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Intro -- GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS: DRIVERS OF INTENSITY AND COUNTRY VARIANCES -- GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS: DRIVERS OF INTENSITY AND COUNTRY VARIANCES -- CONTENTS -- PREFACE -- Chapter 1 GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSION DRIVERS: POPULATION, ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND GROWTH, AND ENERGY USE -- SUMMARY -- INTRODUCTION -- GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSION VARIABLES -- SECTORAL BREAKDOWN OF GHG EMISSIONS -- Energy Use as a CO2 Intensity Driver -- Carbon Intensity of Electricity Generation -- Carbon Intensity of Travel -- Effects of Land Use on Intensity -- Cumulative Emissions -- INTERACTIONS OF THE VARIABLES -- CHANGES IN INTENSITY TO MEET CLIMATE STABILIZATION GOALS -- U.S. Greenhouse Gas Intensity: Trends and Targ -- Global Greenhouse Gas Intensity -- CONCLUSION -- End Notes -- Chapter 2 CLIMATE CHANGE: THE QUALITY, COMPARABILITY, AND REVIEW OF EMISSIONS INVENTORIES VARY BETWEEN DEVELOPED AND DEVELOPING NATIONS -- WHY GAO DID THIS STUD -- WHAT GAO RECOMMEN -- WHAT GAO FOUND -- ABBREVIATIONS -- BACKGROUND -- INVENTORIES FROM SEVEN ANNEX I NATIONS WERE OF HIGHER COMPARABILITY AND QUALITY THAN THOSE FROM SEVEN NON-ANNEX I NATIONS BECAUSE OF SEVERAL BARRIERS -- Recent Reviews Found That Selected Annex I Nations' Inventories Were Comparable and of High Quality, but Some Estimates Have Substantial Uncertainty -- Inventories from Selected Non-Annex I Nations Met Guidelines but Were of Lower Quality and Generally Not Comparable -- Experts Identified Several Barriers to Improving the Comparability and Quality of Inventories -- THE INVENTORY REVIEW PROCESS FOR ANNEX I NATIONS HAS SEVERAL STRENGTHS AND SOME LIMITATIONS, AND NO COMPARABLE PROCESS EXISTS FOR NON-ANNEX I NATIONS -- The Process for Reviewing Inventories from Annex I Nations Has Several Strengths -- The Process for Reviewing Inventories from Annex I Nations Has Some Limitations

This book, which contains 17 chapters, presents an expert synthesis of greenhouse gas (GHG) sink science and how this applies to the past, current and future changes in climate. It also explores how the sinks may respond to increased GHG emissions and global temperatures, and whether they can be protected and even enhanced to help mitigate climatic change. The sinks discussed in this book are the planet's storage areas, where GHGs are locked away from the atmosphere and thus prevented from contributing to global warming. This book is a valuable resource for students, researchers and practitioners in conservation, ecology and environmental studies.

In 2017 the Royal Society and Royal Academy of Engineering were asked by the UK Government to consider scientific and engineering views on greenhouse gas removal. This report draws on a breadth of expertise including that of the Fellowships of the two academies to identify the range of available greenhouse gas removal methods, the factors that will affect their use and consider how they may be deployed together to meet climate targets, both in the UK and globally.

Intro -- REDUCING GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS AVAILABLE AND EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES -- REDUCING GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS AVAILABLE AND EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES -- CONTENTS -- PREFACE -- Chapter 1 AVAILABLE AND EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES FOR REDUCING GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS FROM COAL-FIRED ELECTRIC GENERATING UNITS* -- Acronyms and Abbreviations -- 1. Introduction -- 1.1. Electric Power Generation Using Coal -- 2. Coal-Fired Electric Generating Units -- 2.1. Coals Burned in U.S. EGUs -- 2.2. Coal Utilization in U.S. EGUs -- 2.2.1. Stoker-Fired Coal Combustion -- 2.2.2. Pulverized-Coal Combustion -- 2.2.3. Cyclone Coal Combustion -- 2.2.4. Fluidized-Bed Combustion -- 2.2.5. Coal Gasification -- 2.3. GHG Emissions from Coal-Fired EGUs -- 2.4. Factors Impacting Coal-Fired EGU CO2 Emissions -- 2.4.1. Impact of Coal Rank on CO2 Emissions from EGUs -- 2.4.2 Impact of Coal-Fired EGU Efficiency on CO2 Emissions -- 2.4.3. Impact of SO2 Controls on Coal-Fired EGU CO2 Emissions -- 3. Coal-Fired EGU CO2 Control Technologies -- 3.1. Coal-Fired EGU CO2 Emissions Control Approaches -- 3.1.1. Efficiency Improvements -- 3.1.2. Carbon Capture and Storage -- 3.2. Efficiency Improvements for Existing Coal-fired EGU Projects -- 3.3. Efficiency Improvements for New Coal-Fired EGU Projects -- 3.3.1. Steam Cycle -- 3.3.2. Coal Drying -- 3.3.3. Boiler Feedwater Heating & -- Hot-Windbox -- 3.4. Combined Heat and Power Plant -- 3.5. Oxygen Combustion -- 4. Coal-Fired EGU Technology Alternatives Analysis -- 4.1. Site-Specific Coal-Fired EGU Technology Alternatives Analysis Example -- 4.2. EPA GHG Mitigation Database -- References -- Chapter 2 AVAILABLE AND EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES FOR REDUCING GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS FROM THE PETROLEUM REFINING INDUSTRY* -- 1.0. Introduction -- 2.0. Petroleum Refining -- 2.1. Overview of Petroleum Refining Industry.

While there are many factors that contribute to global warming, the most notable factor is the emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Learn about the sources of these gases, how they interact with the atmosphere, their effect on natural systems, and why controlling them is crucial to Earth's future

Certain gases that are capable of trapping heat in the Earth's atmosphere are known as "greenhouse gas" and are important for helping to regulate temperature. Major greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, chlorofluorocarbons, and nitrous oxide. Burning fossil fuels produces carbon dioxide as a combustion product and atmospheric concentrations have increased dramatically over the past two centuries. The heat trapped by this additional greenhouse gas is changing climates, melting ice sheets and glaciers in polar regions, raising sea levels, and affecting ocean currents. Climate change can be mitigated by preventing the emission of additional fossil fuel combustion products to the atmosphere and reducing existing greenhouse gas levels back to pre-industrial revolution concentrations. This requires switching energy production to sustainable, non-fossil sources and applying carbon capture, use, and storage technology on the fossil fuel combustion that remains. The implementation of direct air capture technology to reduce existing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere can further remediate climate impacts. Captured carbon dioxide can be stored in plant tissues, soils, deep underground in geological repositories, or as solid materials like concrete or carbonates to keep it from reentering the atmosphere. Although non-carbon energy sources have recently become more cost-competitive with fossil energy, technological advancements and government policies are still needed to overcome the inherent economic advantages of fossil fuels. A global strategy must be developed to convince people that the higher cost of clean, sustainable energy is a price worth paying to replace fossil fuels and prevent a major environmental calamity.Cited as: Soeder, D.J. Greenhouse gas sources and mitigation strategies from a geosciences perspective. Advances in Geo-Energy Research, 2021, 5(3): 274-285, doi:10.46690/ager.2021.03.04

Certain gases that are capable of trapping heat in the Earth's atmosphere are known as "greenhouse gas" and are important for helping to regulate temperature. Major greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, chlorofluorocarbons, and nitrous oxide. Burning fossil fuels produces carbon dioxide as a combustion product and atmospheric concentrations have increased dramatically over the past two centuries. The heat trapped by this additional greenhouse gas is changing climates, melting ice sheets and glaciers in polar regions, raising sea levels, and affecting ocean currents. Climate change can be mitigated by preventing the emission of additional fossil fuel combustion products to the atmosphere and reducing existing greenhouse gas levels back to pre-industrial revolution concentrations. This requires switching energy production to sustainable, non-fossil sources and applying carbon capture, use, and storage technology on the fossil fuel combustion that remains. The implementation of direct air capture technology to reduce existing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere can further remediate climate impacts. Captured carbon dioxide can be stored in plant tissues, soils, deep underground in geological repositories, or as solid materials like concrete or carbonates to keep it from reentering the atmosphere. Although non-carbon energy sources have recently become more cost-competitive with fossil energy, technological advancements and government policies are still needed to overcome the inherent economic advantages of fossil fuels. A global strategy must be developed to convince people that the higher cost of clean, sustainable energy is a price worth paying to replace fossil fuels and prevent a major environmental calamity.Cited as: Soeder, D.J. Greenhouse gas sources and mitigation strategies from a geosciences perspective. Advances in Geo-Energy Research, 2021, 5(3): 274-285, doi:10.46690/ager.2021.03.04

Global inequality has been falling in the last 20 or 30 years, mainly because of rising incomes in China, India, and, more recently, also in Africa. That has been good for global justice and poverty reduction, but not for greenhouse gas emissions. Indeed, the majority of growth in emissions since 1990 has taken place in emerging countries. As a result, if global inequality continues to fall, we have to confront the fact that greenhouse gas emissions will continue to rise. There is no easy solution to this problem, since it is very difficult for emerging countries to drastically change their emission pathways. But there are some policies that might help, including, for example, the removal of energy subsidies and a greater focus on air pollution and energy security, both of which are co-benefits of moving away from fossil energy. The question also remains whether more unequal countries emit more or less greenhouse gases. Theoretical arguments in this regard are ambiguous. We find that in poorer countries, higher inequality actually reduces per capita emissions, mainly because it pushes poor people out of the carbon economy and forces them to lead carbon-neutral lives, relying entirely on biomass. However, in richer countries, inequality is associated with rising emissions. Therefore, if we reduce inequality in rich countries, we will also help reduce emissions. But how to think about climate policy? Economists have very much focused on the idea that there is a first best climate policy with a global carbon price, achieved either through an emission trading scheme or a carbon tax. But one should realize that climate policy in practice involves many different initiatives at many different levels. The driving forces of such policies are often the co-benefits such as cleaner air or greater energy security than emission reduction. If we recognize this, then our analysis should focus not on trying to design first best, but unrealistic policies, but rather on studying the interactions between existing policies and on trying to improve their functioning. This will be a much more promising way to tackle climate change than focusing on an unrealistic first best option.

The assessment of greenhouse gases (GHGs) and air pollutants emitted to and removed from the atmosphere ranks high on international political and scientific agendas. Growing international concern and cooperation regarding the climate change problem have increased the need to consider the uncertainty in inventories of GHG emissions. The approaches to address uncertainty discussed in this special issue reflect attempts to improve national inventories, not only for their own sake but also from a wider, system analytic perspective. They seek to strengthen the usefulness of national emission inventories under a compliance and/or global monitoring and reporting framework. The papers in this special issue demonstrate the benefits of including inventory uncertainty in policy analyses. The issues raised by the authors and featured in their papers, along with the role that uncertainty analysis plays in many of their arguments, highlight the challenges and the importance of dealing with uncertainty. While the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) clearly stresses the value of conducting uncertainty analyses and offers guidance on executing them, the arguments made here in favor of performing these studies go well beyond any suggestions made by the IPCC to date. Improving and conducting uncertainty analyses are needed to develop a clear understanding and informed policy. Uncertainty matters and is key to many issues related to inventorying and reducing emissions. Considering uncertainty helps to avoid situations that can create a false sense of certainty or lead to invalid views of subsystems. Dealing proactively with uncertainty allows for the generation of useful knowledge that the international community should have to hand while strengthening the 2015 Paris Agreement, which had been agreed at the 21st Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). However, considering uncertainty does not come free. Proper treatment of uncertainty is demanding because it forces us to take the step from "simple to complex" and to grasp a holistic system view. Only, thereafter, can we consider potential simplifications. That is, comprehensive treatment of uncertainty does not necessarily offer quick or easy solutions for policymakers. This special issue brings together 13 papers that resulted from the 2015 (4th) International Workshop on Uncertainty in Atmospheric Emissions, in Cracow, Poland. While they deal with many different aspects of the uncertainty in emission estimates, they are guided by the same principal question: "What GHGs shall be verified at what spatio-temporal scale to support conducive legislation at local and national scales, while ensuring effective governance at the global scale?" This question is at the heart of mitigation and adaptation. It requires an understanding of the entire system of GHG sources and sinks, their spatial characteristics and the temporal scales at which they react and interact, the uncertainty (accuracy and/or precision) with which fluxes can be measured, and last but not least, the consequences that follow from all of the aforementioned aspects, for policy actors to frame compliance and/or global monitoring and reporting agreements. This bigger system context serves as a reference for the papers in the special issue, irrespective of their spatio-temporal focus, and is used as a guide for the reader.

The assessment of greenhouse gases (GHGs) and air pollutants emitted to and removed from the atmosphere ranks high on international political and scientific agendas. Growing international concern and cooperation regarding the climate change problem have increased the need to consider the uncertainty in inventories of GHG emissions. The approaches to address uncertainty discussed in this special issue reflect attempts to improve national inventories, not only for their own sake but also from a wider, system analytic perspective. They seek to strengthen the usefulness of national emission inventories under a compliance and/or global monitoring and reporting framework. The papers in this special issue demonstrate the benefits of including inventory uncertainty in policy analyses. The issues raised by the authors and featured in their papers, along with the role that uncertainty analysis plays in many of their arguments, highlight the challenges and the importance of dealing with uncertainty. While the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) clearly stresses the value of conducting uncertainty analyses and offers guidance on executing them, the arguments made here in favor of performing these studies go well beyond any suggestions made by the IPCC to date. Improving and conducting uncertainty analyses are needed to develop a clear understanding and informed policy. Uncertainty matters and is key to many issues related to inventorying and reducing emissions. Considering uncertainty helps to avoid situations that can create a false sense of certainty or lead to invalid views of subsystems. Dealing proactively with uncertainty allows for the generation of useful knowledge that the international community should have to hand while strengthening the 2015 Paris Agreement, which had been agreed at the 21st Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). However, considering uncertainty does not come free. Proper treatment of uncertainty is demanding because it forces us to take the step from "simple to complex" and to grasp a holistic system view. Only, thereafter, can we consider potential simplifications. That is, comprehensive treatment of uncertainty does not necessarily offer quick or easy solutions for policymakers. This special issue brings together 13 papers that resulted from the 2015 (4th) International Workshop on Uncertainty in Atmospheric Emissions, in Cracow, Poland. While they deal with many different aspects of the uncertainty in emission estimates, they are guided by the same principal question: "What GHGs shall be verified at what spatio-temporal scale to support conducive legislation at local and national scales, while ensuring effective governance at the global scale?" This question is at the heart of mitigation and adaptation. It requires an understanding of the entire system of GHG sources and sinks, their spatial characteristics and the temporal scales at which they react and interact, the uncertainty (accuracy and/or precision) with which fluxes can be measured, and last but not least, the consequences that follow from all of the aforementioned aspects, for policy actors to frame compliance and/or global monitoring and reporting agreements. This bigger system context serves as a reference for the papers in the special issue, irrespective of their spatio-temporal focus, and is used as a guide for the reader.