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People's Republic Of China Towards The Decomposition Of The Ussr And The Creation Of The New States In The Postsoviet SpaceIn the new geopolitical situation emerging during the disintegration of the Soviet Union (1991), China (PRC) quickly recognized the independence of all the fifteen post-Soviet republics, including Russia (now under a new name – the Russian Federation), two days after the end of existence of the Soviet Union created in 1922, and two days after Russia's recognition by the United States.PRC also quickly established diplomatic relations first with Russia (December 27, 1991) and then with all of them (in the period from January to June 1992). With the speed of action and strict compliance with the principle of "one China" in the establishment of diplomatic relations, none of the fourteen post-Soviet states has not taken even the attempt to establish political relations with Taiwan, which – also thanks to Beijing's effective diplomatic action remained in isolation in the former postsoviet political space. The exception was two years period of Latvian-Taiwan Relations (1992–1994), but in this case, Beijing has achieved success, displacing the Taiwanese competitor.

In Poland after 1989 – after regaining sovereignty and initiating the socio-political transformation – there are many concepts of Eastern policy, which was also the result of dynamic changes in the Soviet . The process of emancipation of the united republics accelerated in the period of perestroika and steadily progressed. Its final effect was the disintegration of the Soviet empire at the end of 1991. Therefore various groups and political trends in Poland formed different concepts and visions of the Polish Eastern policy. In discussions on its shape more and more attention was turned to Polish-Ukrainian relations. One of the trends in formulating assumptions on the Polish policy towards the post-Soviet area was conservative parties and groups. Within this ideological option, represented by many parties and groups, many – often conflicting – ideas and visions of the Polish policy towards Ukraine were formed. The objective of this article is to present an overview of these concepts – formulated in the framework of the conservative trend. ; In Poland after 1989 – after regaining sovereignty and initiating the socio-political transformation – there are many concepts of Eastern policy, which was also the result of dynamic changes in the Soviet . The process of emancipation of the united republics accelerated in the period of perestroika and steadily progressed. Its final effect was the disintegration of the Soviet empire at the end of 1991. Therefore various groups and political trends in Poland formed different concepts and visions of the Polish Eastern policy. In discussions on its shape more and more attention was turned to Polish-Ukrainian relations. One of the trends in formulating assumptions on the Polish policy towards the post-Soviet area was conservative parties and groups. Within this ideological option, represented by many parties and groups, many – often conflicting – ideas and visions of the Polish policy towards Ukraine were formed. The objective of this article is to present an overview of these concepts – formulated in the framework of the conservative trend.

In december 1991, the Soviet Union collapsed. This fact can be considered to be the most significant geopolitical event of the second half of the 20th century. As a result of the collapse of the USSR, fifteen union republics – the main units of the administrative-political and national division of the Soviet federation – gained state sovereignty and independence. One of the most important results of this process was the creation of Russia (Russian Federation), which declared itself and was recognized as the main successor of the Soviet empire. The young state faced many difficulties, which – at the level of internal policy – include carrying out socio-political-economic transformation, overcoming the deep structural crisis inherited from the late USSR, or building modern durable democratic institutions and democratic political culture. This meant that the new Russian elites needed to make a radical system change and to develop new political mechanisms in the management of this enormous country. The article will present the main problems faced by Russia and its establishment in the 1990s, with many turning points and breakthrough moments, specific to countries undergoing intensive and multifaceted post-communist transformation. Due to the importance and the role of Russia in the international system, the directions and tendencies of changes taking place in this country are particularly important, especially from the perspective of post-Soviet states and the countries of the former socialist block.

Upadek Związku Socjalistycznych Republik Radzieckich znacznie zmienił sytuację geopolityczną świata. W wyniku rozpadu powstało piętnaście nowych podmiotów stosunków międzynarodowych. Wraz z demontażem ZSRR powołano do życia Wspólnotę Niepodległych Państw, skupiającą byłe republiki radzieckie. Jedną z płaszczyzn współdziałania w ramach WNP było pogłębianie współpracy na rzecz bezpieczeństwa, dlatego też już 15 maja 1992 roku podpisano Układ o zbiorowym bezpieczeństwie państw sygnatariuszy Wspólnoty Niepodległych Państw. Inicjatywa ta, zinstytucjonalizowana i przekształcona w 2002 roku w Organizację Układu o Bezpieczeństwie Zbiorowym, stanowi istotny komponent bezpieczeństwa tegoż obszaru. ; The fall of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics as a uniform formation has changed the geopolitical situation of the world, especially the Eurasian area. As a result of the breakdown was founded more than a dozen new international relations. Along with the breakup of the Soviet Union the Commonwealth of Independent States was created, which involve groups the former Republic of post-Soviet. One of the planes, cooperation within the framework of the CIS is to deepen security cooperation, therefore, on 15 May 1992 he signed the collective security of States signatories to the Commonwealth of independent States. The initiative, institutionalized and converted in 2002 year in the Organization of collective security System, which is an important component of the security of that area.

Among the administrative arrangements (porozumienia administracyjne), one should distinguish a category of local-government arrangements (porozumienia samorządowe), i.e. those involving local government units. In the first place, it should be distinguished vertical arrangements, i.e. arrangements between units of different levels of the local government structure: arrangements between poviats (counties) and communes, between voivodeships (regions) and communes, and between voivodeships and poviats. Secondly, horizontal arrangements i.e. between communes, between poviats and between regions. Local government arrangements are a non-sovereign form of activity of the public administration, entered into with mutual declarations of intent of the parties. The basis for their conclusion is a resolution of the legislative body of a local government unit to agree to cooperate under the local government arrangement, while the very act of the arrangement is concluded by the executive body of the local government unit. The purpose of the local government arrangement is to ensure the fulfilment of a public task, to agree on its implementation and the necessary actions. The entrusting of public tasks by means of a local government arrangement is effected under public law and not by a civil contract. The arrangement relates to the implementation of already existing tasks, defined by specific legal provisions, resulting from the legal-systemic position of the parties to the arrangement, so they do not create new obligations arising from the arrangement concluded. ; Pośród porozumień administracyjnych należy wyróżnić porozumienia samorządowe, czyli takie, których stronami są wyłącznie jednostki samorządu terytorialnego. Wyodrębnić należy: 1) samorządowe porozumienia wertykalne, czyli porozumienia między jednostkami różnych poziomów struktury samorządowej (powiatów z gminami, województw z gminami i województw z powiatami), oraz 2) samorządowe porozumienia horyzontalne, czyli międzygminne, powiatowe i wojewódzkie. Porozumienia samorządowe są niewładczą formą działania administracji publicznej. Są one zawierane na podstawie zgodnych oświadczeń woli uczestników porozumienia. Podstawą ich zawarcia jest uchwała organu stanowiącego jednostki samorządu terytorialnego w kwestii wyrażenia zgody na współpracę w ramach porozumienia samorządowego. Akt porozumienia jest natomiast zawierany przez organ wykonawczy jednostki samorządu terytorialnego. Celem porozumienia samorządowego jest zapewnienie realizacji zadania publicznego, uzgodnienie sposobu jego realizacji oraz niezbędnych w tym zakresie działań. Powierzenie zadań publicznych w drodze porozumienia samorządowego następuje w formie publicznoprawnej, a nie w drodze umowy prawa cywilnego. Porozumienie dotyczy realizacji zadań już istniejących, określonych konkretnymi przepisami prawa wynikającymi z prawno-ustrojowej pozycji podmiotów porozumienia, jego uczestnicy nie tworzą zatem nowych obowiązków wynikających z zawartego porozumienia.

The aim of the article is to present the specific nature of research on the issues of national relations in a totalitarian state based on the example of the lands of Central and Eastern Europe under the Soviet occupation from 1939-1941. In order to achieve this, the literature on the subject (in English and Polish) was reviewed as well as the most important methodological problems encountered by researchers. The research program was also outlined, along with a proposal for their conceptualization in the form of signalling the main aspects of the above-mentioned issues, including the specificity of the Soviet occupation of 1939-1941, social and ethnic relations in this area, and the Soviet nationalities policy. Several research methods and postulates were proposed, as well as perspectives and theoretical approaches that could facilitate the study of this complex and controversial subject, e.g., the interdisciplinary nature of research, methods of bottom-up formation of political attitudes of the population (the so-called "bottom-up" method), application of theories of the totalitarian state, and different theories of ethnicity. As a result, an interdisciplinary program of comparative studies of ethnic relations in Central and Eastern Europe under Soviet rule (1939-1941) was outlined, taking into account the transnational character of historical processes and the need to conduct micro historic analyses and case studies that would allow capturing of the diversity of ethnic relations and verify the effectiveness of the policy of the central Soviet authorities. The article argues that it seems obvious that the specificity of the analysed problematics can be properly grasped only by consideration it in the historical and theoretical context, adopting a comparative and transnational approach, from a micro-historical as well as everyday-life perspective that highlights the most important social factors which facilitated changes in interethnic relations.

The development of the information society has initiated the need for creating new instruments with the help of which the authorities can reach out to citizens. Therefore, cyberspace has recently become a place of activity of a number of entities including state and international organizations (together with the European Union). The result of this phenomenon is the creation of the so-called digital diplomacy as new quality in the so-called diplomacy of the EU. The EU diplomacy currently uses a number of e-tools, among others, Facebook, MySpace, Daily Motion, YouTube, etc. These tools are a very good method to improve and warm up the image of the Union in the international arena. This kind of diplomacy was only formed at the beginning of the twenty-first century and has a great prospect of development, thus, it is worth considering in which direction its evolution should follow. Digital diplomacy is a de facto response to the problem of the EU communication with the outside world and the growing number of Internet users.