Suchergebnisse

This master thesis encompasses the analysis of labor regulations, protection of employment rights and accordingly arising problems in post-communist countries. As many different aspects can be identified within Soviet and post-Soviet periods, this master thesis explains the main problems of labor markets in post-communist area: specifically, among Eastern European, the Caucasian and Asian countries (Central Asia). First of all, the research was made in regard to the reasons influencing the main problems occurring from the employment rights protection in the above mentioned countries. Some of the countries face very similar challenges and deal with much alike problems, however some of the countries have developed much more significantly and achieved higher efficiency in the field of employment rights protection. The author of the master thesis tries to indicate the main grounds for such different levels of development in chosen countries. The analysis was made in regard to the free market economy and opportunities each of the countries had after their independence, specifying the major problems in each of them and identifying factors which lead Eastern European countries to faster development than the others. The question was raised whether people should blame only Russian imperialism or, whether the Caucasian or Asian nations are less hard-working or not enough educated to develop their countries? Therefore, the attempt was to analyze the principal hermeneutical and historical reasons of these problems from the period of former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (hereinafter – USSR) to modern independent democratic post-Soviet countries. Without the analysis of the mentioned periods it would be more complicated to identify some useful approaches to define the problems and to try to find effective ways to solve them. The performed research showed that there was a strict discrimination by Russian government to the other nations and these political repressions diminished employment skills and defeated their legal rights on behalf of socialism or communism dreams which never occurred in reality. Many poorly skilled people in these countries work for a very low salary, under the unsafe conditions, without any certainty and guarantees which place employees in a much more stressful and unpleasant environment. The master thesis discloses such problematic areas of employment rights protection as violations of a person's right to find a job, informal or illegal employment problems, discrimination, healthy and safe work environment violations and others. Additionally, the recommendations in regard to possible amendments of employment legislation ensuring the adequate protection of rights of employees are suggested.

This master thesis encompasses the analysis of labor regulations, protection of employment rights and accordingly arising problems in post-communist countries. As many different aspects can be identified within Soviet and post-Soviet periods, this master thesis explains the main problems of labor markets in post-communist area: specifically, among Eastern European, the Caucasian and Asian countries (Central Asia). First of all, the research was made in regard to the reasons influencing the main problems occurring from the employment rights protection in the above mentioned countries. Some of the countries face very similar challenges and deal with much alike problems, however some of the countries have developed much more significantly and achieved higher efficiency in the field of employment rights protection. The author of the master thesis tries to indicate the main grounds for such different levels of development in chosen countries. The analysis was made in regard to the free market economy and opportunities each of the countries had after their independence, specifying the major problems in each of them and identifying factors which lead Eastern European countries to faster development than the others. The question was raised whether people should blame only Russian imperialism or, whether the Caucasian or Asian nations are less hard-working or not enough educated to develop their countries? Therefore, the attempt was to analyze the principal hermeneutical and historical reasons of these problems from the period of former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (hereinafter – USSR) to modern independent democratic post-Soviet countries. Without the analysis of the mentioned periods it would be more complicated to identify some useful approaches to define the problems and to try to find effective ways to solve them. The performed research showed that there was a strict discrimination by Russian government to the other nations and these political repressions diminished employment skills and defeated their legal rights on behalf of socialism or communism dreams which never occurred in reality. Many poorly skilled people in these countries work for a very low salary, under the unsafe conditions, without any certainty and guarantees which place employees in a much more stressful and unpleasant environment. The master thesis discloses such problematic areas of employment rights protection as violations of a person's right to find a job, informal or illegal employment problems, discrimination, healthy and safe work environment violations and others. Additionally, the recommendations in regard to possible amendments of employment legislation ensuring the adequate protection of rights of employees are suggested.

This master thesis encompasses the analysis of labor regulations, protection of employment rights and accordingly arising problems in post-communist countries. As many different aspects can be identified within Soviet and post-Soviet periods, this master thesis explains the main problems of labor markets in post-communist area: specifically, among Eastern European, the Caucasian and Asian countries (Central Asia). First of all, the research was made in regard to the reasons influencing the main problems occurring from the employment rights protection in the above mentioned countries. Some of the countries face very similar challenges and deal with much alike problems, however some of the countries have developed much more significantly and achieved higher efficiency in the field of employment rights protection. The author of the master thesis tries to indicate the main grounds for such different levels of development in chosen countries. The analysis was made in regard to the free market economy and opportunities each of the countries had after their independence, specifying the major problems in each of them and identifying factors which lead Eastern European countries to faster development than the others. The question was raised whether people should blame only Russian imperialism or, whether the Caucasian or Asian nations are less hard-working or not enough educated to develop their countries? Therefore, the attempt was to analyze the principal hermeneutical and historical reasons of these problems from the period of former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (hereinafter – USSR) to modern independent democratic post-Soviet countries. Without the analysis of the mentioned periods it would be more complicated to identify some useful approaches to define the problems and to try to find effective ways to solve them. The performed research showed that there was a strict discrimination by Russian government to the other nations and these political repressions diminished employment skills and defeated their legal rights on behalf of socialism or communism dreams which never occurred in reality. Many poorly skilled people in these countries work for a very low salary, under the unsafe conditions, without any certainty and guarantees which place employees in a much more stressful and unpleasant environment. The master thesis discloses such problematic areas of employment rights protection as violations of a person's right to find a job, informal or illegal employment problems, discrimination, healthy and safe work environment violations and others. Additionally, the recommendations in regard to possible amendments of employment legislation ensuring the adequate protection of rights of employees are suggested.

This article is unique in that, for the first time, Russian and Soviet social security development in Lithuania is studied comprehensively and systematically including all major types of social insurance, tracking changes over time and identify their causes. The article broadly analyzes the social security legislation, the publications of Soviet Union's and Lithuanian SSR's official statistics, presents national and international analysis and the archival materials, revealing how the Lithuanian social security system evolved during Russian and Soviet rule. The article reveals the structure and ideology of the Soviet social insurance system. In the whole territory of the USSR, the same principles and laws of social insurance were applied. The foundations for Soviet social security and social insurance systems were layed rather early – already 8–10 years before the II world war began. But Soviet Union, especially after 1940, was not totally homogeneous. In several Soviet republics, for example Lithuania, some specific elements were observed which influenced the administrative methods in social security, social insurance and social support. The article explains the nature of social insurance expenditure. We define and explain the branches of social insurance in the USSR: old age and disability pensions, illness, maternity, funeral and unemployment benefits (the latter were paid in the early Soviet period only). The article deals with official USSR and Lithuanian SSR statistics, mainly from the last Soviet period (beginning 1975), when Soviet social insurance reached its limits and showed its potential. Although Soviet social insurance was related to the principles of the Bismarckian work record and former earnings, it was however financed from Moscow's centrally organised budget and was not related to meaningful contributions of employers and employees. The one-party communist system had a big role in the functioning of social insurance in the USSR and the Lithuanian SSR. The article shows that the Lithuanian social protection system because of the occupation of Russia (1795–1914) and the Soviet Union (1940–1990) was closely related to the system of pre-revolution Russian and Soviet Union's, with some insignificant regional differences. The social security programs were used as instruments to strengthen workers' control. No other country in the world but USSR has used its social security system as a tool for propaganda. Despite that, the Soviet Union and the Lithuanian SSR did not stay aloof from social security system reforms in the world. When Lithuania was occupied by the Soviet Union in 1940, it had to comply with the formed system of social insurance and social care. The main role in Lithuanian SSR was given to the social insurance scheme, which did not involve contributions of the residents (instead, it was done by work organizations, and administered by the state and trade unions). In comparison with other soviet republics, Lithuania featured a higher level of independence in the social care field than in the field of social insurance, and the Lithuanian authorities used it wisely to build nursing homes for elderly and improving their administration, supporting children of poor families, etc. However, certain economic-social conditions in Lithuania also had an effect on the social insurance, e.g. there were more working old-age pensioners in Lithuania, and social insurance was administered more effectively than in the rest of the USSR republics. Notably, social security specialists from other USSR republics were coming to Lithuania to gather good practice.

This article is unique in that, for the first time, Russian and Soviet social security development in Lithuania is studied comprehensively and systematically including all major types of social insurance, tracking changes over time and identify their causes. The article broadly analyzes the social security legislation, the publications of Soviet Union's and Lithuanian SSR's official statistics, presents national and international analysis and the archival materials, revealing how the Lithuanian social security system evolved during Russian and Soviet rule. The article reveals the structure and ideology of the Soviet social insurance system. In the whole territory of the USSR, the same principles and laws of social insurance were applied. The foundations for Soviet social security and social insurance systems were layed rather early – already 8–10 years before the II world war began. But Soviet Union, especially after 1940, was not totally homogeneous. In several Soviet republics, for example Lithuania, some specific elements were observed which influenced the administrative methods in social security, social insurance and social support. The article explains the nature of social insurance expenditure. We define and explain the branches of social insurance in the USSR: old age and disability pensions, illness, maternity, funeral and unemployment benefits (the latter were paid in the early Soviet period only). The article deals with official USSR and Lithuanian SSR statistics, mainly from the last Soviet period (beginning 1975), when Soviet social insurance reached its limits and showed its potential. Although Soviet social insurance was related to the principles of the Bismarckian work record and former earnings, it was however financed from Moscow's centrally organised budget and was not related to meaningful contributions of employers and employees. The one-party communist system had a big role in the functioning of social insurance in the USSR and the Lithuanian SSR. The article shows that the Lithuanian social protection system because of the occupation of Russia (1795–1914) and the Soviet Union (1940–1990) was closely related to the system of pre-revolution Russian and Soviet Union's, with some insignificant regional differences. The social security programs were used as instruments to strengthen workers' control. No other country in the world but USSR has used its social security system as a tool for propaganda. Despite that, the Soviet Union and the Lithuanian SSR did not stay aloof from social security system reforms in the world. When Lithuania was occupied by the Soviet Union in 1940, it had to comply with the formed system of social insurance and social care. The main role in Lithuanian SSR was given to the social insurance scheme, which did not involve contributions of the residents (instead, it was done by work organizations, and administered by the state and trade unions). In comparison with other soviet republics, Lithuania featured a higher level of independence in the social care field than in the field of social insurance, and the Lithuanian authorities used it wisely to build nursing homes for elderly and improving their administration, supporting children of poor families, etc. However, certain economic-social conditions in Lithuania also had an effect on the social insurance, e.g. there were more working old-age pensioners in Lithuania, and social insurance was administered more effectively than in the rest of the USSR republics. Notably, social security specialists from other USSR republics were coming to Lithuania to gather good practice.

This article is unique in that, for the first time, Russian and Soviet social security development in Lithuania is studied comprehensively and systematically including all major types of social insurance, tracking changes over time and identify their causes. The article broadly analyzes the social security legislation, the publications of Soviet Union's and Lithuanian SSR's official statistics, presents national and international analysis and the archival materials, revealing how the Lithuanian social security system evolved during Russian and Soviet rule. The article reveals the structure and ideology of the Soviet social insurance system. In the whole territory of the USSR, the same principles and laws of social insurance were applied. The foundations for Soviet social security and social insurance systems were layed rather early – already 8–10 years before the II world war began. But Soviet Union, especially after 1940, was not totally homogeneous. In several Soviet republics, for example Lithuania, some specific elements were observed which influenced the administrative methods in social security, social insurance and social support. The article explains the nature of social insurance expenditure. We define and explain the branches of social insurance in the USSR: old age and disability pensions, illness, maternity, funeral and unemployment benefits (the latter were paid in the early Soviet period only). The article deals with official USSR and Lithuanian SSR statistics, mainly from the last Soviet period (beginning 1975), when Soviet social insurance reached its limits and showed its potential. Although Soviet social insurance was related to the principles of the Bismarckian work record and former earnings, it was however financed from Moscow's centrally organised budget and was not related to meaningful contributions of employers and employees. The one-party communist system had a big role in the functioning of social insurance in the USSR and the Lithuanian SSR. The article shows that the Lithuanian social protection system because of the occupation of Russia (1795–1914) and the Soviet Union (1940–1990) was closely related to the system of pre-revolution Russian and Soviet Union's, with some insignificant regional differences. The social security programs were used as instruments to strengthen workers' control. No other country in the world but USSR has used its social security system as a tool for propaganda. Despite that, the Soviet Union and the Lithuanian SSR did not stay aloof from social security system reforms in the world. When Lithuania was occupied by the Soviet Union in 1940, it had to comply with the formed system of social insurance and social care. The main role in Lithuanian SSR was given to the social insurance scheme, which did not involve contributions of the residents (instead, it was done by work organizations, and administered by the state and trade unions). In comparison with other soviet republics, Lithuania featured a higher level of independence in the social care field than in the field of social insurance, and the Lithuanian authorities used it wisely to build nursing homes for elderly and improving their administration, supporting children of poor families, etc. However, certain economic-social conditions in Lithuania also had an effect on the social insurance, e.g. there were more working old-age pensioners in Lithuania, and social insurance was administered more effectively than in the rest of the USSR republics. Notably, social security specialists from other USSR republics were coming to Lithuania to gather good practice.

This article is unique in that, for the first time, Russian and Soviet social security development in Lithuania is studied comprehensively and systematically including all major types of social insurance, tracking changes over time and identify their causes. The article broadly analyzes the social security legislation, the publications of Soviet Union's and Lithuanian SSR's official statistics, presents national and international analysis and the archival materials, revealing how the Lithuanian social security system evolved during Russian and Soviet rule. The article reveals the structure and ideology of the Soviet social insurance system. In the whole territory of the USSR, the same principles and laws of social insurance were applied. The foundations for Soviet social security and social insurance systems were layed rather early – already 8–10 years before the II world war began. But Soviet Union, especially after 1940, was not totally homogeneous. In several Soviet republics, for example Lithuania, some specific elements were observed which influenced the administrative methods in social security, social insurance and social support. The article explains the nature of social insurance expenditure. We define and explain the branches of social insurance in the USSR: old age and disability pensions, illness, maternity, funeral and unemployment benefits (the latter were paid in the early Soviet period only). The article deals with official USSR and Lithuanian SSR statistics, mainly from the last Soviet period (beginning 1975), when Soviet social insurance reached its limits and showed its potential. Although Soviet social insurance was related to the principles of the Bismarckian work record and former earnings, it was however financed from Moscow's centrally organised budget and was not related to meaningful contributions of employers and employees. The one-party communist system had a big role in the functioning of social insurance in the USSR and the Lithuanian SSR. The article shows that the Lithuanian social protection system because of the occupation of Russia (1795–1914) and the Soviet Union (1940–1990) was closely related to the system of pre-revolution Russian and Soviet Union's, with some insignificant regional differences. The social security programs were used as instruments to strengthen workers' control. No other country in the world but USSR has used its social security system as a tool for propaganda. Despite that, the Soviet Union and the Lithuanian SSR did not stay aloof from social security system reforms in the world. When Lithuania was occupied by the Soviet Union in 1940, it had to comply with the formed system of social insurance and social care. The main role in Lithuanian SSR was given to the social insurance scheme, which did not involve contributions of the residents (instead, it was done by work organizations, and administered by the state and trade unions). In comparison with other soviet republics, Lithuania featured a higher level of independence in the social care field than in the field of social insurance, and the Lithuanian authorities used it wisely to build nursing homes for elderly and improving their administration, supporting children of poor families, etc. However, certain economic-social conditions in Lithuania also had an effect on the social insurance, e.g. there were more working old-age pensioners in Lithuania, and social insurance was administered more effectively than in the rest of the USSR republics. Notably, social security specialists from other USSR republics were coming to Lithuania to gather good practice.

In of June 1940 the Soviet government gave great attention to women with the aim to gain the public acceptance. They used propaganda which criticized the position of women in the interwar Lithuania and focused on the famous women rights. In 1940 women organizations in the Soviet Lithuania were closed and their leaders either emigrated or were exiled to the Siberia, and the Soviet officials claimed that women's issue did not exist. In August 1945 Women department of Lithuanian Communist Party was created. The department initiated establishment of Women Councils in all regions of Lithuania. Women who belonged to the councils most often learnt housework, e.g. sewing, knitting and cooking. From 1946 lectures on the harm of abortion and the importance of motherhood were read to them. Later on, lectures on the Soviet Constitution, the meaning of work were added. These lectures served as the platform for harsh criticism against the interwar Lithuanian society and dissemination of atheistic ideas. The aim was to grow women's loyalty to the soviet government. Sometimes women would raise acute issues of the government in these meetings. In 1946, after the first congress of Lithuanian women workers in Vilnius the councils attempted to mass women and inform the society about the "women's issue". From the 1950s the "women's issue" in Soviet Lithuania was solved following the orders of the Soviet Union. First of all, their rights were equaled to the ones of men. They could freely choose a profession, a place of residence and get education. The principle of equality between a man and a woman was embedded in all important documents of the country, first in the 1940's and later in the I978's Constitution of Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic. The aim of the paper is to explore how the woman's position in the society was portrayed in Lithuania from 1940 to the middle of the 1970s. [.]

In of June 1940 the Soviet government gave great attention to women with the aim to gain the public acceptance. They used propaganda which criticized the position of women in the interwar Lithuania and focused on the famous women rights. In 1940 women organizations in the Soviet Lithuania were closed and their leaders either emigrated or were exiled to the Siberia, and the Soviet officials claimed that women's issue did not exist. In August 1945 Women department of Lithuanian Communist Party was created. The department initiated establishment of Women Councils in all regions of Lithuania. Women who belonged to the councils most often learnt housework, e.g. sewing, knitting and cooking. From 1946 lectures on the harm of abortion and the importance of motherhood were read to them. Later on, lectures on the Soviet Constitution, the meaning of work were added. These lectures served as the platform for harsh criticism against the interwar Lithuanian society and dissemination of atheistic ideas. The aim was to grow women's loyalty to the soviet government. Sometimes women would raise acute issues of the government in these meetings. In 1946, after the first congress of Lithuanian women workers in Vilnius the councils attempted to mass women and inform the society about the "women's issue". From the 1950s the "women's issue" in Soviet Lithuania was solved following the orders of the Soviet Union. First of all, their rights were equaled to the ones of men. They could freely choose a profession, a place of residence and get education. The principle of equality between a man and a woman was embedded in all important documents of the country, first in the 1940's and later in the I978's Constitution of Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic. The aim of the paper is to explore how the woman's position in the society was portrayed in Lithuania from 1940 to the middle of the 1970s. [.]

In of June 1940 the Soviet government gave great attention to women with the aim to gain the public acceptance. They used propaganda which criticized the position of women in the interwar Lithuania and focused on the famous women rights. In 1940 women organizations in the Soviet Lithuania were closed and their leaders either emigrated or were exiled to the Siberia, and the Soviet officials claimed that women's issue did not exist. In August 1945 Women department of Lithuanian Communist Party was created. The department initiated establishment of Women Councils in all regions of Lithuania. Women who belonged to the councils most often learnt housework, e.g. sewing, knitting and cooking. From 1946 lectures on the harm of abortion and the importance of motherhood were read to them. Later on, lectures on the Soviet Constitution, the meaning of work were added. These lectures served as the platform for harsh criticism against the interwar Lithuanian society and dissemination of atheistic ideas. The aim was to grow women's loyalty to the soviet government. Sometimes women would raise acute issues of the government in these meetings. In 1946, after the first congress of Lithuanian women workers in Vilnius the councils attempted to mass women and inform the society about the "women's issue". From the 1950s the "women's issue" in Soviet Lithuania was solved following the orders of the Soviet Union. First of all, their rights were equaled to the ones of men. They could freely choose a profession, a place of residence and get education. The principle of equality between a man and a woman was embedded in all important documents of the country, first in the 1940's and later in the I978's Constitution of Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic. The aim of the paper is to explore how the woman's position in the society was portrayed in Lithuania from 1940 to the middle of the 1970s. [.]

In of June 1940 the Soviet government gave great attention to women with the aim to gain the public acceptance. They used propaganda which criticized the position of women in the interwar Lithuania and focused on the famous women rights. In 1940 women organizations in the Soviet Lithuania were closed and their leaders either emigrated or were exiled to the Siberia, and the Soviet officials claimed that women's issue did not exist. In August 1945 Women department of Lithuanian Communist Party was created. The department initiated establishment of Women Councils in all regions of Lithuania. Women who belonged to the councils most often learnt housework, e.g. sewing, knitting and cooking. From 1946 lectures on the harm of abortion and the importance of motherhood were read to them. Later on, lectures on the Soviet Constitution, the meaning of work were added. These lectures served as the platform for harsh criticism against the interwar Lithuanian society and dissemination of atheistic ideas. The aim was to grow women's loyalty to the soviet government. Sometimes women would raise acute issues of the government in these meetings. In 1946, after the first congress of Lithuanian women workers in Vilnius the councils attempted to mass women and inform the society about the "women's issue". From the 1950s the "women's issue" in Soviet Lithuania was solved following the orders of the Soviet Union. First of all, their rights were equaled to the ones of men. They could freely choose a profession, a place of residence and get education. The principle of equality between a man and a woman was embedded in all important documents of the country, first in the 1940's and later in the I978's Constitution of Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic. The aim of the paper is to explore how the woman's position in the society was portrayed in Lithuania from 1940 to the middle of the 1970s. [.]

Entrepreneurship of a person and society is usually related to the presence of market economy and the legal framework for business development. The idea of entrepreneurship in the soviet target economy was problematic due to the view, based on formal legal – political aspect, that a person cannot be enterprising in the target economy because he could not hold private property, hire employees, and there were other restrictions. The nationalized economy was not able to fulfil some needs of soviet society. For this reason the state with great control allowed citizens to engage in craft businesses, and later in selfemployment, that partially satisfied consumer needs. Soviet law allowed citizens to engage in the production of small household items and clothing, domestic, social, cultural services. In practice the making of clothes, footwear, headgears, knitting, car repair, transport services became common businesses in soviet society. Violations of permitted individual work activity did not make the activity illegal. All types of businesses that were permitted have to be distinguished from speculation and other forbidden activities that could result in criminal liability. The example of Kaunas society's entrepreneurship, analysed in the article, shows that entrepreneurship was a phenomenon common to soviet society which could exist under the conditions of strict control and constraints.

Entrepreneurship of a person and society is usually related to the presence of market economy and the legal framework for business development. The idea of entrepreneurship in the soviet target economy was problematic due to the view, based on formal legal – political aspect, that a person cannot be enterprising in the target economy because he could not hold private property, hire employees, and there were other restrictions. The nationalized economy was not able to fulfil some needs of soviet society. For this reason the state with great control allowed citizens to engage in craft businesses, and later in selfemployment, that partially satisfied consumer needs. Soviet law allowed citizens to engage in the production of small household items and clothing, domestic, social, cultural services. In practice the making of clothes, footwear, headgears, knitting, car repair, transport services became common businesses in soviet society. Violations of permitted individual work activity did not make the activity illegal. All types of businesses that were permitted have to be distinguished from speculation and other forbidden activities that could result in criminal liability. The example of Kaunas society's entrepreneurship, analysed in the article, shows that entrepreneurship was a phenomenon common to soviet society which could exist under the conditions of strict control and constraints.

Entrepreneurship of a person and society is usually related to the presence of market economy and the legal framework for business development. The idea of entrepreneurship in the soviet target economy was problematic due to the view, based on formal legal – political aspect, that a person cannot be enterprising in the target economy because he could not hold private property, hire employees, and there were other restrictions. The nationalized economy was not able to fulfil some needs of soviet society. For this reason the state with great control allowed citizens to engage in craft businesses, and later in selfemployment, that partially satisfied consumer needs. Soviet law allowed citizens to engage in the production of small household items and clothing, domestic, social, cultural services. In practice the making of clothes, footwear, headgears, knitting, car repair, transport services became common businesses in soviet society. Violations of permitted individual work activity did not make the activity illegal. All types of businesses that were permitted have to be distinguished from speculation and other forbidden activities that could result in criminal liability. The example of Kaunas society's entrepreneurship, analysed in the article, shows that entrepreneurship was a phenomenon common to soviet society which could exist under the conditions of strict control and constraints.

The article analyses the types of atypical forms of employment and their spread in Lithuania in the context of the European Union. A special emphasis in the article is laid on security of atypical workers in the labour market. The literature analysis carried out in the article revealed that despite certain advantages of atypical employment atypical employees are less secure in the labour market than employees in standard employment. This insecurity is determined by more frequent stresses due to work-related situations, poor visibility regarding the future level of income and career perspectives. The analysis of statistical data revealed that self-employment and part-time work are the most prevalent atypical forms of employment in Lithuania. A special mention should also be given to two atypical forms of employment – selfemployment and temporary agency work – which have grown most over the past few years in Lithuania.