen Revolution und Gegenrevolution Obere Reihe: (1)1. Gegen den k. u. k. Stadtkommandanten von Budapest, Lukacsics, der knapp vor dem Umsturz eine große Anzahl Deserteure hinrichten ließ. (2)2. "Zu den Waffen!" Aufruf zum Eintritt in die Rote Armee der Räteregierung. - Untere Reihe: (3)1. Wahlplakat der Sozialdemokraten unter der Károlyi-Regierung. (4)2. "Schufte! Habt ihr das gewollt?" Plakat zur Proklamation der Räteregierung. (5)3. "Sie waschen sich." Plakat der Reaktion nach dem Sturz der Räteregierung. ( - ) [Abb.]: Armenische Bäuerinnen auf dem Weg zur arabischen Wüste Sammlung des Mechitaristenstiftes, Wien (289) [Abb.]: Deportierte armenische Kinder in der Wüste, dem Hungertod entgegenharrend Sammlung des Mechitaristenstiftes, Wien (290) [Abb.]: Auf dem Wege zur Deportation verhungerte Armenier Sammlung des Mechitaristenstiftes, Wien (291) [Abb.]: Die Armeniergreuel Englische Karikatur aus "Punch", 1916 (293) [Abb.]: Eine armenische Mutter, die mit ihren zwei Kindern verhungert am Wege liegen lieb Aufnahme deutscher Soldaten in der Türkei, 1915 Sammlung des Mechitaristenstiftes, Wien (295) [Abb.]: Die Kinder hungern Zeichnung (297) [Abb.]: "Wer ist der Vater?" Zeichnung (299) [2 Gedichte]: (1)Ein französisches Gedicht sagt: (2)So jung die Wissenschaft der Sexualpsychologie, so alt ist diese Erkenntnis, die schon vor zweitausend Jahren den Liebeslehrer Ovid seine Jünger den Rat erteilen läßt: (300) [Abb.]: Die "deutsche Notzucht" Zeichnung in "Le Mot",1915 (301) [Abb.]: "Mir scheint, du bist nur ein Kaffehaus-Schwarzer - Herzklopfen könnte man bei dir auch nicht bekommen" Zeichnung (302) [Abb.]: Liebesszene Zeichnung (303) [Abb.]: Tröste dich Kleine, wir werden sagen, ein Deutscher hätte dich vergewaltigt!" Zeichnung ( - ) [Abb.]: U-Boot-Ungeheuer Zeichnung von H. Lanos in "The Graphic", 1915 (305) [Abb.]: Die Opfer eines deutschen Fliegerüberfalles im Dezember 1914: ein Hirt und zwei Lämmer Photographische Aufnahme (306) [Abb.]: Die Nacht des Urlaubers - Zeppelinalarm in Paris Zeichnung von C. Hérouard in "La Vie Parisienne", 1918 (307) Einundzwanzigstes Kapitel Die Erotik der Umsturzzeit Die Frauen in der Revolution - Russische Liebesleben im Krieg und Bürgerkrieg - Der Sadismus in der Gegenrevolution - Prostitution und Liebesleben im besetzten Rheinland - Schwarze Schmach und Reparationskinder (309) [Abb.]:Ordnung und Ruhe Zeichnung (309) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Revolution ist der Friede Zeichnung von R. Minor, New York (2)Verbrüderung zwischen deutschen und russischen Soldaten an der Dünaburgfront, während Miljukow den Krieg bis zum Siege fortsetzen will ("A. I. Z.") (310) [Abb.]: Der letzte Strich des Zensors Zeichnung von Trier in "Lustige Blätter", 1919 (311) [Abb.]: Feindliche Flugblätter ermutigen zur Revolution Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (312) [Abb.]: Feindliche Flugblätter ermutigen zur Revolution Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (313) [Abb.]: Illegale deutsche Zeitungen während des Krieges (314) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ein Fetzen Papier Aus "Lustige Blätter", 1919 (2)Postkarte aus dem ersten Nachkriegswochen Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (315) [2 Abb.]: (1)Aus den Januartagen Berlins Photographische Aufnahme (2)Berlin, Januar 1919 Photographische Aufnahme (316) [Abb.]: Berliner Straßenbild aus den Tagen der Bürgerkrieges Photographische Aufnahme (317) [Abb.]: Der Bürgerkrieg Aus "Die Pleite", Zürich 1923 (318) [2 Abb.]: (1)Szene aus dem Bürgerkrieg in Mitteldeutschland Photographische Aufnahme (2)Im Zweifel "Mein Gott, wenn ich nur wüßte, ob das eine Filmaufnahme oder ein Putschversuch ist." Aus "Lustige Blätter", 1919 (319) [Abb.]: Arbeitslos durch die Revolution Zeichnung von S. Heilemann in "Lustige Blätter", 1918 (320) [Abb.]: Die Dame und der Rotarmist Zeichnung ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ansichtskarte aus München 1918 Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (2)Auf dem Strich der Verfassung Politische Karikatur aus dem Jahre 1919 (321) [2 Abb.]: (1)Krieg und Frieden Karikatur (2)Auf dem österreichischen Aussterbeetat Zeichnung von F. Goebel in "Faun", 1919 (322) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Ententemission in Wien arbeitet Zeichnung von K. Benedek in "Faun", 1919 (2)Plakat gegen das Frauenwahlrecht Zeichnung (323) [Abb.]: "Nach uns der Kommunismus!" Zeichnung von George Grosz in "Die Pleite", 1924 (324) [2 Abb.]: (1)"Jetzt soll s' kommen, die Volksehr, ich bin gewappnet." Zeichnung von F. Goebel in "Faun", 1919 (2)Deutsches Wahlplakat Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (325) [2 Abb.]: (1)Clémenceau:"Wie, Sie gehen mit der neuen Gesellschaft schwanger? Die werde ich Ihnen schon abtreiben!" Aus "L'Assiette au Beurre", 1919 (2)Der Friede, eine Idylle Zeichnung (326) [Abb.]: Der Friedensathlet Russische Karikatur (327) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ein Kommunist "Laßt sie doch sozialisieren, Kinder, laßt sie doch sozialisieren! Ich besitze nichts weiter im Überfluß wie Gallensteine, und die teil' ich gerne!" Zeichnung von F. Jüttner in "Lustige Blätter", 1919 (2)Das französische Siegesplakat "Clémenceau und Foch haben sich um das Vaterland verdient gemacht." Archives photographiques d'art et d'histoire, Paris (328) [Abb.]: Dublin nach sieben Tagen Revolution Aus "Illustrated London News", 1916 (329) [Abb.]: Der Zeichner als Prophet Die Stimme Ludwig XVI.: "Sie froh, Romanow! Kerenski ist kein Robespierre!" Zeichnung von Trier in "Lustige Blätter", 1917 (330) Nach Rasputins Tod Die Petersburger Fürstinnen 1 bis 6: "Ja, ja, mein Kind, nun hast du keinen Vater mehr!" Zeichnung von G. Müller-Schulte in "Lustige Blätter",1917 (331) [Abb.]: Zar Nikolaus II. im russischen Hauptquartier Aus "L'Illustration", 1917 (332) [Abb.]: Wenn der russische Bär Angst kriegt Aus "Glühlichter", 1915 (333) [Abb.]: In Petersburg Der Adjutant: "Majestät, wozu hier diese Fortifikationen? Nach Petersburg wird doch die deutsche Armee nicht kommen." Der Zar: "Die deutsche nicht, aber die russische." Zeichnung aus "Labour Leader", 1915 (334) [2 Abb.]: (1)General Wrangel wäscht sich die Hand Zeichnung von George Grosz in "13 Jahre Mord" (2)Von Koltschak ermordete russische Bauern Aus "An Alle", 10 Jahre Sowjetunion (335) [Abb.]: Der Auftakt zur russischen Revolution: Das Volk Petersburgs plündert Lebensmittelgeschäfte ("A. I. Z.") (336) [2 Abb.]: Bilder aus den Tagen der gegenrevolutionären Ausschreitungen in Ungarn Zeichnungen ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ein Typus aus dem Todesbataillon Kerenskis Aus dem russischen Film "10 Tage, die die Welt erschütterten" (2)Auf der Strecke des russischen weißen Terrors Russische Zeichnung (337) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eine Tapfere aus Kerenskis Frauenbataillon Aus dem russ. Film "10 Tage, die die Welt erschütterten" (2)Der russische Bourgeois: "Die Arbeiter essen Kaviar, denen geht's gut!" Aus der russischen Zeitschrift "Krassnaja Niwa" (Rote Wiese) (338) [Abb.]: Starkes und schwaches Geschlecht in der russischen Revolution Zeichnung (339) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Budapester Ententemissionen melden: "In Ungarn gibt es keinen weißen Terror." Zeichnung von Vértes, 1919 (2)Transdanubische Landschaft 1919 Zeichnung von Vértes in "Bilder aus der ungarischen Hölle" (340) [4 Abb.]: Köpfe aus der russischen Revolution (1)Lenin (2)Lunatscharski (3)Tschitscherin Zeichnungen von Paul Robert in ""L'Illustration", 1918 (4)Plakat mohammedanischer Frauen in Taschkent für die Gleichberechtigung Aus "Das neue Rußland", 1927 (341) [2 Abb.]: (1)Titelblatt einer Broschüre über den Fall der Frau Hamburger, die nach dem Sturz der Budapester Räteregierung Opfer des gegenrevolutionären Sadismus wurde (2)Antisemitisches Plakat der ungarischen Gegenrevolution nach dem Sturz der Räteregierung. Die Figur auf dem Bilde soll Szamuely darstellen. Die Aufschrift lautet: "Haben wir dafür gekämpft?" Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (342) [Abb.]: Liebesszene aus den Tagen der ungarischen Gegenrevolution Zeichnung (343) [Abb.]: Propagandapostkarte von Matejko Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (344) [Abb.]: Rheinland 1919 Zeichnung (345) [Abb.]: Titelseite eines im besetzten Rheinland von Deutschen herausgegebenen französischen Witzblattes Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (346) [4 Abb.]: (1)(2)Die Ruhrbesetzung Französisches Plakat und deutsche Antwort Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (3)(4)Erotischer Notgeldschein, sogenannte Ruhrtaler Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (347) [Abb.]: Gebet des Besatzungskommandanten: "Lieber Gott, gib, daß die Deutschen möglichst lange nicht zahlen!" Aus "Le Rire du Poilus", 1923 Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (348) [Abb.]: Offiziere und Gemeine im französischen Besatzungsheer am Rhein Zeichnung von Jacquement in "Le Rire du Roilus", 1923 (349) [Abb.]: Lorelei: "Jetzt weiß ich, was soll es bedeuten, daß ich so traurig bin!" Aus "Lustige Blätter", 1919 (350) [2 Abb.]: (1)"Und die deutschen Frauen am deutschen Rhein, Sie haben den Schwarzen zu Willen zu sein." Aus einem Flugblatt zu den preußischen Landtagswahlen 1921 (2)Nach dem Abzug der Engländer aus dem Rheinland "Unser Vaterland kann mit uns zufrieden sein. Wir haben dafür gesorgt, daß die Reparationszahler in Deutschland nicht alle werden." Zeichnung von Faludy in "Der Götz von Berlichingen", Wien 1930 (351) [Abb.]: Titelseite des deutschen Flugblattes "Notruf" gegen die schwarze Schmach Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (352) [Abb.]: Der schwarze Sturm Zeichnung ( - ) [Abb.]: Postkarte gegen die schwarze Schmach Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (353) [Abb.]: Jumbo, der Frauenfresser Zeichnung (355) [Abb.]: Postkarte gegen die schwarze Schmach Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (356) [Abb.]: Plakat gegen die schwarze Schmach Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (357) Zweiundzwanzigstes Kapitel Die Inflations- und Nachkriegsjahre Der Sinnestaumel: Heiratswut, Tanzepidemie, Rauschgiftseuche, Prostitution und Mädchenhandel nach dem Kriege - Erotische Straßenliteratur - Die Sexualreform und ihre Verwirklichung in Rußland - Die neuen Frauentypen: Flapper, Garçonne und die Frau von morgen (359) [Abb.]: Die Heimkehr der Vertriebenen Radierung (359) [Abb.]: Zweierlei Arbeitslose: Drinnen und draußen Zeichnung von J. Danilowatz in "Der Götz von Berlichingen", Wien 1919 (360) [Abb.]: Das Valuta-Mädel "Mein Schwede ist abgereist - nun kann ich mir zehn Deutsche suchen" Aus "Lustige Blätter", 1920 (361) [Abb.]: Nachkriegsidyll Zeichnung (362) [Abb.]: Das Morphium Zeichnung (363) [Abb.]: "Kindertransport" nach Rumänien (zum Thema: Mädchenhandel in der Nachkriegszeit) Zeichnung von F. Bayros, 1919 (364) [Abb.]: Der ertüchtigte Frauenkörper "Ihre Schwächen zeigt sie natürlich nicht öffentlich" Zeichnung von V. Weixler, 1920 (365) [Abb.]: Der Tanz auf dem Vulkan "Der Tanz ist wunderbar, bloß der Boden ist etwas heiß" Zeichnung von Lutz Ehrenberger in "Lustige Blätter", 1919 (366) [8 Abb.]: Der neue Anzug - eine Inflationstragödie (1)Bei noch so wenig Körperfülle bracht man dafür doch eine Hülle. (2)Der Anzug paßt von vornherein nicht gut in das Budget hinein. (3)Zu Ankaufszwecken meistens wir ein Pump und Vorschuß kombiniert. (4)Doch auch beim sorgsamsten Kalkül trifft heut kein Vorschuß in das Ziel. (5)Die Audienz beim "Kleiderkönig" ergab: das Geld ist viel zu wenig. (6)Man spart und wird beim Sparen reifer, doch auch der Kurs wird täglich steifer. (7)Die Kronen türmen sich zuhauf, doch nie langt's für den Kleiderkauf (8)Der neue Anzug blieb ihm fremd 's langt nicht mal mehr aufs Sterbehemd. Zeichnungen von L. Kmoch, Text von F. J. Gribitz, in "Faun", 1920 (367) [Abb.]: Soziale Umschichtung Der ehemalige Kriegslieferant auf der Heimfahrt von der Auktion: "Ja. den Galawagen hab ich gut gekauft, Rosalinde - ich fürchte bloß, sie wern uns mal für Wilhelm und Auguste halten!" Aus "Lustige Blätter", 1919 (368) [Abb.]: Rassenmischer Krieg Zeichnung ( - ) [Abb.]: Auch die Revolution hat ihr Gutes Der Kriegsgewinner in der Hofloge: "Laura, das Publikum guckt her, verneige dich huldvoll!" Zeichnung von Lutz Ehrenberger in "Lustige Blätter", Dezember 1918 (369) [Abb.]: Rassenmischung Von der Verbrüderung der Rassen halt' ich nichts. Höchstens die Babys hätten als Zebras eine schöne Varietézukunft Zeichnung (370) [2 Abb.]: (1)Das Geheimnis Aus einer Mappe der Nachkriegserotik (2)Der Tanz der Gonokokken "Womit jemand sündigt - damit wird er geplagt" Zeichnung von Rob im "Faun" 1919 (371) [Abb.]: Freut euch des Lebens! Zeichnung von George Grosz in "Abrechnung folgt" (372) [Abb.]: Umsturzphilosophie "Heute müssen wir uns einen Rausch antrinken, daß wir die vielen Heimkehrer ein bißchen vergessen" Zeichnung (373) [Abb.]: Im Wartezimmer des Spezialisten Zeichnung (374) [Abb.]: Der Krieg geht in den Familien fort Zeichnung (375) [Abb.]: Der Triumphzug der Jazz Zeichnung (376) [2 Abb.]: (1)Kinderfürsorge in den Sowjetstaaten Die Moskauer Sammelstelle für Muttermilch, wo die säugenden Mütter ihren Überfluß an Milch abgeben (2)Frauensport in Sowjetrußland Russische Athletinnen trainieren zur Spartakiade ("A. I. Z.") (377) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die russische Propaganda gegen die kirchliche Trauung Zeichnung (2)Die russische Bäuerin verheizt die Ikone Zeichnung von Deni in "Bezboschnik" 1926 (378) [Abb.]: Frau Schesterkina vom Stamme der Mordwinen als Delegierte auf einem Sowjetkongreß (379) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Orientalin verhöhnt den alten Muselmann Karikatur von Deni in "Bezboschnik" 1924 (2)Mutterschaftsfürsorge in der Sowjetunion Aus "Mahnruf" 1930 (380) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die russische Schriftstellerin Sejfullina Aus "Das neue Rußland", 1927 (2)Eine berühmte russische Militärfliegerin: Nadeshda Sumarokowa Aus "Mahnruf" 1930 (381) [2 Abb.]: (1)Russische Arbeiterin lernt mit dem Gewehr umgehen Photographische Aufnahme (2)Die Sowjetdiplomatin und Schriftstellerin Kollontaj Karikatur von Paul Robert (Moskau, 1918) (382) [3 Abb.]: (1)Kinderfürsorge in Sowjetrußland Plakat gegen "schmutzige Kleidung, schlechte Ammen, dunkle Räume, schlechte Luft" (2)Russisches Fürsorgeplakat. "Warum trinkst du meine Milch ? Nährt dich denn deine Mutter nicht ?" (3)Säuglingsrevolution auf einem Sowjetplakat. "Wir verlangen: Schutz vor Fliegen, trockene saubere Windeln, Muttermilch, frische Luft und Sonnenlicht, gesunde Eltern!" Aus Rußland, Neuer Deutscher Verlag (383) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die muselmannische Frau auf dem Wege aus dem Harem Zeichnung von Deni aus "Bezboschnik" 1924 (2)Die antireligiöse Propaganda in Rußland Der Zeichner macht sich über das jüdische Osterzeremoniell lustig Zeichnung von Deni in "Bezboschnik" 1925 (384) [Abb.]: Tanzwut Zeichnung ( - ) [Abb.]: Die Frauenemanzipation in Rußland Samojedische Delegierte aus dem äußersten Norden der Sowjetunion auf einem Moskauer Parteikongreß Aus "Das neue Rußland" (385) [3 Abb.]: (1)Die Befreiung der Orientalin Russische Zeitung (2)Den Schleier nieder! Die Befreiung der Orientalin Zeichnung von Deni in "Bezboschnik" 1926 (3)Die russische Kirche und die Frauen Russische Karikatur (386) [2 Abb.]: (1)Russische Mutter zapft sich Milch für darbende Säuglinge ab. Die so gewonnene Muttermilch wird von der Moskauer Sammelstelle in Flaschen abgeliefert (2)Bäuerin in Turkestan mit ihrer primitiven Kornhandmühle Aus "Das neue Rußland" 1928 (387) [3 Abb.]: (1)Die Sowjetpropaganda gegen Taufe und Beschneidung Zeichnung von Deni in "Bezboschnik" 1924 (2)Die Russin politisiert Zeichnung von Ikoneikow in "Bezboschnik", 1924 (3)Der Pope und die abtrünnige Bäuerin Karikatur von Deni in "Bezboschnik", 1926 (388) [2 Abb.]: (1)Zur Vermännlichung der Frau in der Nachkriegszeit: Amerikanische Universitätshörerinnen in Männerkleidung Sammlung des Instituts für Sexualwissenschaft, Berlin (2)Frau Valerie Smith, genannt Captain Barker eine Frau, die, als Mann verkleidet, jahrelang als Führer des englischen Faschismus tätig war Sammlung des Instituts für Sexualwissenschaft, Berlin (389) [Abb.]: Genießertum in der Nachkriegszeit Zeichnung (390) [Abb.]: Der Feinschmecker Aus einer Mappe der Nachkriegserotik (391) [2 Abb.]: (1)Früh um 5 Uhr. Zeichnung von Gorge Groß in "Das Gesicht der herrschenden Klasse" (2)Plakat gegen die Tanzwut Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (392) [2 Abb.]: (1)Frühlingserwachen Zeichnung (2)Nachkriegsprostitution: "Kommen Sie mit, Onkel, ich bin minderjährig" Zeichnung (393) [Abb.]: Moderner Akt Zeichnung von Egon Schiele, 1918 (394) [Abb.]: Nachkriegsmoral "Ich würde meiner Tochter nie erlauben, abends alleine auszugehen, wenn sie mir nicht versichert hätte, daß sie unter polizeilicher Aufsicht stehe" Zeichnung von Vértes, 1919 (395) [Abb.]: Französische Soldaten haben in Palaipolis im zweiten Kriegsjahr eine antike Statue entdeckt. Die Statue stellte den Liebesgott des Griechen Eros dar. Gleich wie der Liebe im Kriege die echte Zuneigung und Vergeistigung fehlte, war auch dieser Eros ein Torso ohne Arme und Kopf aus "L'Illustration", 1915 (397) [Gedicht]: Diese Zukunft spricht zu uns aus den schönen Versen des Dichters Hermann Claudius, in denen unsere Sittengeschichte des Weltkrieges ausklingen möge: (398) Anhang (399) I. Verbotene erotische Literatur im Kriege (399) [Abb.]: Kriegertraum Zeichnung von E. Hérouard in "La Vie Parisienne", 1917 (399) [Abb.]: Auf dem Friedhof von Ypern "Wofür haben wir uns gegenseitig ermordet?" Zeichnung von Rudolf Herrmann in "Bilder aus dem Alltagsleben" (400) [3 Abb.]: Kriegsnächte (1)Die blaue Nacht (2)Die weiße Nacht (3)Die rote Nacht Zeichnungen von C. Hérouard, Paris 1918 ( - ) [Abb.]: Zu den Waffen! Zeichnung von Alfred Roll, Paris (401) [Abb.]: Anstehen nach Kohlen, 1917 Zeichnung von H. Zille in "Kriegsmarmelade" (Die Veröffentlichung des Blattes war während des Krieges verboten) Mit freundl. Genehmigung des Neuen Deutschen Verlages (402) [Abb.]: Frankreich läßt die afrikanischen Untertanen Kriegsanleihen zeichnen Aus"L'Illustration", 1916 (403) [Abb.]: Wein, Weib und Gesang im Kriege Zeichnung (404) [Abb.]: Kriegsgreuel Zeichnung (405) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Sieger Holzschnitt (2)Etappenmädel Zeichnung (406) [2 Abb.]: (1)Schlachtvieh für das Kanonenfutter Französische Aufnahme (2)Abgesandte der Skupschtina setzen über den See von Skutari Aus "L'Illustration", 1916 (407) [3 Abb.]: (1)Schwarzweiße Liebe Aus "La Baionnette", 1916 (2)Exotische Gäste in Paris Aus "La Baionnette", 1916 (3)Japaner und Pariserin Zeichnung von A. Valès in "La Vie Parisienne", 1997 (408) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Ernte der Geschosse Szene aus dem russischen Antikriegsfilm "Der Mann, der sein Gedächtnis verlor" (2)Saal eines Schlosses in Guè-a-Tresme mit dem für deutsche Offiziere bereiteten Mahl, das von einem feindlichen Überfall unterbrochen wurde Aus "L'Illustration", 1914 (409) [Tabelle]: Es entfielen (in Prozenten ausgedrückt) von den dauernder Prüfung unterworfenen Druckschriften auf (409) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Kellnerin der Offizierskasinos Französische Karikatur (2)Chaplin im Kriege "Warum geht der Mann nicht an die Front? Dort würde er stark und gesund werden." Zeichnung von Reynolds in "Punch", 1917 (410) [Tabelle]: Wegen des gleichen Delikts wurden 1924/25 bestraft in: (410) [Abb.]: Aber die Liebe Die Kriegshunde erwiesen sich im Nachrichtendienst als sehr nützlich. Oft aber werden sie, durch Liebe verblendet, zu Vaterlandsverrätern Zeichnung von E. O Petersen in "Simplicissimus", 1915 (411) [Abb.]: Titelseite einer französischen Schützengrabenzeitung, von der nur die erste, konfiszierte Nummer erschien Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (412) [Abb.]: Aus großer Zeit Zeichnung von U. Zille Mit freundl. Genehmigung des Neuen Deutschen Verlags, aus "Für alle!" (413) II. Die Kriegserotik in der Literatur. (414) [Gedicht]: Aus Herbert Lewandowski, "Der lachende Soldat". Geschrieben 1915. Bezüglich der Zahl der Kriegsopfer habe ich mich allerdings damals erheblich (zugunsten der Diplomatie) geirrt. (414) [Abb.]: Der Tod und das Mädchen (frei nach dem Lied von Schubert) Politische Zeichnung von Jordaan in "De Notenkraker", 1915 (414) [Abb.]: Reicht es? Reichte es nicht? Zeichnung (415) [2 Abb.]: (1)Frohes Wiedersehen (2)Estaminet hinter der Westfront Französische Frontzeichnung, 1915 (416) [2 Abb.]: (1)Traurige Trennung Zeichnung von E. Herouard in "Fantasio", 1916 (2)Windgeblähte Phantasien Zeichnung von A. Guyon in "Le Courire de France", 1918 (417) [Abb.]: Feldbräute rechts und links Zeichnung (418) [Abb.]: Geschlechtsnot Zeichnung (419) [Abb.]: Die Menschheit im Kriege Zeichnung (420) [Abb.]: Die Flucht des serbischen Stabschefs Putnik Albanien Aus "L'Illustration", 1916 (421) [Abb.]: Im Olymp "Fix Laudon, jetzt wird's mir schon selber zu dumm. Jeden Tag an einer neuen Front - da soll ein anderer Kriegsgott sein!" Zeichnung von D. R. André in "Glühlichter", 1915 (422) [2 Abb.]: (1)Brandstifterkollegium Gedenkmünze von K. Goetz, die Außenminister der Entente darstellend Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (2) Paris feiert den 14. Juli im letzten Kriegsjahr Titelzeichnung von J. Simont in "L'Illustration", 1918 (423) [Abb.]: Kriegsliebe "Nur mang mit de Ruhe, Kinna - Krawutschka, der Nächste!" Zeichnung (424) [Abb.]: Englisch-französisches Bündnis Zeichnung (425) [Abb.]: Die Schauspielerin Mlle. Chenal singt in der Pariser Opéra-Comique die Marseillaise Zeichnung (426) [Abb.]: Deutsche Soldaten bewundern den Manneken piss in Brüssel Photo aus der Sammlung des Instituts für Sexualwissenschaft, Berlin (427) [2 Abb.]: (1)Rußland stellt sich schützend vor Serbien Italienische Karikatur auf den Kriegsausbruch (2)Die erotische Revolution nach dem Kriege Titelseite eines Berliner Kolportageblattes (428) [Abb.]: Zeichnung von H. Zille Mit freundl. Genehmigung des Neuen Deutschen Verlags, aus "Für Alle" (429) [2 Abb.]: (1)Vorbereitungen zum Sturmangriff Karikatur von J. Priselli in "Solnze Rossij", 1915 (2)Scherz, Ironie und Bedeutung auf einer Postkarte. Umgekehrt gehalten ergeben die Ziffern im Spiegel eine drastisch-knappe Kritik der Reparationsforderungen) Sammlung A. Wolff, Leipzig (430) [Gedicht]: Über die Kriegsprostitution möge hier ein Gedicht vom Schreiber dieser Zeilen Aufnahme finden: (430) [Abb.]: Russische Kriegslandkarte Sammlung A. Woff, Leipzig (431) [Abb.]: Der Elefant und das Nest der kleinen Nationen Eine englische Kaiserkarikatur von B. Partridge in "Punch", 1917 (432) [Abb.]: die gallische Henne hätte die Eier der Friedenstaube ausbrüten können - aber es sind doch nur deutsche Pickelhauben! Zeichnung von F. Bayros, 1919 ( - ) [Abb.]: "Für ein paar Bissen, Herr Oberoffizier!" Zeichnung (433) [Abb.]: "Ja, mein Kind! So ist unser ganzes Leben!" Zeichnung von H. Zille in "Kriegsmarmelade". Mit freundl. Genehmigung des Neuen Deutschen Verlags (435) [Gedicht]: Die Knaben im Krieg. (435) Schlusswort (437) Literaturangaben (439) Dreizehntes Kapitel (439) Vierzehntes Kapitel (439) Fünfzehntes Kapitel (440) Sechzehntes Kapitel (440) Siebzehntes Kapitel (441) Achtzehntes Kapitel (441) Neunzehntes Kapitel (442) Zwanzigstes Kapitel (443) Einundzwanzigstes Kapitel (444) Zweiundzwanzigstes Kapitel (445) Inhalt des zweiten Bandes ( - ) Illustratoren-Verzeichnis zu den zwei Bänden "Sittengeschichte des Weltkrieges" ( - ) Verzeichnis der Farbentafeln ( - ) Einband ( - ) Einband ( - )
Wäre die Gegenwart eine andere, hätte im Mai 2020 die achte Ausgabe der Konferenz "Theater und Netz", einer Initiative von nachtkritik.de und der Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung, stattgefunden. Stattdessen ergab sich für Theaterschaffende, Kritiker*innen und Publikum reichlich Gelegenheit, das Verhältnis von Theater und Netz in actu auszuloten: Durch die Ausgangsbeschränkungen befeuert, verlagerte sich das Theatergeschehen in die digitale Experimentierstube. Im Oktober erschien nun der Band Netztheater, der in 21 Beiträgen die Erfahrungen der vergangenen sechs Monate reflektiert –fundiert durch die Expertise der im Format "Theater und Netz" seit 2013 geleisteten Pionierarbeit. Die Kürze der zwei- bis siebenseitigen Beiträge, gepaart mit der Erfahrungsdiversität aus Herstellung, Rezeption und wissenschaftlicher Auseinandersetzung, hat entscheidende Vorteile: Hier wird nicht lange umständlich unter Ausrufung irgendeines "Post-" herumgeredet oder die beliebte Formel strapaziert, Theater müsse "neu gedacht" werden. Die Beitragenden verbindet die gemeinsame Sache und so kommen sie rasch zum Punkt. Als Hybrid aus theoretischen Positionen und reflektierender Praxis bündelt die Publikation praktisch verwertbares und weiterentwickelbares Wissen kompakt und beinahe in Echtzeit. Daher verhandelt diese Rezension die Beiträge nicht chronologisch, sondern führt einander ergänzende Perspektiven zu zentralen Aspekten wie Dramaturgie, Community, Interaktion etc. kommentierend zusammen: Der Band eröffnet mit einem Praxisbericht des geglückten Burgtheater-on-Twitter-Experiments #vorstellungsänderung, das tausende Mittweeter*innen auch abseits des Abopublikums rekrutierte. Projekte wie dieses geben Hoffnung, dass die Theater, die sich im Netz oft als singuläre kulturelle Leuchttürme gebärden, durchaus von den Praktiken der Sozialen Medien profitieren können: Like, share, comment, retweet sind schließlich nichts anderes als digitale Kürzel für gemeinschaftsstiftende Interaktionen, basierend auf Emotion, Zuspruch, Diskussion und Multiplikation. Vielleicht sind in Zukunft ja auch vermehrt offen und öffentlich geführte Dialoge zwischen Theaterhäusern zu erwarten? Netztheater geht davon aus, dass die Suche nach digitalen künstlerischen Ausdrucksformen sich nicht erst daraus ergibt, dass Hygieneregeln und Distanzierungsvorgaben die Modi des Zuschauens kurzfristig verändert haben. Auch tradierte Annahmen über das Publikum sind zu überprüfen. In ihrem kollaborativen Text "Das Theater der Digital Natives" beobachten Irina-Simona Barca, Katja Grawinkel-Claassen und Kathrin Tiedemann, dass die Digitalisierung längst "in Form von Alltagstätigkeiten und Wahrnehmungsweisen" (S.16) im Theater angekommen sei. Das Theater ist kein geschützter Ort, an dem die Zeit stehen geblieben ist. Vielmehr tragen die Zuschauer*innen die Welt, in der sie leben, unweigerlich in ihn hinein. Das betrifft auch Praktiken des Multitaskings bzw. des 'Second Screen', also die Gleichzeitigkeit mehrerer Interfaces und Informationsquellen. Jahrhundertelang war der zentralperspektivische Blick der Barockbühne prägend für die Organisation einer exklusiven Aufmerksamkeit im Theater. Wiewohl es also eine neue Erfahrung für die Theaterhäuser ist, "Nebenbeimedium zu sein" (S. 20), wie Judith Ackermann betont, ist es höchste Zeit, diese 'verstreute' Aufmerksamkeit im Inszenierungsprozess aktiv mitzudenken und gezielt einzusetzen. Dabei ist die Diversität des Publikums inklusive der unterschiedlich ausgeprägten Media Literacy zu beachten, denn nicht alle Zuschauer*innen werden sich augenblicklich z. B. in einer gamifizierten virtuellen Umgebung zurechtfinden: "Indem ich im digitalen Raum Zusatzinformationen – Hintergrundinfos zum Stück, zur Produktion – zu meinen Inszenierungen streue, kann ich zum Beispiel auch dem 'analogen Publikum' einen Mehrwert bieten, der es aber nicht verschreckt." (S. 22) Für eine Dramaturgie des Digitalen ist Aristoteles allenfalls partiell ein guter Ratgeber. Zu viele Komponenten sind neben 'der Story an sich' an der Architektur der Erzählung beteiligt. Einige Elemente des 'klassischen' Storytellings lassen sich psychologisch für den digitalen Raum begründen: Das Überschreiten der 'Schwelle' etwa wird als zentraler Moment markiert, zumal die Spielregeln für das Dahinterliegende noch nicht festgelegt sind – die Verständigung auf "Floskeln, Rollen und Situationen" (S. 71) hat erst zu erfolgen. Friedrich Kirschner, Professor für digitale Medien an der Ernst Busch Berlin, schlägt vor, die zur Vermittlung von "Rollen- und Erlebnissicherheit" (ebd.) dringend nötigen Ausverhandlungsprozesse im Rahmen der jeweiligen Inszenierung ästhetisch zu gestalten. Dabei setzt er auf ein Miteinander, "das im Gegensatz zu den treibenden Kräften der Plattformhalter auf Erkenntnis gerichtet ist; das Handlungsfähigkeit vermittelt anstelle von Determinismus" (S. 73). In diesem Sinne schlägt Ackermann überdies vor, "modular" zu denken, also "leichte Ein- und Ausstiegsmöglichkeiten" zu schaffen, "indem man immer wieder die Möglichkeit gibt dazuzustoßen" (S. 21). Wiederholt wird das Serielle als Chance für neue Theaterformen ausgewiesen, beispielsweise um "durch gemeinsames, geteiltes Wissen über einen langen Zeitraum […] eine Beziehung zu Figuren auf[zu]bauen, sie mit der eigenen Lebensrealität ab[zu]gleichen und mit Freund/innen [zu] diskutieren" (S. 72), wie Kirschner in "Teilhabe als Notwendigkeit: Theater als Raum pluraler Gemeinschaften" schreibt. Um diese Gemeinschaftsbildung ist es auch Christiane Hütter zu tun: Die Community ist das Herzstück des Theaters, weshalb die künstlerische Energie aktuell vor allem darauf zu verwenden sei, "dass Leute wiederkommen, dass sich Routinen und Rituale entwickeln, dass serielle Formate entstehen" (S. 45). Diese Community aufzubauen, "das ist ein Handwerk, das eine Strategie, Zeit und Inhalte benötigt" (S. 30), weiß auch Christian Römer, Referent für Kulturpolitik und Neue Medien der Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung, in seinem Plädoyer "Für ein Theater @home!". Essentieller Bestandteil dieser Strategie, die vorerst noch strategisch auf eine Gemeinschaft "vor der Bezahlschranke" setzen müsse, sei die "Arbeit an der eigenen Identität als Theater im Netz" (ebd.). "Ein Schaufenster in die eigene Vergangenheit stärkt die Bindung des Publikums an 'sein' Theater." (S. 29) Man möchte hinzufügen, dass die "Verbindung zur [eigenen] Geschichte" (ebd.) auch nach Innen identitäts- und strukturbildend wirken und so womöglich die ein oder andere Erschütterung abfangen kann, die die Theaterschaffenden gegenwärtig persönlich und als Gemeinschaft erleben. Wie zugkräftig Selbstmarketing bzw. 'Branding' in Sachen Follower*innenschaft ist, lässt sich beispielsweise bei erfolgreichen Influencer*innen beobachten. Der Dramatiker und Dramaturg Konstantin Küspert zeigt in "Sozialmediale Theaterräume: Die performative Parallelwelt von TikTok" überaus schlüssig auf, welche "Grundelemente theatraler Praxis" in Social-Media-Formaten zu finden sind: "TikToks müssen, um erfolgreich zu sein, praktisch immer eine Pointe haben, meistens überraschend und lustig, und damit grundsätzliche Elemente einer Narration – teilweise regelrechte Fünf-Akt-Strukturen oder Rekontextualisierungen im Miniformat – nachbauen." (S. 26) Auffällig sind auch Praktiken des Samplings, wie sie schon in Hans-Thies Lehmanns Postdramatische[m] Theater, das jüngst seinen zwanzigsten Geburtstag feierte, zu finden sind: Denn auch bei TikToks wird "reinszeniert, kontextualisiert und koproduziert" (ebd.). Aber manchmal ist es gerade das Ähnliche, das trennt. Man stelle sich etwa einen Burgschauspieler auf der Bühne eines Kölner Karnevalsvereines vor. So verlockend wasserdicht die von Küspert angestrengte Gleichung auch anmutet, lässt sich eigentlich nur in der konkreten Anwendung überprüfen, "was vom eigenen Formenrepertoire übersetzbar ist" (S. 84). Der schmerzliche Verlust öffentlicher Orte, zu denen auch das Theater als Raum der gesellschaftlichen Verständigung gehört, zieht sich leitmotivisch durch die Texte des Sammelbandes. "Die Corona-Krise ist eine Krise der Versammlung" (S. 35), bringt Dramaturg Cornelius Puschke diesen Umstand zu Beginn seines "Plädoyer[s] für 1000 neue Theater" auf den Punkt. Dass es sehr wohl auch im Internet Formen von Gemeinschaftsbildung gibt, die sich auf dezentrale Weise organisieren, beobachtet Christiane Hütter mit kritischem Interesse: "QAnon und Konsorten glänzen mit orchestriertem Storytelling, outgesourced an viele, mit einem übergeordneten World-building-Framework, das Inkonsistenzen erlaubt" (S. 41). Eine Aufgabe des Theaters könnte es sein, positive Gegenangebote zu entwerfen, die dieser Sehnsucht nach Gemeinschaft, Austausch und gemeinsamer Erzählung entsprechen. Wie aber können solche Dialog und Austausch befördernden Formate aussehen? Die interdisziplinäre Künstlerin und Game Designerin Christiane Hütter, aus deren Feder insgesamt drei Texte des Bandes und zwei Interviews stammen, entwirft zu diesem Zweck eine "Typologie von Interaktion, Kollaboration und Partizipation" in übersichtlich tabellarischer Form, denn häufig enttäuschten 'interaktive Stücke' durch "Pseudo-Interaktions-Möglichkeiten" oder "asymmetrische Interaktion" (S. 44). Angesichts der pandemiebedingten Einschnitte in die Möglichkeit, durch Handlungen 'stattzufinden', ist es eine der wichtigsten Herausforderungen an Inszenierungsprozesse, die Agency der Zuschauer*innen sinnvoll zu integrieren. Die Nachtkritikerin Esther Slevogt plädiert explizit dafür, die Webseiten der Theater als "Portale in den digitalen Raum" und "Interfaces" (S. 109) zu behandeln. Diese verstehen sich gegenwärtig eher als Sende- denn als Empfangskanäle; die einstigen Gästebücher sind längst in selbstverwaltete Facebook-Gruppen migriert und bilden hier den kulturkritischen Versammlungsort einer recht spezifischen Theaterklientel. Eine Brücke zwischen analog und virtuell, Inszenierungs- und Alltagsgeschehen könnten hybride Formate herstellen. Der Theaterregisseur Christopher Rüping beschreibt Hybridität durchaus als Challenge, weil "sich die kulturellen Praktiken des einen und des anderen so beißen". Eine Inszenierung, die so divergente Rezeptionsbedingungen berücksichtigt, sei entsprechend komplex im Herstellungsprozess und müsste "auf achtzehn Ebenen gleichzeitig" funktionieren: "Interaktivität, die nur im digitalen Raum stattfindet, während ich analog zuschaue und davon ausgeschlossen bin, ist merkwürdig." (S. 94) Zudem ist es auch für Darsteller*innen eine neue Erfahrung, auf die weder Ausbildung noch bisherige Praxis sie angemessen vorbereitet haben. So stellt Ackermann die berechtigte Frage: "Wie kann den Schauspieler/innen das Gefühl vermittelt werden, dass sie keinen Film machen, sondern dass sie mit Personen interagieren, die nicht Teil der performenden Gruppe sind – auch wenn diese Personen nicht physisch kopräsent sind?" (S. 21) 'Gemeinsames Erzählen' prägt die Entstehungsgeschichte unserer Kultur, Gesellschaft und Sozialisation. Keine Entwicklung ohne Kooperation, keine Innovation ohne Vorstellungsvermögen. Netztheater könnte ein System der jahrhundertelangen Professionalisierung von Theater neu in Bewegung bringen, weil es Expertisen unterschiedlicher Provenienz bedarf und den Grundgedanken von Crowdsourcing in Schaffensprozesse integriert. Aber sind wir wirklich bereit für künstlerische Formate mit offenem Ausgang? Widerspricht das nicht dem Prinzip von Inszenierung? Müsste man das Profil der Regie – der ja gerade im deutschen Sprachraum besondere Deutungshoheit zukommt – womöglich neu definieren? Aktionen von Zuschauer*innen, die aktiv am Handlungsverlauf mitschreiben, sind schwer zu antizipieren; die Interventionen von Trollen und Bots brechen unerwartet in den Handlungsverlauf ein. Aber vielleicht ist es angesichts der Erschütterungen von 2020 gar keine dumme Idee, statt vorgefertigter Handlungsbögen flexibel adaptierbare Aktionsmodelle zu entwerfen, mit denen auf den Einbruch des Unvorhergesehen reagiert werden kann. Frank Rieger vom Chaos Computer Club beforscht Mixed-Reality-Projekte bereits seit den 1990er-Jahren. "Hybride Räume, digitale und interaktive Formate" hätten bereits eine lange Geschichte, allerdings gäbe es immer wieder "unrealistische Annahmen über das, was die Technik am Ende leisten können wird" (S. 61). Mitunter behindere aber gerade die entgegengesetzte Annahme die Umsetzung: "Man kriegt ein staatliches Theater für eine große Produktion nur dazu, das auch im digitalen Raum zu machen, wenn die das gleiche Gefühl von ernsthafter Technik haben" (S. 94), weiß Regisseur Christopher Rüping aus eigener Erfahrung. Andere Internetformate bewiesen, dass es nicht immer schweres Gerät erfordert, denn "im digitalen Raum dieses Erlebnis [von Gemeinschaft] zu stiften" sei etwas, das "jedem mittelmäßigen Streamer gelingt" (ebd.). Die Ursache für solche Trugschlüsse sieht Rieger in der Inselexistenz, die viele Theater fristen. Der Branche fehle noch immer eine "breite Kultur des ehrlichen Erfahrungsaustausches, der Diskussion von technischen, inhaltlichen und Projektmanagement-Fehlern" (S. 62), sodass das Rad immer wieder neu erfunden werden müsse. Dem entgegenzuarbeiten beabsichtigt die im vergangenen Jahr gegründete Dortmunder Akademie für Digitalität und Theater. Gemäß ihrer Open-Source-Strategie will sie "Nerdkultur […] ins Theater reinbekommen" (S. 67) und die Erkenntnisse ihrer prototypischen Arbeit in Tutorials, Talks und Wikis zugänglich dokumentieren. In ihrer Auswertung der Netztheaterexperimente des ersten Pandemie-Halbjahres bemerken die Bandredakteur*innen Sophie Diesselhorst und Christian Rakow, dass "das Gros […] piratischen Charakter" hatte. "Es entstammte der Freien Szene oder ging auf Initiativen von Einzel-Künstler/innen zurück, die sich ihre eigene Infrastruktur bauten und einfache technische Lösungen jenseits des Stadttheater-Apparats fanden." (S. 89) Man kann annehmen, dass dieser Innovationsgeist zumindest teilweise der Not geschuldet war. Denn selbst Projekte an etablierten Häusern sind häufig von externen Zusatzförderungen abhängig. Um über den eigenen Guckkasten hinauszudenken, haben einige Theater bereits Kontakt zu freien Künstler*innen und Kollektiven aufgenommen. "Es gibt viele kleine Aufträge von Theatern, die sagen: 'Wir wissen nicht, wie es weitergeht. Wollen Sie etwas ausprobieren?'" (S. 97), schreibt die britische Kritikerin Alice Saville. Diese vorsichtige Kontaktaufnahme birgt die Chance, das Gespräch darüber zu beginnen, wie sich festgefahrene Strukturen künstlerisch und wirtschaftlich öffnen lassen. Eine Möglichkeit wäre, Theater künftig als "Agenturen für das Dramatische" zu denken, wie am 13.11.2020 bei der Onlinetagung "Postpandemisches Theater" vorgeschlagen wurde, die ebenfalls auf die Initiator*innen des Sammelbandes zurückgeht. Für die Pluralität und Interdisziplinarität der Branche steht übrigens auch, dass keine der Autor*innenbiographien einen linearen Verlauf aufweist, geschweige denn sich auf eine einzige Berufsbezeichnung zurückführen ließe. Eine der aktuellen Herausforderungen besteht darin, Jobprofile zu überdenken. In Christiane Hütters Entwurf für ein "Theater der Gegenwart" ändert sich die Organisationsstruktur auch auf der Leitungsebene: "Es geht in Zukunft vor allem auch darum, die Gesamtprozesse zu koordinieren, Projektmanagement zu machen, Herstellungsleitung für Situationen, Care-Arbeit fürs Team." (S.45) Ein Kernanliegen der Publikation ist das Plädoyer für eine 'vierte', digitale Sparte – wobei zu bemerken ist, dass das digitale Theater sich diesen vierten Platz vielerorts mit dem Theater für junges Publikum teilt. Dieser Befund ist symptomatisch, werden doch Digitalität und Jugend oft zusammengedacht. Berücksichtigt man die zeitliche Dimension –"in naher Zukunft wird es nur noch Digital Natives geben" (S. 16) – wird rasch klar, dass es sich um eine voreilige Schlussfolgerung handelt. Die sich andeutende Marginalisierung verheißt wenig Gutes für die so dringend nötigen Finanzierungsstrukturen und Fördermodelle, zumal auch die Verantwortung, diese 'vierte Sparte' zu gestalten, damit demselben Personenkreis zugesprochen wird. Folgerichtig wird immer wieder sachlich bemerkt, dass zum Aufbau einer künstlerischen Infrastruktur tatsächliche Ressourcen in Form von Zeit, Geld und neuen Stellenprofilen am Theater benötigt werden. Einige Häuser haben bereits erste Schritte gesetzt und beschäftigen neben Positionen wie Social Media oder – neudeutsch – Community Management nun auch Programmierer*innen. Das Staatstheater Augsburg, das sich bereits im Frühjahr "einen Namen als VR-Hochburg mit einem umfangreichen Spielplan an Virtual-Reality-Produktionen" (S. 99) machte, hat mit Beginn der Spielzeit 2020/21 Tina Lorenz als "Projektleitung für Digitale Entwicklung" eingestellt; das Schauspielhaus Zürich holte für seine Webserie Dekalog den Designer für Virtuelle Interaktion, Timo Raddatz, ins Boot. Für eine "Digitale Sparte" argumentiert auch Elena Philipp, die die Münchner Kammerspiele, das Staatstheater Augsburg und das Hebbel am Ufer als Case Studies ins Feld führt. Die Nutzung digitaler Technologien beschränkt sich aber naturgemäß nicht nur auf die künstlerische Außenwirkung, sondern bietet auch ganz praktische Lösungen: Produktionsvorgänge –und sogar der ökologische Fußabdruck –können beispielsweise durch 'virtuelle Bauproben', 3D-Modelle und die Nutzung von Extended Reality (XR) wesentlich erleichtert werden. Mit der routinemäßigen Nutzung digitaler Technologien stehen auch neue Inhalte in Aussicht. Derzeit erfahre die Form zu große Aufmerksamkeit, zitiert Philipp Tina Lorenz, die konkrete Vorschläge für inhaltliche Schwerpunkte abseits der tausendsten Neuauflage von Goethe und Schiller macht: "Noch ist das Medium die Message, aber wir müssen Geschichten für das digitale Zeitalter entwickeln, über die Gig Economy, Smart Cities oder darüber, wie Kommunikation, Aktivismus und soziale Bewegungen im 21. Jahrhundert funktionieren." (S. 102) Der Blick der Herausgeber*innen inkludiert auch Länder, deren staatliche Subventionsstrukturen weit weniger privilegiert beschaffen sind als im deutschsprachigen Raum. Alice Saville stellt in ihrem Beitrag "Keine Show ohne Publikum" einige Beispiele aus "Großbritanniens immersive[r] Theaterszene im Lockdown" vor, die ja aufgrund ihrer Organisationsform –weit mehr Touring Companies als feste Ensembletheater –ein gewisses Training in innovativer Raumgestaltung besitzt. Der Stadtplaner und Theaterleiter Trevor Davies berichtet von seinen Erfahrungen mit der hybriden Performancereihe "Wa(l)king Copenhagen", für die 100 Künstler*innen eingeladen wurden "ab dem 1. Mai 2020 über 100 Tage lang 100 kuratierte zwölfstündige Walks […] über stündliche Livestreams digital [zu] übertragen" (S. 54). Und die Kuratorin und Kritikerin Madly Pesti erzählt am Beispiel Estlands, bei dem sich die Einwohnerzahl und die Summe der jährlichen Theaterbesuche entsprechen, von der gelungenen Kooperation von Theaterhäusern und Rundfunk, die auf ein über Jahrzehnte gepflegtes Verhältnis zurückgeht: Da die Rechte der beteiligten Künstler*innen vom Estnischen Schauspielerverband vertreten wurden, konnte eine Sonderregelung für die Dauer des Ausnahmezustands verhandelt werden, um die künstlerischen Arbeiten im kulturellen Webportal des Nationalrundfunks kostenlos zugänglich zu machen. Angesichts des vergleichsweise neuen Terrains muss das Theater sich fragen, was es aus den Erfahrungen anderer Branchen lernen kann. Denkt man beispielsweise an die wirtschaftlichen Nöte des Onlinejournalismus und die mühsame Etablierung von Paywalls, ist es sinnvoll, frühzeitig über Verwertungsmodelle bzw. den Preis von 'gratis' nachzudenken. Es gilt zu prüfen, inwiefern Limitation (zeitlich, kapazitär, Ticketing), Exklusivität (Sonderformate, Blicke hinter die Kulissen, Stichwort Onlyfans) oder Partizipations- und Mitgestaltungsoptionen als wertsteigernde Maßnahmen praktikabel und tragfähig sind. Im Kontext von Big Data ist zudem branchenweit zu diskutieren, wie sich Theaterhäuser zu privatisierten Plattformen, die ja den digitalen Raum dominieren, verhalten sollen. Erschwerend kommt hinzu, dass die ungeklärte Rechtesituation im deutschsprachigen Raum auf Netztheaterexperimente nachgerade innovationsfeindlich wirkt. "Man kann nicht Theater im Internet machen und dann aber straight die Copyright-Gepflogenheiten des Analogen anwenden wollen" (S. 93), spricht die Dramaturgin Katinka Deecke im Interview ein Feld mit raschem Klärungsbedarf an. Wiewohl alle Texte von den Lehren aus spezifischen Best Practices leben – schließlich werden die neuen Ausdrucksformate von Pionieren "des Ausprobierens, Aneignens und Entdeckens" (S. 76) entwickelt – versammelt die Publikation in einem eigenen "Produktionen"-Kapitel gezielt Besprechungen einzelner Projekte. Sinnigerweise stammen diese Texte mehrheitlich von Menschen, die berufsbedingt einen größeren Überblick über die Rezeption der Szene besitzen: Kritiker*innen und Redakteur*innen. So kommt Elena Philipps Untersuchung des "Aufbau[s] von Online-Programmen an Theatern" beispielsweise zu dem Schluss, dass "begleitend zu einer Theaterästhetik" – beispielsweise "für Virtual-Reality-Umgebungen" – auch "das Publikum dafür entwickelt" (S. 101) werden müsse. Der Umgang mit neuer Technologie ist schließlich für alle Beteiligten zunächst eine Terra incognita. Sophie Diesselhorst berichtet vom Online-Zusammenspiel der "Netztheater-Experimente aus Schauspielschulen", etwa der vielbeachteten Produktion Wir sind noch einmal davongekommen der Münchner Theaterakademie August Everding, die sich das Artifizielle des Mediums spielerisch überhöht zunutze machte und vermittels kluger Discord-Regie die Videokästchen in Bewegung setzte. Schade, dass die zitierten Experimente nicht zur Nachschau verlinkt bzw. verfügbar sind. Ein Grund hierfür könnte neben der prinzipiellen Unverfügbarkeit einmalig ausgestrahlter Livestreams sein, dass auch andere Quellen knapp einen Monat nach Erscheinen der Publikation bereits der 'Transitorik' des Internets zum Opfer gefallen sind. "Virtuelle[n] Festivalauftritte[n]" widmet sich Esther Slevogt, allen voran dem Berliner Theatertreffen mit seinen streambegleitenden Sonderformaten, die mittels Chat und Videotelefonie erstmals Fachdiskurse, die sonst wenigen Eingeweihten vorbehalten sind, mitsamt den dazugehörigen Gesichtern im Internet teilten. Für das Festival Radar Ost entwarf das Künstlerduo CyberRäuber ein weboptimiertes 360-Grad-3D-Modell des Deutschen Theaters, innerhalb dessen in verschiedenen 'Räumen', inklusive der Unterbühne, Veranstaltungen im Videoformat eingesehen werden konnten. Rückgriffe auf analoge Formate – die Berliner Volksbühne entschied sich etwa für eine Magazinanmutung bei der Gestaltung ihres Festivals Postwest – können laut Slevogt durchaus inspirierend sein: Als "Transfererleichterung für das Denken immaterieller Räume" genüge mitunter eine simple Lageplanskizze, wie es schon 1995 die Association for Theatre in Higher Education der Universität Hawai'i bewies. Wenn es gilt "Übergangsschleusen von der analogen in die digitale Welt benutzer/innenfreundlich zu gestalten", votiert Slevogt ganz klar für "Pragmatismus" (S. 109). Netztheater räumt mit dem weitverbreiteten Missverständnis auf, dass das Digitale allenfalls ein Substitut für 'das Echte' sei. Es ist an der Zeit, sich von falsch verstandenen Authentizitätsdiskursen und einer Überbetonung der 'leiblichen Ko-Präsenz', die die Theaterwissenschaft – die ja damit eine ganz eigene Agenda vertrat – an das Theater herangetragen hat, zu verabschieden. Netztheater will niemandem etwas wegnehmen. Es will das tradierte Theater keineswegs abschaffen, nicht den intimen Moment der Begegnung zweier Menschen ersetzen. Es sucht vielmehr nach technologisch unterstützten Erzähl- und Interaktionsformaten, in denen solche Begegnungen ebenfalls möglich sind. Das Digitale hat unser Denken bis in seine neurologischen Strukturen hinein verändert, die Art, wie wir kommunizieren und interagieren, wie wir uns organisieren, uns in der Welt verorten. Es hat sich in unser Verhältnis zu unseren Körpern eingeschrieben, unseren Zugang zu Wissen erleichtert und auf Herrschaftswissen basierende Hierarchien abgeschafft oder zumindest verschoben. Die Fülle an Information ist nahezu unnavigierbar geworden, Fake News haben unser Vertrauen in glaubwürdige Quellen erschüttert. Das Internet hat eine Vielzahl von alternativen Wahrheiten und alternativen Realitäten geschaffen. Das ist beängstigend, zumal in Zeiten einer Pandemie. Das 18. Jahrhundert hat das Theater als Laboratorium gedacht und die Bühne als Ort, an dem Probehandeln möglich ist, um etwas über unser Menschsein zu erfahren. Auch das Netztheater ist ein solches Laboratorium, ausgestattet mit den Gerätschaften der Gegenwart, die etwa Aufschluss darüber geben können, wie unsere Wahrnehmung beschaffen ist oder wie sich Aufmerksamkeit organisieren lässt. "Theater ist die Institution mit dem ältesten Wissen über die gesellschaftliche Kraft des Spielens." (S. 15) Philosophie und Soziologie veranschlagen im Spiel die Grundlage unseres Menschseins. Es wäre fatal, die verfügbaren virtuellen Spielzeuge und technischen Gadgets jenen Player*innen zu überlassen, deren Interessen wirtschaftlich, militärisch oder politisch getrieben sind. Indem wir unser über die Jahrtausende gewachsenes Wissen über Theatralität und Inszenierungsformen einsetzen, um spielerisch zu experimentieren, erlernen wir den Umgang damit und finden heraus, welche Weltgestaltung mit ihnen möglich ist. Die Lektüre der Beiträge zeigt deutlich: Die vielfach beschworene Minimaldefinition des Theaters – A geht durch einen Raum während B zuschaut – beinhaltet keinerlei Spezifikation, dass B sich dabei im selben Zimmer befinden muss.
Darstellung der Inhalte in absteigender Reihenfolge (von neuen zu älteren Wellen).
Für alle Befragungen (abweichend nur die Rekrutierungsbefragung) wird erhoben: Einladungsmodus; Teilnahmemodus; Datum Feldstart und Feldende; AAPOR Wave Code; Fragebogenevaluation (interessant, abwechslungsreich, wichtig für Wissenschaft, lang, schwierig, zu persönlich) und Gesamtbewertung des Fragebogens; Verständlichkeit der Fragen; gedankliche Anregung durch die Fragen; Teilnahmeunterbrechung und Dauer der Unterbrechung; Anwesende während des Interviews; Teilnahmeort (zuhause, anderer Ort); Teilnahmegerät; Feedback des Befragten; Datum, an dem der Fragebogen ausgefüllt wurde; geschätzte Dauer; ab Welle bd: Schwierigkeiten beim Verständnis des Fragebogens; Schwierigkeiten Antworten zu finden.
Welle bf:
Panelteilnahme, Panelevaluation: Einstellung zu Umfragen im Allgemeinen (Skala); Meinung zur Teilnahme am GESIS GesellschaftsMonitor im Jahr 2014 (regelmäßige Gespräche mit Dritten über Umfragethemen, Verpflichtungsgefühl zur Teilnahme, Teilnahme wurde zur Gewohnheit, passend, Identifikation mit GESIS GesellschaftsMonitor, Umfragen wichtig für die Gesellschaft, liefern wichtige Erkenntnisse, Zeitverschwendung, Spaß am Ausfüllen, Eingriff in die Privatsphäre, interessant, zu oft um Teilnahme gebeten worden, anstrengend); Gesamtbewertung der Befragungen des GESIS GesellschaftsMonitors und Schulnote; Einschätzung der Empfehlungswahrscheinlichkeit des GESIS GesellschaftsMonitors an Freunde; Mitgliedschaft in Online-Panels; Anzahl der Mitgliedschaften in Online-Panels. Internetzugang und Internetnutzung: Besitz von stationärem Computer / PC, Laptop, Tablet-PC und Smartphone; Nutzungshäufigkeit dieser Geräte; Internetzugriff mit diesen Geräten von zuhause und von unterwegs; Panel Teilnahmepräferenzen: Teilnahmewahrscheinlichkeit jeweils per Papierfragebogen, stationärem Computer / PC oder Laptop, Tablet-PC und Smartphone; präferierter Teilnahmemodus. Einstellungen zum Thema Erbschaftssteuern, Motive des generationsübergreifenden Transfers innerhalb von Familien (Intergenerationentransfer): Befürwortung einer Steuerpflicht auf Erbschaften; Meinung zu einer Erbschaftssteuervergünstigung für Pflegende; Meinung zu ausgewählten Aussagen: Ältere schrecken vor frühzeitiger Vermögensübertragung zurück aus Sorge vor Abhängigkeit von ihren Kindern, Eltern stocken Ersparnisse bei gestiegener Staatsverschuldung auf, um zukünftige Steuerlasten ihrer Kinder abzumildern (Ricardianische Äquivalenz), keine Lebensveränderung bei Erhalt der Erbschaft, weil Lebensentscheidungen vorher getroffen wurden; Meinung zur verpflichtenden finanziellen Starthilfe von Eltern für ihre Kinder (moralische Verpflichtung, falls selbst Starthilfe erhalten versus keinerlei Verpflichtung); Meinung zum Ausbau des staatlichen Betreuungsangebotes für Kinder unter 3 Jahren (zu starke Einmischung des Staates schwächt den Zusammenhalt der Familien versus Familien können Betreuung nicht selber leisten); vermuteter Grund für eine Vermögensübertragung zu Lebzeiten; antizipierte Verteilung von Erbschaften an Haushalte (Haushalte mit hohem Einkommen, mit niedrigem Einkommen oder an Haushalte aller Einkommensklassen); Kenntnistest: geschätzte Höhe der von Kindern zu zahlenden Erbschaftsteuer für geerbte Bankguthaben in Höhe von jeweils 100.000 Euro und 1 Mio. Euro; Selbsteinschätzung des Familienzusammenhalts; Anzahl der Generationen im Haushalt; räumliche bzw. zeitliche Distanz zu den Eltern; subjektive Einschätzung Vergesslichkeit (Metacognitive Prospective Memory Battery Capacity) und Anwendungshäufigkeit ausgewählter Alltagsstrategien gegen vergessen (MPMB Strategies). Demographie (Update): Geschlecht; Alter (kategorisiert); deutsche Staatsangehörigkeit; ausländische Staatsangehörigkeit; Familienstand; fester Lebenspartner; gemeinsamer Haushalt mit dem Lebenspartner; höchster allgemeinbildender Schulabschluss; derzeitiger Ausbildungsstatus (berufliche Ausbildung oder Studium); Hochschulabschluss oder Universitätsabschluss; Art des höchsten Hochschul- bzw. Universitätsabschlusses; höchster beruflicher Ausbildungsabschluss; Haushaltsgröße; Anzahl der Kinder unter 16 Jahren im Haushalt; monatliches Nettoeinkommen und Haushaltsnettoeinkommen (kategorisiert).
Welle be:
Medien: Ausstattung mit elektronischen Geräten oder Internetmöglichkeiten (Fernsehgeräte, DVD-/Blu-ray Player, Festplattenrecorder, Spielekonsole, Radiogerät zu Hause, im Auto bzw. mit Internetzugang, stationärer Computer / PC, Laptop / Notebook, Tablet-PC, Festnetztelefon, normales Handy, Smartphone / iPhone, Internetzugang bzw. WLAN zu Hause, Cloud genutzt, Internetzugang im Auto); Nutzungshäufigkeit ausgewählter Medien (Fernsehen, DVD /Video, Kino, Bücher, Tageszeitung und Zeitschriften gedruckt bzw. als E-Book-Reader, online oder als Digitalausgabe, Hören von Radio, Musik-CDs, Musikkassetten oder MP3s, Handy / Smartphone, Computernutzung offline, Internet bzw. Onlinedienste nutzen, Erstellen von digitalen Filmen oder Fotos bzw. von Videos); Häufigkeit der Internetnutzung für private Zwecke; persönlich wichtige Kriterien bzw. Möglichkeiten des Internets. Mitgliedschaft und Aktivität in sozialen Netzwerken: Mitgliedschaft in einem sozialen Netzwerk; Nutzungshäufigkeit des am häufigsten genutzten sozialen Netzwerks; Art und Häufigkeit der Aktivitäten in sozialen Netzwerken im Kontakt mit Freunden oder Bekannten und mit Organisationen, Vereinen oder Initiativen. Beruf und Freizeit: Erwerbssituation; Arbeitszufriedenheit; Beruf: Anteil der Arbeitszeit in sitzender Tätigkeit; Anteil der Arbeitszeit mit persönlichen Sozialkontakten; Tätigkeitsbeschreibung (schnell arbeiten, großes Arbeitspensum, häufig technische Störungen im Arbeitsablauf, organisatorische Probleme, Gefühle von anderen Menschen verstehen, stark konzentrieren, körperlich schwer arbeiten, dazulernen und sich weiterentwickeln, Angst vor Arbeitsplatzverlust, Entscheidungsautonomie, Kollegen und Vorgesetzte helfen, Positives für andere Menschen bewirken, wichtige Rolle im Leben, häufig durch Arbeit erschöpft); Häufigkeit der gedanklichen Beschäftigung mit der Arbeit in der Freizeit; Führungsfunktion; befristeter oder unbefristeter Arbeitsvertrag; berufliche Tätigkeit bzw. Stellung; Branche (NACE); Zufriedenheit mit der Freizeit; Häufigkeit ausgewählter Freizeitaktivitäten (nützliche Kontakte knüpfen, entspannen, Kenntnisse erwerben oder weiterentwickeln, körperlich fit halten, anderen helfen oder ehrenamtlich engagieren, Hobby ausüben, Zeit mit der Familie). Wochenmärkte: Häufigkeit von Wochenmarkteinkäufen; Lebensmitteleinkauf auf Wochenmärkten in den letzten zwei Monaten; Einkaufshäufigkeit von Lebensmitteln regionaler Hersteller und aus biologisch-kontrolliertem Anbau auf Wochenmärkten; Meinung zu ausgewählten Aussagen zu Wochenmärkten (Lebensmittel zu teuer, begrenztes Angebot an Lebensmitteln, schlecht erreichbar, Lebensmittel von hoher Qualität); Wahrscheinlichkeit eines Wochenmarkteinkaufs in den nächsten vier Wochen; positive Bewertung des Einkaufs regionaler Produkte durch Familie und Freunde; gutes Gefühl beim Einkauf regionaler Produkte; Wahrscheinlichkeit des Einkaufs von Bio-Lebensmitteln beim nächsten Einkauf; Meinung zu Bio-Produkten (zu teuer, gutes Gefühl beim Einkauf, positiver Umweltbeitrag durch den Kauf von Bio-Produkten). Geldanlage: Präferierte Geldanlage für die mittelfristige Investition von 10.000 Euro im Hinblick auf Umweltverträglichkeit und Nachhaltigkeit, jeweils anhand von zwei Alternativvorschlägen mit gleichen Verwaltungskosten und vergleichbaren Risiken (Alternative A: Geldanlage in Unternehmen ohne Berücksichtigung ihrer Umweltverträglichkeit und Nachhaltigkeit mit einer Verzinsung von 5 Prozent (7,5 Prozent, 10 Prozent) pro Jahr versus Alternative B: Geldanlage ausschließlich in Unternehmen, die besonderen Wert auf Umweltverträglichkeit und Nachhaltigkeit legen bei einer jeweiligen Verzinsung von 5 Prozent pro Jahr); positive Bewertung der Investition in umweltfreundliche Unternehmen durch Familie und Freunde; Glück (Skalometer); Lebenszufriedenheit (Skalometer). Urlaub: Urlaubsstatus; private Urlaubsreise in den letzten zwei Monaten; Monat der Rückkehr von dieser Urlaubsreise; Zufriedenheit mit der Urlaubsreise (Skalometer); Zufriedenheit mit ausgewählten Aspekten der Urlaubsreise (Zeit mit Anderen, Alltagssorgen vergessen, Entspannung und Erholung, Erlebnisse außerhalb des Alltags, verwöhnen lassen, zur Ruhe kommen, Natur genießen, Spaß, Shoppen, Spannendes erleben, Herausforderung, neue Leute kennenlernen, eigene Fähigkeiten zeigen, andere Kulturen erleben, Neues lernen, neue Fähigkeiten erwerben, eigene Fähigkeiten unter Beweis stellen, Sport treiben, Unabhängigkeit).
Zusätzlich verkodet wurde: Experimentalvariable.
Welle bd:
Psychologische Selbstcharakterisierung (Big 5: reserviert, vertrauensvoll, faul, entspannt, wenig künstlerisches Interesse, gesellig, Kritikneigung, gründlich, nervös, aktive Vorstellungskraft); persönliche Wertepräferenzen (Skala: Naturschutz, Hervorheben der eigenen Leistungen, Meinungsbildung, Traditionalismus, Toleranz, Reichtum, starker Staat, Wissenserwerb, Menschen helfen, neue Erfahrungen, Handlungsanweisungen geben, Gesetze befolgen, sich um jedes Bedürfnis anderer kümmern, Handlungsfreiheit, Wunsch nach Anerkennung der eigenen Leistung, Gerechtigkeit, Dinge ergründen); täglich genutzte Körperpflegeprodukte; Häufigkeit des Zähneputzens, von Sport und Solariumbesuchen; derzeitige Haarfarbe bei gefärbten oder getönten Haaren; Wichtigkeit modischer Kleidung; durchgeführte Diät; wöchentlich enthaarte Körperregionen; Anzahl Piercings; Anzahl Tätowierungen; Arten durchgeführter Schönheitsoperationen; intensive Auseinandersetzung mit dem Thema Schönheitsoperationen; Wahrscheinlichkeit einer Schönheitsoperation; Selbsteinschätzung der Attraktivität; Einstellung zu Attraktivität (Skala: äußeres Erscheinungsbild fällt zuerst auf, attraktiven Menschen fliegt alles zu, Veränderung als einzige Möglichkeit für Zufriedenheit mit dem eigenen Aussehen, Wunschaussehen würde Leben vereinfachen, Medienbotschaften verhindern Zufriedenheit mit dem äußeren Erscheinungsbild, Bestes geben für möglichst gutes Aussehen); Selbsteinschätzung der Schichtzugehörigkeit; Körpergewicht in Kilogramm und Körpergröße in Zentimetern (Kategorien); Meinung zum politischen System in Deutschland (beste Form der Demokratie, bei der gewählte Politiker alle Entscheidungen fällen, Politiker entscheiden im Interesse der Bürger, Parlament als beste Institution zur Gesetzgebung); Meinung zur politischen Entscheidungsfindung (Abfragen von Bürgerpräferenzen, durch Experten, Bürgerbeteiligung bei wichtigen politischen Entscheidungen, Bürgerdiskussionen fördern und in Entscheidung einbeziehen, gewählte Politiker entscheiden, Bürger entscheiden); präferierter Weg der politischen Entscheidungsfindung: Diskussionen und Debatten vor Entscheidungen versus Entscheidungen fällen anstelle von Diskussionen und Debatten; präferierte Entscheidungsträger: Bürger versus gewählte Politiker, gewählte Politiker versus politisch unabhängige Experten, politisch unabhängige Experten versus Bürger); politische Partizipation: Teilnahmehäufigkeit an ausgewählten politischen Aktivitäten; Bereitschaft zu politischer Partizipation; subjektives Wohlbefinden: glücklich im gegenwärtigen Leben (Skalometer); Lebenszufriedenheit (Skalometer). Urlaub: Urlaubsstatus; private Urlaubsreise im Sommer 2014; Monat des Urlaubsendes; Nutzungshäufigkeit ausgewählter Möglichkeiten um Urlaubserfahrungen zu teilen (z.B. Telefonate, E-Mails, Blogeinträge, Erstellen von Urlaubsfotoalben im Internet, u.a.); Zufriedenheit mit der Urlaubsreise (Skalometer); Zufriedenheit mit ausgewählten Aspekten der Urlaubsreise (Zeit mit Anderen, Alltagssorgen vergessen, Entspannen, Erlebnisse außerhalb des Alltags, verwöhnen lassen, zur Ruhe kommen, Natur genießen, Spaß, Shoppen, Spannendes erleben, Herausforderung, neue Leute kennenlernen, eigene Fähigkeiten zeigen, andere Kulturen erleben, Neues lernen, neue Fähigkeiten erwerben, eigene Fähigkeiten unter Beweis stellen, Sport treiben, Unabhängigkeit); weitere Urlaubsreise geplant; Vorfreude auf diese Urlaubsreise; Monat des Urlaubsbeginns; bereits erfolgte Urlaubsplanung hinsichtlich Anreise, Unterkunft, Verpflegung bzw. Urlaubsaktivitäten; Gründe, warum keine Urlaubsreise unternommen wurde.
Zusätzlich verkodet wurde: Body-Mass-Index (BMI).
Welle bc:
Einstellungen zur Umwelt und Umweltverhalten: Großstadtnähe der Wohngegend; empfundene Beeinträchtigung durch Umwelteinflüsse (Lärmbelästigung, Luftverschmutzung, fehlende Grünflächen); Einstellung zum Verhältnis zwischen Mensch und Umwelt (New Ecological Paradigm Scale); Zahlungsbereitschaft für den Umweltschutz in Bezug auf höhere Preise und Steuern und Abstriche vom Lebensstandard; Einstellung zur Energiewende (Skala); Meinung zum Atomausstieg; Deutschland sollte in der Klimaschutzpolitik vorangehen versus sich dem Tempo anderer Länder anpassen; Einschätzung des Klimawandels als ernstes Problem; Besitz einer Zeitkarte für den öffentlichen Personennahverkehr; Verfügbarkeit eines Autos; Nutzungshäufigkeit von Auto, Fahrrad, Bus oder Bahn in der Region sowie der Bahn auf längeren Strecken; Flugzeugnutzung im letzten Jahr für Privatreisen; Einkauf von Bio-Lebensmitteln und regionalem Obst und Gemüse in der letzten Woche; Bezug von Ökostrom. Wahlbeteiligung und Wahlentscheidung (Recall) bei der Europawahl am 25. Mai; Zufriedenheit mit den Leistungen der Bundesregierung; Zufriedenheit mit den Entscheidungen der EU; Selbsteinstufung Links-Rechts; Links-Rechts-Einstufung der Parteien CDU, CSU, SPD, FDP, Die Linke, Bündnis 90/Die Grünen und Alternative für Deutschland (AfD); Meinung zur Europäischen Einigung; Einstufung der vorgenannten Parteien hinsichtlich ihrer Haltung zur Europäischen Einigung; Verantwortung von Institutionen für die wirtschaftliche Lage in Deutschland (Bundesregierung, Internationaler Währungsfonds (IWF, IMF), Banken, Europäische Union); Wahlbeteiligung und Wahlentscheidung bei der Bundestagswahl 2013 (Erststimme und Zweitstimme, Recall); Wahrscheinlichkeit die Parteien CDU/CSU, SPD, FDP, Die Linke, Bündnis 90/Die Grünen und Alternative für Deutschland (AfD) zu wählen. Subjektive Einschätzung Vergesslichkeit (Metacognitive Prospective Memory Battery Capacity) und Anwendungshäufigkeit ausgewählter Alltagsstrategien gegen vergessen (MPMB Strategies). Subjektives Wohlbefinden: glücklich im derzeitigen Leben; Lebenszufriedenheit. Urlaubsreisen: Urlaubsstatus; geplante Urlaubsgestaltung im Sommer; Vorfreude auf die Urlaubsreise; Beginn (Monat) der nächsten Urlaubsreise; existierende Urlaubsplanung für Anreise, Unterkunft, Verpflegung und Urlaubsaktivitäten; Wichtigkeit ausgewählter Urlaubsmotive.
Welle bb:
Politikinteresse; politische Partizipation im letzten Jahr; Beteiligung an der letzten Kommunalwahl, Bürgermeisterwahl, Landtagswahl, Bundestagswahl und Europawahl; Wahlbeteiligungsabsicht und Wahlentscheidung bei der nächsten Bundestagwahl (Sonntagsfrage); Häufigkeit der Rezeption politischer Nachrichten; Häufigkeit der Internetnutzung für private Zwecke; Internetnutzung zur Informationssuche (über Freunde, Sport, Kunst oder Freizeitaktivitäten, Arbeit, Studieren oder Weiterbildung, Produkte, Einkäufe, soziale oder politische Themen sowie über Dienste oder Dienstleistungen); Häufigkeit der politischen Internetnutzung (Meinungsäußerung, Diskussionen, Weiterleiten von E-Mails, Unterschreiben einer Petition, soziale oder politische Beteiligung, Information über soziale und politische Themen; Nutzungshäufigkeit sozialer Netzwerke (Facebook, Twitter, andere); Häufigkeit der Beteiligung in Verbänden, Vereinen und Organisationen im letzten Jahr; Kontakthäufigkeit mit Freunden im letzten Jahr; Häufigkeit nachbarschaftlicher Kontakte (gegenseitige Besuche, Nachbarschaftshilfe, Streit mit Nachbarn); Wichtigkeit ausgewählter Lebensbereiche (Familie, Freunde und Bekannte, Freizeit, Politik, Arbeit und Religion); politische Wirksamkeit (Skala); Bürgerschaftsnormen (Skala: Solidarität mit schlechter Gestellten, Beteiligung an Wahlen, keine Steuerhinterziehung, Meinungsbildung unabhängig von anderen, Gesetze befolgen, aktiv in Organisationen und Vereinen, eigene Meinung kritisch überprüfen); Institutionenvertrauen (Bundestag, Bundesregierung, politische Parteien, Gerichte, Polizei, Politiker, Medien, Europäische Union, Vereinte Nationen, Bundesverfassungsgericht); allgemeines Personenvertrauen; Demokratiezufriedenheit; Parteiidentifikation und Stärke der Parteiidentifikation; Besorgnis im Hinblick auf die Begleichung von Rechnungen, die Reduzierung des Lebensstandards, den Job sowie die Abzahlung von Bankkrediten und Hypotheken; Meinung zu deutscher Krisenhilfe für andere EU-Mitgliedsstaaten; Lebenszufriedenheit; Glück; Häufigkeit von Treffen mit Freunden, Verwandten oder Arbeitskollegen; Teilnahme an geselligen Ereignissen im Vergleich zu Gleichaltrigen; Aktivitäten in den letzten zwölf Monaten (Ehrenamt, Fort- oder Weiterbildungskurs, Vereinstätigkeit bzw. in einer politischen Organisation oder Bürgerinitiative, Lesen von Büchern, Magazinen oder Zeitungen, Lösen von Kreuzwort- oder Zahlenrätsel, Kartenspiele oder andere Spiele); Gefühl persönlicher Wertschätzung von Nahestehenden; Zufriedenheit mit der Wirtschaftslage in Deutschland; Zufriedenheit mit den Leistungen der Bundesregierung; Forderung nach einer staatlichen Verringerung von Einkommensunterschieden; Beurteilung der allgemeinen Wirtschaftslage in Deutschland und der finanziellen Situation des eigenen Haushalts im Vergleich mit vergangenem Jahr und erwartete zukünftige Entwicklung im kommenden Jahr; allgemeine Gefühlslage (aktiv, bekümmert, interessiert, freudig erregt, verärgert, stark, schuldig, erschrocken, feindselig, angeregt, stolz, gereizt, begeistert, beschämt, wach, nervös, entschlossen, aufmerksam, durcheinander, ängstlich).
Fragebogenevaluation: Schwierigkeiten beim Verständnis des Fragebogens; Schwierigkeiten Antworten zu finden; eigene Bemühungen bei der Antwortauswahl; Angemessenheit der Fragebogenlänge; Fragebogen bot Möglichkeit eigene Meinung auszudrücken; Spaß am Ausfüllen.
Welle ba:
Glücklich im bisherigen Leben, derzeit und zukünftig; Lebenszufriedenheit im bisherigen Leben, derzeit und zukünftig; Wichtigkeit ausgewählter Lebensbereiche (eigene Familie, Arbeit, Freizeit, Freunde, Nachbarschaft, finanzielle Situation) und Zufriedenheit mit diesen Lebensbereichen; Häufigkeit ausgewählter Gefühle in der letzten Woche (deprimiert oder niedergeschlagen, alles anstrengend, unruhiger Schlaf, glücklich, einsam, Leben genießen, traurig, antriebslos); Vergleichsperson oder Vergleichsgruppe für die eigene Familie (Arbeitskollegen, Familienmitglieder, Freunde, Nachbarn, andere); Wichtigkeit der eigenen Familie für diese Vergleichsperson; Zufriedenheit der Vergleichsperson mit der eigenen Familie; Vergleichsperson oder Vergleichsgruppe in Bezug auf die finanzielle Situation; Wichtigkeit der eigenen finanziellen Situation für diese Vergleichsperson; Zufriedenheit der Vergleichsperson mit der eigenen finanziellen Situation; Art der räumlichen Orientierung im Alltag (in einer unbekannten Stadt, der eigenen Stadt, einem Gebäude, vom gegenwärtigen Standort aus, in freier Natur, nach den Himmelsrichtungen, mentale Karte der Umgebung, Ziel problemlos finden, Vogelperspektive, unbekannte Umgebung, mentale Karte der eigenen Stadt, Wege merken allgemein und in Gebäuden, Orientierungssinn, markante Gebäude, Stadt als Karte, Himmelsrichtungen in freier Natur, Gebäudeeingang, mentale Karte einer unbekannten Stadt); genutzte Hilfsmittel für die Wegeplanung (Navigationssystem im Auto, Routenplaner im Internet, als Fußgänger Smartphone mit Navigationsfunktion, gedrucktes Kartenmaterial); Besitz eines mobilen Navigationsgeräts, eines Smartphones mit Navigationsfunktion, eines Autos mit fest eingebautem Navigationssystem, Tablet-PC mit Navigationsfunktion; gesicherte Erdölversorgung in 25 Jahren versus kein Erdöl mehr in 15 Jahren); jeder Ölkonzern bestimmt seine eigenen Preise versus Preisabsprachen; Verantwortlichkeit des Staates für angemessenen Wohnraum versus Eigenverantwortung; gesellschaftliche Umstände versus Einzelpersonen verantwortlich für Kriminalität und Gesetzlosigkeit; Staat sollte für Arbeit und guten Lebensstandard sorgen versus nicht dafür sorgen; zu harter Umgang der Gerichte mit Kriminellen versus nicht hart genug; Leitung der Regierung von klugen Leuten versus wissen nicht was sie tun; Meinung zur Korruptheit der Regierung; Meinung zu einem Gesetz zum Einsparen von Heizenergie bei Brennstoffmangel; Meinung zur verpflichtenden Gewerkschaftsmitgliedschaft aller Arbeitnehmer eines Unternehmens; Meinung zum gesetzlich erlaubten Schwangerschaftsabbruch bei einer ernsthaften Schädigung des Babys und für verheiratete Frauen mit abgeschlossener Familienplanung; Meinung zur Unterstützung von Parteien durch Unternehmen bzw. von Gewerkschaften; Meinung zur gleichen Eignung von Männern und Frauen für Politik; Kompliziertheit der Politik; Meinung zur Redefreiheit; Klimawandel: Veränderung der Durchschnittstemperaturen der letzten drei Jahre; allgemeines Personenvertrauen; weiterhin Ungleichheit aufgrund des Nutzens für Reiche und Mächtige.
Fragebogenevaluation: Schwierigkeiten beim Verständnis des Fragebogens; Schwierigkeiten Antworten zu finden; eigene Bemühungen bei der Antwortauswahl; Angemessenheit der Fragebogenlänge; Fragebogen bot Möglichkeit eigene Meinung auszudrücken; Spaß am Ausfüllen.
Zusätzlich verkodet wurden: diverse Experimentalvariablen; Einladungsmodus; Teilnahmemodus; Teilnahme; Datum Feldstart und Feldende; AAPOR wave code; Fragebogenevaluation (interessant, abwechslungsreich, wichtig für Wissenschaft, lang, schwierig, zu persönlich) und Gesamtbewertung des Fragebogens; Verständlichkeit der Fragen; gedankliche Anregung durch die Fragen; Teilnahmeunterbrechung; Dauer der Unterbrechung; Anwesende während des Interviews; Teilnahmeort (zuhause, anderer Ort); Teilnahmegerät; Feedback des Befragten; Datum (Tag, Monat, Jahr), an dem der Fragebogen ausgefüllt wurde; geschätzte Dauer.
Willkommensbefragung: Mediennutzung: Fernsehkonsum, Radiokonsum und Zeitungskonsum pro Tag; wichtigste politische Probleme im Land; Zufriedenheit mit den Leistungen der Bundesregierung (Skalometer); Demokratiezufriedenheit; Zufriedenheit mit der gegenwärtigen Wirtschaftslage im Land (Skalometer); Politikinteresse; Selbsteinstufung Links-Rechts; Bürgerpflichten (Skala). Wohnumfeld: Bundesland Ost/West (geografisch); Region; Beurteilung der Lebensqualität in der Region; empfundene Beeinträchtigung durch Lärmbelästigung, Luftverschmutzung und fehlende Grünanlagen; Beurteilung der sozialen Beziehungen in der Wohngegend; Wohnortwechsel in der Vergangenheit; Verbundenheit mit dem Wohnort, der Region, dem Bundesland, Deutschland und Europa. Freizeit: Wunsch nach mehr Zeit für ausgewählte Freizeitaktivitäten; Einstellung zum Beruf: Kriterien eines idealen Berufs; persönliche Prioritäten (Wohlstand, für andere da sein, Selbstverwirklichung, Kinder, Erfolg im Beruf, Hausbesitz, Ehe bzw. Partnerschaft, politisches Engagement, Reisen).
Zusätzlich verkodet wurde: Einladungsmodus; Teilnahmemodus; Datum Feldstart und Feldende; Einladungsmodus bei der ersten Welle; ursprünglicher Panel-Modus; AAPOR Standard Disposition Code; Fragebogenevaluation (interessant, abwechslungsreich, wichtig für Wissenschaft, lang, schwierig, zu persönlich) und Gesamtbewertung des Fragebogens; Verständlichkeit der Fragen; gedankliche Anregung durch die Fragen; Teilnahmeunterbrechung; Anwesende während des Interviews; Teilnahmeort (zuhause, anderer Ort); Teilnahmegerät; Feedback des Befragten.
Rekrutierungsbefragung: Allgemeine Lebenszufriedenheit; Zufriedenheit mit dem Wohnort; Zufriedenheit mit dem Leben in Deutschland; soziales Vertrauen: allgemeines Personenvertrauen, kein Verlass auf Andere, Vorsicht gegenüber Fremden; erwarteter Lebensstandard der jungen Generation im Vergleich zu den Eltern; Häufigkeit ausgewählter Freizeitaktivitäten; Internetnutzung: private Internetnutzung; Häufigkeit der privaten Internetnutzung mittels Tischcomputer bzw. Laptop, Mobiltelefon bzw. Smartphone und Tablet PC; Technikaffinität (Skala); Umfrageerfahrung insgesamt; Teilnahmehäufigkeit an Umfragen online, postalisch und persönlich; Wichtigkeit verschiedener Lebensbereiche und Zufriedenheit in diesen Bereichen (eigene Familie, Beruf, Freizeit); Emotionen bei Gedanken an die Familie, den Beruf und die Freizeit.
Demographie: Geschlecht; Alter (kategorisiert); deutsche Staatsangehörigkeit; Geburtsland des Befragten und seiner Eltern (Migrationshintergrund); Jahr der Einwanderung; Familienstand; fester Lebenspartner; gemeinsamer Haushalt mit dem Partner; höchster Schulabschluss; beruflicher Ausbildungsabschluss; Erwerbssituation; Art der Erwerbslosigkeit; Berufsgruppe; Haushaltsgröße; Kinder im Haushalt unter 16 Jahren und Alter dieser Kinder; persönliches Nettoeinkommen und Haushaltsnettoeinkommen (kategorisiert).
Zusätzlich verkodet wurde: Interesse an einer Paneleinladung; Befragter zögert bei Paneleinladung; Modus Onliner; Angabe der E-Mail-Adresse; Angabe der Telefonnummer; Modus im Sinne der Studie (Onliner oder Offliner); Einladungsmodus für Willkommensbefragung (Online oder Offline).
Administrative Variablen: Befragten-ID; Versionskennung und Versionsdatum.
Aus der Einleitung: Die aktuelle politische, soziale und ökonomische Situation in Subsahara-Afrika: Afrika -– was wissen wir über Schwarzafrika, also über das Gebiet südlich der Wüste Sahara? Welche Informationen erreichen uns über Printmedien, Rundfunk, Film und Fernsehen, die uns Auskunft über das Leben und die tägliche Wirklichkeit in den Ländern dieser Region geben. Welche davon sind real und welche durch Antizipation von Interpretationen und Schlussfolgerungen gefärbt und damit möglicherweise nicht vollständig zutreffend? Schwarzafrika - ein unmoderner, weil politisch unkorrekter Begriff, bezieht er sich doch nicht etwa auf geografische Gegebenheiten, sondern nur auf die dunklere Hautfarbe der dort lebenden Menschen und wirkt dadurch sprachlich diskriminierend. Die vorliegende Arbeit bezieht sich in ihren Ausführungen ausschließlich auf diejenigen Staaten, die südlich unterhalb der Sahara-Grenzlinie liegen, und so werden im Folgenden die von einer geografischen Etymologie geprägten Ausdrücke 'Subsahara-Afrika' beziehungsweise 'subsaharisches Afrika' oder 'Afrika südlich der Sahara' verwandt. Die Beschränkung auf diesen Teil des afrikanischen Kontinents und mithin die inhaltliche Aussparung der nordafrikanischen Staaten Ägypten, Lybien, Tunesien, Algerien und Marokko, inklusive des durch Marokko annektierten Gebietes der Westsahara, erfolgt aus folgenden Überlegungen: Zum einen weisen die sechs genannten Länder durch ihre Lage als Mittelmeeranrainer mit entsprechender Anbindung an westliche Standards eine stark durch europäische Strömungen gefärbte Struktur der Staatsführung und Gesellschaftsorganisation auf. Diese hebt sich von denjenigen Strukturen der übrigen Länder Afrikas, eventuell mit Ausnahme einiger weniger Staaten wie zum Beispiel Südafrika, ab. Des Weiteren entspricht diese Gebietsbegrenzung auf das subsaharische Afrika durchaus dem allgemeinen Standard in der einschlägigen Fachliteratur in Forschung und Lehre. Hinzu kommt, dass diese Unterteilung zwischen Nordafrika und SSA dem theoretischen wie praktischen Ansatz der meisten internationalen Organisationen entspricht und in Verbindung mit einem internen und offiziellen Sprachusus als legitime und gebräuchliche Kategorie anerkannt ist. Damit sollen, auch im Rahmen dieser Arbeit, bestimmte Bestrebungen und aktuelle Tendenzen einer panafrikanischen Politik nicht ignoriert werden, die eine Zusammenführung, ein einheitliches, alle afrikanischen Staaten und ihre BürgerInnen integrierendes Agieren und Auftreten, im internen wie im translateralen Kontakt zum Ziel haben. Denn das Engagement, beispielsweise der 'African Union (AU)' , kommt nicht zuletzt der Förderung der Interessen subsaharischer Staaten zugute. Afrika -– was wissen wir tatsächlich über SSA? Hunger und Unterernährung, Kriege und Konflikte, Mangelwirtschaft und Rechtlosigkeit, Krisen und Katastrophen sind nur einige der vielen Stichwörter, die Menschen weltweit in den Sinn kommen, wenn sie nach ihren Vorstellungen von den gesellschaftlichen, politischen und sozialen Realitäten des afrikanischen Kontinents, insbesondere den subsaharischen Bereich betreffend, befragt werden. Ein Gebiet, das durch 52 Einzelstaaten geprägt wird, die zwar diverse übergeordnete Kategorien, wie zum Beispiel Armut und Unterentwicklung, verbinden, die andererseits jedoch ein breites Spektrum unterschiedlichster Potentiale und dementsprechender Chancen und Möglichkeiten abbilden. Das Bild von Afrika, welches in den Köpfen der Menschen, die nicht in Afrika leben, noch weit verbreitet ist, ist oft eindimensional, veraltet, statisch und gleicht mehr einem Klischee denn einem Spiegelbild tatsächlicher Verhältnisse. Denn der afrikanische Erdteil ist vielen Wandlungen unterworfen, die in einem mitunter rasanten Tempo voranschreiten. Diese Veränderungen zielen in Subsahara-Afrika, insbesondere im Hinblick auf politische und gesellschaftliche Kontexte, häufig in diametrale Richtungen: Einerseits sind viele Menschen in diversen subsaharischen Staaten Afrikas nach wie vor, oftmals seit vielen Jahren, der politischen Willkür und den aggressiven Machtansprüchen diktatorischer Staatsführungen oder Militärregimes ausgeliefert, fernab jeglicher rechtsstaatlicher Grundsicherheiten. Wenn nicht alltägliche Repressalien und Rechtlosigkeit einen hohen Tribut fordern, so bedrohen schleichender sozioökonomischer Staatszerfall oder eine lange Tradition zermürbender Kriege und Bürgerkriege, sowie ethnische Konflikte und Verfolgungen, die dort lebenden Menschen an Leib, Leben und in Ihrer Menschenwürde. Die Länder Angola, Mosambik und Sierra Leone oder derzeit auch die schwer umkämpfte sudanesische Region Dafur, die (bürgerkriegs)geplagten Staaten Nigeria, Somalia und die demokratische Republik Kongo sind nur wenige Beispiele einer langen Kette unrühmlicher Fälle autoritärer und gewalttätiger Herrschaftsideologie und mithin untauglicher Staatsführung durch Kriege und bewaffnete Konflikte in der Geschichte afrikanischer Länder. Auf der anderen Seite besteht in manchen, wenn auch anteilig wenigen, Landstrichen des Kontinents durchaus Grund zu berechtigtem Optimismus. Denn in einigen Staaten Afrikas erfuhren in den letzten Jahren Erfolg versprechende Demokratisierungsprozesse eine Stärkung und führen ihre Bürger heraus aus jahrzehntelang andauernden Phasen der politischen Repression. Dementsprechende Reformen führen zu einer Einbindung der Bevölkerung in real existierende Mitbestimmungs- und Wahlmöglichkeiten des alltäglichen sozialen Lebens, die maßgeblich von Pluralität und basisdemokratischen Überzeugungen, wie dem Mehrheits- und Gleichheitsgrundsatz oder dem Prinzip der Gewaltenteilung, geprägt sind. Tatsächliche Volkssouveränität ist in solchen jungen, demokratischen Staaten, in denen Mehrparteiensysteme durch freie, gleiche und geheime Wahlen und vorangegangene, friedliche Revolutionen legitimiert wurden, zum Teil nicht bloß wünschenswerte Fiktion. Die BürgerInnen der Republik Südafrika übernehmen nach dem Ende der Apartheidspolitik durch einen demokratischen Wandlungsprozess und Machtwechsel seit den neunziger Jahren des vergangenen Jahrhunderts - in dieser Hinsicht eine unangefochtene Vorreiterrolle mit entsprechender Vorbildfunktion. Andererseits stehen diese Fortschritte in Richtung Demokratie oftmals, zum Beispiel aufgrund andersartiger politischer Traditionen, nicht auf sicheren Grundpfeilern und bedürfen einer nachhaltigen Konsolidierung. Trotz einer Vielzahl hoffnungsvoller Optionen geben nach wie vor einige übergreifende Aspekte in vielen afrikanischen Ländern Anlass zur Besorgnis. TETZLAFF konstatiert in diesem Zusammenhang vor allem weit verbreitete staatsübergreifende Negativ-Faktoren, wie ökonomische Stagnation und überdauende Armutsverhältnisse, lang anhaltende kriegerische Auseinandersetzungen und politisch motivierte Gewaltbereitschaft, gesundheitliche Bedrohungen, vor allem die epidemische Ausbreitung der Immunschwächekrankheit HIV/Aids sowie zunehmende Entwicklungen in Richtung kollabierender Staatsgefüge und daraus resultierender Machthohlräume. HERRNLEBEN ergänzt und fokussiert die Überblicksdarstellungen der in SSA weit verbreiteten Problematiken um den Aspekt der geringen Lebenserwartung, die seiner Meinung nach '[...] auch eine Folge der immer noch hohen Mütter-, Säuglings und Kindersterblichkeit [ist].' So mangele es circa fünfzig Prozent der afrikanischen Bevölkerung und in einigen Landstrichen auch einem noch höheren Anteil an sauberem Trinkwasser sowie ärztlicher Grundversorgung und erschwinglichen Arzneipräparaten zur medizinischen Therapie der, unter anderem aufgrund dessen, weit verbreiteten Infektionserkrankungen Cholera, Malaria, Typhus, Tuberkulose, Hepatitis B, Lepra, parasitärer Wurmbefall und vor allem AIDS. MAIR konkretisiert insbesondere die sozialen Dimensionen im Katalog der aktuellen, wenn auch nicht immer neuen, Schwierigkeiten des modernen SSA: 'Wachsende Arbeitslosigkeit und Perspektivlosigkeit von Jugendlichen sowie das Anwachsen der städtischen Slums und der Gewaltkriminalität sind die Schattenseiten dieses Wandels.' Weitere derzeitige Problemfelder, die gerade im subsaharischen Afrika die Freude über teilweise zu verzeichnende Erfolge der politischen und wirtschaftlichen Stärkung dämpfen und eine fundamentale Verankerung derselben in den jeweiligen Gesellschaftsstrukturen erschweren, werden an anderer Stelle dieser Arbeit Gegenstände expliziter Betrachtungen sein. Diese sind: Kriege und gewaltsame Konflikte, ein rapider und starker Anstieg der Bevölkerungszahlen, die Tendenz zur regionalen Migration, ein Trend zu Landflucht und Verstädterung, sowie der Faktor der Korruption, und die immense Verbreitung von HIV/Aids. Zusammenfassend lässt sich, ohne nachfolgende Erkenntnisse vorwegzunehmen, festhalten, dass viele der Probleme, mit der sich die Menschen in der Region SSA auseinander zu setzen haben, schwerwiegende Formen und Ausmaße annehmen: weil erstens ihre Fülle beträchtlich ist, zweitens sie bereits längere Zeit andauern und drittens ihnen vielfältige Ursachen zu Grunde liegen. Es scheint offensichtlich: Hilfe für Subsahara-Afrika tut not. Angenommen, dass dem so ist, ergeben sich daraus Fragestellungen, die es zu erörtern gilt. Einige der vielen Fragen, die sich in diesem Zusammenhang auftun, lauten folgerichtig: Wie stellen sich das Ausmaß und die Formen von Armut und Unterentwicklung aktuell konkret dar? Welche Faktoren spielen dabei eine Rolle und inwiefern tragen sie zu der derzeitigen Situation bei? Wie urteilen diverse Entwicklungstheorien über die Fragestellung, wie es zu diesen Schwierigkeiten kam beziehungsweise wer oder was inwiefern und unter welchen politischen, ökonomischen, historischen und entwicklungstheoretischen Vorzeichen dafür verantwortlich ist, dass die meisten Staaten des subsaharischen Afrika nach wie vor zu den 'Least Developed Countries (LLDC)', den am wenigsten entwickelten Ländern der Welt zählen mit entsprechend tiefgreifenden Folgen für die Bevölkerung? Was ist von deren Positionen zu halten? Welchen Bedarf haben die unterentwickelten Länder des subsaharischen Kontinents an Unternehmungen internationaler Entwicklungszusammenarbeit und Entwicklungspolitik? Welche Ansatzmöglichkeiten für derartige Hilfen, welche Potentiale der Entwicklung bieten sich? Welche Maßnahmen internationaler Entwicklungszusammenarbeit und Entwicklungspolitik wurden im Wesentlichen bis dato initiiert und wer hat sie durchgeführt? Wie sind die Wirksamkeit und die Resultate derselben hinsichtlich einer adäquaten Problemlösung in SSA zu bewerten? Welche aktuellen Perspektiven und Möglichkeiten für Entwicklungsförderung und Entwicklungspolitik bieten sich derzeit generell und im Zuge dessen auch für das subsaharische Afrika? Welche Auswirkungen hat die Beantwortung dieser Fragen auf die schlussfolgernden Erkenntnisse nach Art, Inhalt, Umfang und Zielrichtung einer gelungenen, weil effektiven und effizienten, Entwicklungspolitik und Entwicklungsförderung für SSA? Fragen über Fragen, die es zu beantworten gilt. Die vorliegende Arbeit will dazu einen Beitrag leisten und hierzu sowohl die problematische Ausgangslage darstellen und die zugrunde liegenden Kausalzusammenhänge klären, als auch den Status quo der internationalen Bemühungen um eine Lösung der genannten und zu konkretisierenden Defizite erörtern und neue Wege aufzeigen. Dazu wird dem aufmerksamen Leser zunächst ein umfangreicher und breit gefächerter Überblick über die Ausgangslage von Armut und Unterentwicklung in den Ländern südlich der Sahara präsentiert. Zuvor erfolgt jeweils eine begriffliche Bestimmung der Phänomene Armut und Unterentwicklung durch eine inhaltliche Skizzierung ihrer jeweiligen Grundmuster. Besondere Einflussfaktoren von Unterentwicklung in Subsahara-Afrika, wie die Bevölkerungsentwicklung, Migrations- und Urbanisierungstendenzen, die Probleme Hunger und Unterernährung, Kriege und Konflikte, sowie Korruption und HIV/Aids erfahren dabei eine ausführliche Darstellung ihrer aktuellen Ausprägung in afrikanischen Entwicklungsländern. Im Anschluss daran werden diverse Theorien diskutiert, die, jede für sich genommen, beanspruchen, tragfähige Erklärungsmuster für die zugrunde liegenden Kausalzusammenhänge der bestehenden afrikanischen Entwicklungsdefizite zu transportieren und stichhaltig argumentativ zu untermauern. Welche Einwände dependenztheoretische, globalisierungsspezifische, kolonialismus- und neoimperialismuskritische Positionen vorbringen und ob deren Argumentationslinien uneingeschränkt von Bestand sein können, soll die kritische Beurteilung derselben klären. Diesem Abschnitt schließt sich eine Darstellung des Entwicklungsbegriffs und der entwicklungsbezogenen Möglichkeiten und Perspektiven des subsaharischen Raumes an, um anschließend zur Beantwortung der Frage überzuleiten, inwiefern und unter welchen Voraussetzungen Maßnahmen der internationalen Entwicklungspolitik für deren Realisation Sorge tragen können und welche ihrer Handlungsfelder sich demgemäß ergeben. Demgegenüber werden, darauf folgend, bisher praktizierte Handlungsstrukturen der internationalen Entwicklungsförderung und –politik besprochen und einer kritischen Analyse im Hinblick auf den Erfolg der jeweiligen Ansätze unterzogen. In diesem Zusammenhang kommt es ebenso zu einer Beschreibung und anschließenden Beurteilung diverser akteursspezifischer Entwicklungsstrategien, wie der bisherigen deutschen und europäischen Positionen, sowie der erfolgten entwicklungspolitischen Herangehensweisen von Internationalem Währungsfond, der Weltbank, der Welthandelsorganisation und diverser nicht-staatlicher Entwicklungsförderungsorganisationen. Über den Status des historischen und aktuellen Bezugs hinaus, soll ein kritischer Überblick über diverse zukunftsbezogene Überlegungen und Trends der internationalen Entwicklungspolitik die Besprechung ihrer Inhalte abrunden. Die Arbeit schließt mit einem Resümee, das ein Fazit über die Beantwortung der oben genannten Fragestellungen beinhaltet, und einer persönlichen Einschätzung des Verfassers über gelungene, weil aussichtsreiche und effiziente Strukturen einer zeitgemäßen Entwicklungspolitik für das Afrika südlich der Sahara. Letztere stützt sich auf persönliche Vorstellungen und im Zusammenhang der Bearbeitung dieser Thematik gewonnene Erkenntnisse. Die im Rahmen dieser Arbeit verwandten Länder- beziehungsweise Staatenbezeichnungen und die Titulierungen ihrer jeweiligen Staatsangehörigen entsprechen dem Verzeichnis der Staatennamen für den amtlichen Gebrauch in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, herausgegeben vom Auswärtigen Amt der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. Neben der verwendeten und belegten Literatur wurden für die Anfertigung dieser Arbeit keine weiteren Hilfsmittel benutzt, was an dieser Stelle, mit Verweis auf die eigenhändige Unterschrift des Verfassers am Ende des Haupttextes, an Eides statt versichert wird.Inhaltsverzeichnis:Inhaltsverzeichnis: Abkürzungsverzeichnis5 Verzeichnis der Tabellen und Abbildungen10 1.Prolog – Die aktuelle politische, soziale und ökonomische Situation in Subsahara-Afrika11 2.Armut und Unterentwicklung in Subsahara-Afrika17 2.1Was ist Armut? – Definitionen und Dimensionen von Armut17 2.2Ausmaß und Erscheinungsformen der Armut in Subsahara-Afrika21 2.3Was bedeutet Unterentwicklung? – Maßstäbe und Ausprägungen von Unterentwicklung27 2.4Unterentwicklung im Afrika südlich der Sahara31 2.5Besondere Einflussfaktoren in SSA und ihre Auswirkungen40 2.5.1Bevölkerungsentwicklung40 2.5.2Migration43 2.5.3Verstädterung47 2.5.4Hunger und Unterernährung51 2.5.5Kriege und Konflikte54 2.5.6Korruption57 2.5.7HIV/Aids61 3.Kausalzusammenhänge für Armut und Unterentwicklung in Subsahara-Afrika63 3.1Das Zentrum-Peripherie-Modell als Vertreter der Dependenztheorie63 3.2Kritik65 3.3Der Globalisierungs-Ansatz68 3.4Kritik70 3.5Kolonialismus als Erklärungsmuster für Unterentwicklung in SSA74 3.5.1Exkurs: Die Zeit des Kolonialismus und der Dekolonisation in SSA – Verlauf und Auswirkungen74 3.5.2Folgen der Kolonisation als Erklärungsgrundlage für die aktuelle Existenz von Armut und Unterentwicklung in SSA81 3.6Kritik84 3.7Das Erscheinungsbild eines ökonomischen und politischen Neo-Imperialismus und diesbezüglich potentieller Akteure als Argumentationsgrundlage zur Erklärung aktueller afrikanischer Verhältnisse86 3.8Fazit92 4.Entwicklung und Entwicklungspolitik94 4.1Was ist Entwicklung? – Grundlagen, Ziele und Methoden von Entwicklung94 4.2Welche Entwicklungsdefizite und -chancen prägen die Staaten des subsaharischen Afrika und welche Handlungsfelder internationaler Entwicklungspolitik ergeben sich daraus?97 4.3Die Erscheinungsbilder bisherigerEntwicklungspolitik und Entwicklungsförderung102 4.3.1Klassische humanitäre Hilfen104 4.3.2Strukturanpassungsmaßnahmen108 4.3.3Entwicklungsförderung durch technische und finanzielle Hilfen in Projekten und Programmen112 4.3.4Friedenssicherung und Schutz der Menschenrechte– Förderung von Basiselementen guter Regierungsführung116 4.3.5Initiativen zur Entschuldung122 4.4Die Akteure der Entwicklungspolitik und ihr Vorgehen in SSA129 4.4.1Nationalstaatliche Entwicklungspolitik für SSA am Beispiel Deutschlands129 4.4.2Zu den Entwicklungsstrategien der EU im Hinblick auf SSA – Ein Beispiel supra-nationaler Entwicklungspolitik134 4.4.3IWF, Weltbankgruppe und WTO – Institutionen internationaler Wirtschaftspolitik und ihr Vorgehen im Rahmen internationaler Entwicklungspolitik139 4.4.4NGOs – Gestalt, Funktionen und Tätigkeitsprofile der nichtstaatlichen Organisationen internationaler Entwicklungsförderung144 5.Aktuelle Trends der internationalen Entwicklungspolitik148 5.1Global Governance - Die Forderung nach globaler Strukturpolitik149 5.2Dezentrale Entwicklungsförderung durch lokale Entwicklungszusammenarbeit154 5.3Migration als Faktor für Entwicklung158 6.Zusammenfassung163 7.Persönliche Maßstäbe einer Entwicklungspolitik für Subsahara-Afrika165 Literatur174 Internetquellen181Textprobe:Textprobe: Kapitel 3, Kausalzusammenhänge für Armut und Unterentwicklung in Subsahara-Afrika: 3.1, Das Zentrum-Peripherie-Modell als Vertreter der Dependenztheorie: Unter der Bezeichnung Dependenztheorie sind Entwicklungstheorien summiert, die die Ursache von Armut und Unterentwicklung in den wenig und am wenigsten entwickelten Ländern, so auch in den weitaus meisten Ländern Subsahara-Afrikas in deren Integration in kapitalistische Ökonomiestrukturen erkennen wollen. Insbesondere unterstellen die Anhänger der Dependenztheorie eine strukturelle Abhängigkeit der Entwicklungsländer von den hoch entwickelten Staaten, vor allem den westlichen und inzwischen mitunter auch den fernöstlichen Industrieländern. Nach dem auf der Dependenztheorie aufbauenden so genannten Zentrum-Peripherie-Modell des Norwegers Johan Galtung lässt sich die Welt nicht nach geografischen, sondern vielmehr machtpolitischen Gesichtspunkten, als ein Kreis vorstellen, deren Mittelpunkt die Industriestaaten bilden, wohingegen die wenig entwickelten Regionen am Rand des Kreises abgebildet werden. Industriestaaten gelten demgemäß als 'Zentren', die Entwicklungsländer als 'Peripherie', je nach ihrem jeweiligen Entwicklungsgrad und ihrer mittelbar oder unmittelbar damit in Zusammenhang stehenden allgemeinen, vor allem wirtschaftlichen Potenz. Die Abhängigkeit einzelner Länder der Peripherie von solchen der Zentren beschreibt GALTUNG folgendermaßen recht deutlich: 'Der Grundgedanke ist, dass das Zentrum in der Zentralnation einen Brückenkopf in der Peripherienation hat, und zwar einen gut gewählten: nämlich das Zentrum in der Peripherienation. Dieser Brückenkopf ist so eingerichtet, dass das Zentrum der Peripherie an das Zentrum im Zentrum gebunden ist: mit dem Band der Interessenharmonie. Beide sind miteinander verknüpft, so dass sie zusammen aufsteigen, absteigen, ja sogar zusammen untergehen.' Die 'Theoría Dependencia' geht demzufolge von einer Ungleichverteilung wirtschaftlicher Entwicklungsmöglichkeiten und einer einseitigen Machtausübung seitens der Industrieländer, beispielsweise mittels divergierender Handelsbedingungen oder eines Machtvorsprungs durch Kapitalhäufung, aus. Diese sind nach GALTUNG nichts anderes als eine Form struktureller Gewalt, welche von den Zentren auf die Peripherien ausgeübt wird und an deren Fortbestehen die Industrieländer durchaus interessiert sind, damit die Ungleichverteilung der machtpolitischen Kräfteverhältnisse und Chancen zur Veränderung der jeweiligen Entwicklungsniveaus ebenfalls anhaltend bestehen bleibt. Die Voraussetzungen eines ungleichberechtigten Handels manifestieren sich nach den Erkenntnissen der meisten Dependenztheoretiker, wie zum Beispiel Frank, Prebisch, Galtung, Senghaas u.a. in den folgenden Aspekten: Die Tauschprodukte des Handelsprozesses sind nicht gleichartig. Während die wenig entwickelten Länder Rohstoffe und den Faktor Arbeit einbringen, sind die Industrienationen mit Fertigprodukten und Kapital beteiligt. Eine Erhöhung des Kapitals in den Entwicklungsländern ist kaum realisierbar, allein schon aufgrund der unterschiedlichen 'Terms of trade'. Diese 'Terms of Trade' spiegeln das Verhältnis zwischen Export- und Importgütern wider. Die primär Rohstoffe exportierenden Länder, wie es viele subsaharische Volkswirtschaften verkörpern, sind gegenüber den hoch entwickelten Staaten als Exporteure von industriellen Erzeugnissen schon insofern benachteiligt, als über einen längeren Zeitraum ein Verfall der Rohstoffpreise zu beobachten ist. Aufgrund dessen können unter anderem die afrikanischen Entwicklungsländer eine gleich bleibende Menge von Industrieprodukten und ausländischen Devisen nur dann importieren, wenn die Menge der exportierten Rohstoffe sukzessive ansteigt. Die Industrienationen profitieren einseitig von diesen Zusammenhängen. Eine weitere Facette der strukturellen Abhängigkeit nach den Maßstäben des dependenztheoretischen Zentrum-Peripherie-Modells ist der real oft zu beobachtende Vorgang des Rücktransfers von Kapital, Zinsen und geldwerten Wettbewerbsvorteilen wie Patenten und Lizenzen aus in Entwicklungsländern erzielten Handelserträgen durch multinational operierende Konzerne mit Unternehmenszentralen in den Industrieländern. Dies wiederum führt zu einer Kapitalarmut und letztlich zur Entstehung und Verfestigung der Schuldenkrise in vielen subsaharischen Staaten und anderen Entwicklungsländern weltweit. Einseitige Nutznießer sind die Industriestaaten, deren ohnehin stärkere Kapitalkraft sich dadurch zusätzlich erhöht. Mit Hilfe des Zentrum-Peripherie-Modells lassen sich zwar diverse Zusammenhänge zwischen Unterentwicklung in SSA und struktureller Abhängigkeit schlüssig belegen, doch lassen die Dependenztheorien dennoch wesentliche Faktoren außer Acht, wie die nachfolgende kritische Beurteilung verdeutlicht. 3.2, Kritik: Die oben genannten Argumente der dependenztheoretischen Modelle, vor allem die des Zentrum-Peripherie-Modells, sind auf den ersten Blick in sich kohärent und durchaus schlüssig. Wirtschaftlich potente Länder, deren Produktionskreisläufe industrialisiert sind, besitzen gegenüber Rohstoff exportierenden Ländern tatsächlich deutliche Wettbewerbsvorteile, da Industrieprodukte mit einem weitaus geringeren Aufwand an Basisgütern, Personal, Arbeit und mithin Kapital erwirtschaftet werden können. Das sind altbekannte, ökonomische Realitäten. Ein daraus resultierendes Ungleichverhältnis der Terms of trade, das sich nach und nach zudem weiter verschlechtert, geht tatsächlich zu Lasten der Exportgewinne der wenig entwickelten Länder und ihrer Wirtschaft im Ganzen. Des Weiteren kann nicht geleugnet werden, dass die Kapitalkraft der Industriestaaten die der Entwicklungsländer um ein Vielfaches übersteigt, mit nachhaltig negativen Folgen für die wenig und am wenigsten entwickelten Staaten. Die Summe der Spekulationsgewinne, die in den Börsenzentren der industrialisierten Welt tagtäglich realisiert werden, erreicht Dimensionen, die die Gesamtheit der Handelsgewinne aller exportorientierten Entwicklungsländer in Subsahara-Afrika eines gesamten Jahres bei weitem in den Schatten stellen. Die enge Anbindung einer zahlenmäßig kleinen Gruppe von Wirtschaftsprofiteuren in subsaharischen Ländern, wie zum Beispiel die Petro-Elite im Öl exportierenden Nigeria, an die großen Industriekonzerne der Welt, ist ein weiterer eindrucksvoller Beleg für die sozio-ökonomische Struktur der Dependenz, einer strukturellen Abhängigkeit auf Gedeih und Verderb. Sie stellt quasi eine Verkörperung des Galtungschen Theorems über die satellitenähnliche Verknüpfung der Zentren von Zentralstaat und Peripherienation, mit der Bezeichnung des 'peripheren Kapitalismus', dar. Dennoch lassen Dependenztheoretiker einige Aspekte der Analyse außer Acht, die es zu berücksichtigen gilt. Vor allem dann nämlich, wenn das Faktum von Unterentwicklung in Subsahara-Afrika einzig und allein mit den Theorien funktioneller und struktureller Abhängigkeit belegt wird, gerät die Dependenztheorie mitsamt ihren Modellen an ihre Grenzen. Das Zentrum-Peripherie-Modell sieht, eingebettet in die Annahmen der Theoría Dependencia, die Ursachen der Unterentwicklung ausschließlich in äußeren Faktoren, wie sie die Machtkonzentration und –ausübung durch die Industrieländer darstellt, denen die Entwicklungsstaaten, durch ihre Anbindung an ein kapitalistisches Weltmarktsystem, ausgeliefert sind. Dieses exogene Erklärungsschema ist zu einseitig, um es verallgemeinernd der Gesamtheit aller afrikanischen LDC´s, als Erklärungsgrundlage der dortigen Entwicklungsdefizite, anzudienen, geschweige denn allen Entwicklungsländern dieser Welt. Ebenso ausschlaggebend für die Ausbildung von Unterentwicklung und deren Verfestigung sind Gründe, die in der inneren Struktur eines Landes, einer Gesellschaft, einer Volkswirtschaft selbst zu finden sind, also endogene Faktoren, wie sie einleitend intensiv beschrieben wurden. Es ist offensichtlich, dass innerafrikanische Kriege und Konflikte ebenso Hemmnisse, wenn nicht gar ausschließende Kriterien für eine Entwicklung in Subsahara-Afrika sind, wie Korruption und eine Kapitalkonzentration auf einige wenige politisch Privilegierte. Eine wirtschaftspolitisch schlecht positionierte, undemokratische und vornehmlich an der Erhaltung eigener Macht und wirtschaftlicher Pfründe interessierte Staatsführung, mitsamt einem maroden Verwaltungssystem und dementsprechend lückenhaften infrastrukturellen Gegebenheiten, ist zu einer Initiierung und Steuerung eines nachhaltigen Entwicklungsprozesses nicht in der Lage oder einfach gar nicht daran interessiert. Zwar herrschen in vielen Ländern des afrikanischen Kontinents Strukturen vor, die mitunter ebenfalls von außen, zum Beispiel durch koloniale Politik, wie an anderer Stelle gezeigt werden wird, bedingt wurden. Ein nicht minder wichtiger Teil dieser Strukturen ist jedoch auf ganz individuelle Begebenheiten im geschichtlichen Entstehungsprozess archaischer Gesellschaftsstrukturen der afrikanischen Länder zurückzuführen. Traditionelle Wirtschaftsformen, wie die in Afrika verbreitete Landwirtschaft oder eine Betonung von Familienbeziehungen gegenüber anderen sozialen Rollen- und Gruppensystemen sind weniger einem Einfluss von außen als vielmehr der Interaktion afrikanischer Menschen und ihrer althergebrachten Wertehaltungen, Denk- und Handlungsstrukturen geschuldet. So ist festzuhalten, dass die Ursachen von Unterentwicklung in SSA weder ausschließlich mit den Analysekriterien der exogenen Dependenztheorie noch mit dem Vergleich zwischen Tradition und Moderne, wie ihn die Anhänger der endogenen Modernisierungstheorien in den Mittelpunkt ihrer Konstruktionen über Unterentwicklung stellen, abschließend und zufriedenstellend zu klären sind. Die Wahrheit liegt, wie so oft, dazwischen, deren Auffindung ELSON implizit mit der Aufforderung anregt: 'We do not have to agree with either the interpretation given by orthodox neo-Classical economies theory or the interpretation given by dependency theory.' Leider verhinderte bis dato der Streit der großen Weltideologien 'Kapitalismus' und 'Sozialismus' eine Annäherung, im Sinne eines realitätsnahen Schulterschlusses der Anhänger beider widerstreitender Theoriekonzepte, sehr zum Schaden der betroffenen Entwicklungsländer.
Transcript of an oral history interview with Theodore A. "Ted" Arcidi conducted by Sarah Yahm at the interviewee's business in Manchester, New Hampshire, on 11 March 2015, as part of the Norwich Voices oral history project of the Sullivan Museum and History Center. Ted Arcidi is a member of the Norwich University Class of 1982 and a former professional wrestler, actor and power lifter. His interview includes discussion of both his career and his experiences as an athlete and a student attending Norwich University. ; 1 Theodore A. "Ted" Arcidi NU 1982, Oral History Interview March 11, 2015 At interviewee's business in Manchester, NH Interviewed by Sarah Yahm Transcribed by C.T. Haywood, NU '12, April 4, 2015 SY: Whenever you're ready we can let the games begin. TA: Alright, shoot. SY: So can you introduce yourself for the mic. TA: Ted Arcidi, graduate of Norwich in '82. SY: Excellent, and we're here at your business in Manchester, New Hampshire. What's the name of your business? TA: Building and business. I developed this building. It's a mill building, an older building and I also have my business here, Weightlifters Warehouse where we sell fitness equipment. SY: Excellent, can I borrow a pen? Interview pauses SY: Okay, so the thing with oral history is we get to start out early. So where were you born? And when you were a kid what did you want to be when you grew up? TA: A Norwich grad [said in joking tone]—hold on I'll get there SY: Okay, okay. TA: I was born in, I was born in Buffalo, New York and what did I want to aspire to? I didn't even know until like high school. I wanted to be a pro hockey player because I was I was really good in hockey and I played it, you know, religiously – practiced, practiced, practiced, practiced. I think I got my work ethic from my parents. I mean I'd be on the pond skating when—I went to private school so it was great I'd be skating by myself just doing drills, shooting drills, things like that for hours. Stick handling. I was a defenseman but I was small. I didn't really grow until like college, you know, late bloomer. And during that time I got into weight training and I just I just caught the bug you know. I was red shirting for Norwich. I was playing hockey at Salem State. I was in the JV's over there. They brought me up a couple of times to the varsity but I still needed some more work so I just started lifting weights and doing my cardio, doing my running and when I went to Norwich I had to red shirt because when you transfer you have to you know sit out a year. And that's when I just started lifting even more and more and making like I said those five pound gains on the bench every week. SY So [coughs] what did you like about it? TA: I loved it because I could just see my body changing and getting stronger. And maybe helped out my self-esteem too you know because I was kind of scrawny. I was wiry, I was strong. All's I used to do before was push-ups, sit ups, a lot of calisthenics, which are good which I find out are really advantageous to weight lifting because all those years that I was doing that I was, my tendons were getting stronger and my ligaments. I was getting a good base core. 2 SY: Yeah. So I'm just, going back to you, you at like five years old or ten years old how would you felt at that moment… TA: If I knew what was gonna happen? SY: Yeah when you got the title, "strongest man in the world!" TA: Oh it would be, I wouldn't believe it, they would have the wrong guy. It wasn't even in my wheelhouse, wasn't even in my radar. It was like, yeah I mean it was just like reserved for people that were born big or maybe they were just lived on farms or something I don't know. But I, but I never had that type of diligence then. And it wasn't a popular sport you know, so. I mean you'd watch it on TV and stuff the people, you know the big Russians and stuff concentrating and stuff, but that's as far as it went as far as like you know inquiring about that. SY: And did it drive you crazy that you were small? TA: I knew I was gonna grow. But I didn't, I didn't like any kid especially when it comes to sports you know you want to have some size because you're competing against other people especially in a sport like hockey. I did a lot of baseball, basketball, you know, recreational stuff. Little league. I didn't get much past that. Then I just concentrated on hockey like in the sixth/seventh grade. Started with the recreation then went to youth hockey and then high school hockey. That's the Bobby Orrick era, you know, that was big. Everybody did, everybody played street hockey all day. I mean that's a difference today, kids don't do that. They're not outside. They're like on their, you know their iPhones and stuff. They're missing a beautiful segment of their life, you know. SY: I know it's true. You're preaching to the choir on that one. Okay so you were at Salem State for a while and then how'd you end up at Norwich? TA: I flunked out [laughs]. I almost flunked out. I was there and I didn't have a real good first semester and I was bouncing on the side. This is, this is when I started lifting weights and you know yeah you wanna work your loins, you wanna get the benefits, you know? Because I'd never, I'm thinking, "Wow," you know, I could actually go to bars and hang out with the guys and stuff. It was like a whole new identity, you know. So like anyone else that gets anatomically more fit and more muscular you, you're young, God, you know, and so I worked at a bar, and a place called Face's in Salem. It was like a bikey bar and the homework, and I was like still training to play hockey but the homework just, I just wasn't doing it, you know. And I got like a 0.0 average [laughs]. SY: That's impressive. TA: Yeah, yeah. And then I had the talk with the dad and he says ah, he knew I need direction, he didn't even know I worked there. But I thought it was cool, you know, because I'm making money off my physique, so. So what I did was, we had the talk, he says, "You know, you got to improve. And you improve, we're gonna send you to another school, send you to Norwich." Because he went to Norwich himself. SY: Oh he did, so is he a military guy? TA: Yeah, he didn't graduate. He ended up transferring to UVM, but he did a freshmen year there. But he knew about it. He had friends there and stuff. SY: And did he think you needed the military discipline? 3 TA: I needed, yeah, to just get more focused. And I did like it. I did the tour up there in senior year, but I wasn't ready for it. And then now I was, you know, at the time. So I had to really bust my ass and really do well in school that second semester or else if I didn't get my grade average up to like B, which I knew I could do, I was gonna be working like a regular job. He says, "You're out of your house. I'm not gonna support, and you've obviously made a choice, go work in the real world." Which, he was a thousand percent right. SY: So you were like, "Okay I'm gonna be a bouncer forever or I'm gonna get my shit together." TA: Or work construction or something else, you know, or go try to play junior hockey in Canada which I wasn't good enough to play major junior A. So I really focused on—and that was a time when I was starting to lift and I'm thinking, "You know I'm just gonna see where lifting takes me," you know. Because I read about body building and lifting and power lifting and stuff, but I never entered any contests or anything. So I got my grade cume up and it worked out well. I gutted it out and I ended up getting enough credits and a good cume to get into Norwich. SY: As a? TA: As a sophomore. SY: As a sophomore. So you didn't have to do Rook Week? You didn't have to—? TA: Oh yeah I still had to do that. I got Recognized a little earlier than the other guys but I still had to do that, get in there in August and stuff, you know. SY: So what was that like? TA: That wasn't bad. I wish they'd fed me more. I was so hungry. They didn't give me enough food, because I was lifting. Everybody thought I was a football player. Now the football players got to eat more because they were athletes but it's like, "Come on man, I'm a weight lifter, you know, I lift more than these guys do. Cut me some slack." I almost left the school. SY: Because you were just hungry? TA: I was starving. You only get a serving and stuff. And that all changed, yeah, because most of those football players and athletes were on work study, they had the waiter coats back then and they could eat as much as they want. I mean I'm paying the same tuition as these guys, these guys are in there for nothing, and they're eating better than me. This is outrageous. So I almost left the school. SY: So what did you do? Did you complain? TAL Yeah, yeah I complained and the and the straw broke the camel's back, when I was there for six months – I had already gotten Recognized - and I was going in for a late mess hall and I grabbed some eggs, you know, boiled eggs. And the head football coach - and I don't mind saying it now [laughs] but he was a real jerk, Barry Mynter, he grabbed my wrist and he said, "Put the eggs back." And I go, "No, I'm gonna eat." "Well it's only football players." "Well I'm an athlete too and people come in late and why are you doing this to me?", so. I went right to the president. SY: Who was it then? TA: Loring Hart, yeah. SY: And what did he say? 4 TA: I said, "You know I'm a lifter." And I think I started competing and, "I need the calories and I need the protein and I'm, you know even if I wasn't a competing athlete, for the money I should be able to eat more." So he signed a thing, a requisition, that I can get two steaks or two servings of whatever the meat was then, you know. And I thought it was so stupid it's like, man what about these other kids that didn't complain. That was a problem and I brought it up to them and I think things changed after that. You don't deprive people that are, you know, working their ass off in a school and these guys are paying top dollar and stuff. They might not be athletes but you don't do that to people. So anyway ah… SY: So you won that battle? TA: Yeah, yeah, and I wasn't trying to win or like get a scho—I just wanted to eat, you know, and then immediately it was fine, it was no big deal. SY: And if you were lifting that much you must have just been ravenous? TA: Yeah then I would have to get food from my house on weekends and stuff or go down to Lemory's at the time was there, I used to buy roast beef and stuff because they didn't feed you, they didn't feed you enough. And now it's different, I think you get to eat as much as you want right, probably? So I'm glad. Yeah I had it out with him too, that guy Mynter, he was a real horse's ass and I'll him to this day, man, look what you gave up [laughs]. Now I'm glad I did it for the other people though, there was a lot of lifters, because lifting was big, and they could only eat like one meal. This is insane, this is totally insane, so…. SY: Did you end up getting, so you got to eat to more, but did your lifting friends? TA: Yeah they started too. I said, "Tell them you're gonna leave. This is bullshit." You don't mind if I? SY: No of course I don't mind. That's fine. So I wonder if -- I also can picture you, you're this big guy at this point and you're in the Corps… TA: I was bigger than most of these football players. I mean I wasn't as tall but you know I could blow them away. And maybe there was some animosity there with them too. I mean they liked me and a couple of guys did help me lift and stuff in the old Armory. Jimmy Pavao who was a football player, he helped me out, real good guy. Arty and his brother, their last name was Stringfellow, they helped me out. And there was another kid I don't want to forget - um, what was his name? [pause]. I'll think of it. He helped me when, when we moved the weight system. We had the new complex which wasn't new now but it was in '81, the new place that I was lifting there, and he helped me a lot this other kid. I'll, I'll get his name. SY: Yeah, you'll remember it. So I'm trying to imagine it. Here you are, you're a year older than the other freshman. The cadre are, because you're a sophomore, the cadre are like doing their Rook thing and you're big, right? TA: Well I started getting some size. Everybody thought I was a full-back. I was still benching around 400 then, 420. SY: So did they mess with you less the cadre? TA: Uh they kind of picked on me a couple of times and stuff, I guess the whole breaking thing. You play the game, you know. I mean and I didn't want to get any different treatment, I just wanted to ah, you know I knew I was gonna get Recognized early as an upperclassmen so I was just going through things. Part of the, part of the regiment, because hey I decided to go to a military school and I should, you know, partake in their traditions, you know. Yeah and it's a character builder. It is. 5 SY: And do you feel like it ended up building your character? TA: I think so. I think that and then when I honed in on my skill, my, my ah, my attributes of becoming a competitive weightlifter. I think it just all came together and everybody's thinking you know, "Ted, you know he's representing the school," so that kind of gave me some status there too. But I busted my ass you know, and um… SY: Yeah what was your daily regimen? TA: Ah well I get up, I probably lift about 4 days a week, do my running still too. But when I lifted, I lifted very heavy, very heavy, twice a week, heavy on the upper body and two times a week on the squats. But I knew my forte was the bench because I was just like making five pound gains a week. That was insane. SY: That's insane--and I just can't imagine seeing your body transform that much. TA: Every time I looked in the mirror, and I wasn't on steroids at all you know um… SY: What was that like? TA: Did I take them later? Yeah I took 'em when I was World Class because everybody did, and that's the only way you're gonna compete. I mean these same people if you took 'em off steroids they're still gonna be number one and two in the world because they have genetics and they have built themselves up because of their workout routine and stuff, so that's just how it goes. SY: And that's the pressures of the competitive scene? TA: Well you have to do that especially if you want to make a name for yourself. I mean it opened up the doors to a ton of things, you know, being the best in the world, being the first man to bench press 700 pounds. That was a big thing, that was really big that was in all the, you know, Wide World of Sports and all that stuff. And that was, that was big. SY: So what does it do to your head to see your body changing that much? TA: Yeah getting back between my sophomore and junior year, and senior year every year. I mean I went there and I was benching as a fresh--well as sophomore like 400/420. And then there's a 100 pound gain after that for the next year, and another 100 pound gain after that. And I'm just saying to myself, "I'm not, I better not blow this," you know? Because at one point I was, I was thinking you know I have a shot to be the first man to bench press 700 pounds. I mean that's gonna, that's gonna be earth shattering. No one's ever done it. The world record at the time was 661. You're breaking it by like forty something pounds, that's like Bob Beamon in the long jump. You just blew it away. SY: So you sort of realized you could push the capacity of a human? TA: I knew that I could do 7, I think I had the ability to do 7 my [phone buzzes]. Can you cut for a second, okay? [tape turns off and then on again] SY: So alright, so okay, here's what I keep thinking about. TA: Where was I though? SY: You were talking about realizing you could bench press 7. 6 TA: Oh yeah because I was making these extraordinary gains, still not on the juice. I got up to, people don't believe this but I got up to a 600 pound bench without steroids. No one's ever done that. SY: What made your body able to do that? TA: I think it's good genetics and I was always into taking vitamins back when I was playing hockey. My mother being a nurse, my dad's an orthodontist, she got me on the B vitamins--take 'em every day. And then vitamin C. That was a new thing then but that helped a lot because while you're growing it does decrease your inflammation and makes you recuperate better. But I still think the big thing was I always ate well and I ate smart, you know, because of those two people. And I think the fact that, you know, partaking in sports is important, but even when I was doing sports the calisthenics, I was like insane about it. And I really feel that doing--I used to do dips like an animal, push-ups, chin-ups. And I really feel that that just commenced a great basis for weight training because my tendons were really strong. I, I because I did that for years. I did that for at least three years before I even touched the weight. SY: How many hours a day? TA: Oh not too long. I mean just enough to do my things. I do it like three days a week, but little did I know that was laying out the base. Because some people when they start weight training they ah, they're hitting walls and stuff because they don't have the foundation. I think I built up a foundation just doing a lot of good calisthenics -- clean, full-range of motion, yeah. SY: So when you were lifting then, what would go through your head or were you really not thinking? Was it almost like meditative? There was no…? TA: Oh you mean when I was doing maxes or just working out? SY: Just working out. TA: I loved the feeling of moving big weights. SY: What about it? TA: It's, it's hard to describe, because it feels like another rep. Even if it's one rep. It's not painful, it's just like, you're just putting all your effort into that one push, you know? And then of course you do supplementary exercises. I didn't just do bench pressing, I did a lot of triceps work behind the neck press which I had the world record at one time too. It's an odd lift but it's not really measured, but I did up to 375 for five, standing behind the neck press. SY: So it seems like part of it for you was just sort of like, it was kind of blowing your mind that you were lifting these things. TA: Yeah but I went with it. I went with it and that was what I gonna say. I was, because you know when you're training with heavy weight you gotta warm up. If I get injured, I'm screwed. A lot of guys were pulling pecs because you try too much and I just made sure I warmed up and stuff 'cause now you're getting into no man's land which is scary. And when you get three people spotting you: one in the middle, and one on each side ,when you're going for like reps over 500 pounds, one wrong tweak, you're screwed. You blow a peck, go back to dental school, you know [laughs]. That's where I would have been. And I said that to myself. I know I'm jumping ahead, but before I went out there in front of that crowd, I ah I felt a twinge when I was in the warm-up room and I was thinking, "Well you know something, if it's gonna rip, let it rip out there," you know. But it was just a nerve twinge because the thing went up like butter, it was--the crowd psyches you up you know. So yeah I had to watch myself but 7 I knew I was in no man's land and I made sure, three major things, because I you know, what was great was with school being a phys ed major you're doing so much anatomy and physiology, chemistry, and this was great because I correlated this into my body and it made perfect sense. I got it, you know, where a lot of people don't. And its three major things for weight training: plenty of protein, plenty of sleep, and recuperation. As I was getting heavier and heavier into lifting heavier weight I needed more days to recuperate, so then I was only benching heavier once a week and couldn't do that three days a week, you know, Monday through Friday because you're gonna beat the shit out of your system. You're gonna blow something. So you gotta listen to your body and that, that's what it took too. Because a lot people, there's a lot of decent athletes out there but they over train and then you once pull a peck or separate a shoulder you're out of the running man, you're never the same. SY: And you didn't have a coach or mentor? TA: No, all me, all me. SY: You were your own case study for phys ed? TA: Pretty much, yeah. I mean I was so thankful and I am to this day - um his first name was Scott, you can write that in there, the other kid that helped me out - just to get spotters. Now what was awesome was at the point, even when I was there as a sophomore you go in there and you're putting on weights and people aren't stupid, they're gonna stop and just see what you're doing and then you got a picture, "Okay next year he comes in 100 pounds gain." I would just be a show stopper, people would stop what they're doing and they're very willing to help and stuff too you know and get you psyched up, because you gotta get to that mental frame of mind. You're going for weight that you haven't seen rolled, you know. And I just had the three major components from my muscle groups: I had my pecs, my shoulders, and my tri's those things right there. And I trained them to the max so they had the best rest and the best ah reflex and reaction because speed's involved too, you can't you know you want to get a good explosive burst. And um, yeah and it's always been like a show time thing. SY: Yeah it is a show. TA: Yeah because you start, the whole gym stopped. They're never gonna see that weight again by anybody you know, so even when I was wrestling on the road at Gold's Gym. SY: Did you like it? TA: Yeah, yeah, it was like cool it was like [laughs] you know the clapping, I'm warming up with 400 and they're clapping. When I went do tours on the um, in Europe and stuff, Greece, I was very lucky with my vitamin line and and as a world record holder to do exhibitions. I made a lot of money doing that and I put it back into the company. And they're very cordial out there. They clap all the time. They're very, very nice people. Yeah, yeah, yeah, it was pretty cool. It was pretty cool. So yeah, it all, ah. God. SY: Did it go to your head? Here you are you got this young guy, you're stronger that everybody…? TA: Naw I didn't get cocky or nothing. I mean if I got drunk a few times with the guys, you know, it was guy stuff but I wouldn't no. I, I remain grounded because I knew where it got me and it you know everything is a circle, you go around and do something stupid it's gonna come back and get you. I've seen it happen to people in all sports and it just wasn't me. SY: So alright so you finish, you finish Norwich, you've started competing --8 TA: Right, well I was competing already, yeah, but now when I finished Norwich it was, I'm at a World Class level. SY: And meanwhile your dad's like, "Go to dental school." TA: Yeah, and I wanted to go to dental school because he had that speech with me my senior year when I was going up to graduation with my mom. He knew that, and I knew, especially in Concord, Mass where I grew up. First of all they're not gonna pick me as a Phys Ed teacher because they just, it's cronyism, even in public schools, you know. And where the jobs are so few and far between -- I mean you look at a globe it's probably the same way today, you know try to go teach at a decent school system where the money, which was great back then, might be 25 or 30, but you're never gonna get in. You're behind all these people and there's favorites. And then he's thinking, that's the beauty of my dad, he's still around, he was looking towards the future: "How you gonna have a family? You know, how are you gonna? Your wife's gonna have to work, she can't be home with the kids. You know that's gonna be tough." And he just kind of spelled it out for me. And he says, "You got some good sciences, you got a good base, I say take a year and do more prerequisites, and apply to dental school." And I did that while I was still lifting. And I got into Tufts. I did a year of prerequisites at Northeastern. I did some at Middlesex Community College, some other prerequisites. All science. I did that course "Stanley Kaplan for DAT's." I did well on my DAT's. I did average. For a phys ed major that's phenomenal! [laughs] So I ended getting into Tufts, Marquette, and NYU, and Georgetown. SY: Those are really good schools. TA: Yeah, yeah. SY: Look at that from failing out of Salem State. TA: Yeah, yeah. And the interviews and everything -- they knew I was a competitor too and they asked me, "Are you gonna compete?" "Yeah I'm still gonna compete." And I did. But my freshman year at Tufts, it's a very heavy course load you're with the med students, and with my working out it was getting tough because I got invited for the second time to the Hawaiian International Powerlifting Championships. And I couldn't handle both so I had a talk with the dean. I said, "Listen, I got to try this out. I mean I could be on the verge of really setting a big big record here." And they understood because they had some athletes, some kids who played minor ball and stuff, they took a leave of absence and they would come back and that's what I told them. And I told my father that and my father knew off the bat, he goes, "You're not gonna come back," and he was pissed and my mother was upset. But my dad really took it hard, because he was he was part of the Tufts program over there. My sister had gone there, he had done lectures there and I felt like I was letting him down but I said, "I'm never gonna have this chance again. I'm never gonna have it again." And at the time I was 283 or something, and I was gonna go for like the world record then to be beat 661. And that was 1984. So I left. I took the leave of absence January of '84,and still on leave [laughs]. SY: I was gonna say, so you gonna go back to dental school [laughs]? I'm kidding. TA: And yeah and…. SY: I'm still technically on leave from my Ph.D. program. TA: Really, yeah? SY: And it's been a long time [laughs].9 TA: Well you know, you only got one life, you know, so. So I did that and that really set the stage because I knew I was getting invited to the next one. Now keep in mind at the time these weights I'm going for - 650, 666, 700 you only can cycle, my workouts you can only cycle those like once a year because it does takes so much out of your body. And so I was really thinking this thing out smart, I said, "I'm gonna do this right, I want to get that seven. I know I can do it, but without getting injured, I'm not gonna have, I don't want to do 2/3 contests a year because I'll burn myself out. I'll get stale, I'll get hurt." So I planned it out well and um, I, the extension, the leave of absence continued you know for well the next year, 1985. And that's when I did it - March 3, 1985 in Hawaii. The third time I was out there, the Hawaiian International Powerlifting Championships. SY: So tell me about that day. TA: Yeah there's a sign right up there. That was the first one I did when I --you can see the--it was April 5, 1983. That's when I was on my leave of absence, not leave of absence I was doing my qualifications, my general, my studies for prerequisites for Tufts. And the next year I was in dental school. And then that was only like, I don't know four months, then I got out. So yeah he took it, he took it hard but I--it's like okay, I'm getting ready for this meet. So what I did was I ah…. SY: Did he not get the powerlifting thing too? What did he think? TA: I can't blame him because no one makes a living lifting weights, you know? There's no money in that. SY: Was he was he Polish? Was he the Polish? TA: He's Italian. SY: He's Italian. TA: Oh yeah. SY: Is he an immigrant? TA: Ah son of an immigrant. SY: Son of an immigrant so…. TA: It's in that category, that culture still you know - someone's gonna take your spot you know you're not gonna come back, and you know they think the worst, they're alarmists. That's the beauty of the man, he saw down the road. He wants to see not just the next ten years, you know, but what happens later because it goes by quick you know, time. So he ah, he was worried. I said, "Listen, if I don't get the record, I'm going back to school." I ended up getting the record. And wrestling was big and then the Globe like I said yesterday, the Globe did a big article on me and um… SY: So once that started happening did he stop worrying? TA: No. He assumed that I was going back to dental school. But he was the first one to find out that I wanted to get into pro-wrestling by reading the article. And I had that tape recording with the old machines, the voice machines, the uh telephone machines, answering machines, and I kept it for the longest time: "Ted, I just saw the Boston Globe article. If you even harbor a thought of joining that circus I'm changing the locks." Click. He didn't talk to me for several months. SY: Really? 10 TA: Yeah, I could see you know he's like, "What the hell are you doing now?" And I told him, I said, "Wrestling is really big now." And I went down to see Vince McMahon, you know he had contacted me and he heard of what I did and stuff. And Ken Patera who was a big wrestler back then who happened to be in the Olympics, in Olympic lifting, that's how he got in there like years before me. He was in jail because him, there was this big thing during WrestleMania, him and this other wrestler Saito they, they broke into a McDonald's. The guy was closing he said, "No I see the hambuger's here." They went in and then he had to do some time, so they needed another strongman. So timing is everything. He was like the strongest Olympic lifter at the time, silver medalist anyway. But was legit because people want to see a real strongman in wrestling. I don't care what they, you still see that today. Excuse me, hold that thought. [phone vibrates] SY: Holding that thought, holding that thought. Interview pauses and resumes. Okay so we were in the middle of you, you were talking about you were talking about '85. TA: Yeah, okay, so where was I? Um yeah, obviously still on my leave of absence. Is this before I set the record? SY: This is, well okay, we're talking about your dad, your dad's voice mail. TA: So I set the record, yeah and uh… SY: We still haven't gotten to the day of the record…. TA: and I'm hopping on the wrestling thing you know. SY: Right. TA: I want to make some money with this body. I mean I'm right there, I'm bigger than the wrestlers, you know? SY: But you hadn't done any wrestling? TA: No. No. And I knew I had to go camp, wrestling camp, so they put me in wrestling camp for six months down the WWF in Orange, Connecticut. And at the time now I started my vitamin company while I was student teaching in 1984, May of '84. And… SY: So you're back to phys ed? TA: Well I was, I was not student teaching, I was working as a sub and sometimes the full time teacher too like filling in and stuff because I was still um--yeah I was I was… SY: Because it's less time than dental school? TA: Yeah, yeah, yeah. Because let me see now, when did? Yeah I lasted until January and done with school, January of '84. So I had to make a living. And I got back into, I got into teaching. I was always like subbing even while I was doing my prerequisites. I was subbing while I was going to Northeastern, Middlesex. And I did, I had a good name subbing, kids liked me, you know. And I was doing mostly sciences, I loved science because you know, biology, physical science, and I got paid the same money and I didn't have to run around in a sweat suit and stuff. Hell I wanted to save my energy for lifting you know? So at the time I was substituting and filling in as teachers, so I, at the same time I started my vitamin company in May of '84 with like four or five products out of Powerlifting USA. It was a magazine for powerlifters that got about maybe 15,000 subscribers but it was enough to start [sneezing from interviewer] --bless you, must have been the horse -- ah enough to like generate money selling 11 products you know? It was only vitamins I had. The basic ones - amino acids, um mega packs, protein, couple of other little things like orchic, glandulars, carbo fuel. And there's an interesting twist on this how I got into that. Because at the time I was letting somebody use - you know how you get endorsements, small endorsements - out of that magazine because I was up an coming and I had set some records in the 275 pound weight class. And I was a super heavy weight so everyone's, you know, they want you to advertise their products. And this guy was John Buckley out of out of Plymouth, I'd like to say, down that way Plymouth, Mass. He wanted me to endorse some vitamin pills. I didn't know much about it, I said, "Yeah, as long as I can get some free vitamins and give me some money," you know. It wasn't a lot but I figured hey I can get free training supplies and vitamins. So I didn't have a contract. I just "yeah, sure." And I found out because I went down to visit him and his wife and him are like, this like from a little ad in Powerlifting USA, I went down unannounced just to pick up some vitamins you know some amino acids, throw me a few bottles, you know. And they're wrapping boxes. There must have been like twenty or thirty boxes. Those were orders that came in every day. So the mechanism starts turning, and I'm like, "What is this guy? I can do what he does, and it's my name." I didn't have a contract I got out of it. He was bullshit. I started my own. I went to the same supplier too. SY: There you go. TA: Yeah because I saw it. It was on the label - distributed by or manufactured by and I said, "Listen, I'm the guy. I've been endorsing this thing for a year and I want to do it my own." And it worked out great. And after teaching I would come home and there would be a couple of blinks on the answering machine and they could be catalogs or orders. I was doing pretty good. I was doing like, I don't know, started out light that, that ah, that spring. But as my, as I got out there and people knew it was my company and I would talk to them on the phone about their progress in lifting and stuff, which is good like a lot of vitamin companies are not gonna do that, you just buy their stuff through GNC. But I was giving them programs, telling them how to do things, how to take the supplements, and I built up a hell of a fan base and business, you know. So that kept me going. I didn't have to do any teaching anymore as I got into that, and then that culminated into ah, once I got the record I had two things. The vitamin company got really big. I was in a guy's basement and you could smell vitamins. It was boxes and boxes of vitamins. I'd go to the ah, I had a box company deliver there. On this neighborhood in Newton, Mass., an eighteen wheeler would pull up where he's not supposed to and, and give me mail order supplies. And the owner was cool, Neil Todd, and he liked it. He thought it was pretty cool. He was a professor at BU but he knew I was getting big with the supplements because you walk down there and I had it down. I had my computer. It was an old Apple. Type out the labels. I had like a thing I got at Vista--I don't think they had it back then, Vista print, a little catalog on how to take the supplements, ah prices. And UPS came every day and it was the balls. It was great. And I was training. I was like okay this like being a professional athlete. I'm endorsing my own stuff, which was different. A lot people didn't know about doing that. SY: So you kind of made it? TA: Yeah, yeah and but I did it. I marketed myself which was good, you know. All because of that visit that I had: "Hey I can do what he's doing, and its mine, my name. Let me do it." you know? SY: So you turned yourself into a brand? You branded yourself? TA: Yes. I branded myself, yeah. SY: That's interesting. 12 TA: And then after I set the record in '85, the world record, the 705, man I'd go to the PO boxes I'd get like fifteen orders a day. And I had to get out there because it was just getting too big. SY: Let's talk about making that record that day because I want to know what you remember. TA: Ok yeah, March 3, 1985. I flew out there a week -- I was really smart about this too and I think like I said it goes back to my education and you know my instinct, sensing my body, of what I needed to do to just have that peak performance for literally two seconds. That's it, two seconds. So I get there a week ahead, get acclimated, ate good food, relaxed. You're not getting any stronger. I did a light, light, super light workout. Oh God it was maybe 225 for a set of ten, light triceps, real light just to stimulate the nerves, you know. Did some like light jogging, you know. And I ate really good. I stayed with Hawaiian out there who was also competing with his family and so I hung out with him but we'd go out and have steaks and eat well and just relax until the meet, which is kind of serene. It's kind of a good feeling because whatever happens, happens. That record, whether it's gonna happen or not, that happened back at home in the mainland doing all those reps. God, my last workout set before I left, ten days before the actual meet I did six, thirty-five for two sets of three reps; and then I did six, fifty for two and a half reps. I knew I was ready. Because then when I do my warm-ups for the stage and stuff and you got the adrenaline out there I knew if I'm on I'm gonna get this son-of-a-bitch. SY: So you walk out and there's a whole crowd there? TA: Two thousand people. Because they knew me already from the two previous years because I'm always setting records out there in different weight classes, you know? SY: Are you nervous, you don't get nervous? TA: Nah, nah you don't get it. SY: Just adrenaline? TA: It's, it's you just psy--you got be to be controlled, you know. And I think that's on YouTube, my world record, you can see it. Yeah it's on YouTube, along with some clips from acting. SY: So you walk out there and you, you know, you get started…. TA: Well I open up, I'm like when you, you have three attempts in the bench, in any lift: bench, squat, dead lift. And I would do a token, when I did this they start with squats. I just did a token 500 pounds. It was just to get on the board because you have to do three lifts, you have to compete in three lifts in order to get a world record it has to be official. Comes to the bench, you get the lightweights, it all starts light you know, people weighing 100 pounds - lightweights, mediumweights, heavy, all the way up to heavyweights. And I warm up and my first attempt was 608 and it was like me and one other guy left. He was going for 600 maybe, or mid-sixes, or early sixes like 620. So it was just me and him and people loved this, you know. Because this is now the heaviest weight of the whole meet, and everybody loves the bench press. I don't care what you say, it's not how much you can squat. You look at somebody, "What do you bench man, like the state of Rhode Island?" you know. So I opened up with 608. It flew, it flew. Remember I told you that thing about in the locker room, in the warm up room I felt a twinge? If I'm gonna go, let me go, you know? I'm going back to dental school, you know. 608 flew. That kid ended up trying like 630. He bombed and now it was just me. Next attempt: 650. Blew it up [snaps finger]. Could have done four reps with that thing. Everything was clicking. It's just like one of those times you know? And then they said, "He's gonna go for a world record, 678." That means a 661, 71 that's like what? Sixteen pounds, fifteen pounds more. I ultimately wanted to go out for 7 but jeez, God forbid if something 13 happened I got to get away with a world record anyway. That went up. Put the bar down, and then you could hear the announcer Aand the crowd's going crazy. They want seven." I'm out there, "Seven, you want seven?" you know. And they went shithouse. And then, "He's gonna go for seven, load it up, this is history folks! This is history!" And the way it's set up because it's, it's kilos, the metric system, 699 and three quarters, now what's the next number? 705.5, set it up. Set that goddamn thing up. And uh they show me resting in between chalking me, TV cameras and on, I said, "I'm just focused, whatever it is God it's in your hands," you know? I just get emotional thinking about it you know? So uh I got out there and it's like, it's almost like surreal. I could just feel the, [pause] I didn't hear anything, you know. And I got the lift off, I brought it down, and I heard the judge. You could see the picture out there she's yelling, "Rack!" because you have to hold it on your chest for like a minute, not a minute, a second but it's the longest second in the world. But I didn't care and I locked it up and it was just, it was unbelievable. The place went shithouse. And ah, I threw my belt in the crowd and I just knew like it's gonna open up so much, you know? So… SY: And you also knew you'd done something no human…. TA: Oh yeah, "Strongest Guy on the Planet," you know, "Strongest Guy on the Planet." SY: What does it feel like to be the "Strongest Guy?" You know literally every single person you walk past, you know, "Oh I'm stronger than him, I'm stronger than him." TA: Oh yeah, well you're flying to Hawaii and you're looking at the world. You know I mean just puts it in perspective but it was just like, because it's so hard to get there you know. And it was great. It was like ah it just changed it everything overnight, you know? Then I got the calls from the wrestling, more endorsements and stuff and then the vitamin company grew like a bastard. But I wanted to focus on wrestling because I wanted to get into the wrestling. And yeah they sent me to camp. They all knew about the record. It was everywhere. And even some of the wrestlers they knew I was coming in with the World: "Well we can do seven too!" but it's just a joke you know? But I did it and they were lifters too and they respected that. I would talk to them and stuff. It was, it was great, yeah. I went to wrestling camp after that, I, my brother helped me with the company, vitamin company in that basement there and then I had somebody else, we moved it up to Concord, New Hampshire. One of the kids, one of the lifting friends, had a place up there and we did it out of at his house for a while. Then I just moved into like an industrial park because it was just getting bigger. Then I moved here, fast forwarding, in '88. SY: Oh you've been here since '88? TA: I've been here since '88 yeah but that was phenomenal. SY: And so that was the beginning. TA: That was the beginning, yeah. SY: And then um… TA: I can still picture it. SY: Yeah? TA: Yeah it's like - SY: What's the image? 14 TA: It's dark on the side and ah, it went up easy, it went up unbelievable. It was unbelievable. It went up so, I think I could have done two reps with it, I swear to God, or at least one and a half which is absurd, you know? SY: That's amazing. TA: Oh yeah the crowd helped. I mean how can you not? You see why like in football and stuff they go crazy, they're running that extra yard. You got the crowd too. I mean it's insane, you're like a gladiator, you know. But it was just that record it was all due to the training I did by myself you know? Didn't have a coach. And I had the right formula just watching my ass, you know, don't over train and eat well, and sleep well. Sounds simple but you gotta have good workouts too. You gotta really work out hard when you're doing your work outs. You gotta really try to work your triceps and your shoulder presses and your bench presses, but that can only be done if you have the other two. So if you screw up there's always one of those triads that you mess up. Yeah. SY: And so you didn't get hurt before then you haven't gotten hurt since? TA: Never, never. Ah just from training yeah just from training. I, I think I should have just--I came back and I did the record again in '91 and that's when they had those bench shirts, those real heavy bench shirts and they were so easy I trained for six months and I got 725. But I was getting problems with my elbows. I couldn't lock them out. So they disqualified that. But you know I should have gotten out at least by 1990 because for some reason I was just building up a lot of bone calcification in my shoulders and in my elbows to the point that you couldn't extend and I'm thinking, you know I'm not gonna tell, even though you could tell the judge that's as far as your go, you look like shit because you only go up like halfway or three quarters and people are saying, "lock it out," you can't lock it out. SY: And this is a performance, right so you need to give the people what they want? TA: Yeah, yeah but I just knew my time, you know, I just I just concentrated on the vita--I still do exhibitions and stuff but I had to get my elbows operated on. And they did a great job, they took all the calcification out so I can unlock my elbows and I had to wear a brace. I still wear a brace to this day on both arms just to keep it stretched so it doesn't get that way because I lift light but that's what I should have done more was stretching I think, then I wouldn't have that problem. I didn't stretch enough and that's what builds up like barnacles because your body has so much pressure and its bones on a joint, on the bone matter, that it reacts by building more bone even if it's like like bone spurs and things like that. It will find a way. SY: Was it hard to let go of competing? I'm just thinking…. TA: Not really because you know I started getting sore. When your work outs get hard and your wrists hurt because of the elbows, and then you have all this other index pain it hurts. It's time to get out. And I'm glad I did. I think I did my last heavy workouts I did a rep record for reps in '96, this is after the surgery. And I did ten clean reps with 500, which was easy. I did it for an exhibition in Boston but I knew that was it, you know move onto other things so yeah. SY: And that was okay? TA: That was good. I did the biggest lift, it's still the biggest lift ever, pounds over body weight. SY: It's still the biggest lift ever?15 TA: For a super heavyweight. They're breaking it now like 727-30 but they're weighing 400 pounds. I weighed 293. SY: What about the pressure? The steroids pressure. How can, how can, because that takes a toll on the body? TA: Ah yeah but you got to be methodical about that too, you know. I went and had a doctor I didn't want to take the shit off the street. I went to a real doctor. I had blood tests. And what was beautiful, the beautiful thing was I was cycling once a year for heavyweight and that was smart. Because I'd be off for a lot of the year and just get on for a few months. SY: Did it affect your personality? TA: No. No not at all, didn't affect my health at all, not at all. It gets a bad rap. It's medicine if you take it the right way. It's, it's fine but if you overdose on that. SY: What about the 'roid rage and all that stuff? TA: Yeah I…maybe those people didn't know how to contain themselves and they didn't cycle. I think it's overdrawn because I still think it's their ego that's hidden and they just get more boastful and arrogant assholes, you know. SY: Sort of like a mean drunk usually is-- TA: Yeah exactly, is usually mean prick anyway, yeah absolutely. SY: You learn a lot from people. TA: Oh yeah and you see that in gyms and stuff. But I did get some knowledge from bodybuilders, the ones that were really really good like Olympias. They would only do one show a year, Olympia. And they took a lot of stuff, I mean they took diuretics and everything else but they wouldn't put their body through that three or four times a year. You'd die. Do it once a year. That was the greatest thing just doing one meet a year that last two years. SY: Interesting. TA: Yeah. SY: Yeah. TA: Peaking is everything, everything peaking. SY: Hm. What do you mean? TA: Your body peaking. If you do two or three, four meets, your body doesn't have enough sufficient rest, it gets stale. If you focus on one meet and you train naturally for like three quarters of that year, nothing, you're building up your tendons and then you're building up into a heavier weight. So it's still fresh and your body reacts and it welcomes that. It's not getting beaten toward uh catabolism and anabolism. Catabolically is when you're breaking down and anabolically is when you're building up. So you want to make sure that the circumstances and your surroundings are favorable for that type of genesis, you know. And it is, it was and its it's pretty simple. Luckily as I said I had this science background. I mean when I went out I was dumbfounded. I mean there were some other competitors, there was some strong kids out there, strong guys, one from Alabama - what's he eating the night before? McDonalds. He, he died. I mean he didn't die, he couldn't even get his opening attempt. You don't eat 16 McDonalds food. So they didn't have the knowledge, they didn't have the knowledge, and the knowledge is power. SY: Alright so let's talk about wrestling. So what was it like to be part of as your father called it - TA: The circus. SY: That crazy circus. TA: Yeah, yeah. I ah, I went to wrestling camp in July and I was on TV in December. Starting with the interviews and stuff like that they're building me up you know I was the "World's Strongest Man," so they gave me all squash matches and stuff like that just to build me up. And that was awesome, it's on national TV. Every morning they showed the world record bencher in Hawaii, so like this guy's legit. So whenever I would go to a match they liked me because I would bring asses into the seats you know? I didn't have the greatest technique in wrestling but I still can throw people around, you know. SY: Which is pretty much what they want in wrestling. TA: Yeah, yeah, and there's theater and I started off as a good guy and all the way to WrestleMania I was a good guy, and then they wanted, I wanted to change, I wanted to go to, I liked the drama of being a bad guy. And they wanted me to be a heel because I had that persona, so I went to a couple different territories to wrestle, just to build that up, to build up your craft you know, to work your system. And I went to Calgary and worked up there after. I did, I was in the WWF for like a year and then I went to Calgary for maybe three months, and then I went, I got recruited down to World Class Wrestling with the Von Erich's and that's where I really became a good heel. And the vitamin company still growing; I got people working in the vitamin company. And I ended up falling in love and just going back to work and I had a kid on the way and I didn't go back to WWF. I went back to here, I went here. It changes you know when you have a kid. And the road is--plus I mean I had a great income on the side. It wasn't on the side, that was even making more than wrestling. At the time I was in GNC's. I'd do the demonstrations too. Immediately they order thousands and thousands of dollars especially if they knew I was gonna come in and do a demonstration and sign autographs which is great. Anytime a fan to this this day from TV or from this how it's tied into together - they want an autograph I give an autograph. They paid me. I can't fathom these people that just won't give them the time of day and stuff. It's very sad. SY: So you came back here and you've been running this company and helping develop this building and then now you're doing acting. So tell me about that. TA: Yeah I um, after I did that rep record in Boston for WHDH sports - it was like a big thing down in Boston, promote something. It was on TV and stuff. It was good. I wanted to do something, I always wanted to get into acting. Some of my fellow wrestlers would be in acting and they were doing thug stuff and I'd like to try that you know? And I'm glad I did it the right way. I went to acting school in Boston for a couple of years and I started doing a lot of student films. Those are the best because these are kids as you know Emerson College, BU, this is a mecca here. And all these student films, graduate films, they can use as much tape and free cameras. I mean it's in their tuition. And all I wanted to get was my best scenes where I can a reel together to send to New York. Because I knew I, you know I ended up scoring some decent commercials that made national, made area commercials. You know CVS was one of my first ones. Nevada Bob's - remember them? Nevada Bob's, that was a sporting goods store. Um… SY: Was this as Ted Aricidi or as? 17 TA: As Ted Aricidi, yeah. And I would go in and they knew I lifted but they, it didn't make that crossov-- and I didn't want it to. I wanted to make as an actor you know, just the bones, the chops. But I did a ton of student films and one of the student films went to Sundance which is cool SY: What film? TA: Bobby Loves Mangos. SY: Gotta write it down I haven't seen it. And what do you like about acting? TA: I love getting int different personas. I'm a character actor. I love it and now I'm getting. Yeah it's just, you start out with a character and you bring what you can bring to the table. They want to see you, they don't want to see you act like somebody else. And I get that for auditions and stuff. SY: Do you think that your time, because your body was, you know your body was a tool when you were a weightlifter, right? And when you're an actor your body is an instrument that's the word I'm looking for. Do you think there's a parallel? TA: I think there is. I think I got my work ethic still. I mean I still go to New York a lot and I'll take classes with other actors, other working actors. Because you always want to hone your craft you know like workshops and stuff with casting directors. I do that all the time, even when I'm busy. It just keeps you sharp, it just keeps you on your thing and they'll throw you a scene and sometimes it's cold read and stuff. I love it. It's very instinctive, very instinctive. SY: Do you feel like you get typecast or you? TA: Ah not anymore. I lost a lot of weight you know I can wear a long shirt. I can be a detective, I could be a blue collar guy. Last one I did I owned a bowling alley, Donald Cried,that should be coming out probably in another year I would think. We just finished that. I had some really good scenes in that. And then I was with Rosanna Arquette in a movie too, Born Guilty. That was just filmed a couple months ago. And I played a deli owner, like her friend. She shoots the shit with me. [Laughs] that was cool. So yeah I like all the different ones and I'm glad I did lose though a lot of weight because I don't want to be typecast as just a thug. I could do that, you know I'll do if I have to, you know. But like in the movie the Family I did that as a bodyguard, no as a hit man trying to kill Deniro and his family. Me and six other hit men from New York. And ah, but they gave me a subst--a decent role in that too so it wasn't just a guy with a gun and just say a couple of words. I had, I had some decent stuff. SY: You got to be more nuanced. TA: Yeah, yeah and they throw stuff at you, and then like there's the fighter too. How could I forget that! I played an ESPN fight promoter, a matchmaker, you know? And they hide me for who I was. They, he didn't know and I never tell you know? Let them find out later, you know. So yeah character acting is great. I love it. It's just such a, it's a different, it's different than lifting. But it's something that I know I'm good at and, and I love doing it. I'll do it until the day I die. I'm very lucky to be able to jump into a, into another field like this. SY: And the vitamin business makes that possible? TA: Yeah well the vitamin business is no longer because when I got out of the competitive thing I figured I had a good trailing, I had a good following but it's almost like hmmm mid-nineties, that was about it, you know. 18 SY: Bit this sports equipment business-- TA: Yeah that's doing well, that's doing very well downstairs. And we sell new fitness equipment - the stations, multi gyms, the single stations, weights, and everything. And then what's really big though is the cardio business: treadmills, ellipticals, bikes, steppers. But I get them from Precorp, I get them used and I have a tech care, and we refurbish them and we end up having a good niche on the market. I mean, these things go for - the kind you see in the gyms, the real good ones like, like Life Fitness, Precorp's a big name - they'll go for six/seven thousand dollars. I'll get them through this distributor who distributes for Precorp in all the schools, colleges. And I get 'em from them and I have a good tech and we basically refurbish them back to like new standards. And we, and they and they we sell them at half the price. There's only two of us in New England - me and this other guy in Rhode Island. And that's doing great, yeah. SY: So. TA: And then I got the building too. SY: The building to. So I'm just thinking, you know when I - wresting and weightlifting were not on my radar as a kid growing up, definitely it just wasn't. But when I mentioned to my husband who I was gonna interview, and he grew up in the '80s, and he was like, "Ted Arcidi! Holy shit, da da da da, right?" TA: Lot of people know, yeah. SY: And he, this is not like, he doesn't follow wrestling, he doesn't follow. But you, when he was a kid you were a big deal, right? So what do you think represent to people? What do you think you represented to like you know eight-year-olds when you were um…? TA: Oh I was like a super hero to them, absolutely, especially when wrestling was getting catapulted like that. Wrestling peaks and valleys, crests, and troughs, and I hit it at a, I hit it at a crest. And oh yeah especially when you're in the WWF and that's when there wasn't a lot of cable. People watched WWF religiously. Hulk Hogan - I mean I trained with him. We're in matches together. I mean it was phenomenal. That's why I think it was easier to transcend into acting because I was with these guys. It's not like, "Okay I'm working with Mark Wahlberg -whoo!" You know who gives a shit? He's an actor, he's a good actor, I'm gonna work with him. I could hold up my own against him and they come up to you after and they and they talk to you and stuff and shoot the shit because they get it from all angles, at that level it's insane. SY: And did--I bet Mark Wahlberg grew up with you? TA: He probably saw me. Yeah, I didn't pick his brain. He wanted to go golfing. If I'd golfed that day, we were gonna go golfing I didn't golf. I go, "My father golfed, so" [laughs]. SY: I'm just wondering if I have any concluding thoughts. So do you, yeah let's go back to Norwich because this is about Norwich. So do you think about your time at Norwich? Do you feel like you? TA: That was instrumental. I don't think I would have been in the right environment to be as diligent and committed and ambitious in my weight training in my weight lifting to be the best in the world if I was somewhere else. Because there would be too many distractions. I mean I was a big fly fisherman, trout fisherman, so all's I did was eat, lift, do my studies, plenty of time to do the studies, and I would go fishing. I'd be fishing every weekend. SY: So it provided you with the environment where you could? 19 TA: Conducive to do that. And you're with other guys that look up to you too. Every workout was like a show there. And they were just pushing me. I'm representing the school so that was really good after that by junior year yeah it was like, I don't want say the big man on campus but they knew what was going on. They read articles and stuff and it's great for Norwich I mean the president, "hey I gave him extra food" [laughs]. But they see an article in the Globe and they see Norwich, that's great for the school and I think they started a weight lifting club with me there. SY: Did you contemplate going into the military at some point or did you know? TA: No. I just wanted to do my two years mandatory up there, yeah. SY: And then you knew you were done? TA: Yeah. But you have to do the two, you know, because you are technically I mean it says they could call you in those two years. That's when we had that static with the Iran hostages and all that. I could have got called in because I was still commissioned for two years at, in ROTC, you know. But there's a thing there, they could still call you in. SY: Were you worried about it at the time? TA: Nah, no because I didn't think we were gonna get called in. They had Marines ready to go in there you know SY:Yeah. What are they gonna call you in for. I don't know if I have any other questions. TA: Well if you have any more call me. Scott Norton! write it down! SY: Scott Norton! TA: Scott Norton! SY: We got it on tape. TA: Okay great. SY: You remembered it! TA: Yeah, yeah. He was instrumental big time, Scotty. SY: Yeah, how? TA: Just helped me when I was benching over 550 he was giving me lift offs. That's insane. That's when I bent two bars, two of Mynter's bars [laughs]. Oh I should tell you about this though. No one really knows about this but before when I was training for Hawaii, the big lift 1985, I had a bad lift off in the gym in Waltham, Mass. The kid gave me the lift off and this is when I was doing 635, 630. This is like, no this is in '84. It was like 630 for two I was at time then. This is in 1984 this is…April-May? I got the lift off, this is 630. He gives me the lift off but when he rolls it off he twists his hand like that and it made the weight go down like that and it just went, free falled on my chest up and down, 630 pounds. People thought I was dead. I'm in shock and they had me there. They were gonna call the ambulance. I could kill 20 somebody. It bounced up and down. I must have tensed up. And he felt like shit. I felt so sorry I said, "Listen it could happen to anybody, you know?" But they had me sit down, rest, because I could have internal bleeding, I could be dying there. It's like when people have a stroke or an aneurysm, they're talking to you and then all of a sudden they're out you know? That could have been it down there. I could have blown a valve or something. And I felt like a pain, a twinge, but it wasn't that bad. If it was you know it wasn't swelling up or nothing. And I finished my fucking workout. I went back there and I did 630 for three. I had a seminar in Iowa that weekend to do behind the neck presses, and I couldn't even bring my hands back. I couldn't sneeze. It was bruised, a bruised sternum. I had an X-ray done that night. Not broken, nothing. I mean that's just testimony to like how strong and how well developed with tendons and muscles just doing an instinctive freeze that it just literarily bounced up and down. That would kill somebody. That would kill them. SY: I think it would kill, it would've killed any other human. Alright so let's have a big reflective question. TA: Yeah. SY: What lesson have you learned or can you impart from having been the strongest man in the world? What does that teach you? TA: Never give up. If you know you, I mean people have to have a perception of what they're capable of. I still think that a lot of people are over stroked today, "you can do anything." No you can't do everything but there's something you can do good. And if you think you can do good, and if you think you can do better than others, that's the whole idea behind competition, and I knew that the way I was making the gains I'm gonna stick this thing out and be smart about it, you know? SY: So everybody should just find their thing. TA: Find their thing, yeah. I think everyone could do something and if they work out hard enough -whether that's acting or you know pushing a broom or running a company, there's something there's some trait everyone has and just follow that and don't get dismayed. I had a lot, you get backstabbers everybody gets backstabber you know, jealously. The guy's record I broke, Bill Kazmaier. Oh God he was sending people to buy supplements from me saying they got sick. He called the FDA on me he was trying to say the lift wasn't legal. I said, "Hey, get over it man. I broke your fucking record. I broke it by forty-six pounds you know?" SY: Deal with it. TA: Yeah. yeah, so yeah. You get the, they call deterrers, yeah you get them. You know [laughs] it's jealousy. It's jealousy. It's basically a reflection on them, you know, what they're inadequate of doing something. SY: So did your dad ever forgive you for not being a dentist? TA: Oh yeah. Yeah, yeah, he saw I was doing well. But even when I--I bring him here and he realized that I could probably do this for the rest of my life if I stuck with it, with the vitamins but I got into the equipment and then I started a women's gym here, women's only fitness. And he was such a great guy he, like I say he's still around, this building was a distressed building, we bought it from the FDIC together 21 and I developed it. This whole mill building it's like a huge horseshoe. We got this this wing and the half of the wing on the riverfront. Then there's a middle section guy who owns it and then you have another people, another owner on the other side. But he was really proud what I did because I never had to take a loan. I made it with my money, you know, with my businesses and that was phenomenal. SY: You were, it's really interesting you were very smart in terms of you were like, "I have this skill, I have the science background, I'm developing my body, and then I'm turning myself into a brand…" TA: I could make products, vitamin products but with more potency for weightlifters you know with my name on it because I'm proven. There's a poster out there - "owner tested, owner approved." I mean that sticks in people's heads. Not that your gonna bench 700 but this guy knows what he's talking about. And I would do seminars and talk about science and muscle recuperation and stuff and you know people. I'm not trying to impress people I'm just telling like it was. But that's because of that great education at Norwich you know? Um hmm…what else? SY: I don't know that's a lot. We've talked a lot. TA: Yeah it goes by quick huh? SY: This was great. TA: Thank you for coming up.
L'albo lapillo Pier Paolo Pasolini nasce il 5 marzo 1922 a Bologna, prima tappa del lungo peregrinare della famiglia Pasolini imposto dalla professione del padre Carlo Alberto, ufficiale dell'esercito. Carlo Alberto appartiene ad una delle più illustri famiglie di Ravenna, i Pasolini Dall'Onda, nobili degli Stati della Chiesa che da sempre assolvono incarichi importanti in Vaticano. Tuttavia il padre, Argobasto, avvia la famiglia alla rovina a causa del gioco d'azzardo, rovina cui contribuirà a sua volta il figlio Carlo Alberto preda della medesima passione. L'aver scialacquato ciò che restava del patrimonio paterno, lo costringe nel 1915 ad abbracciare la vita militare, carriera che sopperiva ad un destino di degradazione economica. Carlo Alberto aderisce al fascismo e al riguardo, Enzo Siciliano addirittura si esprime con queste parole: "il fascismo apparteneva antropologicamente […] alla sua vanità, al suo evidente vitalismo, all'ombrosità del suo sguardo e ancor di più alla sua dissestata configurazione sociale, alla sua aristocrazia di sangue respinta verso le terre desolate della piccola borghesia" . L'angoscia del fallimento e il senso di solitudine che nasce da una passione non ricambiata spinge Carlo Alberto ai vizi perniciosi del vino e del gioco. Il dramma che suscitò nell'animo di Carlo Alberto lo "scandalo" del figlio, tralignò alla follia e unico rifugio, fino alla morte avvenuta nel 1958 per cirrosi epatica, lo trovò nel bere. Pier Paolo Pasolini nasce pochi mesi prima della storica Marcia su Roma, atto che sancisce la salita di Mussolini al potere. Le velleità dirigistiche e di controllo del fascismo coltivato dalla piccola borghesia che credeva di fare del Colpo di Stato delle camicie nere strumento per i propri fini particolari, viene travolta e rigettata. Questo il clima in cui cresce Pier Paolo Pasolini il quale, stabilitosi con la famiglia alla fine degli anni Trenta a Bologna, termina brillantemente gli studi liceali e si iscrive alla facoltà di Lettere. Pasolini amò profondamente il gioco del calcio, ma nella sua forma "pura": incontaminato, non degradato e inquinato come sarà quello reificato dalla società dei consumi, postindustriale, contro cui lancerà i suoi strali. È risaputo che si teneva in forma: aveva il terrore di invecchiare e negli ultimi anni della sua vita andò addirittura in Romania a fare la cura del Gerovital (a cui sottopone anche la madre). La prontezza del corpo fece di lui, come farà notare il suo amico Italo Calvino, uno dei pochi convincenti "descrittori di battaglie" della nostra letteratura recente. L'apparente normalità della sua vita si spezza l'8 settembre 1943, quando con lo storico armistizio, si frantumano le illusioni fasciste e l'Italia si trova allo sbando. Qui Pasolini prosegue la sua attività letteraria. Divenuto partigiano della brigata Osoppo, vicina al Partito D'Azione, cadrà vittima di quell'orribile episodio della Resistenza italiana che passò alla storia come "strage di Porzus", che vide i garibaldini e gli azionisti uniti contro le pretese territoriali sulle terre di confine delle truppe slovene fomentate dalla propaganda nazionalista e sciovinista di Tito. Questa pagina luttuosa e mesta della vita di Pier Paolo è calata nell'età storica dell'antifascismo segnata dal fenomeno della Resistenza, risultato dell'acuirsi del carattere politico-ideologico del conflitto tra il sistema democratico e i totalitarismi nazi-fascisti e che si traduce in una vera e propria resistenza nei confronti degli eserciti occupanti, sia in forma armata che in forma "passiva" (rifiuto del consenso, attività di intelligence e frenetica attività propagandistica di intellettuali e politici esuli). L'evento bellico della Liberazione attraversa e scuote tutta la penisola italiana, dalla Sicilia alle Alpi, lasciando un paese grondante di devastazione e distruzione. Enzo Siciliano parla di un'"ingenua furia romantica" del poeta Pasolini perché nel suo animo alberga il furore pedagogico di chi crede nella pregnante forza educatrice della poesia, della lingua che si fa storia e cultura attraverso il poeta che la plasma forgiando armi imperiture, vivificando una cultura locale in cui i poveri contadini possano riconoscersi e, insieme, superare l'eclissi e l'oblio dell'arcaicità d'espressione e dei costumi. Discutendo una tesi sulle Myricae di Pascoli, si laurea in Lettere a Bologna con Carlo Calcaterra, professore di storia della letteratura italiana che segnerà la formazione di Pasolini insieme a Roberto Longhi, professore di Storia dell'Arte, fondamentale nella successiva passione figurativa del Pasolini regista. È affascinato dal Friuli, a cui dona il suo cuore. Pasolini aderisce nell'ottobre-novembre 1945 all'associazione Patrie tal Friul, il cui programma politico era dichiaratamente autonomista. Nel 1947 Pasolini si iscrive al Pci, diventa segretario della sezione di San Giovanni di Casarsa e per vivere inizia ad insegnare italiano alle scuole medie statali a Valvasone (dopo una breve parentesi in una scuola privata a Versuta). Il paese lasciato in eredità dalla guerra alla nuova classe politica e dirigente è un paese umiliato, stremato, insozzato dalla ferocia sanguinaria della guerra civile, economicamente dipendente dagli aiuti stranieri; un paese che ha perso la sua credibilità all'estero, governato da una classe politica inesperta, conservatrice, che non ha saputo rispondere alle pulsioni modernizzatrici favorendo la sclerotizzazione della frattura tra un nord vivace, propositivo e attivo, e un sud dove ha prevalso l'impulso reazionario che ha favorito il ripristino del vecchio stato, dove le forze dell'ordine e la magistratura sono tutt'altro che convertiti alla democrazia e dove predominano due partiti di massa tra loro antitetici. Il sogno di una cosa viene visto come "lo sfondo mitico e contadino del romanzo "romano" (per) l'epicità del libro che trae sostanza dal senso di avventura che increspa il vivere dei tre protagonisti: soluzione stilistica a cui Pasolini arriva dopo Ragazzi di vita" . La situazione agraria e contadina, soprattutto nel sud Italia, risente fortemente della distruzione e degli sconvolgimenti causati dalla guerra. La manifestazione organizzata dalla Camera del Lavoro a San Vito del Tagliamento per ottenere i miglioramenti che il lodo prometteva agli agricoltori disoccupati e ai mezzadri danneggiati dalla guerra, è rivolta contro quei proprietari terrieri che si sono strenuamente opposti fino a quel momento all'applicazione della legge. La concezione ideologica di Pasolini si incarna in un personaggio del "romanzo" Il sogno di una cosa: una ragazza borghese, Renata, che abiura alle precedenti categorie di pensiero e all'impianto ontologico tipico della sua classe sociale, "che mai gliel'avrebbero perdonato", per farsi marxista. Pasolini dona così forma al suo "inconscio antropologico" (Enzo Siciliano), affidandolo alle parole di questa giovane ma anche a quelle del prete Paolo quando dice, ho notato quanto siano migliori i giovani del popolo da quelli della borghesia: è una superiorità sostanziale e assoluta, che non ammette riserve. Si insinua insidioso anche un altro tratto autobiografico, che lui avvertirà sempre come una colpa soverchiante e per cui i patimenti emotivi si susseguiranno fino alla fine della sua breve esistenza: l'omosessualità. Trauma inconscio che si riverbera nel suo atteggiamento sessuale adulto per cui Pier Paolo cerca "in folle caccia notturna" i ragazzi, stabilendo una distanza netta dalla sua realtà domestica. Muoio nell'odore di una latrina della mia infanzia, legato per sempre alla vita da una vespa che accende nell'aria l'odore dell'Estate. O anche "ciò che più tortura è il "cedere"/mi trovo al mesto bivio del peccato/e cedo […]". Isolato e epurato dal partito comunista -al tempo duro ed ortodosso in materia-, si decide alla partenza con la madre Susanna. Roma. Pasolini rimane pur sempre un "poeta" inteso, alla Elsa Morante, come scrittore che sa dar voce, anche con irriverenza, al proprio daimon, rimanendo fedele alla propria vocazione. Poeta vicino all'espressionismo, rifugge dalla trasposizione della realtà nella letteratura dove esprime invece tutto il suo disagio esistenziale. Nella capitale della neonata Repubblica Italiana, Pasolini arriva con la madre agli albori degli anni Cinquanta. Nel frattempo avrà l'occasione di un nuovo contatto con il cinema quando Mario Soldati lo invita a collaborare alla sceneggiatura, insieme anche a Bassani, del suo film del 1954, La donna del fiume. La prima opera in omaggio alla romanità è del 1955, Ragazzi di vita. Lapalissiano il fine politico: disvelare una realtà taciuta, volutamente emarginata anche geograficamente nelle borgate, nelle appendici da una società apparentemente riemersa dalle ceneri della guerra, sedicente superstite dell'horror vacui della disperazione e della distruzione che tende a celare a se stessa i propri dolori ed i propri mali. Ciò spiega il perché è addirittura la presidenza del Consiglio dei ministri, Antonio Segni, a muoversi scrivendo esso stesso al Procuratore della Repubblica di Milano, bollando il testo come "pornografico". Contro questi perbenisti piccolo borghesi detrattori di Pasolini, politici e non, Gadda (che definisce Ragazzi di vita una "colonna sonora"), Bertolucci, De Robertis, Bigongiari, Carlo Bo, Cassola, Sereni, Anna Banti, Mario Luzi e con loro altri esponenti della cultura del tempo, costituirono quella giuria che a Parma nell'estate del 1955 assegna al "romanzo" il premio "Colombi- Guidotti". Il plurilinguismo a cui è votato Pasolini lo riporta presto sulle scene con un'opera, forse l'unica che- data l'organicità della narrazione- può essere ascritto alla famiglia dei "romanzi", Una vita violenta (1959). È una sorta di manifesto letterario con cui sancisce il suo riavvicinamento al Partito Comunista. Questo è deducibile dalle parole di Pasolini il quale in un'intervista apparsa sulla rivista "Nuovi Argomenti" nel 1959 dirà io credo soltanto nel romanzo "storico" e "nazionale", nel senso di "oggettivo" e "tipico". Emblematico è a questo fine il titolo di una raccolta di undici componimenti poetici in lingua, Le ceneri di Gramsci, "i più intensi e profondi esperimenti poetici di Pasolini […] una vera e propria summa al contempo delle posizioni ideali del poeta e della sua visione del mondo" "una delle partiture più ingannevoli e più strabilianti di tutta l'opera di Pasolini" il cui segreto sta "nei poemi, che nelle intenzioni dovevano esprimere l'angoscia dell'inafferrabilità e dell'impermeabilità del reale, si trasformano in un flusso che riproduce il reale nei suoi tessuti e nelle sue strutture, come il continuum sintattico riproduce il continuum del paesaggio" , composti tra il 1951 e il 1956 e stampati nel 1957, precedente di due anni il romanzo Una vita violenta e intervallato da una collaborazione alla sceneggiatura di Le notti di Cabiria, a cui lo invita Federico Fellini, come revisore della parte dialettale romanesca (per cui si servirà della collaborazione di quello che diventerà uno dei suoi due pupilli e tenero amico, Sergio Citti). In questa raccolta di componimenti l'obiettivo è quello di dare un volto nuovo alla storia italiana e per farlo Pasolini indulge sul passato con brani dedicati alle origini medievali del canto popolare, al periodo classico, romano greco e barbarico, al periodo comunale: il tutto in un clima quasi di attesa, di sospensione del popolo che aspetta da sempre "mai tolto al tempo" (Il canto popolare) e quindi non obnubilato dalla modernità ma vivo, sopravvissuto nel Presente e emarginato, confinato, ghettizzato in vacui solitari e fatiscenti paesi di collina, in tuguri o baracche, in squallidi quartieri periferici che circondano, con ferina purezza e semplicità, le baldanzose, bislacche città frutto del tempo breve. L'occasione è data da una visita di Pasolini al "Cimitero degli Inglesi", accanto a Porta San Paolo a Roma, a ridosso del quartiere popolare il Testaccio, in cui era stato seppellito Gramsci. Pasolini contempla amareggiato la rovina storica, "in esso c'è il grigiore del mondo / la fine del decennio in cui ci appare / tra le macerie finito il profondo / e ingenuo sforzo di rifare la vita / il silenzio, fradicio e infecondo". In questi versi sono condensate tutte le cocenti delusioni che albergano nel cuore del poeta e la sofferenza per la sorte dell'Italia: i dieci anni di dominio della Democrazia Cristiana al potere, il tradimento della Resistenza, il naufragio delle speranze e la perdita degli affetti. Durante lo srotolarsi del poemetto, Gramsci abbandona le vestigia di ideologo e uomo di partito, di padre e diviene per Pasolini "umile fratello", completamente disarmato, non rivoluzionario bensì il Gramsci della sofferenza riflessiva della prigione da cui gemmano pagine di vibrante lirismo e puntigliosa razionalità, lucidità storica e politica. Confinato nella solitudine dalla mordacità dell'uomo e dalla crudeltà della storia. L'interesse è rivolto al giovinetto Gramsci, umiliato e vilipeso, partorito dalla sensibilità del poeta, non al personaggio storico. La protesta è rappresentata dall'essere "diverso", nella poesia come nella vita. Diverso da chi, da cosa? Diverso dai prodotti della mercificazione, dall'omologazione e dalla massificazione che crea e fa subire al popolo inerme e disarmato l'evoluzione della tecnica. Questo non farà che esacerbare ulteriormente le idiosincrasie all'interno del partito dal quale, in seguito agli scandali legati alla sua omosessualità, era stato espulso. Sono gli anni in cui all'interno del partito domina l'intransigenza teologica dei marxisti ("sono inflessibili, sono tetri, / nel loro giudicarti: chi ha il cilicio / addosso non può perdonare. Nel 1958 pubblica L'usignolo della chiesa cattolica, una summa del suo credo marxista intriso soavemente di pietas cristiana. L'attività critica di Pasolini vede la sua prima momentanea sistemazione nella raccolta saggistica del 1960 Passione e ideologia. Un profondo e drastico mutamento del clima culturale occorse negli ultimi anni prima della guerra. Questo nuovo clima non è infondato ma motivato dalla lotta vittoriosa del paese contro il fenomeno fascista e la riconquista che ne derivò della libertà e della democrazia. Il primo numero compare alla fine di settembre del 1945 e, novità, in edicola perché vuole assurgere subito a organo culturale di massa. Chiude la sua attività nel dicembre del 1947. L'editoriale del direttore Una nuova cultura apre il "Politecnico". Contrasti con la redazione e divergenze di vedute fra Vittorini e esponenti di spicco del Partito Comunista, di cui era un giovane neofita, portò alla chiusura dell'organo. I dissapori con i dirigenti comunisti, in particolar modo con Palmiro Togliatti e lo storico Alicata, ruotano intorno al valore che Vittorini attribuisce alla cultura nell'orientamento della storia e nella rinascita della società, compiti che il partito attribuisce più alla politica che alla cultura. La cultura invece non può non svolgersi al di fuori di ogni legge di tattica e di strategia sul piano diretto della storia. Vittorini tende, esecrabilmente, a mettere in discussione il rapporto organico tra intellettuali e partito che dominerà la vita culturale nei decenni successivi caratterizzando la storia della cultura a sinistra dell'Italia; si rifiuta di porre così dei limiti al suo lavoro, di assecondare i diktat del partito e chiude la rivista "Il Politecnico". Il "ceto intellettuale" svolge una funzione di prim'ordine nell'analisi gramsciana, per la formazione del "blocco storico" perché è l'unico che può condurre al cambiamento la società rifondandola. Da qui, la sua idea di "intellettuale organico" per indicare quell'intellettuale che si lega visceralmente ad una classe sociale e al suo destino e istaura un rapporto dialettico con il suo partito. Una tendenza volta a creare una cultura liberale nell'Italia dopo la Liberazione ma, al contempo, attenta ai problemi del socialismo e della democrazia, corrente di pensiero incarnata da Norberto Bobbio. Per ottenere questo fine, è necessaria la comprensione della realtà. Al cinema e nella letteratura il parlato e il dialetto si impongono sovrani. Asor Rosa parla, per introdurre Pasolini, di "apoteosi e crisi del neorealismo" ricordando al lettore che ogni periodo storico-letterario finisce sempre e comunque o per rottura o per eccesso. Quello fascista, ci dice, terminò bruscamente per rottura e si fa strada l'idea che una nuova fase debba aprirsi per rispondere alle speranze degli italiani, anche nel campo del gusto e della poesia. Si scontra allora con le posizioni ufficiali del Partito Comunista che lo accusa tramite la rivista culturale ufficiale del partito, "Il contemporaneo", fondata nel 1954 e diretta da Salinari e Trombadori, di deviare dalla via del realismo inserendo nelle sue opere elementi decadenti, irrazionalistici e vitalistici. Alla "Guerra Fredda" corrisponde una spartizione del mondo in due parti (a cui nel 1962 si aggiungerà una terza realtà che è quella del blocco dei cosiddetti "paesi non allineati" nata alla conferenza di Bandung), simbolicamente indicate nella carta geografica con due colori differenti, il blu per i paesi schierati con gli Stati Uniti e rosso per quelli che gravitano intorno all'Unione Sovietica. In seguito alla Conferenza di Yalta del 1945, che stabilisce la spartizione delle zone di influenza, l'Italia viene inserita nel gioco di alleanze della potenza americana. Nel nostro Paese, il lungo periodo inaugurato dalle elezioni politiche del 1948, che vedono la vittoria di De Gasperi e della Democrazia Cristiana e l'uscita di scena del blocco delle sinistre, viene vissuto in condizioni di sostanziale equilibrio politico: per quarantacinque anni si succederanno governi a guida democristiana il cui percorso è agevolato anche da quella conventio ad excludendum, grazie alla quale vengono respinte come forze di governo, le due frange estreme dello schieramento parlamentare (Msi, erede delle posizioni della Repubblica di Salò, e Pci) . Un Paese ancora impegnato sulla strada della ricostruzione della propria identità, materiale e spirituale. La quasi totalità degli italiani ancora era impegnata, per vivere, nei settori tradizionali- principe ancora l'agricoltura che all'inizio del 1950 assorbe ancora quasi il 50% della popolazione attiva, concentrata con picchi del 56-57% al Sud (Ginsborg) - a cui corrispondeva un basso tenore di vita legato, nel caso dell'agricoltura, all'arretratezza strutturale che rallentava la crescita e la produzione (unica eccezione quella delle aziende agricole, dinamiche, moderne e produttive della Pianura Padana). Ciò è legato sia ad una perdita di autorità del pater familias, per cui il figlio del mezzadro tende a non voler più seguire le orme del padre sia al fatto che il proprietario, dato il crollo dei profitti e gli alti prezzi del mercato, tende a vendere le proprie terre il più delle volte ai mezzadri stessi. Ugualmente nel sud Italia si avvia un processo di vendita di terra che, insieme alla legge del 1948 che stabilisce il sistema di crediti ipotecari rurali rimborsabili in quarant'anni, agevola la piccola proprietà contadina. La fine del protezionismo diede nuova vita all'economia del paese portandolo, quasi obtorto collo, a rimodernarsi. In breve tempo la produzione industriale, così sollecitata al dinamismo, supera quella di tutti gli altri settori e l'Italia da paese agricolo diviene una delle nazioni più progredite del continente. L'"urbanizzazione" cambia il volto del paesaggio umano e sancisce la morte dell'"homo italicus" (Asor Rosa) legato alla proprietà e alla coltivazione della terra, sovverte totalmente i precedenti rapporti di classe con la crescita esponenziale della classe operaia di fabbrica che sarà al centro delle lacerazioni che seguiranno questo primo periodo di ebbrezza e che trova sfogo nella dura politica antisindacale e persecutoria ai danni di operai di dichiarata fede comunista perseguita dalle imprese. Il clima sociale e politico si scalderà velocemente e le lotte, le manifestazioni, le repressioni e la rabbia sociale che questa realtà esacerberà tingeranno di nero molte pagine della storia politico- sociale della Prima Repubblica italiana. Il "miracolo economico" in realtà cova degli squilibri al suo interno. Ginsborg delinea perfettamente questa situazione: il boom si realizzò seguendo una logica tutta sua, rispondendo direttamente al libero gioco delle forze del mercato e dando luogo, come risultato, a profondi scompensi strutturali. Dunque, l'altro lato della medaglia vede quelle declinazioni obliate dalla vitalità del momento, i contraccolpi che cova al suo interno il "boom" e che, accanto al forte spaesamento culturale, genera bisogni difficilmente soddisfacibili, come la domanda aggiuntiva di case, ospedali e scuole essendo più rivolto alla produzione di beni privati, individuali o al massimo familiari a detrimento dei beni pubblici e dei servizi. Fomenta anche rancore sociale accanto alle rivendicazioni di nuovi diritti dei lavoratori, che cominciano a tradursi in fiammate di combattività, a partire dagli scioperi del 1962- che si concluderà con l'episodio tragico di Piazza Statuto - e soprattutto del 1969 con la rivendicazione di uguaglianza di salario e parità normative tra operai e impiegati (lo Statuto dei Lavoratori è del 1970). Le forme governative non sono pronte alla sfida che questi mutamenti sociali mettono in campo. Avvocato seguace della linea dura, della politica "legge e ordine", opportunista nelle sue strategie di alleanze, Tambroni non si schiera apertamente con l'ala destra o sinistra del suo partito e mantiene buoni rapporti sia con i dirigenti missini che del Psi (anche se sarà bollato come uomo di destra non solo per la politica perseguita contro i manifestanti ma perché ottenne la carica di presidente del Consiglio grazie al voto degli esponenti del Msi e dei monarchici). Tambroni risponde alle manifestazioni che si svolgono a Genova, a Roma e in Emilia Romagna nel 1960 in occasione del congresso nazionale dei missini che provocatoriamente annunciano di tenerlo a Genova, una delle patrie della Resistenza, merito riconosciutole istituzionalmente con una medaglia d'oro. La vicenda Tambroni, ci fa notare Ginsborg, ha il merito di chiarire una volta per tutte una costante della storia politica della nostra Repubblica: l'antifascismo è nel dna dell'ideologia egemone per cui qualsiasi velleità autoritaria o liberticida viene osteggiata fisicamente dalla massa e messa al bando. Inoltre questo episodio favorisce un avvicinamento della Dc con i socialisti con la conseguente avanzata delle sinistre alle elezioni. Nel gennaio 1961 viene eletto alla Casa Bianca il democratico John Kennedy che, dopo il rapporto stilato sulla situazione politica italiana da un suo funzionario, decide di appoggiare l'ascesa del Psi con il doppio scopo di oscurare il partito comunista -che aumenta il proselitismo di massa- e al contempo far uscire l'Italia dallo stallo in cui il vuoto riformista l'aveva incatenato. Un papa ieratico, lontano dal sentire della gente. "Riforme mancate e mancata riforma del sistema politico si intrecciano e si alimentano a vicenda, innescando un "cortocircuito perverso" che agisce in profondità, sotto l'apparente bonaccia che va dal superamento della crisi economica all'"esplosione" del 1968" . Togliatti si aprirà al policentrismo politico e culturale e caldeggerà il superamento dello schieramento ideologico dei due blocchi. Stalin è morto nel 1953 e nel corso del XX Congresso del Pcus, che si tenne a Mosca nel febbraio del 1956, il nuovo segretario Nikita Chruscev diffonde il rapporto segreto sui crimini nefandi commessi da Stalin, favorito in questo dal "culto della divinità" a cui aveva piegato non solo la popolazione ma anche tutti i suoi sodales. La tradizione culturale del comunismo italiano ha allora, con Togliatti e la sua necessità di "vie nazionali del socialismo", l'originalità di confondersi con quella liberale. Quest'ultimo aspetto è interessante perché testimonia un processo di unificazione nazionale frutto sia di un maggior intervento scolastico mirato all'aumento del tasso di alfabetizzazione sia dell'incontro di due realtà fino a quel momento agli antipodi, i contadini del sud e la classe operaia del nord. Affermato poeta e emergente cineasta, interviene nel dibattito sui caratteri dell'italiano nell'epoca del "miracolo economico" e dedica alla nuova questione linguistica una conferenza (apparsa sulla rivista "Rinascita" nel dicembre del 1964) dove denuncia un letale sovvertimento del tradizionale assetto dei rapporti comunicativi, inquinati dall'avvento dell'industrializzazione a-morale e selvaggia e alla diffusione sempre più massiccia della televisione che tende ad unificare al ribasso la lingua italiana dalla cui facies scompare, o comunque si erode irreversibilmente, la genuinità di un dialetto che si vede aggredito dai potenti mass media. I dati statistici sono a questo fine utile: nel 1958 solo il 12 percento delle famiglie italiane possiedono un televisore, nel 1965 la percentuale è già salita al 49, allo stesso modo il possesso di un frigorifero passa dal 13 al 55 per cento, quello di una lavatrice dal 3 al 23 mentre gli italiani che posseggono un'automobile passa da 342000 a 4670000. Cambiano le abitudini alimentari e il modo di vestire degli italiani. Tutto ciò avallato dallo Stato e dal suo lassismo, dalla pigrizia e inamovibilità dei governi che nel ventennio 1950-1960 concedono piena libertà all'iniziativa privata. Fu uno dei pionieri della critica serrata e violenta di questo nuovo stato di cose, sociale e politico e ferventi saranno gli attacchi che lancerà dalle pagine di quotidiani, in particolare il "Corriere della Sera". A lacerare il velo delle illusioni saranno, in campo politico-sociale, atti di terrorismo e violenza vigliacca che dopo il preludio sessantottino, dalla Strage di Piazza Fontana del 12 dicembre 1969 darà il via alla "strategia della tensione", allo stragismo nero e al fenomeno delle Br: vicende che tanto avviliranno la nostra democrazia. Il rifiutato è l'irruzione dell'estraneità e della diversità, l'oggetto inerte e passivo del rifiuto. L'essere del rifiutato è la sua povertà e la sua miseria inseparabili e irreparabili. Pasolini con la sua opera poetica, che contempla non solo la scrittura ma anche il cinema ("la lingua scritta della realtà"), offre al suo pubblico un ampio materiale di riflessione sulla figura del rifiutato, dell'emarginato e sulle sue implicazioni sociali, politiche e morali. Negli anni Sessanta la produzione culturale e artistica si sposta sul cinema perché ha una presa maggiore sul pubblico, è più sensibile alla quotidianità e fedele al paese che cambia. L'avventura del cinema lo porterà a viaggiare costantemente negli anni Sessanta. In Alì dagli occhi azzurri, un volume che raccoglie scritti tra il 1950 e il 1965, c'è un racconto in versi che presta il titolo alla raccolta, Profezia (1962-1964) in cui riversa la sua speranza nelle potenzialità rivoluzionarie dei popoli sfruttati del terzo mondo,essi sempre umili/essi sempre deboli/essi sempre timidi/essi sempre infimi/essi sempre colpevoli/essi sempre sudditi/essi sempre piccoli […] deponendo l'onestà/delle religioni contadine, /dimenticando l'onore/della malavita/tradendo il candore/dei popoli barbari, /dietro ai loro Alì/dagli occhi azzurri- usciranno da sotto la terra/per uccidere-/usciranno dal fondo del mare per aggredire/scenderanno dall'alto del cielo per derubare […]distruggeranno Roma/e sulle sue rovine/deporranno il germe/della Storia Antica. Accanto c'è anche il filone politico, di denuncia: Le mani sulla città di Francesco Rosi,1963, affronta il tema della speculazione edilizia a Napoli, o a Elio Petri, Marco Bellocchio (I pugni in tasca, 1965) etc. Accanto a questi registi Pier Paolo Pasolini è spinto al cinema dalla volontà di dare plasticità visiva alla sua immaginazione antropologica e poetica. Il suo è un cinema tutt'altro che consolatorio, non è foriero di speranze ed è colmo di rassegnazione e amarezza, sentimenti maturati in seguito al sopravvenire della crisi delle ideologie e allo sfigurarsi del mondo del "piccole patrie". Una nuova "Bibbia dei poveri". Un cinema che fa dell'intrattenimento piccolo-borghese una sorta di Moloch e che si staglia contro l'ipocrisia dei benpensanti attraverso l'esibizione del sesso senza veli, almeno finché il consumismo non farà della liberazione dai tabù sessuali un suo imperativo, trasformando lo stigmatizzato Pasolini in corifeo della nuova normalità borghese. In Pasolini il cinema si mostra da subito per ciò che è, "passione per la vita", un mezzo per portare la poesia nella realtà attraverso la chiarezza della prosa. "[…] Io amo il cinema perché con il cinema resto sempre al livello della realtà. Sempre del biennio 1968-69 sono La sequenza del fiore di carta e Porcile (a detta dell'autore, il suo film "che più tende al cinema di poesia") mentre successive altre significative produzioni, dall'Edipo Re (1967), a Medea (1969-'70), da la "Trilogia della vita" (stagione 1970-1974) che contempla Il Decameron I racconti di Canterbury Il fiore delle mille e una notte (una trilogia della "mancanza della vita", affermazione disperata di qualcosa che non esiste più) alla quale seguirà un documento scritto nel giugno 1975 (Abiura dalla Trilogia della vita) dove giustifica il suo gesto dell'abiura con la costatazione della scomparsa di quella gioventù capace di libertà e trasgressione a cui quasi lui inneggiava attraverso questi film. L'innocenza che lui aveva perseguito qui è cancellata dal meccanismo di emulazione dei modelli veicolati dalla televisione, figli della società capitalista che tutto ciò che tocca corrompe; alla violenza disarmante e demistificante di Salò o le Centoventi giornate di Sodoma (1975) in cui la rievocazione in chiave sado-masochista di un episodio della Repubblica fascista di Salò fa da metafora della situazione dell'Italia democratico-repubblicana; a cui avrebbe dovuto seguire Porno- Teo- Kolossal, progetto interrotto, insieme al suo romanzo Petrolio, dalla tragica fine dell'autore all'Idroscalo di Ostia. Riservandoci un'analisi più puntuale in un secondo momento, possiamo tuttavia cogliere la sua convinzione che sia in atto un mutamento socio- antropologico devastante, che oscura la prospettiva popolare della Storia spogliandola così del suo carattere "assoluto". Intuibile è, a questo punto, la sua netta condanna del movimento studentesco del 1968, da cui prende le distanze dichiarandosene estraneo perché avvertito come volontà di emancipazione piccolo- borghese. Lo stato d'animo del Pasolini degli ultimi anni è di "disperata vitalità": sa di non essere compreso. I suoi interventi si fanno sempre più numerosi e appassionati, ruotano intorno a ciò che Pasolini dice soggiacere alla base di questa drammatica realtà: l'esiziale vuoto democristiano, partito arroccato nel Palazzo per semplice tornaconto personale, l'inamovibilità del progressismo e gli errori tattici del Pci, la dissoluzione del mondo proletario- contadino. L'ingordigia dei governi di centro- sinistra che dominano la scena dal 1962 al 1968, rende sordi e ciechi i politici di fronte alle esigenze di un'Italia in rapido cambiamento. Le ragioni salienti del movimento studentesco vanno ricercate nelle riforme scolastiche degli anni Sessanta: con l'introduzione (1962) della scuola media dell'obbligo fino ai quattordici anni, si incentiva un livello di istruzione di massa oltre la scuola primaria ma contemporaneamente vengono alla luce le gravi carenze: dalla mancanza dei libri di testo alle gravissime lacune nella preparazione degli insegnanti, mai aggiornati. Il Sessantotto italiano nasce nelle università con la richiesta di un serio esame di coscienza alla cultura. Nel frattempo, nelle maglie comuniste torna in auge il pensiero marxista con la sua attenzione per i coni d'ombra aperti dallo sviluppo economico e la conseguente condizione della classe operaia. A completare il quadro, si aggiungono presto le influenze "terzomondiste" provenienti dall'America del Sud, a partire dalla morte di Che Guevara in Bolivia nel 1967 che diviene così il martire simbolo della rivolta. Siamo nell'autunno del 1967 e investe gli atenei a partire dalla facoltà di sociologia di Trento a cui seguono quelli di Milano, Torino, Pisa. La nuova lettura che viene data nel Sessantotto è libertaria e iconoclastica del materialismo storico. I lasciti saranno vari, non tutti della medesima natura: innegabile il forte impulso alla democratizzazione, alla modernizzazione e alla partecipazione con l'affermazione del primato dell'assemblea a detrimento della delega. Gli atti dimostrativi, provocatori, violenti e il disprezzo per le regole furono alla base del fallimento. Ebbero però l'intuizione della necessità di avere al proprio fianco gli operai, classe sociale sclerotizzata in una situazione intollerabile. La propaganda incendiaria inibisce qualsiasi istanza modernizzatrice, le modalità di rivendicazione sono corrotte da una torsione del marxismo e del leninismo, per cui la coronazione della lotta di classe si può ottenere solo per mezzo di un furore iconoclasta e casinista. Gli anni dal 1968 al 1972 vedranno un susseguirsi di tiepidi e brevi governi di coalizione, perlopiù di centro-sinistra, che tentano di mediare la protesta con una scialba politica riformatrice che favorirà l'istituzione delle Regioni, la regolamentazione del referendum abrogativo; in campo sociale la regolamentazione delle pensioni, la nascita (maggio 1970) per merito del socialista Giacomo Brodolini dello Statuto dei Lavoratori di cui si comincia da subito a fare largo uso, la conclusione della lunga lotta del Lid per l'introduzione del divorzio in Italia, intrapresasi dopo il progetto di legge del 1965 presentato dal socialista Fortuna, il cui iter parlamentare però venne bloccato dalla Democrazia cristiana. Una condizione di assoluta precarietà su cui si abbatterà la più grave crisi economica dopo quella del 1929 e che influirà sulle politiche economiche internazionali per tutti gli anni Settanta, conosciuta come crisi petrolifera perché generata dalla decisione dei paesi dell'Opec di aumentare del 70 per cento il prezzo del petrolio facendolo schizzare alle stelle e mostrando nella sua drammaticità la totale dipendenza dei paesi occidentali dall'esportazione del petrolio. Questa crisi si abbatte su una situazione internazionale già fortemente problematica: la rottura del sistema Bretton Woods con la conseguente incertezza sui mercati finanziari internazionali, la svalutazione del dollaro, l'esplosione dei tassi salariali europei, un eccesso di offerta sul mercato del lavoro e il rapido declino dei profitti. Interessante è l'analisi che fa dei motivi che soggiacciono a questo estremismo della "nuova sinistra" Silvio Lanaro. Si è molto discettato sull'anomalia del "bipartitismo imperfetto", sul blocco ultradecennale del quadro politico e sul "revisionismo" del Pci, accompagnato dalla tattica terzinternazionalista del far terra bruciata alla propria sinistra: e tuttavia non si è posto l'accento sullo scotoma idiomatico di cui soffre chi vive in un paese privo nel lungo periodo di tradizioni liberali, e dunque costretto ad articolare le proprie concettualizzazioni (e le proprie azioni) a seconda di quanto gli offre il mercato delle idee e dei linguaggi. Immediata l'accusa da parte di polizia e governo alle frange anarchiche con l'individuazione dei responsabili nel ballerino Valpreda (che dopo aver trascorso tre anni in galera, solo nel 1985 sarà prosciolto da ogni accusa) e nel ferroviere Pinelli che "cadrà" dalla finestra dell'ufficio del commissario Calabresi durante l'interrogatorio. Alla strage del 12 dicembre e alla tensione successiva si richiamerà il primo documento del Collettivo Politico metropolitano, da cui nasceranno le Brigate Rosse, gruppo che rimarrà isolato fino alle elezioni del 1972, quando il terrorismo si colora anche di rosso con l'incruento ma emblematico sequestro di un dirigente della Sit- Siemens. Nel marzo del 1972, al XIII Congresso del partito, viene eletto segretario Enrico Berlinguer. Alla strage di Piazza Fontana se ne aggiungono presto altre: Piazza della Loggia a Brescia, attentato al treno "Italicus" nel 1974 e attentato alla stazione di Bologna del 2 agosto 1980. L'unico argine, nell'opinione di Berlinguer, sarebbe stata allora una grande alleanza che si concretizzasse politicamente in un accordo con la Dc, presentandolo come una strategia in cui comunisti e cattolici avrebbero condiviso un medesimo codice morale con il quale risollevare le sorti del paese. Questa strategia avrebbe avuto il merito indiscutibile di porre il Pci al centro della scena politica dopo anni di evanescenza. La sensazione che si ha è di essere di fronte alla nemesi del Partito democristiano, come si coglie dall'esigenza pasoliniana di un "Processo etico" al "Potere", ossia al partito che lo ha incarnato, al fine di riscrivere delle regole civili universali e inviolabili. A Pasolini il "coraggio intellettuale della verità" non manca: Io so. Io so i nomi dei responsabili della strage di Milano del 12 dicembre 1969. Io so i nomi dei responsabili della strage di Brescia e di Bologna dei primi mesi del 1974. […] Io so tutti questi nomi e so tutti i fatti (attentati alle istituzioni e stragi) di cui si sono resi colpevoli. Colpa da cui discende la necessità di un processo, un "Processo come metafora" con cui "determinare nel paese una nuova coscienza politica" sancendo definitivamente la fine di "un'epoca millenaria di un certo potere", rendendo preclara una verità fondamentale, "che governare e amministrare bene non significa più governare e amministrare bene in relazione al vecchio potere bensì in relazione al nuovo potere", ossia alle esigenze etiche della collettività civile. Le successive elezioni politiche, 20 giugno 1976 -le prime aperte anche ai giovani tra i 18 e i 21 anni-, confermano la salita del Pci che con il 34,4 per cento dei voti si avvicina alla Dc che resta stabile al 38,7 per cento, grazie alla grande borghesia che fa quadrato intorno al partito (storico l'invito del più famoso giornalista conservatore italiano e direttore del "Giornale Nuovo", Indro Montanelli, a votare Dc "turandosi il naso") mentre il Psi esce indebolito (nel 1976 il segretario De Martino verrà sostituito da un esponente dell'ala destra del partito, Bettino Craxi). I due governi Andreotti che si susseguono tra il 1976 e il 1978 e che includono il Pci nell'area di governo, passeranno alla storia come governi di "solidarietà nazionale" all'interno dei quali si appannerà la diversità comunista, grazie anche all'abilità del fine statista Aldo Moro, che con l'ambiguità e la sottigliezza del suo linguaggio, favorisce il graduale inserimento del Pci nelle logiche del sistema dei partiti, processo vissuto come un tradimento da quegli elettori che avevano riposto vitali speranze in un partito per cui Pasolini spende queste parole: la presenza di un grande partito di opposizione come il Partito Comunista italiano è la salvezza dell'Italia e delle sue povere istituzioni democratiche. A provocare il fallimento della "solidarietà nazionale" è proprio l'assenza del soggetto "nazionale" con cui unanimemente si indica un agglomerato sociale relativamente uniformato da comportamenti e valori comuni. Questo avvenimento scuote le fondamenta del sistema spingendo alla riflessione parte della società civile sull'importanza di beni immateriali usurati fino a quel momento. La presa di coscienza di Berlinguer del fallimento del "compromesso storico", si ha a Genova dove, nel settembre 1978, durante la festa nazionale dell'"Unità" rivolgendosi alla folla dirà che è giunto il momento in cui "si possono e si devono cambiare" gli equilibri politici del paese. Tuttavia, la rottura della solidarietà nazionale segnerà anche il declino del Pci. Nelle manifestazioni giovanili del 1968, diviene inviso agli studenti, e a larga parte del Pci, per la netta posizione che assume. Individua una forte ambiguità nel movimento, all'interno del quale scorge elementi piccolo-borghesi. La polemica contro/il Pci andava fatta nella prima metà/del decennio passato. siamo ovviamente d'accordo con l'istituzione/della polizia.//a Valle Giulia ieri, si è così avuto un frammento/di lotta di classe: e voi cari (benché dalla parte/della ragione) eravate i ricchi/mentre i poliziotti (che erano dalla parte/del torto)erano i poveri. /Un borghese redento deve rinunciare a tutti i suoi diritti, /o bandire dalla sua anima, una volta per sempre/l'idea del potere. Il "perturbatore della quiete" Pasolini, ospite scomodo della cultura italiana, negli ultimi anni della sua vita sente il bisogno cocente di confrontarsi con l'opinione pubblica, atterrito da ciò che vede: un'omologazione incalzante di costumi e moralità cui si doveva celermente fuggire e contro cui doveva lanciare i suoi strali anche a costo di attirarsi critiche aspre, come fu. Nel frattempo, prende a scrivere caustici pamphlet politici nella prima pagina del "Corriere della sera" (possibilità che gli è data dalla successione a Giovanni Spadolini come direttore di Piero Ottone, più liberale e pronto a violare il moderatismo borghese a favore di una più vivace dialettica politica, al cui fine venne creata una "Tribuna aperta"). I bersagli di Pasolini sono il consumismo, l'esercizio democristiano del potere, il permissivismo nei giovani e la linea ufficiale dei comunisti. Il fine è quello di provocare accese polemiche, assumendo anche posizioni inaspettate, come nel caso del referendum sull'aborto del maggio 1974 la cui vittoria viene aspramente criticata da Pasolini perché dissolve definitivamente l'identità contadina, lasciando un vuoto riempito dalla "borghesizzazione", dai valori vacui ed effimeri di un consumismo sfrenato. La vertiginosa salita del Pci alle elezioni amministrative del giugno 1975, offre a un Pasolini galvanizzato da questa novità politica, da quella che sembra una nuova primavera nata da una restaurazione della sinistra -favorito anche dal consenso accordatogli dai ceti medi, i quali sembrano rispondere a quel sentimento di legittimità costituzionale che suscita nei confronti del Pci il terrorismo di destra-, l'occasione per delineare un suo personale progetto di riforma che prevede l'abolizione immediata della scuola media dell'obbligo e della televisione. Nei confronti del successo elettorale comunista però Pasolini tiene un atteggiamento di distacco . I "fascisti di sinistra" dal punto di vista della prassi, sono frange attive all'interno del partito e simili impurità rischiano di far perdere di vista le necessità della Storia. "Io mi sono sempre opposto al Pci con dedizione, aspettandomi una risposta alle mie obiezioni. Accanto alle passioni, l'eros e le abitudini sono recidive. Nei suoi vagabondaggi notturni si riverbera il deragliamento della società italiana. Sarà vittima di aggressioni, conati di violenze e intolleranza fino al triste epilogo: l'alba del 2 novembre 1975 consegna al mondo il corpo di Pasolini abbandonato su un anonimo terreno dell'Idroscalo di Ostia. Ogni società sarebbe stata contenta di avere Pasolini tra le sue fila. Poi abbiamo perso un regista che tutti conoscono, […] ha fatto una serie di film alcuni dei quali sono ispirati al suo realismo che io chiamo romantico ossia, un realismo arcaico, gentile e al tempo stesso misterioso; altri ispirati ai miti, al mito di Edipo ad esempio, poi ancora al mito del sotto-proletariato il quale è apportatore […] di una umiltà che potrebbe portare ad una palingenesi del mondo. Lì si vede questo schema del sottoproletariato. Lo schema dell'umiltà dei poveri Pasolini l'aveva esteso in fondo al Terzo Mondo e alla cultura del Terzo Mondo. […] Allora il saggista era una novità (che) corrispondeva al suo interesse civico e qui si viene ad un altro aspetto di Pasolini cioè, benché fosse uno scrittore con dei frammenti decadentistici, benché fosse estremamente raffinato e manieristico tuttavia aveva un'attenzione profonda per i problemi sociali del suo paese, per lo sviluppo di questo paese. Gli anni del boom economico italiano vedono un'incontrollabile e apparentemente solida crescita industriale a cui si accompagna un decisivo aumento del reddito e il conseguente espandersi dei consumi privati. Questa visione idilliaca è turbata tuttavia da alcune degenerazioni del sistema. La deflagrazione industriale, l'impennata della produzione settoriale e la diffusione del benessere hanno come contraltare una serie di sovvertimenti sociali che si manifestano sempre in maniera più evidente e che vanno dall'abbandono delle terre nel Meridione alla convivenza coatta nelle città industrializzate tra culture antitetiche e sconosciute sino a quel momento l'una all'altra al vuoto etico generato dalla perdita di quei valori diacronici, consolidati e comuni che informavano la vita relazionale. dove non c'è libertà ma un nuovo "dentro": il "penitenziario del consumismo" i cui "personaggi principali" sono i giovani. Il fenomeno della perdita non risarcita dei valori è devastante sui giovani, è l'ipoteca più amara che grava sul loro futuro e la caduta del prestigio irrelato dei valori culturali non poteva non produrre una mutazione antropologica, una crisi. È un sostituto della magia […] Ernesto De Martino lo chiama "paura della perdita della propria presenza" e i primitivi, appunto, riempiono questo vuoto ricorrendo alla magia, che lo spiega e lo riempie. Nel mondo moderno, l'alienazione dovuta al condizionamento della natura è sostituita dall'alienazione dovuta al condizionamento della società: passato il primo momento di euforia (illuminismo, scienza applicata, comodità, benessere, produzione e consumo), ecco che l'alienato comincia a trovarsi solo con se stesso: egli quindi, come il primitivo, è terrorizzato dall'idea della perdita della propria presenza . Alla distruzione anomica del mondo popolare, sottoproletario e delle borgate che favorisce certi fenomeni di alienazione psichica, è imputabile il clima di criminalità brutale che si diffonderà in Italia. La crisi della cultura fa sì, infatti, che molti giovani siano letteralmente ignoranti. La società viene reificata dalla nuova realtà economica. In una lettera al suo amico Alberto Moravia esprime tutto il suo disagio esistenziale, la sua rabbia e la sua disperazione fisica di fronte al cataclisma che sta investendo la società italiana, Il consumismo consiste in un vero e proprio cataclisma antropologico: e io vivo, esistenzialmente, tale cataclisma che, almeno per ora, è pura degradazione: lo vivo nei miei giorni, nelle forme della mia esistenza, nel mio corpo. Nel delineare il profilo strutturale della nuova società edonistica e consumistica si serve molto della descrizione delle relazioni individuali e del significato che queste acquistano. Pasolini parla di "genocidio" richiamandosi a Marx, intendendo dunque una totale sostituzione di valori, il genocidio: ritengo cioè che la distruzione e sostituzione di valori nella società italiana di oggi porti, anche senza carneficine e fucilazioni di massa, alla soppressione di larghe zone della società stessa. Non è del resto un'affermazione totalmente eretica e eterodossa. Oggi l'Italia sta vivendo in maniera drammatica per la prima volta questo fenomeno: larghi strati, che erano rimasti per così dire fuori della storia- la storia del dominio borghese e della rivoluzione borghese- hanno subito questo genocidio, ossia questa assimilazione al modo e alla qualità di vita della borghesia . La dignità della povertà, elemento caratteristico del mondo contadino e che racchiude quasi in una dimensione sacra il mito pasoliniano, si perde nelle borgate romane degli anni Settanta (unica consolazione per lui sarà la realtà contadina del Terzo Mondo). Sentivano l'ingiustizia della povertà, ma non avevano invidia del ricco, dell'agiato. È attratto dal sottoproletariato di cui delinea il profilo in una delle riflessioni fatte nel corso di una serie di incontri tenutesi nel 1975 con il giornalista inglese Peter Dragadze e che lui stesso definisce un "testamento spirituale- intellettuale", mi attrae nel sottoproletariato la sua faccia, che è pulita (mentre quella del borghese è sporca); perché è innocente (mentre quella del borghese è colpevole), perché è pura(mentre quella del borghese è volgare); perché è religiosa (mentre quella del borghese è ipocrita), perché è pazza (mentre quella del borghese è prudente); perché è sensuale (mentre quella del borghese è fredda); perché è infantile (mentre quella del borghese è adulta); perché è immediata (mentre quella del borghese è previdente), perché è gentile (mentre quella del borghese è insolente), perché è indifesa (mentre quella del borghese dignitosa), perché è incompleta (mentre quella del borghese è rifinita), perché è fiduciosa (mentre quella del borghese è dura), perché è tenera (mentre quella del borghese ironica), perché è pericolosa (mentre quella del borghese è molle), perché è feroce (mentre quella del borghese è ricattatoria), perché è colorata (mentre quella del borghese è bianca) . Pasolini non volge la tua attenzione alla caotica realtà del Nord dove le borgate sono popolate da immigrati spuri, fagocitati dal sistema neocapitalista industriale al quale hanno volontariamente aderito abbandonando le loro terre al Sud. Piuttosto trova analogie tra la cultura del sottoproletariato meridionale e la cultura contadina di quello che chiama Terzo Mondo. Individua l'errore dell'Italia nella rapidità del cambiamento e ricorda spesso nei suoi scritti come il passaggio nel secondo dopoguerra dalla società preindustriale agricola e commerciale a quella industriale sia avvenuta in soli venti anni. Il neocapitalismo è includente, unificante, tende ad inglobare creando una "unità del mondo". Tutto questo perché il neocapitalismo coincide insieme con la completa industrializzazione del mondo e con l'applicazione tecnologica della scienza. Sicché l'unità del mondo (ora appena intuibile) sarà un'unità effettiva di cultura, di forme sociali, di beni e di consumi . (Non so quindi cosa farmene di un mondo unificato dal neocapitalismo, ossia da un internazionalismo creato, con la violenza, dalla necessità della produzione e del consumo) . Per Pasolini appare di precipua importanza rifondare i modelli culturali, teorici rinnovando l'analisi marxista e della sinistra del tempo. Il capitalismo cui si riferisce Pasolini non è più quello statico, meno interessato dagli effetti della tecnologia che caratterizzò la prima fase industriale; non a caso lui parla di "neocapitalismo", dominato da una classe borghese almeno potenzialmente egemone, che informa la società dei suoi peculiari valori e caratterizzato, a differenza del vecchio capitalismo, dalla mercificazione della cultura attraverso l'industria culturale e favorito in questo dalla nascita e dalla rapida diffusione su larga scala di mezzi di comunicazione di massa, tra cui domina la televisione. La crescita industriale schizofrenica non permette dunque alle classi sociali di sedimentarsi ma al contrario le obbliga a formarsi in brevissimi lassi temporali. Giulio Sapelli nel suo testo marca la distanza della realtà italiana sia da quella inglese dove, come Engels testimonia nella sua celebre opera del 1845, Condizione della classe operaia in Inghilterra, la formazione del proletariato prende corpo già nell'Ottocento, sia da quella francese e tedesca dove il proletariato è concomitante all'espansione della borghesia. Non siamo di fronte ad una lenta trasformazione culturale, dice Pasolini, ma ad una vera e propria rivoluzione, una "rivoluzione antropologica". Il rifiuto della modernizzazione è assoluto e disperato. La cultura italiana è cambiata nel vissuto, nell'esistenziale, nel concreto. La tolleranza è l'aspetto più atroce della falsa democrazia . Quello messo in atto dall'edonismo interclassista è in realtà un subdolo razzismo che ha il volto della discriminazione per cui l'unico modello accettato è quello della normalità piccolo- borghese veicolato dalla pubblicità. Che viene dunque mimato di sana pianta, senza mediazioni, nel linguaggio fisico- mimico e nel linguaggio del comportamento nella realtà. […] Appunto perché perfettamente pragmatica, la propaganda televisiva rappresenta il momento qualunquistico della nuova ideologia edonistica del consumo: e quindi è enormemente efficace . Ecco allora cosa rimpiange Pasolini, non l' "Italietta" ma l'universo gaio dei contadini e degli operai prima dello Sviluppo. Io credo che non solo sia la salvezza della società: ma addirittura dell'Uomo. Una orrenda "Nuova Preistoria" sarà la condizione del neocapitalismo alla fine dell'antropologia classica, ora agonizzante. L'industrializzazione sulla linea neocapitalistica disseccherà il germe della Storia . È un marxista sui generis Pasolini, non possiede l'elemento principale dei marxisti: la fede nel progresso sociale. "Illuminismo culturale". Il sacro è l'elemento dell'esperienza sottratto alla materialità della vita quotidiana, alla sua relazione immediata con la sfera della vita biologica, e soprattutto con quella della vita raziocinante […] una "sospensione della ragione" che affida l'uomo ad una potenza spirituale più grande e da lui separata […] rappresenta qualcosa di diverso dalla religione, che è diffusa a livello di massa . La crisi della chiesa diventa crisi del sacro. L'ideologia illuministica del capitalismo fa vacillare una delle due uniche possibili resistenze al suo trionfo, l'atavico sentimento cattolico italiano. Richiamandosi al concetto di Engels (Antiduhring, 1878) per cui il socialismo è l'affermazione del passaggio dell'umanità dalla preistoria alla storia, Pasolini ribatte al giudizio espresso dal suo intervistatore Alberto Arbarsino che valuta la diffusione della ricchezza e l'accesso di larghi strati popolari al benessere mai conosciuto prima un fatto positivo perché segna la "liberazione dal bisogno, dalla paura, dal ricatto della fame", con queste parole: Sai cosa mi sembra l'Italia? Un tugurio i cui i proprietari sono riusciti a comprarsi la televisione, e i vicini, vedendo l'antenna, dicono, come pronunciando il capoverso di una legge "Sono ricchi! Stanno bene!". Alla domanda di Arbasino "Tu cosa vedi?", la risposta è illuminante: Due Preistorie: la Preistoria arcaica del Sud, e la Preistoria nuova nel Nord. La consistenza delle due Preistorie (e la lenta fine della Storia, che si identifica ormai soltanto nella razionalità marxista), mi rende un uomo solo, davanti ad una scelta egualmente disperata: perdermi nella preistoria meridionale, africana, nei reami di Bandung, o gettarmi a capofitto nella preistoria del neocapitalismo, nella meccanicità della vita delle popolazioni ad alto livello industriale, nei reami della Televisione. La marxista liberazione dell'uomo non avviene a seguito della serie di cambiamenti che l'avvento della tecnologia mette in atto, non si entra nella Storia ma in una nuova preistoria, quella del cupio dissolvi, dello stillicidio culturale ben rappresentato dalla televisione e voluto dal capitalismo "caro ai liberali", depositari di un'ideologia tipicamente borghese. Tutti i mali del mondo si identificano per me nella borghesia, intendendo naturalmente non il singolo individuo, ma la classe nel suo insieme e per quello che essa rappresenta . Questa borghesia per la prima volta nella storia della società italiana si pone non più come classe dominante, ma come classe egemonica. Per cui si forma una classe borghese avulsa dalle altre, contraddittoria in se stessa perché mentre dovrebbe essere protestante e liberale, nasce nel segno della Controriforma, in un mondo di contadini. Durante un intervento al congresso del partito liberale, delinea il profilo degli "sfruttatori" della seconda rivoluzione industriale, quella tecnologica, consumistica, che non sono più identificabili come coloro che semplicemente producono merci ma "nuova umanità", nuovi rapporti sociali. b) è un medium di massa […] è manipolata per ragioni extra- culturali, e la sua diffusione deve tenere anticipatamente conto del bassissimo livello medio della cultura dei destinatari, a cui si asserve per asservirli. Non può che dire, da intellettuale, "no" alla televisione (eccetto una collaborazione a Tv 7 che accetta perché la ritiene una forma di contestazione alla televisione fatta dall'interno) perché non individua in questo strumento un'autonomia propria, concreta tipica invece del giornalismo o del cinema o dell'insegnamento (in realtà Pasolini individua un momento autonomo della televisione, la "presa diretta", il cui linguaggio però stenta ad affermarsi). L'idiosincrasia di Pasolini è totale, viscerale. È per questo che Pasolini sente su di sé il dovere civico e intellettuale di proporre una radicale riforma al sistema televisivo e al suo "culturame": Bisogna rendere la televisione partitica e cioè, culturalmente, pluralistica. Ogni Partito avrebbe diritto alle sue trasmissioni […], al suo telegiornale […] e dovrebbe gestire anche altri programmi . La televisione inoltre mette in atto un altro cambiamento: avvia un processo di reificazione al ribasso della koinè linguistica. Pasolini si sofferma molto su questo aspetto perché nella sua analisi la lingua è un elemento imprescindibile dal momento che è dall'ordito del linguaggio che si studia la società nella sua immediatezza. L'ethos borghese tende ad essere introiettato dalla nuova società e ad informare di sé lavoro, disciplinamento sociale e selezione culturale. La cultura italiana è cambiata nel vissuto, nell'esistenziale, nel concreto. Il cambiamento consiste nel fatto che la vecchia cultura di classe (con le sue divisioni nette: cultura della classe dominata, o popolare, cultura della classe dominante, o borghese, cultura delle elites) è stata sostituita da una nuova cultura interclassista: che si esprime attraverso il modo di essere degli italiani, attraverso la loro nuova qualità di vita . Il consumismo altro non è che una nuova forma totalitaria- in quanto del tutto totalizzante, in quanto alienante fino al limite estremo della degradazione antropologica, o genocidio (Marx)- e che quindi la sua permissività è falsa: è la maschera della peggior repressione mai esercitata dal potere sulle masse dei cittadini . Afasia intellettuale, falsa tolleranza, interclassismo edonista: questo il risvolto drammatico della nuova società neocapitalistica che si presenta inerme, come un re nudo agli occhi di Pasolini. Il pessimismo storico di Pasolini è totale (" […] sono disperatamente pessimista"). Nei teppisti meridionali non c'è un'inconscia protesta moralistica, ma un'inconscia protesta sociale: essi non appartengono […] alla classe borghese […] ma al popolo o al sottoproletariato […] non commettono reati gratuiti, ma reati ben giustificati dalla necessità economica e dalla diseducazione ambientale . Il più emblematico cambiamento nelle abitudini degli italiani, il più lento ma al contempo più parossistico, riguarda la sessualità, fino ad allora il più forte tabù sociale. Non si può tornare indietro, la tradizione ha ceduto alla modernizzazione, all'edonè consumista: Pasolini è apocalittico. Un'analisi dettagliata e chiara ce la offre Sapelli che ci richiama alla memoria l'"economia delle aspettative" scoperta dai grandi classici dell'economia, tra cui spicca Keynes i cui studi sulla logica del consumo descrivono a livello teorico i mutamenti individuati da Pasolini. Oggi, la mancanza di determinati beni privati porta addirittura ad una sorta di isolamento all'interno della società" . Troppo manichea, la posizione di Pasolini a tratti si lascia andare forse troppo al catastrofismo, la sua visione apocalittica inficia l'oggettività dell'analisi. Turba il sistema produttivo, è di ostacolo all'affermazione del neocapitalismo nelle sue diverse accezioni, "anzitutto l'omosessualità è totalmente distaccata dalla produttività puramente umana, quella della specie, nel senso che influirebbe piuttosto negativamente sullo sviluppo demografico se si generalizzasse" . Questo fomenta il disprezzo di Pasolini verso la borghesia, lo assolutizza. Il borghese non subisce questa anomia, non partecipa della sofferenza della classe proletaria e contadina, del disagio dei borgatari ma al contrario "non hanno fatto altro che aggiornare i loro modelli culturali" per cui può affermare stentoreamente di non nutrire alcuna pena per una classe sociale che non ha fatto altro, come afferma Marx nel Manifesto del 1848, che mostrare la sua natura solipsistica tesa ad assimilare tutto a se stessa. L'assoluta (apparente) libertà sessuale, ossia il libero arbitrio sul nostro corpo, è alla base di un pensiero complesso, se vogliamo anche distorto, di Pasolini che parte dall'analisi della "nuova donna" calata all'interno della rivoluzione delle classi medie: l'essere-nel-mondo è esattamente questo, sperimentare le nuove realtà e "codificarle" per farne, conformisticamente, delle abitudini. Il meccanismo di codificazione normativa che un tempo era della matrona, della padrona di casa, ora è della "nuova donna", istruita e colta, borghese e libera nelle sue scelte politiche e sessuali. Ecco il cambiamento antropologicamente drammatico indicato da Pasolini: la piccola borghesia fa propri i comportamenti tipici della destra più gretta e intollerante. Nel corso di un dibattito con la redazione di "Roma giovani" del 1974 alla domanda sul ruolo del Sessantotto nella sua critica all'alienazione della società capitalistica e di conseguenza sulla costruzione di un nuovo discorso politico e culturale, Pasolini risponde con un secco "no". La scissione avvenuta, per opera della classe dominante, tra "progresso" e "sviluppo" viene imputata da Pasolini anche alla sinistra e alla cultura cattolica le quali avrebbero dovuto assumere su di loro la responsabilità del momento, avvertirne l'urgenza e impegnarsi al fine di tutelare i valori. Questa esortazione si collega ad uno degli interventi più dissacratori e oracolari di Pasolini, intitolato "Bologna, città consumista e comunista", contenuto nelle Lettere Luterane, una raccolta di articoli e saggi politici molto pugnaci e demistificatori del sistema di potere italiano, usciti di volta in volta sul "Corriere della Sera", su "Mondo" e su "Vie Nuove" nel corso del 1975. Nel saggio sopracitato descrive il suo strazio nel constatare come anche sull' Emilia, e sulla sua amata Bologna nello specifico, si sia diffuso lo spettro della modernizzazione capitalistica che con la sua furia distruttrice ha demolito alla base la possibilità (ai suoi occhi un tempo concreta) di realizza
CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF RACISM IN DJANGO UNCHAINED MOVIE Tiara Magda Amelia English Literature Study Program, Faculty of Languages and Arts, Surabaya State University Tyara_46@hotmail.com Widyastuti, S.S., M.Pd. English Literature Study Program, Faculty of Languages and Arts, Surabaya State University Wid_unesa@yahoo.com Abstrak Rasisme masih muncul seperti halnya membandingakan antara ras orang jawa dan ras cina. Rasisme muncul karena dalam masyrakat, ada yang memiliki kekuasaan banyak ataupun sedikit. Jadi, dalam jurnal yang berjudul "Analisa Wacana Kritis Rasisme pada film Django Unchained" akan berfokus pada (1) tipe rasisme apa yang muncul pada pengucapan orang kulit putih sebagai grup yang dominan dan (2) bagaimana kekuasaan bisa mengontrol masyarakat yang di lakukan oleh orang kulit putih sebagai grup dominan. Analisa Wacana Kritis mempunyai hubungan istilah dengan kekuasaan, kesinambungan dan dominasi. Jadi, Analisa Wacana Kritis merupakan teori yang tepat untuk menganalisa tutur kata. Jurnal ini menggunakan metode qualitative untuk memberi penjelasan yang lebih jelas melalui teory Van Djik. Jurnal ini berfokus pada rasisme di film Django Unchained. "Django Unchained" berisi tentang rasisme yang dilakuakan orang kulit putih sebagi dominan grup. Jurnal ini berfokus pada tutur kata rasis yang dilakukan oleh orang kulit putih. Hasil dari jurnal ini yaitu ditemukan tutur kata yang mengandung representative, expressive, commisive and directives. Orang kulit putih menggunakan dasar kekuasaan mereka dan juga menggunakan kekuasaan akses dan discourse, dan pengontrol pikiran untuk mengontrol masyarakat. Selain menggunakan kekuasaan, orang kulit putih juga sosial dan kesadaran manipulasi untuk memanipulasi masyarakat. Keywords: rasisme, analisa wacana kritis, kontrol, kekuasaan dan manipulasi Abstract Racism still appears such as comparing race between javanesse and chinesse people. Racism appears because of having less or more power in society. So, this journal which title "Critical Discourse Analysis of Racism in Django Unchained Movie" will be focused on (1) in what way white people as dominant group show their racism and (2) how power can control society which is done by white people as dominant group. Critical Discourse Analysis has a great deal with the names of power, inequality and dominant. So, Critical Discourse Analysis is a good scholar to analyse the utterances. This study uses qualitative method in order to get clearer explanation through Van Djik's theory. This study focuses on racism in society in "Django Unchained" movie. "Django Unchained" movie contains of racism which is done by white people as dominant group. Thus, this data focuses on the utterances of dominant group as exerciser of racism. Here, the result of this study is white people as the dominant group utter racism in representative, expressive, commisive and directives. They also use the base of power rosurces, access and discourse and mind control to control over society. Besides using power, they also use social and cognition manipulation to manipulate society. Kata Kunci: racism, critical discourse analysis, control, power and manipulation INTRODUCTION Racism is not abstract systems of social inequality and dominance. Power abuse can be defined as dominance, for example in terms of the violation of norms and human social rights. Racist can be defined as ideology of racial thinking of people who have more power to do their belief in society. Fiske (1994) says racist discourse is in the media consists of a list of words, images and texts that threaded together, produce an understanding of the world and position and status of people of color in that world. Changing nature is the most complex aspect in racist. The racist behaviour can see by insulting, harrasing each other in the school, workplace or in public, doing racial graffiti, and similar aggressive anti-social acts. However, the beliefs and behaviours of social deviants are not limited in individual racism. Racism can be seen by how people act each other by their behaviour and talk. For example mocking, saying bad thing to other people, threatening or the other else by using their utterances. Yule (1996) says speech act is action which is done via utterances. According to Searle (1979) there are five kinds of classification speech act, they are : Declaration Declaration is the word which can change the world by using utterance. In declaration usually use expression of "I bet", " I declare", "I resign". For example : " I baptise this boy Michel Meyer". Representative Representative is type of speech act which is contain of believe. The statement consist of assertions (someone who say something clearly without any hestitation), conclusions (someone who has say everything all of the conversation, he or she conclude his conversation by saying "so" or "it means that" or "it can be said"), and description (someone who wants to describe something for example describe person, personality, events, news etc). Expressive Expressive is type of speech act which is about speaker's feel. The statement is like pleasure (someone who feels happy or exciting, joy ), pain ( someone who feels hurt by somebody else, the words which are usually used "hurt" and "sick" "pain"), like (someone who love or pond of something) , dislike (someone who does not like something and the words are usually used "dislike", "hate", "can not stand", "can not bear"), or sorrow (someone who is in bad condition or uncomfort zone ). The word of expressive such as: happy, sad, upset, love, like, hate, fear, and so on. For example "being rich is wonderful". Directives Directive is type of speech act which want to someone do something. Usually the word of directives contains of requesting, (using question words such as who, what, why, which, whose, and how), commanding is about how to people give a command to someone to do something, usually in imperative sentence like "open the door!"), inviting (a person who wants to invite someone to join or attend his or her event), forbiding (usually to ask someone not to do the harm thing), suggesting (the word, usually use in suggesting is should or ought to). Commisive Commisive is type of speech act which speaker wants to commit himself to some future actions. Like promising (the word which is used in promising is "promise", "will"), threatening (threatening is like someone who wants to say something rude and harm to person, it has impact to the future), refusing (the word which is usually appeared in refusing sentence is "no", it is like person who does not want to do something of accept a thing). For example : "I will pick up you tomorrow". Critical Discourse Analysis Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) deals with social power abuse, dominance, inequality and the way these are reproduced by the social group member through text and talk (Van Djik, 1998a). Wodak and Meyer (2001) say that Critical Discourse Analysis is the term of language as social practice. CDA focuses on between discourse and society, the social problem is about rising inequality in the society. Moreover Fairclough (1941) explains more about CDA that CDA not only shows how to investigate language which has relationship with power , but also shows the discursive nature of much contemporary social and cultural change.In CDA, language is not the most powerful part but language can reach power which is done by powerful people who use power to maintain society for their interest. That is why CDA often chooses the perspective of those who suffer (powerless group), and critically analyses the language use of those in power, who are responsible for the existence of inequalities. Power Critical Discourse Analysis deals with power abuse. The meaning of power is, according to Max Webber in Empowerment and Community Planning, power as probability that someone follow somebody's will, eventhough his will resistance to it in social relationship. In addition, Robert Dahl (1961) argues that power is exercised which done by individuals who are prevented from doing what they want prefer to do in community. Access and Discourse The dominance can control society because they have the base resources. These are the base resources of power such as wealth, income, good job, status, knowledge and education. Social power has relation with access and discourse. In this case the language users or communicator or speaker can have more or less in the use special discourse or may be in specific communicative events and contexts. It means that the speaker have more or less to control and access the discourse. Mind Control Influencing mind, somehow influence readers and hearers in news report, political propaganda, advertising, religious sermons, corporate directives or scholarly articles. They influence by knowledge, affecting opinion or changing attitudes. In specific context, the hearers or reader who given knowledge and belief reject, disbelieve, or otherwise mentally act in opposition to the intentions of powerful speaker or writer. The powerful speakers or writers have relative freedom to use discourse in their own interest. There are points of discursive mind control is a form of power and dominance if such control is in the interest of the powerful and if the recipients have 'no alternatives', i.e., no other sources (speakers, writers), no other discourses, no other option but to listen or read, and no relevant other beliefs to evaluate such discourses. Eventhough, the speaker or writer has many freedom, in other hand in the recepients are many coercion. The status of powerful writer and speaker is the function of properties of text and talk. The powerful speaker may be lied to, manipulated, persuaded to influence in their interest. The "victims" who have lack of knowledge or lack of power resources, they can not detect lies and manipulation from powerful people. For example journalist or writers have enough experience to influence society by message in their mind idea. They know how to change opinion and knowledge of readers. It is notion of changing people's mind. They change opinion and knowledge by emphasizing specific topic (headline and summaries in newspaper). They may influence mental model structure include discourse comprehension. Manipulation Influencing people's mind by controlling their action and attitudes needs persuasion and manipulation way to do it. But in Critical Discourse Analysis, manipulation needed to require as further theoritical analysis (Van Djik, 2006). Besides using power to control society, some speakers do manipulation to affect people's opinion and belief. Manipulation is a form of talk in conversation or interaction among people, manipulation deals with power abuse. Manipulation is illegitimate notion because, manipulation not only consist of power but also power abuse which is done by dominance. Thus, manipulation has negative sense rather than persuasion. Pictures, photo, movie or other media are exercised of manipulation by influencing the "victim". Manipulation in Society Power dimension in society takes apart to involve control people who exercise over other. In exercising control over other, manipulation needs social actor to satisfy personal and social criteria which can influence other. The group membership can define their power by their position, profession, and material. For example, parent can manipulate their children because of their power and authority in the family and professors can manipulate their student because of position and their knowledge. Everyday, in society, people may practice the kind of social manipulation in their group rather than personal Cognition Manipulation Manipulating people, it can be called manipulating their mind. People's mind is about people's belief like their knowledge, opinion and ideology which reflect to their actions. The mind is very complex process. So, it needs real time and action to apply it efficiently. The manipulator will decrease understanding their explanation while speaking, by speaking faster, less clearly and speaking with complex sentence, difficult word and confused topic. So, the hearer will get no idea what manipulator say or get a weak understanding from manipulator. In the one hand, the dominant group will facilitate their understanding with their interest in their information while doing manipulation. It is mean that the context model of the speaker has a clear plan to hamper the understanding. This research uses 2 research questions. They are in what type of speech act white people as dominant people show their racist utterances and how white people control society by using their power. the puposes of this study is to describe and show white people do racism and to describe how white people control society by using their power. all of the research questions are about in "Django Unchained" movie. METODE This research uses descriptive qualitative. The differentiate qualitative and quantitative is qualitative concerned with how and why something is, while quantitative focused on how much or how many (Litosseliti, 2010). The use of qualitative method is to analyse in what type utterances which contain of racism utter by white people as dominant group, second to analyse how white people as dominant group control society by using their power. The data is taken from the movie of "Django Unchained", the source of data is taken from utterances in "Django Unchained" movie. The data is movie which contain of racism. The movie is directed by Quentin Taratino. Data collection techniques are done by observation. In this case, the writer using non-participation technique in which the writer observes the data through taking notes of the object and without making interview or questionnaire as what Wray, Trott, Bloomer, Reay, & Butler (1998) had said that observing data is consisting of recordings, transcriptions, and notes relating to your subject's behaviour and language (spoken and or written). In this study, the data are from the utterances which contain of racism and power in "Django Unchained" movie will be observed. By doing observation, the use of transcription is important to support the utterances of data. According to Miles and Huberman, they defined analysis as consisting of three current flows of activity: data reduction, data display, and conclusion drawing or verification (1994). In this data analysis, the writer also uses these three activities. Data Reduction. In this research, the writer reduced the data that she does not focused on and need. There are so many conversations that produced by the characters in this "Django Unchained" movie. In this case the writer reduced the conversation which does not contain of power and racism. Data Display After reducing the data, analysing will be the next step. The analysis will be display as in data display. The data is displayed by using two tables in first and second research question. The tables are used when collecting the data. The first (1) contains of scene, utterances, utterances of racism and types of speech act. The writer identifies the appearing racism in that movie. The racism utterances are like how white people behave to black people with racism behaviour such as mocking insulting, harrasing each other, doing racial act, and similar aggressive anti-social acts. After indentifying the writer will analyze appearing racism by using what types of speech act which related to utterances of the conversation. The table (2) contains of scene, utterances, power and manipulation. The writer tries to analyze how white people as dominant group controls society. The dominance group is white people who have more power than black people. So, the dominance group's conversation will analyze in concept how power can control society. After knowing conversation which contain of power, the writer will analyze how and which power of white people use to control the society. After that analyze the power by using manipulation way is taken from Van Djik. Table 3.1 Speech act of racism utterances by white people. No. Scene Utterances Utterances of Racism Types of Speech act Table 3.2 The use of power and manipulation by white people. No. Scene Utterances Power Manipulation Conclusion Drawing and Verification No. RACISM KIND OF SPEECH ACT R1 Poor devils Representative In data analysis technique, the data are obtained through several steps based on the research questions. Finally, after doing reducing and displaying data, the researcher can be drawn and verified by using theory which used are power and manipulation, racism by Van Djik. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Table of Racism R2 It's against the law for niggers to ride horses in this territory. Representative R3 They ain't never seen no nigger on a horse before. Expressive R4 Not on my property. Not around my niggers, he can't. Expressive R5 your fancy-pants nigger Expressive R6 Get that nigger outta here Directives R7 your loveliest black creatures Directives Table of Power No. UTTERANCES POWER MANIPULATION P1 Mr. Bennet : You and your Jimmie rode from Texas to Tennessee to buy one of my nigger gals? No appointment, no nothin'? Access and dsicourse - P2 Mr. Bennet : Betina, sugar, could you take Django there and take him around the grounds here and show him all the pretty stuff. Betina : As you please, Big Daddy. Access and dsicourse - P3 Mr. Monsieur Candie : - No, no, no, no, no. no beggin'. No playin' on my soft heart. I done paid $500 for you. When I pay $500, then I expectto get five fights out of a nigger, - 'fore he roll over and play dead. Black people : sir. . Mr. Monsieur Candie : Mr. Stonesipher?, Let Marsha and her bitches, send D'Artagnan to nigger heaven. Access and dsicourse - P4 Mr. Monsieur Candie : One more moment, doctor! Dr. King Schultz : What? Mr. Monsieur Candie : It's a custom here in the South. once a business deal is concluded that the two parties shake hands. It implies good faith. Dr. King Schultz : - I'm not from the South. Mr. Monsieur Candie : - But you are. in my house, doctor. - So I'm afraid I must insist. Dr. King Schultz : -insist. On what? That I shake your hand? Access and dsicourse Social Manipulation and Cognition manipulation P5 Dr. King Schultz : Is there one amongst you who was formerly a resident of the Carrucan plantation? Djanggo : I'm from the Carrucan plantation. Dr. King Schultz : Who said that? What's your name? Django : Django Mind control - Based on the result, the data proved that racism appear in "Django Unchained" movie. Racism is kind of belief that ignoring people who have different color of skin and the status of them. In this case, white people are drawn as the dominant group who has more power than black people. The dominant appear in society because of having differences power. Having differences of power reproduces inequality. Reproducing inequality in society can make racism, as in "Django Unchained" movie. Appearing racism is because of having inequality of power in the movie. Because of inequality, white people in "Django Unchained" do power abuse in order to they want to control black people and society in their interest. White people do power abuse, because they have more power than black people and white people has more than one in the base power resources like money, status, and job. Thus, they have more access to control black people and society. The word inequality and power abuse make a deal with the theory of Critical Discourse Analysis (Van Djik, 1998a). CDA tents to power, inequality and dominant. In this case, the function of CDA is to improve the way of thinking of society through "Django Unchained" movie. "Django Unchained" movie contains of racism. Van Djik (1995) adds that CDA focuses on text and talk especially in discourse and society. Text and talk contain of words and utterances. Utterances have relationship with study of speech act. According to Yule (1996) speech act contains of action which is done by utterances. Deborah (1994) adds that specch act is basicly concerned with what people "do" with language. So, people can do act by using language via utterances. There are many utterances appear in "Django Unchained" movie. So, in this case, speech act takes apart in analysis utterances. The use of speech act is to describe the conversation of the actors in "Django Uncahined" movie. Why describing conversation through speech act, because speech act can explain the action of the speaker through utterances. According to Yule (1996) people do not only produce utterances which contain of grammartical structure and words, but also show their action through utterances. Searle (1979) adds that people express their feeling and attitude, and they do all of them via utternaces. Speakers will emphasize what they want to speak by using the clearer words. According to Searle (1979), he does classification speech act into five, they are declaration, representative, expressive, commisive, and directives. By using classification of speech act, the reseacher can analyse the type utterances of speech act which white people as dominant group do racism. Thus, as the examples of classification of speech act, in R1 shows that the utterances contain of racism in representative speech act. Like, white people mock black people with uncommon utterances, as in R1 the white people called black people with "poor devil". The word "poor devil" in this utterance means that black people as poor people, because job of black people is only as slave. White people are always under or lower than white people, so white people mock black people as a poor. The word "devil" is a part of the satan who never does a good thing in their life. White people describe the life of black people as a devil. The others example of racism in the data is like R8, racism appear in the rules of law, the law forbids the black riding a horse, the reason is the status of black people, and only white people can ride a horse. In the R1 and R2, show racism through the status between white people and white people. The status between them makes an inequality in society. From the data R1 and R2, those are the prove that racism show by doing discrimination which done by white people. According to Essed (1991) racism is done by discrimantion through intimidation minority group and law. Pendakurs (1995) adds that racism can do by insulting, harrasing minority group. Those can happend because dominanted group use their power to do power abuse. According to Van Djik (1998a), inequality in society appear because a group or people who have more power than other group do power abuse. It implies that the dominanted group can control other group in order to follow the interest of dominanted group. Like in P3, white poeple who have the base resources of power show such as money, job, and status acn control society by using their the base of power resources. The conversation shows that Mr. Candie has more money to pay the black people. The status of black people is lower than Mr. Candie because Mr. Candie is the boss of black people. Having all of the power white people do power abuse. Besides having the base of power, white people have power of access and discourse and mind control in order to get good way to control society. Here in P1 conversation shows that Mr. Bennet as the owner of plantation has the base resources of power. He has higher status than others, because he is the boss of the plantation. Absolutely, he has a good job than others. It means his financial is better than others. P1 shows, Mr. Bennet as the owner of plantation, he can do many things in his plantation because he has access in his own plantation to control his plantation and society around the plantation. In P5, Dr. Schultz do mind control by changing his attitude in good attitude in order to Django will do what he wants, usually white poeple do bad thing in black people but in this case white people do a good thing in order to get his interest. Besides controlling by using the base resources of power and, access and discourse and mind control, white people use social manipulation and cognition to manipulate society by using good actor in order to society can not detect the lie from the white people. Doing manipulation, according to Van Djik (2006) that manipulators make others believe do things that are in the interest of the manipulatorinterests of the manipulated. It can againts the interest of the victim of manipulation. Lacking of knowledge can make manipulator do his manipulation well. Because the "victim" has no choice to belief or accept the knowledge itself. Like in P4 Mr. Candie do social and cognition manipulation, he does manipulation to his interlocutor follow his will. Mr. Candie is good social to do manipulation, because he succes does manipulation, he also use their knowledge to manipulate his interlocutor, it supports by his interlocutor does not about custom knowledge in South, so his interlocutor has no choice to reject what Mr. Candie wants. The term of racism can not be separated from power. People who use racism will deal with power. They use power in order to control society, controling society has purpose is to get their will through society. CDA is the key to know how power, inequality and dominant take apart in this movie. After discussing how power works in "Django Unchained" movie, people know how to use power in order to avoid power abuse around society. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS Conclusion This study reveals the relationship between racism and power. Those can not be separated because racism appear because of having more or less power between each group society. White people abuse their power to do bad thing in black people. Thus, CDA is a term to take deeper analysis in order to get improvement among society through text and talk. Text and talk which contain of words and utterances can define what people act. It is term of speech act which scholar analises act through utterances. So, people can know how people act through their utterances. Based on the results of the study, there are some proves that the movie contains of racism utterances. The racism shows through utterances. The white people do racism by mocking them, the way they mock black people are using kind of speech act such as directives, expressive, commisive and representative. White people do racism because they ignore the kind of thing which is different with them like color of skin, status, job and wealth. Inequality in society reproduces racism. Racism contains of power and manipulation. The inequality in society appears because each group has more or less power, for example the base resources of power are job, status, and wealth and also access and discourse power, and mind control. Inequality itself reproduce dominant among society. In addition white people do manipulation instead of using power to get easier to control and manipulate society. Suggestions As sugesstion for the future researcher, needs to take a deep analysis racism in others mass media. In this study the researcher takes a movie as her data. Movie is one of the member of mass media. So, the next researcher ca take others mass media like news, magazine, newspaper, radio, news televison etc. Another suggestion is from the area in Critical Discourse Analysis. Critical Discourse Analysis has many areas such as politic and society. In this data the researcher takes society. It means that next researcher can take other area In CDA. In addition, the way of analysis is so widely in the data. CDA can analyse from the power or even in ideology. In this study researcher takes racism to be analyzed in the scope of power and how the way dominant group utter racism. Thus, the next researcher can analyse the data from the behaviour of dominant group in racism area pschology in racism. REFERENCES Dahl, Robert. (1961). Power In Empowerment and Community Planning. Essed, Philomena. (1991). Understanding Everyday Racism: An Interdisciplinary Theory. Newbury . In Frances Henry and Carol Tator (eds.) Racist Discourse in Canada's English Print Media. The Canadian Race Relations Foundation, 2000. Fairclough, N. L., (1941). Language and Power. New York : Longman. Fiske, John. (1994). Media Matters: Everyday Culture and Political Change. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. In Frances Henry and Carol Tator (eds.) Racist Discourse in Canada's English Print Media. The Canadian Race Relations Foundation, 2000. Litosseliti, Lia. (2010). Research Methods In Linguistics. New York : Continuum. Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A, M. (1992). Qualitative Data Analysis. New Park: SAGE Publications, Inc. Pendakur, Krishna and Ravi Pendakur. 1995. The Colour of Money: Earning Differentials among Ethnic Groups in Canada. Strategic Research and Analysis. Ottawa: Department of Canadian Heritage. In Frances Henry and Carol Tator (eds.) Racist Discourse in Canada's English Print Media. The Canadian Race Relations Foundation, 2000. Searle, J. (1979). Expression and Meaning. Studies in the Theory of speech Act. New York: Cambrige University Press. Van Dijk, T.A. (1998a). Critical discourse analysis. In Jaffer Sheyholislami In Critical Discourse Analysis. Van Dijk, T. A. (2006). Discourse and Manipulation in Discourse and Society. London : Sage Wodak, R,. & Meyer, M. (2001). Methods Of Critical Discourse Analysis. London : Sage. Wray, A., Trot, K., Bloomer, A., Reay, S., & Butler, C. (1998). Project in Linguistics: A Pratical Guide to Researching Language. China: Edward Arnold PublisherLtd. Yule, George. (1996). Pragmatics. Oxford University Press.
Die Inhalte der verlinkten Blogs und Blog Beiträge unterliegen in vielen Fällen keiner redaktionellen Kontrolle.
Warnung zur Verfügbarkeit
Eine dauerhafte Verfügbarkeit ist nicht garantiert und liegt vollumfänglich in den Händen der Blogbetreiber:innen. Bitte erstellen Sie sich selbständig eine Kopie falls Sie einen Blog Beitrag zitieren möchten.
Anyone who has ever taken or taught a philosophy class is familiar with the claim "[Blank] is subjective" in which the [Blank] in question could be anything from literary interpretations to ethical norms. This response effectively ends any and all cultural and philosophical discussion, which is why it is so aggravating. One response is to argue against this claim, to point out that not every interpretation of a poem, novel, or film, is authorized, that there are better or worse interpretations, with respect to cultural version. With respect to the ethical or political arguments it is tempting to point out that the very existence of ethics, of society, presupposes norms that are shared as well as debated and challenged.What if we took a different perspective? Instead of arguing against this view, ask the question of its conditions. To offer a criticism in the Marxist sense. By Marxist sense I mean specifically the criticism that Marx offers of idealism, of philosophy, in The German Ideology. In that text Marx gives the conditions of how it is that the world appears so upside down that ideas and their criticism rather than material conditions drive and determine history. So we could ask a similar question, how has subjectivity, subjective opinion and perspective, has come to appear as so prevalent and powerful. How did we come to live under the reign of subjectivity?In a move that will surprise no one who has read this blog that I find a useful starting point for answering this question Frank Fischbach's book Marx with Spinoza. In that text Fischbach argues that rather than seen alienation as an alienation from subjectivity, a reduction of a subject to an object, it is subjectivity itself that is an alienation, an alienation from objectivity, a privation of the world. As Fischbach argues:"The reduction of human beings, by this abstraction, from natural and living beings to the state of 'subjects' as owners of a socially average labour power indicates at the same time the completion of their reduction to a radical state of impotence: for the individual to be conceived and to conceive of itself as a subject it is necessary that it see itself withdrawn and subtracted from the objective conditions of its natural activity; in other words, it is necessary that 'the real conditions of living labour' (the material worked on, the instruments of labour and the means of subsistence which 'fan the flames of the power of living labour') become 'autonomous and alien existences'"And also: "This is why we interpret Marx's concept of alienation not as a new version of a loss of the subject in the object, but as a radically new thought, of the loss of the essential and vital objects for an existence that is itself essentially objective and vital....Alienation is not therefore the loss of the subject in the object it is the loss of object for a being that is itself objective. But the loss of proper objects and the objectivity of its proper being is also the loss of all possible inscription of one's activity in objectivity, it is the loss of all possible mastery of objectivity, as well as other effects: in brief, the becoming subject is essentially a reduction to impotence. The becoming subject or the subjectivation of humanity is thus inseparable according to Marx from what is absolutely indispensable for capitalism, the existence of a mass of "naked workers"—that is to say pure subjects possessors of a perfectly abstract capacity to work—individual agents of a purely subjective power of labor and constrained to sell its use to another to the same extent that they are totally dispossessed of the entirety of objective conditions (means and tools of production, matter to work on) to put to effective work their capacity to work."At the basis of subjectivity, of subjectivity understood as an abstract and indifferent capacity, there is the indifferent capacity of labor power. Behind the figure of the subject there is the worker. I have already argued elsewhere on this blog that this reading of the Marx/Spinoza connection could be understood as one which reflects and critically addressed our contemporary situation in which subjecitivity, a subjectivity understood as potential and capacity, is seen as the condition of our freedom rather than our subjection. What Fischbach suggests through a reading of Marx and Spinoza that such capacity, capacity abstracted and separated from the material conditions of its emergence and activity, can only really be impotence. Just as a worker cut off from the conditions of labor is actually poverty, a subject cut off from the conditions of its actualization is impotence. What now I find provocative about this analysis is that if we think of it as a general schema in which an objective relation, a relation to objects but also others, is transformed into a subjective potential or capacity it is possible to argue that the constitution of subjectivity through labor power is only one such transformation, and that the current production of subjectivity is itself the product of several successive revolutions in which subjective potentials displace objective relations. One could also talk about the creation of subjectivity as buying power, as a pure capacity to purchase. I know that criticisms of consumer society from the fifties and sixties today seem moralistic and often passé. I am thinking here of Baudrillard, Debord, Lefebvre, and of course Horkheimer and Adorno. It is worth remembering, however, that some of the early critics were less interested in moralizing criticisms of materialism as they were in this kind of constitution of subjectivity. As Jean Baudrillard wrote in The Consumer Society, 'It is difficult to grasp the extent to which the current training in systematic, organized consumption is the equivalent and extension, in the twentieth century, of the great nineteenth-century long process of the training of rural populations for industrial work.'One person who continued such an an analysis is Bernard Stiegler. Stiegler even uses the same word, "proletarianization" to describe both the loss of skills and knowledge by the worker and the loss of skills and knowledge by the consumer. As I wrote in The Politics of Transindividuality:"At first glance, the use of the term proletarianisation to describe the transindividuation of the consumer would seem to be an analogy with the transformation of the labour process: if proletarianisation is the loss of skills, talents, and knowledge until the worker becomes simply interchangeable labour power, then the broader proletarianisation of daily life is the loss of skills, knowledge, and memory until the individual becomes simply purchasing power. Stiegler's use of proletarianisation is thus simultaneously broader and more restricted than Marx, broader in that it is extended beyond production to encompass relations of consumption and thus all of life, but more restricted in that it is primarily considered with respect to the question of knowledge. The transfer of knowledge from the worker to the machine is the primary case of proletarianisation for Stiegler, becoming the basis for understanding the transfer of knowledge of cooking to microwaveable meals and the knowledge of play from the child to the videogame. Stiegler does not include other dimensions of Marx's account of proletarianisation, specifically the loss of place, of stability, with its corollary affective dimension of insecurity and precariousness. On this point, it would be difficult to draw a strict parallel between worker and consumer, as the instability of the former is often compensated for by the desires and satisfactions of the latter. Consumption often functions as a compensation for the loss of security, stability, and satisfaction of work, which is not to say that it is not without its own insecurities especially as they are cultivated by advertising."For the most part Stiegler considers this deskilling to take place in the automation of the knowledge and skill that makes up daily life. Everything from cooking to knowing how to navigate one's own city is now more or less hardwired into precooked meals and the ubiquitous smartphone. Other cultural critics have pointed to the general deskilling of daily life through the decline of repair, tinkering, and mending. The effect of all this is to change the consumer from someone who buys things based on knowledge and familiarity to a pure expression of buying power, an abstract potential. Just as the worker is separated from the means of production, from the objective conditions of their labor to be the subjective capacity to work, the consumer is separated from the knowledge to consume to become a personification of buying power. As with work the conditions to realize this buying power are outside the control of the consumer. We do not decide what to buy based on our knowledge of our needs and desires but on what is advertised to us as a need or desire.As much as the worker and consumer are opposed, making up two sides of economic relations under capitalism, they are unified, connected in the tendency to transform work to abstract labor power and consumption into abstract buying power. While abstract subjectivity is how these two sides of the capitalist economic relation function it is not how they are lived. They are lived as profoundly individual, subjective in the conventional sense of the word. What one does for a living is in some sense considered to be one's identity: "What do you do?" is in some sense equivalent to "Who are You?" Being reduced to abstract labor power, to capacity for work, is lived as a concrete and highly individualized condition, as my particular job and career. If for any one of the myriad reasons what one does is inadequate to constitute an identity, remains just a day job, then consumption or the commodity form steps in to supply the necessary coordinates for an identity. From this perspective we can chart not only the historical progression of the two identities, but also the structural similarities. With respect to the first, consumer society, consumption, and the myriad possibilities to construct an identity through consumption, comes after the worker, after the formation of capitalism. Any attempt to read Marx's Capital for consumer society, for the common sense understanding of commodity fetishism as the overvaluing of commodities, is going to have a hard time navigating the dull world of linen, coats, corn and coal. The consumer comes after the worker. However, it is also possible to see a similarity of a structural condition. In both case subjectivity is abstracted from, or separated from, objectivity, from not just objects, but objective spirit, in Hegel's sense, institutions, norms, and structures. This abstraction is lived as a highly individualized identity, in some sense work and consumption form the basis of individuality as such. However, it only has effects, only functions in the aggregate. As a worker one only has effects, both in terms of the creation of value, and in terms of any disruption of exploitation, as part of a collective. The same could be said for consumerism, even though it is through consumerism that we are encouraged to believe that we can have ethical effects as individuals, green consumerism, cruelty free products, etc. Consumers only matter as a mass, at an economy of scale, even in the age of niche marketing. This can be seen in the impotent attempts to bring back cancelled products, or to change corporate strategies through boycotts. The only demands that make sense to corporations are those that are already effective in terms of buying power. I am wondering if one can see a similar structure of abstract/individual subjectivity in other aspects of society. I am thinking of politics, in which individuals are abstracted from any real connection to their communities and societies only to be constituted as "voting power," an abstract aggregate that is lived as a highly individualized identity. I will have to think more about that one. My point here is to connect the often asserted claim "that everything is subjective" back to its material conditions, to the production of subjectivity in both work and the reproduction of everyday life, production and consumption. It is not just a matter of a bad reading of Nietzsche that is behind such claims, although it is often that as well, but an effect in the sphere of ideas and discussion of what is already at work in the sphere of production. Abstract subjectivity is a material condition before it is an intellectual interpretation. The thread running through both is connection between power and impotence. If everything is subjective then I can offer any interpretation, create my own moral code whole cloth, live as I prefer, but if everything is subjective then I can do very little, nothing at all to alter or change anything. This is the fundamental point of intersection between Marx and Spinoza, subjectivity, individual subjectivity, is not the zenith of our freedom and power, it is the nadir of our subjection. Updated 4/15/24I happened to be rereading Tiqqun's Introduction to Civil War which offers the following on this last point, on the political subject as a subject constituted in alienation. As they write:"In order to become a political subject in the modern State, each body must submit to the machinery that will make it such; it must begin by casting aside its passions (now inappropriate), its tastes (now laughable), its penchants (now contingent), endowing itself instead with interests, which are much more presentable and, even better, representable. In this way, in order to become a political subject each body must first carry out its own autocastration as an economic subject. Ideally, the political subject will be reduced to nothing more than a pure vote, a pure voice."Tiqqun offers an expression of this idea, and in doing so captures what I was starting to think about before. However, they also offer me some reservations, especially in their tendency towards deriving an ontological or existential situation from a social condition. As with work and consumption, the pure subjectivity, the pure labor, buying, or voting power, is presented as the zenith of a kind of power, a capacity, maximize your labor power, express your preferences with consumer choices, and, most absurdly, vote harder, but this power is entirely determined by the existing labor conditions, market relations, and political structures.
Die Inhalte der verlinkten Blogs und Blog Beiträge unterliegen in vielen Fällen keiner redaktionellen Kontrolle.
Warnung zur Verfügbarkeit
Eine dauerhafte Verfügbarkeit ist nicht garantiert und liegt vollumfänglich in den Händen der Blogbetreiber:innen. Bitte erstellen Sie sich selbständig eine Kopie falls Sie einen Blog Beitrag zitieren möchten.
The recent Supreme Court case about affirmative action in university admissions (SFFA v. Harvard) paralleled a broader social debate over meritocracy. Those opposed to affirmative action broadly say they are supportive of meritocracy. They believe individual achievement should be more prominent in university admissions, at least when the government is involved in university funding. The debate over affirmative action and meritocracy intersects with the immigration debate in two ways. First, immigration restrictions are the most destructive form of affirmative action. Second, immigrants and their descendants have been essential in reducing the scope of affirmative action in the United States over the last 30 years. Meritocrats believe that individuals should rise or fall on their achievements. Those supportive of affirmative action are more skeptical of meritocracy, at least how it exists under the current system. They argue that meritocracy is bad, a myth, unfair, or that current means of identifying merit are insufficient because systemic rules or practices hold back some people in specific racial, ethnic, or other categories. I'm a supporter of meritocracy, but a compelling point raised by skeptics is that the design of meritocratic systems can select wildly different types of merit. In other words, there's a principal-agent problem whereby the most meritocratic people design methods of gauging merit that favor themselves and people like them. This problem could be to the detriment of specific organizations relying on merit and, eventually, to the rest of society. Hard work, fluid intelligence, crystallized intelligence, personality, luck, physical attractiveness, and other characteristics contribute to merit in different endeavors and extents. A one-size-fits-all approach across all organizations doesn't make sense and is slightly less bad in organizations in the same industry. That doesn't mean some of the factors listed above aren't good predictors of merit in most endeavors, some certainly are, but their relative weights are important. For instance, the combination of characteristics that make a successful film actor differs from those required to be a successful astrophysicist, CEO, or farmer. But that's just the supply side of merit; there's also a demand side. What consumers demand of people in different endeavors changes over time. Consumers want the best over time, but what they think is best changes. That's why I favor the "competitive meritocracy;" that is, the meritocracy of the market over alternatives like massive government examination systems that exist in other countries. Under competitive meritocracy, firms and individuals seeking to increase profits, economic efficiency, and consumer surplus under competitive market conditions are incentivized to develop means to identify meritorious individuals that deliver. Otherwise, firm profits shrink, they go bankrupt, and consumers are left unsatisfied. One of the beneficial results of a competitive market system is the identification and use of merit. Of course, government rules and regulations reduce the effectiveness of new merit identification techniques, but the market is better at identifying and producing meritocratic identification methods than other alternatives because it best aligns incentives to do so on the supply and demand sides. U.S. immigration restrictions are the most anti-meritocratic policies today, and they are intended as affirmative action for native-born Americans. Ignore the myriad ways that immigration laws disadvantage certain immigrants relative to others, such as with the per-country quotas that make immigrants from populous countries wait longer for green cards. Just peruse nativist websites, and you'll see many arguments about immigrants taking jobs from more Americans who are more deserving because of where they were born. When people think of anti-meritocratic policies, they rightly jump to quotas, race-based affirmative action, or class-based affirmative action. It's true; those are all anti-meritocratic and likely wouldn't exist in a free market outside of a handful of organizations in the non-profit sector. But U.S. immigration restrictions are worse. The U.S. population is about 4.2 percent of the global population. Immigration laws prevent the other 95.8 percent of the world from trying their hand in the U.S. market meritocracy. The cost of immigration restrictions is in the trillions of dollars, which makes the real costs of affirmative action seem small by comparison. Those who truly favor meritocracy and oppose affirmative action on principle should reject the anti-meritocratic affirmative action of American immigration laws. Nativists agree with my analysis. They argue that the U.S. government exists to protect Americans from market competition, so it should do so with immigration restrictions. Nationalist affirmative action is still affirmative action. And lest you accuse me of hypocrisy, of working behind the protection of immigration restrictions while others labor exposed to the brutality of globalist labor competition, the sector of the economy where I labor is more exposed to legal immigrant competition than yours is. One of the main arguments for immigration restrictions is to protect Americans. That makes sense when protecting Americans from criminals, terrorists, national security threats, or those with severe contagious diseases, because they could physically harm Americans or their property. It makes sense in the same way that the NYPD exists to protect the life, liberty, and private property of New Yorkers and shouldn't be enforcing laws in North Dakota. But protecting jobs and wages or shielding people from the market doesn't make sense. On a purely principled opposition to preferences, meritocrats should oppose almost all immigration restrictions regardless of the wage effects. Immigration restrictions don't even work well to protect American workers. Ironically, immigration restrictions do more to protect the wages of immigrant workers in the United States than native-born workers. Affirmative action likely helps the beneficiaries more than immigration restrictions help American workers. The idea of shielding Americans from market competition to protect them under the theory that that would make them better is silly. Industries protected behind tariffs and trade barriers tend to stagnate because they have no incentive to innovate or improve. Why would they when the government removes competition by legal fiat? Americans similarly shielded from immigration have less of a reason to get more skills, improve their human capital, or be more productive. As I wrote in my review of Reihan Salam's Melting Pot or Civil War?, labor protectionism incentivizes stagnation among American workers. Salam fails to draw additional connections between wages and education. He worries about low levels of educational attainment among the descendants of immigrants but also favors restricting low-skilled immigration to raise the wages of high school dropouts. He does not explain how raising the wages for dropouts relative to other educational cohorts will incentivize workers to spend more time in school (hint: it won't). Salam is worried that automation will destroy lots of jobs, so he wants to stop low-skilled immigration by raising wages for low-skilled Americans and immigrants already here, which will just make it more likely that their jobs will be automated.
Maybe you favor meritocracy in university admissions and affirmative action through immigration restrictions. You wouldn't be the first person to have inconsistent policy opinions, but you support less meritocracy than you probably believe. Most people recognize that Texas' "Top 10 Percent Law" is thinly disguised affirmative action because it guarantees admission to the University of Texas to all students in the top 10 percent of their high school graduating class. Since students are geographically clustered in Texas by race, this law advantages some students based on race who otherwise wouldn't be admitted. Harvard tried something similar when it adopted an admissions policy that accepted top-ranking students nationwide under geographic quotas rather than relying on admissions exam scores. The intent was to reduce Harvard's Jewish population. The Harvard freshman class was 21 percent Jewish in 1922, up from about 7 percent in 1900. Harvard's President Abbott Lawrence Lowell wanted to bring their percentage down to 15 percent and faced fierce opposition from Jewish students, the Boston press, and the meritocrats of his day. The geographic distribution system discriminated against Jewish students and reduced their numbers to 15 percent of the student body by 1931. Harvard later eased the geographic system and then ended it altogether. One should view the admissions policy as anti-Semitic, and the effect was identical to a policy that favored the admission of other groups like white Protestants. Regardless, the geographic admissions system was anti-meritocratic. Despite restrictions on immigration, immigrants and their descendants are already indirectly improving meritocracy in the United States. Edward Blum, the attorney behind numerous challenges to affirmative action, including SFFA v. Harvard, lost a challenge to affirmative action in 2015 when he had a white female plaintiff. There are many reasons why that challenge failed, but afterward, Blum said, "I needed Asian plaintiffs." Law and the Constitution always matter to the Court, but politics and optics also matter for major controversial questions. When the issues are controversial and Congress or the President don't want to resolve conflicts or are otherwise at loggerheads, the Court steps in as a sort of super-legislature to decide the issue. Sometimes they rule to maintain their own institutional power in an environment where the power of Congress is declining, and that of the Presidency is increasing. Viewing the Court as a sometimes-super-legislature makes it clear that political narratives, public opinion, and other normal tools of political persuasion are important to ruling in a certain way. Without Asian American plaintiffs, it's hard to see how SCOTUS would have struck down affirmative action this time. It may have happened eventually because the arguments are good, but sympathetic plaintiffs and damning facts are just as important. Beyond the plaintiffs in SFFA v. Harvard, immigrants, their descendants, and the diversity they bring to the United States have greatly helped reduce affirmative action through politics. As I wrote in 2022: Voters in California—the most diverse state and the one with the highest immigrant share of the population—first voted to ban affirmative action when presented with Proposition 209 in 1996. Since then, progressives in the state have attempted to revive the issue. But in 2011, Governor Jerry Brown vetoed a bill that would have weakened the affirmative-action ban. Another proposal to re-institute affirmative action failed in 2014 after several Asian-American state senators defected from the effort in response to opposition from their constituents. "As lifelong advocates for the Asian-American and other communities," Democratic state senators Ted Lieu, Carol Liu, and Leland Yee wrote, "we would never support a policy that we believed would negatively impact our children." In 2020, voters affirmed the state's ban on affirmative action by a wider margin than the original vote to ban it 24 years earlier.
Asian Americans are the most likely to be foreign-born of any racial group. In 2019, two-thirds of Asian Americans in California were immigrants. As is clear to all after SFFA v. Harvard, Asians are the biggest losers in any race-based affirmative action system. Without them, it would be tougher to make the case that affirmative action is unjust. That's an unfortunate commentary on the state of political debate in the United States because the arguments against affirmative action are convincing regardless of who wins or loses, but those are the facts. Furthermore, states with a higher foreign-born share of the population are likelier to have banned affirmative action than states with a lower foreign-born share. Interestingly, the share of the non-citizen population is best correlated with a state banning affirmative action. According to a piece I coauthored a few years ago, a 1 percent increase in the share of non-citizens is associated with a 27–34 percent increase in the probability of the state banning affirmative action. The share of the white population is not statistically significant in any regression we ran, and the measure of population-wide diversity is only significant at the 10 percent level in the 3‑and‐5‐year lags. Affirmative action is more politically stable when they are two groups, one of which is large and the other that is small. Malaysia has a Chinese minority punished by affirmative action and a Malaysian majority aided. Apartheid South Africa punished blacks and favored whites, which was then reversed after the end of apartheid. The United States, with blacks favored and whites punished before large waves of immigrants in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, are such cases. Of the above examples, only the United States has a substantial immigrant-induced demographic change that upended that relatively stable institutional dynamic by adding mainly Asian and Hispanic immigrants. Suddenly, Asians became the biggest losers of affirmative action, whites the second biggest, and Hispanics moderate beneficiaries. The goals of affirmative action became murkier – why would the U.S. government help Hispanic immigrants and their descendants with a program designed to help the descendants of black slaves? Even more so, competition between disadvantaged groups seeking affirmative action lessened the benefits. Worse for the supporters of affirmative action, the biggest victims became a large and growing immigrant group and their children, a group whose ancestors were also targeted by racist laws like the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, various Alien Land Laws that barred Asians from owning land, and Japanese Internment. There are three significant motivations for supporting redistribution, of which affirmative action is a type. They are self-interest, compassion, and malicious envy. Self-interest and compassion are obvious. Malicious envy is hatred toward a group that has done better. Immigration weakens all three supports for affirmative action. Immigration weakens self-interest by spreading the benefits among more groups, it weakens compassion because new beneficiaries have dubious claims to racial preferences under the justifications for the schemes, and malicious envy is weakened because the biggest victims are no longer whites. Immigrants weakened affirmative action in the United States by being the specific plaintiffs in SFFA v. Harvard and changing the politics of the issue. But a far more substantial and destructive apparatus of affirmative action operates today through our immigration laws that bar about 96 percent of the world's population from participating in the American market meritocracy. Opponents of affirmative action should rest on their laurels by embracing just a touch more meritocracy just among Americans; they should embrace a true global meritocracy.
