Suchergebnisse

The objectives of the Costing Adaptation through Local Institutions (CALI) study were (a) to identify the costs of adaptation through local institutions, and (b) to investigate which institutions help households adapt to climate variability, which efforts and costs are needed to realize the adaptation options, and how they facilitate adaptation to climate variability. The study was carried out in Ethiopia, Mali, and Yemen. This report discusses the results for Yemen. In Yemen, village surveys were conducted in six villages and two expert workshops were organized to discuss the main framework of the study and to evaluate the draft results. The study assessed household vulnerability, analyzed the strategies households adopt to reduce the impacts of climate hazards, and evaluated the assistance households receive from different institutions. The analysis was based on household surveys, focus group discussions, and institutional stakeholder interviews. Vulnerability profiles, developed on the basis of field survey results, show that household vulnerability differs substantially between and within villages. The results show that the vulnerability and agro ecological potential in Yemen are related to rainfall, which is related to altitude. This study is a reflection of the insights that (a) poor, rural households are facing most of the climate variability- related hazards; (b) adaptation also has socioeconomic aspects; (c) understanding local adaptation processes is important for informing macro-policies; and (d) for prioritizing future adaptation, it is crucial to analyze historical adaptation strategies. The study involves an assessment of the adaptation options rural household pursue. The study also considers the differential access of various vulnerability groups, as well as the drivers for adopting particular strategies or constraints for not adopting other strategies. For this, households and institutional stakeholders were interviewed in six villages in Yemen, focus group discussions were organized, and experts were consulted.

Portability of social benefits across professions and countries is an increasing concern for individuals and policy makers. Lacking or incomplete transfers of acquired social rights are feared to negatively impact individual labor market decisions as well as capacity to address social risks with consequences for economic and social outcomes. The paper gives a fresh and provocative look on the international perspective of the topic that has so far been dominated by social policy lawyers working within the framework of bilateral agreements; the input by economists has been very limited. It offers an analytical framework for portability analysis that suggests separating the risk pooling, (implicit or actual) pre-funding and redistributive elements in the benefit design and explores the proposed alternative approach for pensions and health care benefits. This promising approach may serve both as a substitute and complement to bi- and multilateral agreements.

This paper outlines the methodological issues associated with the task of measuring that actual delivered direct protection or taxation to individual agricultural industries, as well as the direct protection or anti-protection to non-agricultural sectors. It begins with a guide to what elements in principle could be measured. There are two key purposes of the distortion estimates being generated by this project are: 1) to provide a long annual time series of indicators showing the extent to which price incentives faced by farmers and food consumers have been distorted directly and indirectly by own-government policies in all major developing, transition and high-income countries, and hence for the world as a whole; and 2) to attribute the price distortion estimates for each farm product to specific border or domestic policy measures, so they can serve as inputs into various types of partial and general equilibrium economic models for estimating the effects of those various policies on such things as national and international agricultural markets, farm value added, income inequality, poverty, and national, regional and global welfare.

2007/2008 ; L'inizio di secolo 21 a rivelato al mondo intero l'inizio di una guerra di piccoli dimensioni. La geopolitica e un gigante formato da una serie di 2 giocatori di scacchi , di cui questi giocatori cercano di ottenere vantaggi di posizione. In questo gioco e cruciale di conoscere le regole attuali che governano questi movimenti. I cavalieri non può muoversi in diagonale. Dal 1945 fino al 1989, il gioco principale sulla scacchiere e stato tra gli Stati Uniti e l'Unione Sovietica, è stato chiamato "La Guerre Fredda". Oggi, il gioco e tra l'Unione Europea e Russia , e metaforicamente è stato chiamato "La Guerre Fredda del Gas". La sicurezza energetica europea confronta una serie di sfide per quanto riguarda la dipendenza dell'Unione Europea delle risorse energetiche russe e della necessità di diversificazione dei mezzi di trasporto su le risorse energetiche, si fa riferimento principalmente a gas naturale. Lo scopo di questa tesi di dottorato e quello di indagare la situazione attuale, a partire da l'idea che ci sono gravi preoccupazioni in Europa per quanto riguarda il fatto che la Russia potrebbe utilizzare le sue esportazioni di energia come arma politica per poter finalizzare la sua supremazia politica . Questa tesi si concentra sull'identificazione di una soluzione per quanto riguarda le maggiori preoccupazioni dei europei - la sicurezza dell'approvvigionamento energetico, iniziando a sviluppare nuovi vie di acceso alle risorse energetiche. Per una migliore comprensione, ho pensato la mia tesi come una scacchiera, avendo come scommessa - il sviluppo di nuovi gasdotti, con due giocatori principali (l'Unione Europea e la Russia), un giocatore chiave - La Regione del Mar Nero - e, naturalmente, con una soluzione. Le principale domande di questa ricerca sono: Nell'Unione Europea allargata può essere vero che la Russia potrebbe tentare di utilizzare le sue esportazioni di energia come un'arma politica per raggiungere la supremazia? Per vincere sarà utilizzato il prezzo dell'energia per ottenere questo vantaggio? Per poter rispondere a queste due domande se deve prima capire le relazioni tra l'Unione Europea e la Russia, e qual è il ruolo che il Mar Nero svolge in questo problema. Questo tipo di ricerca proporre un quadro teorico d'analisi, avendo come metodo di analisi, un metodo quantitativo ( di contenuto ) e un metodo qualitativo ( le discussioni informali con gli esperti di questo settore ). Per poter essere più precisa, per quanto riguarda l'ipotesi della tesi, ho avuto alcune discussioni informale con gli esperti del settore energetico e dei affari europee, in Europa, della zona del Mar Nero e della zona Caspio, paesi che sono direttamente coinvolti nel problema energetico, per discutere e analizzare l'impatto che ha la politica estera energetica russa, che se trova in pieno sviluppo sul Europa e sulla sicurezza europee, a partire dalla crisi del gas provocata dalla Russia, che ha avuto un impatto reale, influenzando considerevole l'economie europee a partire dal 2006 fino ad oggi. Il mio punto di vista è che la Russia cercherà attraverso vari mezzi di consolidare la dominazione come Leader Mondiale, usando i mezzi che gli ha - il prezzo d'energia, e il mio parere e che l'unico modo per risolvere questo problema e di cominciare a diversificare l'accesso alle risorse energetiche, sviluppando una strategia in piano energetico che collegano l'Europa dal bacino del Mar Caspio attraverso la regione del Mar Nero. Se questa strategia avrà successo, l'Europa sarà in grado di ridurre l'influenza della Russia e di creare un clima sicuro dal punto di vista energetico. Per quanto riguarda il metodo di analisi quantitativo, la teoria è basata sulla lettura di alcuni libri di riferimento dal settore energetico e quello di relazioni internazionali, con la partecipazione a conferenze e seminari sia in Romania e all'estero, compreso uno stage di formazione alla Direzione di Energia e Trasporti della Commissione Europea , il monitoraggio delle notizie e degli articoli di stampa di questo settore ( Mediafax ,Journal of European Public Policy , Euractiv , Eurobserver , Eupolitix , CNN , BBC , Euronews ). A partire da una ricca esperienza in questo settore energetico e da una cooperazione transfrontaliera, la mia tesi desidera sottolineare l'importanza di una sicurezza energetica europea in quello che riguarda l'approvvigionamento dell'Europa con l'energie. Nei seguenti capitoli di questa tesi ho studiato alcuni aspetti guardando la dipendenza energetica europea nei confronti della Russia e il ruolo dalla regione del Mar Nero, come un ponte di accesso alle fonti alternative di energia, diverse da quelle russe. Il primo capitolo inizia con due opinioni sulla sicurezza energetica e economica europea,che rivela la vulnerabilità dell'Europa, pero anche il suo potenziale che si divide tra l'Europa e gli stati dell'Eurasia Centrale. La tesi discuterà del ruolo di Gasprom sia nella politica interna e nella estera russa, che rivela una cattiva immagine della diplomazia energetica russe. Seguendo questa rotta, il obiettivo si muove da sud a est. Un capitolo parla del ruolo determinato che lo ha la regione del Mar Nero come un ponte di accesso nella sicurezza energetica europea , seguita da capitoli destinati a rivelare il ruolo specifico della Turchia in questo problema. Nel piano secondario, due progetti specifici di infrastrutture sono studiati - Nabucco e Il Gasdotto South Stream, finendo con una soluzione su un gasdotto Trans-Caspian. La tesi si conclude con l'indicazione di una strategia sulla diversificazione delle vie d'accesso energetiche. In questo momento, possiamo dire che lo scopo di questa ricerca è stato quello di definire una possibile soluzione per poter uscire da sotto la dominazione russa, quella di sviluppare una strategia comune al livello europeo sulla diversificazione del accesso alle risorse energetiche dalla regione Caspio al Mar Nero in Europa. In questo senso, la strategia energetica europea si prevede di continuare a raggiungere di tali obiettivi promuovendo nuove rotte di trasporto sicuro e al sviluppo economico territoriale, trasformando l'Europa più sicura nel accesso alle risorse energetiche. L'Unione Europea detiene in questo momento tutti gli strumenti di una politica estera per promuovere la stabilità politica e la riforma economica, per il sviluppo e il rafforzamento della democrazia e delle legislazioni nazionali, e aumentare i diritti e le libertà umane nei paesi della regione del Mar Caspio. Il più importante, le relazioni europeo - Mar Caspio , dovrebbero essere estese per quanto riguarda le dimensioni bilaterale e regionale dal punto di visto economico e commerciale e al livello diplomatico. L'ultimi eventi che sono stati sulla scacchiera energetica fornisce una vera e propria importanza alla regione del Mar Caspio per esercitare una notevole importanza come uno centrale geo-strategico, e all'Unione Europea per poter esercitare il ruolo del Leader Mondiale nella regione . Comunque per rendere reale ( per effettuare ) questo compito difficile, l'Europa deve rispettare alcuni consigli per poter formulare una strategia energetica comune nella zona del Mar Caspio , come :  di eliminare gradualmente la dominazione Gasprom da Azerbaijan .  di offrire supporto economico e politico allo scopo di costruire il progetto Nabucco e di costringere alla costruzione di un gasdotto Trans-Capian , intervenire sul mercato per assicurare la diversità e di impedire il monopolio della fornitura delle risorse energetiche verso l'est d'Europa .  di garantire la stabilità e la sicurezza nei paesi di transito e di risolvere il conflitto di Nagorno Karahbak , e imporre dei impegni più grandi sul processo di Minsk  di pensare seriamente come negoziare con Turkmenistan, mettendo nella bilancia l'apertura energetica con una generosa offerta, pero senza un coinvolgimento troppo grande sulle riforme politiche e economiche. Questo farà una chiamata alla diplomazia e tatto, e alla superiorità tecnologica e tecnica del ovest di poter pagare. Come una conclusione finale, l'Ovest , incluso l'Unione Europea e gli Stati Uniti, deve ripensare il più rapido possibile le sue politiche energetiche e non-energetiche nei confronti di Russia . Cosi come possiamo osservare in questa tesi , l'Ovest detiene veramente il vantaggio economico e politico di poter costringere la Russia per diventare più trasparente e commerciale nei confronti delle sue politiche energetiche estere . Non può più permettere a Mosca di minacciare la sicurezza energetica d'Europa , avendo la possibilità insieme al entrata dalla Romania e Bulgaria nell'Unione Europea in gennaio 2007 di sviluppare nuove rotte sul accesso alle risorse di gas dalla zona Caspio attraverso il Mar Nero in Europa. ; The beginning of 21st century revealed to the world the beginning of a small war proportion. Geopolitics is a gigantic series of two player chess games, in which the players seek positional advantage. In these games it is crucial to know the current rules that govern the moves. Knights are not allowed to move diagonally. From 1945 to 1989, the principal chess game was the one between the United States and the Soviet Union and it was called the "Cold War". Nowadays, the chess game is between European Union and Russia and it is called metaphorically the "Gas Cold War". European energy security is facing a set of serious challenges connected to Europe's dependence on Russian energy and the need for diversifying energy supply sources. Now days, European Union and Russia arrived at a crossroad regarding their agreements on energy matters. The target of this PhD is to explore the current situation, leaving from the fact that are serious concerns in Europe that Russia may try to use its energy exports as a political lever in order to settle its supremacy on the political board. This thesis focuses on finding a solution towards the European's major concern – energy security of supply, by start building new routes of gas supply. For a better understanding, I structured my paper like a chase board, with a stake – new routes of gas supply, with two major players – European Union and Russia, one key actor – The Black Sea Region and of course with a solution. The main research questions of this thesis are: In the enlarged European Union it could be true that Russia may try to use its energy exports as a political lever in order to settle its supremacy? And, in order to be successful it will use the energy price to obtain the leverage? To answer these questions a first step is to understand the relations between EU and Russia and the role that, the Black sea region plays in this meter. The research proposes a theoretical framework, using a quantitative analyze method (analysis of content) and a qualitative analyze method (informal discussions with experts from this area). In order to be more precisely with my thesis assumption, I carry out some informal discussions with experts from energy and international affairs area, from Europe, Black sea and the Caspian region, countries who were involved in the energy case, to discuss and to analyze the impact of Russia's increasingly assertive foreign energy policy on Europe and European security, started from the gas crises launched by Russia that have a real affect on Europe economy from 2006 till nowadays. My point of view is that Russia will try through different ways to consolidate its dominance as a Global leader, using its most convenient means – the "energy price" and my believes were that the only way to solve the problem is by start building a diversification supply strategy that could link Europe to the Caspian basin through the Black sea region. If this strategy will succeed, Europe will be able to reduce the Russian influence and to create a safer life climate. Regarding the quantitative analyze method, the theoretical framework was foundated by reading some record books in the international relations and energy field, by participating to conference and seminars in Romania and outside the country, including a stage at the European Commission on energy matters, monitoring the news and the press articles in this field (Mediafax, Journal of European Public Policy, Euractiv, Eurobserver, Eupolitix, CNN, BBC, Euronews). Starting from the successful work experience in the energy field and cross-border cooperation, my thesis aims to deepen the understanding of the European Union energy security of supply. In the fallowing chapters of my thesis, I studied several aspects of Europe's energy dependence on Russia, and the role of the Black Sea region as a source of alternative supplies. The first chapter begins with two overviews of Europe's economic and energy security, which show Europe's vulnerability, but also the potential lying in the complementarities between Europe and the states of Central Eurasia. The paper then proceeds to discuss the role of Gazprom in both Russian domestic and foreign policy, respectively, which provide a disturbing picture of the emerging Russian energy diplomacy. Following this, the focus shifts south and east. A chapter puts forward the role of the emerging Black Sea region as a hub in European energy security, followed by chapters devoted to the specific role of Turkey. Subsequently, two specifically important infrastructural projects are studied – the Nabucco and the South stream pipelines, ending with a pipeline solution as a Trans-Caspian pipeline. The paper final concludes with the outlining of a supply diversification strategy. At this point we can say that the aim of this paper-study was to define what might be a solution to get out under the Russian dominance and to offer as a possible solution the developing of a common European energy supply strategy from the Caspian region thorough the Black Sea into the European Union. In this sense, the EU energy supply strategy is expecting to contribute to achieving these objectives by promoting new safe routes of supply and a balanced and sustainable development of the territory, making European Union safer concerning its energy supplies. The EU holds all the foreign policy instruments required to promote political stability and economic reform, develop and straighten democracy and the rule of law, and enhance the respect of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the countries of the Caspian region. Most importantly, the EU-Caspian relations need to be further expanding in the bilateral and regional dimensions of economy and trade, as well as at diplomatic level. The last events that occurred in the energy chess board had give a real chance to the Caspian region to exert its importance as a significant geo-strategic pivot, as well as to the EU to play a global role in the region. However, making this a reality is fraught with difficulty and Europe must respect some recommendations in order to formulate a common energy strategy in the Caspian area, such as:  move swiftly to thwart Gazprom's overtures to Azerbaijan.  give the political and economic backing to get Nabucco built and push for the creation of the trans-Caspian, intervening in the market to ensure diversity and prevent a monopoly of supply to Eastern Europe.  ensure stability of transit countries, push to resolve Nagorno Karahbak, greater commitment to the Minsk process.  think seriously about how to deal with Turkmenistan, balancing energy overtures with generous but not overbearing support for political and economic reforms. This will require concerted diplomacy and reassertion of western technological and technical superiority and ability to pay. As a final conclusion, the West, including the EU and the United States, needs to quickly rethink its energy and non-energy policies towards Russia. As we can see in this paper, the West does have the economic and political leverage to force Russia to become more transparent and commercial in its foreign energy policies. It cannot allow Moscow to threaten the energy security of Europe anymore, having the possibility since the accession of Romania and Bulgaria to the EU in January 2007 to develop new routes of gas supply from the Caspian area through the Black sea into Europe ; XX Ciclo

This report synthesizes the findings for the energy sector of a broader study, the Brazil low carbon study, which was undertaken by the World Bank in its initiative to support Brazil's integrated effort towards reducing national and global emissions of greenhouse gases while promoting long term development. The main aim of the study is to examine the potential for abating Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions in Brazil in the energy area and to assess the relative costs of doing so for the time frame 2010-2030. Basically the study seeks to demonstrate by how much, by when and at what cost Brazil could reduce its GHG energy sector emissions. Given its special features, the fuel use and emissions of greenhouse gases in the transportation sector are dealt with in another report of this project. In addition the study aims to provide information for the Brazilian government to enable it to develop a long-term strategy (2030) for reducing carbon in the energy area (except the transport sector) and, more specifically, to provide the technical input needed for evaluating the potential for reducing greenhouse gas emissions produced by the key economic sectors. In short, the study seeks to identify the different options and opportunities that could justify possible international resources being allocated to Brazil. The teams involved in the study needed first to focus on the proposed mitigation and carbon sequestering options and then, after identifying these proposals, to focus on existing barriers to the successful deployment of these options and suggest a set of public policies which could be mobilized to overcome them. The study also provides estimates of the scale of investments and operating costs likely to be involved, as well as a mitigation cost curve.

"Es el excremento del Diablo. Nos estamos ahogando en el excremento del Diablo" --Juan Pablo Pérez Alfonso, Fundador OPEPDos mil millones de personas, un tercio de la humanidad, vive en países vinculados a la extracción de recursos naturales. La mayoría de éstos son países en desarrollo cuyas economías dependen de las exportaciones de los mismos. UNCTAD estima que en 95 de 141 países en desarrollo al menos la mitad de sus exportaciones son commodities – y el 80% en promedio para el África Subsahariana.Las estadísticas de la última década para estos países han sido muy alentadoras. Los precios de los commodities se han más que duplicado entre el año 2000 al 2011 gracias el rápido crecimiento de China e India y al alto consumo de los Estados Unidos. Esto significa que cientos de miles de millones de dólares han sido transferidos a los cofres de los países exportadores de recursos naturales. En África, la industria del petróleo a invertido más de 20 mil millones de dólares en exploración y producción y otros 50 mil millones serán invertidos en los próximos años, las cifras más altas de la historia en el continente. Ver tasas de crecimiento anual del 5% o más en países desvastados por guerras como Sudán es algo común en estos días. A primera vista, esto debería despertar euforia en países como los latinoamericanos que se han visto beneficiados con los picos históricos en los precios del petróleo, el cobre y la soja, entre otros. De hecho, muchos de los países se encuentran en un contexto histórico inusual para la región de superávit doble (primario y fiscal) y con un crecimiento económico promedio que no tiene paralelos en las últimas décadas. De hecho, las exportaciones en Chile y en Venezuela se han multiplicado por diez en la última década. Sin embargo, aún con este maná de recursos, 700 millones de personas viven con menos de 2 dólares en la semana en los países exportadores de recursos naturales, representando la mitad de los pobres del mundo. (1) Es impactante el hecho de que 33 de los 50 países menos desarrollados (según el Índice de Desarrollo Humano) son países ricos en recursos naturales. En el caso de nuestra región, ésta continúa siendo la más desigual del mundo y todavía 150 millones de latinoamericanos viven con menos de 2 dólares por día. La "maldición de los recursos" (2) es un término que intenta explicar este fenómeno que no es más que una tragedia humana para los países en desarrollo. Recordemos que Venezuela tenía el PBI per cápita más alto de la región a principios de los años 1970 y hoy tiene la mitad de su población bajo nivel de pobreza. Más paradójico aún es el hecho que simultáneamente países con escasos recursos naturales han logrado desarrollarse. Al mismo tiempo que América Latina perdía posiciones en desarrollo relativo en las últimas décadas, los Tigres Asiáticos, pobres en recursos naturales, crecían sostenidamente y mejoraban la calidad de vida de su población mediante la exportación de productos industriales. Esta "paradoja de la abundancia", tal como Terry Lynn Karl la ha descripto, que parece condenar a millones a la pobreza y la violencia no es un debate nuevo en América Latina. Surge y resurge en cada momento de la historia, renovando esperanzas y acumulando decepciones. Desde la explotación colonial, pasando luego la inserción en la economía mundial como agro-minero-exportadores, el cepalista centro-periferia, hasta el actual boom, han sido todos debates sobre el desarrollo latinoamericano donde los recursos naturales han estado en el centro de escena. Lo que sucede es que la gran mayoría de los países exportadores de recursos naturales no son sólo pobres, sino que muchas veces son hoy más pobres que antes. El estándar de vida en la República Democrática del Congo, Libia, Irán o Papúa Nueva Guinea es menor hoy de lo que era una generación atrás. De los 18 países que tienen menor Índice de Desarrollo Humano hoy que en 1990, 15 de ellos son exportadores netos de recursos naturales. Muchas veces, estos países son más pobres que sus vecinos no tan "bendecidos" o, por lo menos, igual de pobres pero menos pacíficos y democráticos, como es el caso de Nigeria comparado a Ghana. A pesar de ello, algunos países han sido notablemente exitosos. Botswana con sus diamantes ha sido uno de los países de mayor crecimiento en el mundo en las últimas cuatro décadas logrando pasar de ser uno de los países más pobres de África - y el mundo – con solo 12 kilómetros de calles pavimentadas a ser un país de ingreso medio alto más alto que Mexico o Turquía. También Chile y Malasia han logrado evitar la maldición diversificando sus economías y mejorando la calidad de vida de sus ciudadanos. Tales casos no son la excepción e implican que los recursos naturales no son necesariamente una maldición. Desde mediados de los 1990s el debate de los expertos en el tema ha ido alejándose progresivamente de las cuestiones estrictamente económicas y aceptando que el desafío que presenta la abundancia de recursos naturales más que ser un problema estrictamente de fiebre holandesa (3), sino también de índole político. Estudios han demostrado una importante correlación entre abundancia de recursos naturales con democracias débiles, corrupción, clientelismo y guerra civil. (4)Mirando más en detalle, obervamos cómo funciona la "maldición": cuando la economía de un país está concentrada en un recurso tipo minería o petróleo, al estar concentrado geográficamente y requerir la intervención de muy pocos recursos humanos para su extracción – relativos a su peso económico – sucede independientemente de la economía del resto del país. Otra característica es que estos recursos van en gran medida a las arcas del Estado mediante regalías (o explotación directa). Es así como crea incentivos concretos para desencadenar una feroz lucha política por la captura de los mismos. Más importante aún, los gobiernos de turno no tienen la necesidad de colectar impuestos de sus ciudadanos ya que todas sus necesidades financieras están ya cubiertas. Es así como, rompiendo el contrato fiscal de la democracia, los gobernantes tampoco tienen muchos incentivos para cumplir con los derechos de los ciudadanos. El resultado será, casi ineludiblemente, burocracias poco eficientes, limitados controles ciudadanos y, en definitiva, democracias más débiles cuando no dictaduras. Es decir, que los países sufran o no de la maldición tiene que ver con qué es lo que hacen con estos recursos, básicamente cómo los gobiernos logran sobreponerse a los desafíos y oportunidades provenientes de tales recursos. Evitar la maldición es una cuestión de buen gobierno y depende en gran medida de la calidad de sistema político para evitar el mal uso de los recursos, el atropello de las grandes empresas explotadoras y cuidar el medio ambiente y a la población.Si bien es imposible hacer un vademécum de medidas a tomar para evitar la "maldición", países tan dispares como Chile, Malasia o Botswana nos enseñan algunos puntos en común en sus esfuerzos para evitarla. Manteniendo estables el tipo de cambio real de sus monedas y así evitar la apreciación nominal – uno de los síntomas principales de la fiebre holandesa. y Bancos Centrales fuertes han sido claves en este proceso. Fundamental ha sido como estos países han complementado estas políticas monetarias con políticas fiscales eficientes. Por un lado, para generar ahorro y evitar los impactos de las subidas y derrumbes estrepitosos de los precios que normalmente sufren los commodities y, por el otro, de carácter redistributivos para aumentar los ingresos de los sectores no ligados a la exportación. El caso de las políticas activas para ayudar a los Bumiputra en Malasia brindándoles mejores servicios de salud, educación, vivienda y créditos productivos es el más claro ejemplo. Otro punto en común son los esfuerzos realizados para diversificar la economía más allá de sus recursos naturales. Mediante las políticas activas del New Economic Policy, Malasia se convirtió en la década del 80 en el primer exportador de semiconductores del mundo, Chile en los últimos años ha logrado exitosamente diversificar su canasta exportadora al salmón, vino y otros productos; y, aunque más limitadamente, Botswana ha protegido y expandido su sector agropecuario y de servicios. Es importante notar que las principales empresas explotadoras de los recursos son estatales como es el caso de CODELCO en Chile y PETRONAS en Malasia o con amplia participación del gobierno como es el caso de los diamantes en Botswana.Finalmente, y quizás sea el aspecto menos estudiado, es que estos tres casos han invertido fuertemente en la calidad institucional de sus Estados. Muchas veces saliendo de situaciones difíciles tales como la guerra civil de Malasia en los años 60 o Chile luego de la dictadura de Pinochet, los gobiernos se han preocupado por institucionalizar el poder político e incluir a otros actores al sistema. La Concertación en Chile, las políticas consensuales de los Tswanas en Botswana y la alianza multiétnica del Barisan National son ejemplos concretos de políticas inclusivas que brindan estabilidad y evitan grandes conflictos, tan comunes en países como Nigeria o Papúa Nueva Guinea. De la misma manera, la inversión en la calidad técnica del servicio civil, el bajo nivel de corrupción y la fortaleza de los sistemas judiciales son notables. Observar lo que han hecho los países que han, aparentemente, logrado escapar de la maldición de los recursos no sólo es importante porque muchos son países en desarrollo, sino también porque puede brindar herramientas claves para ver fallas de la economía global y sacar de la pobreza a gran parte de la humanidad. Un tercio de África vive en Egipto, Nigeria y Sudán, otros 300 millones viven en Venezuela, Irán e Indonesia. Es decir, un uso socialmente eficiente de los recursos podría sacar de la pobreza a no menos de 500 millones de personas.(1) Cálculos propios utilizando la medida de 2 dólares diarios de las bases del Banco Mundial (World Bank Environmental Accounting Project).(2) Sachs y Warner 1995(3) La teoría dice que cuando un recurso natural tiene un incremento sostenido en su precio, arrastra trabajo y capital de otros sectores de la economía, principalmente la industria, y, por otro lado eleva los precios de los productos no exportables. Entonces, cuando cae el precio del recurso exportado, dado que el resto de la economía se ha contraído al menos en términos relativos, la economía local se encuentra peor que si el boom nunca hubiera ocurrido. Para un artículo reciente al respecto, ver Bresser Pereira, 2008(4) Ver Ross 2001 y 2004, Sachs y Warner 1995, Leite y Weidmann 1999*El autor es Director de Asuntos del Sur www.asuntosdelsur.org Es politólogo de la Universidad de Buenos Aires. Posee un MSc de la Universidad de Oxford y un Master of Public Affairs del Instituto de Estudios Políticos de Paris (Sciences Po) donde también es candidato a doctor.Twitter: @MatiasFBianchi .

La ciudad ha ocupado un lugar central en la construcción del pensamiento social moderno en toda la cultura occidental. Ella ha encarnado el espacio privilegiado para la constitución de lo político, del orden social y económico, de las instituciones, de la monumentalidad y del arte que expresa su proyección en el tiempo. Ha escenificado, por tanto, distintos ideales de la modernidad capitalista, ya sea en su variante industrial o en la global y neoliberal. Sin embargo, la ciudad también ha sido la instancia predilecta para, a través de las sociabilidades que hace posible, cuestionar colectivamente esos ideales y generar nuevas alternativas, reinventando formas de ciudadanía y participación política. En América Latina, la ciudad como materialidad, como idea y como escenario político, es el artefacto cultural que inventa e instala, a veces dolorosamente, la modernidad. No hablamos de las ciudades ancestrales que, por cierto, precedieron a nuestras ciudades modernas, sino de aquellas ciudades coloniales que operaron como enclaves y trofeos del viejo mundo; o de las ciudades republicanas que configuraron con sus trazas y arquitectura monumental las naciones imaginadas; o de las ciudades como polos de desarrollo y progreso que promovieron la violenta "aculturación" de masas campesinas a la manera de la "civilización urbana". Lo cierto es que, en la conformación de las culturas y el pensamiento social latinoamericano del siglo XX, el debate sobre lo urbano, y sobre la representación social de la ciudad y las posibilidades de emancipación que promueve, ha ocupado un sitial central.
Este número especial de Revista Persona y Sociedad es una invitación a pensar en claves de pasado y presente nuestras ciudades latinoamericanas del siglo XXI, territorios marcados por la desigualdad, la expoliación de derechos, distintos tipos de violencias, la mercantilización y modelos económicos que privilegian los grandes intereses transnacionales. Paradójicamente, nuestras ciudades, mientras se visten de nuevas diversidades culturales, se homogeneizan en su estética de fronteras, cordones de miseria, enclaves de riqueza, carreteras y proyectos inmobiliarios. Nos enfrentamos así a contradicciones y fracturas que permean nuestras ciudades en sus memorias colectivas, en sus maneras de construir, habitar y transitar, y que nos hablan de procesos que nos son propios y a la vez comunes a otras ciudades del planeta. Tales contradicciones y fracturas, sin embargo, no son completamente naturalizadas ni están totalmente anquilosadas en el tiempo. Tal como observamos en Buenos Aires en 2001, en La Paz en 2003, en São Paulo en 2011 o, recientemente, en Quito y Santiago en 2019, los residentes urbanos responden creativamente a la desigualdad. No solo abren nuevas oportunidades de movilización, sino que también ensayan nuevas alternativas políticas, expanden nuestro entendimiento de los derechos y redefinen los criterios de membresía de los modelos de ciudadanía. Las ciudades y sus transformaciones, en definitiva, nos hablan de cómo los ciudadanos, en su relación con los Estados nacionales, buscan responder imaginativamente a un dilema central de la sociedad moderna: cómo administrar el problema de la pertenencia a la comunidad política a través de distintas formas de representación.
La invitación de este número de Revista Persona y Sociedad fue convocar a la comunidad científica a publicar ensayos que den cuenta de los nuevos diálogos, los nuevos debates que puedan crear vínculos y tender puentes entre nuestras ciudades. En esa línea, nos interesa plantear algunas preguntas para la reflexión conjunta. Entre ellas: reconociendo el lugar que ocupa la ciudad como objeto de interés en la cultura, la política y la economía latinoamericana, ¿cómo y quiénes piensan y hacen la ciudad del siglo XXI? ¿Qué elementos de este pensamiento y de estas representaciones impactan e inciden en las transformaciones urbanas de las ciudades latinoamericanas? ¿Qué es lo nuevo en nuestras ciudades latinoamericanas del siglo XXI? ¿Qué es lo antiguo? ¿Cuáles son las especificidades de nuestras ciudades en este siglo? ¿Cuáles son sus fronteras, cuáles sus dependencias? ¿En qué dialogan las ciudades latinoamericanas? ¿Cuáles son los silencios y los vacíos en este diálogo?
La invitación fue, también, a recuperar la escritura ensayística, esto es, una escritura amable que, siguiendo la tradición latinoamericana consolidada las primeras décadas del siglo XX, permita una narrativa interpretativa y conceptual que, distanciada del positivismo, abra líneas comprensivas sobre la cultura urbana. Compartiendo el estatuto ambiguo del ensayo como género literario, nos interesa esta ambigüedad en tanto permite un modo de escritura teórica en el límite del rigor. Como bien advierte Gabriel Castillo en Las estéticas nocturnas: ensayo republicano y representación cultural en Iberoamérica y Chile (2003), el ensayo supone una alternativa al texto que se pretende científico, metódico, erudito, profesional, académico, sin negar la posibilidad de que este último pueda siempre a su vez ser cuestionado por un referente que lo vuelve ensayo de otro texto, y así sucesivamente. Pero el ensayo tenderá a extender sus posibilidades de lectura invocando libertad crítica e intelección intuitiva e inspirada.
Siete son los ensayos que, finalmente, fueron seleccionados para este número de la revista, cubriendo un amplio espectro de realidades urbanas desde México a Chile, pasando por el cordón de ciudades andinas. Tres son los grandes temas que se nos plantean y que ciertamente dialogan entre sí. A modo de introducción y marco de análisis, el ensayo de Eduardo Kingman instala la pregunta por el diálogo entre pasado y presente en las ciudades nuestras. En un segundo momento, dos trabajos, el de Raúl Olmedo y el de Gabriel Espinoza, abordan el problema de la vertiginosidad de las transformaciones en la ciudad contemporánea, a partir de los procesos de renovación urbana de la mano del mercado inmobiliario y sus consecuencias en términos de gentrificación. En esta misma línea, Mercedes González Bracco se pregunta por las transformaciones del imaginario del habitar a partir de los cambios en las subjetividades contemporáneas en la ciudad vertical. Finalmente, como tercer campo temático, Manuela Badilla y Felipe Ulloa reflexionan sobre el malestar social, la desigualdad en términos de género y clase social, y cómo tales realidades horadan las estructuras sociales y permean la vida cotidiana de los habitantes de la ciudad. Cierran este número temático, Matthew Caulkins, Mauro Fontana, Felipe Aracena y Mabel Cobos con su análisis de las movilizaciones y estallidos que hemos visto este último tiempo, para dar cuenta de lo que los autores anuncian como las utopías contrahegemónicas que se tejen en la ciudad.
Abre este ejercicio ensayístico el historiador y antropólogo quiteño Eduardo Kingman, preguntándose si se puede hablar de ciudades andinas. Desde el sentido común ciudadano, advierte, estas son percibidas como modelos fallidos de modernización y urbanización. Kingman, sin embargo, arriesga interrogar el pasado del presente y el presente del pasado de nuestras ciudades, admitiendo que, al igual que José María Arguedas, nunca se puede estar seguro de entenderlas. Buena advertencia para iniciar este dossier temático sobre las ciudades latinoamericanas. Y es que entender las ciudades es siempre "ubicarse en el cruce de temporalidades distintas, en el umbral entre el presente y el pasado, entre lo moderno y lo no moderno, como realidades y espacialidades yuxtapuestas, así como entre distintas regiones y entre la ciudad y el campo". Las ciudades son, por definición, espacios de cambios y movimiento —debemos agregar—, lo que las hace aun más inasibles: "cambios relacionados con un pasado más o menos lejano, pero también cambios recientes, resultado del despliegue de la modernización y la modernidad contemporáneas". No se puede estudiar una ciudad a partir de modelos, advierte Kingman, porque cualquier modelo, por fascinante que parezca, es reduccionista y no capta la dinámica real de los fenómenos. El presente y el pasado de una ciudad no pueden sino ser reconstituidos a partir de fragmentos e imágenes dialécticas, para entender hasta qué punto las perspectivas abiertas por ese acercamiento nos van a ayudar a comprender lo que somos como conglomerados sociales. En esta búsqueda de los fragmentos, el autor nos guía amablemente a través de las contradicciones en que las ciudades andinas se desenvuelvan, deteniéndose en cuatro ámbitos: la presencia del pasado; las relaciones campo ciudad; el predominante lugar de las ciudades en nuestro continente; y la vida cotidiana como espacio donde las formas de escamoteo, incorporación y transfiguración desde abajo logran sortear las directrices dominantes. En medio de estos trajines, los procesos de reinvención identitarios, celebra Kingman, son la otra cara de las grandes demoliciones provocadas por la renovación urbana y por la crisis social profundizada en estos días por la crisis epidemiológica.
En un segundo momento, tres ensayos reflexionan sobre la renovación urbana de la mano del mercado inmobiliario, la gentrificación y las transformaciones en el imaginario del habitar urbano. Raúl Olmedo trae a luz el caso de Airbnb en Ciudad de México, como ejemplo de economía colaborativa que deviene en una economía depredatoria a través de la turistificación de ciertos espacios de la ciudad. Aun cuando, en el discurso, Airbnb se sustenta en el compartir y en las asociaciones en red, lo cierto es que, en el caso de los arriendos, el resultado es la fragmentación de las viviendas con el solo objetivo de extraer rentas. A partir del caso de dos museos (Castillo de Chapultepec y Palacio de Bellas Artes), el autor problematiza el impacto de Airbnb en la resignificación de sectores del centro histórico, que se sintetiza en la expulsión tanto de vecinos como de las buenas prácticas vecinales, y de la buena memoria.
Para la ciudad de Santiago, Gabriel Espinoza problematiza los simulacros que se despliegan con los procesos de gentrificación, a partir de la observación del barrio Franklin, un sector comercial de origen obrero, conocido por sus galpones, la venta en calles y veredas de todo tipo de objetos y artefactos, de primera y segunda mano. El autor interroga a esta clase de pasado obrero y cómo sus actividades e intercambios han devenido en simulacro y teatro. En el paso del "cachivache" a la "antigüedad", no solo la clase obrera desaparece y se recubre de nuevas significaciones simbólicas; también el espacio barrial se privatiza, se encarece y echa a sus antiguos habitantes. Concluye el autor señalando que esto no implica que toda expulsión sea espacial en el plano topográfico, sino que estas también operan a un nivel capilar en el plano de lo simbólico.
En una línea similar, pero para la ciudad de Buenos Aires, Mercedes González Bracco profundiza en los cambios en el imaginario del habitar de las clases medias porteñas desde la segunda mitad del siglo XX, hasta la actualidad. En tal sentido, propone una lectura de sus continuidades y rupturas para caracterizar la emergencia de las clases medias. Señala al respecto cómo su imaginario del buen vivir estuvo dominado por la idea del "departamento tecnificado", para luego sufrir un deslizamiento hacia la "casa sensible" como nuevo parámetro de legitimidad en la construcción del espacio doméstico y espacio de satisfacción personal. En cada uno de estos desplazamientos, apunta, el papel de los medios de comunicación y el mercado inmobiliario ha sido central. Hoy en día, agrega, tal deslizamiento también se observa en la actual legitimación de estilos de vida vinculados al "mercado de la casa" y opciones como los barrios cerrados suburbanos y las torres jardín en la ciudad.
En una tercera línea temática están los ensayos sobre la desigualdad y el malestar social, demostrando, como bien nos recuerda Kingman, que la multitud no es necesariamente equivalente a desorden ni siquiera en momentos de grandes movilizaciones sociales. Pero, como lo exponen estos tres ensayos sobre la ciudad de Santiago, en estas expresiones públicas a menudo se incuban las profundas violencias e inequidades de nuestra sociedad desigual.
Felipe Ulloa problematiza en torno a las significaciones que construyen jóvenes mujeres universitarias en las calles de Santiago. Desde el inicio de su ensayo advierte sobre los altos niveles de violencia que ellas perciben en la vida cotidiana, donde el género se articula como una fuente constante de malos tratos. En estos términos, la investigación permite reconocer el carácter multidimensional y problemático de las desigualdades espaciales y de la movilidad cotidiana urbana para las jóvenes. Así, el autor señala que aun cuando las calles son definidas por las jóvenes mujeres como espacios de libertad y donde se manifiesta lo diverso, también en ellas se puede ser víctima de amenazas. Una ciudad ambivalente, que es peligrosa, pero que también da placer, y donde, paradójicamente, las jóvenes mujeres se ven y se levantan como sujetas de derecho. Desde la sociología de la individuación, el ensayo demuestra cómo las jóvenes universitarias se producen activamente en tanto que sujetos frente a los límites que imponen las condiciones estructurales. La calle, en conclusión, tiene importantes efectos para la constitución de sujeto de las mujeres jóvenes, a la vez que invita a ser repensada y reconstruida como espacio de libertad, de derechos, de igualdad entre géneros, de encuentros con otros.
El ensayo de Manuela Badilla analiza, para la ciudad de Santiago, un modo de recordar, de construir memorias, que distingue la periferia urbana del resto de la ciudad. Son memorias que se construyen en los espacios periféricos, marcados por la desigualdad y la segregación. Estas otras memorias son levantadas por jóvenes que desafían el pasado hegemónico desde su experiencia de segregación, de distancia, a la que se suma la de estar de paso. Son memorias urbanas efímeras, que intentan "seguir el rastro y ritmo de los residentes, así como el cambio acelerado del escenario urbano". Las acciones por medio de las cuales se conmemoran distintos hitos pueden durar semanas o desaparecer inmediatamente, son memorias fugaces en las que la calle aparece como el lugar predominante. La autora rescata el potencial del concepto de memoria urbana, en especial después del levantamiento social iniciado el 18 de octubre de 2019, periodo que ha movilizado la significación del territorio, sus demandas y sus sentidos de pertenencia. Hacer memoria pos 18 de octubre mostró ser parte de los repertorios de acción de los jóvenes de la periferia de Santiago, fortaleciendo vínculos generacionales y estrechando sentidos de pertenencia, haciendo del espacio periférico un lugar con identidades y demandas propias.
Finalmente, cierra este número de Revista Persona y Sociedad el ensayo sobre la revuelta social que se inició en octubre de 2019, en Santiago de Chile y, específicamente, en la ahora bautizada Plaza Dignidad. En este ensayo, Matthew Caulkins, Mauro Fontana, Felipe Aracena y Mabel Cobos plantean que, a partir del estallido social, es posible dar cuenta de la ciudad como soporte y escenario de conflictos políticos; pero también de la ciudad como un territorio que se construye y resignifica constantemente. La disputa por la apropiación del espacio urbano cobra un sentido en sí mismo —más allá de las demandas sociales que enuncia—, pues es la manifestación de distintos territorios que están en construcción y en conflicto. Qué elementos permanecen, cuáles se reutilizan, cuáles se destruyen o cuáles se resignifican, son clave para comprender los límites establecidos entre estos territorios que entran en conflicto y que constituyen parte de una misma ciudad. En este marco, se revisa un corpus de prácticas contrahegemónicas realizadas durante la revuelta social, tales como la expresión activa de los cuerpos, objetos y grafitis de los y las manifestantes. Para los investigadores, tales prácticas constituyen "recursos en la configuración material de nuevos territorios". Concluyen al respecto que ellas son "utopías contrahegemónicas", las cuales tuvieron como fin sitiar y poner en jaque el orden del espacio urbano hegemónico. Y con esto, también al proyecto hegemónico producido y mantenido por el Estado.
Finalmente, nuestros reconocimientos y agradecimientos a los evaluadores y las evaluadoras de los artículos, que de manera generosa permitieron que este número de Revista Persona y Sociedad saliera a la luz en óptimas condiciones.

10The Students' Attitudes Toward the Instructor's Code Switching in EFL Classroom Yesi Sehiling S1 Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Bahasa dan Seni Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Indonesia yesisehiling@gmail.com Abstract English has a big influence in the world. It can be seen that almost all of the country around the world put English as one of the foreign language which is taught in any level of the institutions. In Indonesia, English is taught from kindergarten until university level which is called as English as Foreign language. It is because the awareness that almost information around the world is provided in English, which is the key to make the generation moves forward following modern era.Because English is a foreign language, it may be hard to be learned to Indonesian society. So, to make it interesting, English should be delivered as enjoyable as possible and in the right way so that the learner can get the English learning well. Teaching English in Indonesia is usually delivered in English. But, there are some instructors sometimes use Indonesian to switch the code from English when teaching in the classroom. This study focuses on the use of code switching by the instructor and the students' attitudes toward the teacher's code switching in EFL clasroom. In fact, the researcher would like to know whether the language choice in teaching EFL classroom may influences the students' attitudes toward the language or not. This study used qualitative approach. The instruments which are used are some notes, video recorder and the researcher itself. To collect the data, this study uses observation, interview and questionnaire. The Objects of the study are in EFL classrooms (senior high school, English department and Indonesian department). The subjects of the study are the English teacher and the students. The findings of the study show that the use of code switching may be as simply talks and within any reason and perpose. The further findings indicate that the students' attitudes toward code switching by the instructor are largely influenced by the students' English proficiency. The less proficient students preferred the instructor to use both language which English should be minimized and Indonesian more explored. The more proficient students preferred the instructor to minimize the use of code switching if it is not needed enough and more explore English. Keywords: code switching, attitude, language attitude, EFL. Introduction Language is the most important thing for human life. By using language, the people can express their thought and sense to others (Humaidah, 2009: 2). But the most main function of language (Whatmough, 1957 :12) is to communicate each other. Communication is a kind of interaction which uses code that must be dealt by the speaker and the listener. If between the deliverer and the interlocutor does not know their code each other, their communication means nothing. Even though what they deliver consist some information, they will not be able to get what information is. In global world, people are obligated to be bilingual or multilingual which international language is included. It aims to make the people are able to interact with all the people around the world. Besides, all the world information must be provided in International language. By being able to understand International language, the people can access the information. English is an international language. It has a big influence. Almost all the countries in the world learn English. Indonesia does too. English is an important subject of school in Indonesia. It is taught in any level of school started from kindergarten, elementary school, junior high school, senior high school and university. It is hoped that the availability of English language as the subject of their school can contribute to the students' English language competence, which is the key to access information in the world. Besides, learning English aims that they are able to communicate using international language and have relation in international world considering international relationship is very important for life. In Indonesia, English is most taught as foreign language in formal setting. They are put in the classroom where the learning takes place. In this situation, the classroom is called as EFL (English as Foreign Language) classroom considering that Indonesia is non-English speaking country. According to Yletyinen (2004: 4), in EFL classroom, the learner learns English in an environment where there is only a little natural use of the language. Furthermore, the foreign language is treated equally to the other subjects with its homework and test. In EFL classroom in Indonesia, the teacher teaches the students English in order to make the students understand English by listening, reading, doing written and oral activities. The language of teaching is usually English. However, there are teachers sometimes change from English to Indonesian and vice versa in delivering the subject. This phenomenon is called as code switching. Code switching is very common in bilingual and multilingual societies. Wardhaugh (2006: 101) says that code switching is changing of codes from one code to another code or to mix the code in the same conversation. In the other words, code switching is the use of two or more languages in the same conversation. The code switching usage (Uys, 2000: 2) by the teacher in the class may have any reason or purpose such as the teacher uses code switching as strategy (Yletyinen, 2004: 53; Uys, 2000: 11) to explain in order to make the students understand what she/he has told or may be because she/he has less competence (Yletyinen, 2004: 72) in speaking English so she/he uses much Indonesian. This problem is very interesting topic to be discussed in this study especially related to student's attitude toward this phenomenon. Attitude is something that is got by the people through interaction with an object or accident. Attitude is not brought since baby but it is created through learning process in environment. There are factors that can change someone's attitude that are feeling, knowledge, experience and motive. Language is also related to attitude. Attitude toward language is called as language attitude. Language attitude is someone's attitude in choosing and deciding which language to be used. Language attitude is quite influenced by background and something happen in the environment. The students of Senior High School are in the high level of learning in school world under university students. They are expected to have good English skill after they graduate. In this case, the way of teaching them must also different from the previous grade. The capacity of using English rather than Indonesian of the teacher must influence the student's ability of English especially in speaking. In simply, using code switching by the teacher whether it is favored or disfavored by the students is focused in this study. There are earlier studies related to this paper done by Yletyinen (2004) which is titled the function of code switching in EFL Classrom. Then, Arrifin and Husin (2011) which is titled Code Switching and Code Mixing of English and Bahasa Malaysia in Content-Based Classroom and Alenezi (2010) which is titled Students' Language attitude Towards Using Code Switching as a Medium of Instruction in the College of Health Sciences: An Exploratory Study. Both of the studies analyze the language attitude towards code switching as a medium of instruction. The present study focused on the situation of code switching which is used by the teacher in the classroom and the student's attitude toward code switching by the instructor too. Research Question This research is guided by the following questions: Under what situation does the teacher use code switching in the classroom? How do the students take attitudes toward the teacher's code switching in the classroom? Purpose of the Study Related to the background of the study and the research question, the purposes of the study are: Describe the situation of the instructor's code switching in the classroom. Describe the students' attitudes toward the instructor's code switching. Significance of The Study The result of the study is hoped that can give contribution to sociolinguistics especially in the term of code switching and the attitudes toward code switching. But the most contribution may be for the teacher who teach EFL classroom in guiding the class to optimize positive attitude of the students toward English to get the better result of students' competence. Moreover, this study can give description to the people who will have research as this present study. Method Research method is the most important part of a research because it shows how the study is organized. This study uses qualitative method. Qualitative method is research procedure that produces descriptive data in the form of written words from the people or attitude that can be researched. This chapter consists of research design, subject, object, and the location, sources of the data, data collection techniques, instruments and data analysis. Research Design This study uses descriptive qualitative and quantitative data. According to Bodgan and Taylor on Margana's Disertasi (2012), descriptive qualitative uses data in the form of word, phrase, or clause whether written or spoken which is used to give overview of a certain description of phenomena about code switching. The quantitative data (Litosseliti, 2010: 52) enabless the the researcher to compare relatively large numbers of the students' attitudes in EFL classroom of the research which is as the main focus of the present study. Objects, subjects and location The objects of the study were classrooms of Senior High School, Indonesian department and English department that Senior High School was the main object and the others were to compare the result of the data. However, not all classrooms of the departments were researched but only one class of each department which was chosen randomly by the instructor. The objects were taken to compare the result considering their different level. Why should those objects be compared? Firstly, Senior High School is the highest level of obligated education program by Indonesian government. After graduating from this level, they were not obligated to continue their education in university. So that's why, they have to be given good skill in order to be able to get good enough job. It is quite related with their English skill because people who have good English competence and performance will get good/higher position than low English competence one of a company. Secondly, Indonesian department are the higher level of Senior High School. The perception is that the students of Indonesian have higher competence than Senior High School. But they may favor Indonesian rather than English considering their choice to choose Indonesian department rather than English department. Thirdly, English department is the department which the society use most English in their communication in the context of learning. All the students may have good English ability considering their ability to interact each other using English in the class. This object was used to compare and to get more varied data considering the different level and the English competence. The subjects of the study were all the societies in each classroom including the English teacher and the students. In this case, the teachers followed to answer Question 1 and the students followed to answer Question 2. Talking about the location, all of them are in East Java. Senior High School took place in SMA 1 Wonoayu. It is located in Pagerngumbuk village, Wonoayu, Sidoarjo. And, Indonesian department and English department took place in Universitas Negeri Surabaya which is located in Lidah Wetan village, Lakarsantri, Surabaya. Most societies of the institutions are multilingual (Javanese, Indonesian, and English). But, the language which is most used in classroom is Indonesian considering Indonesian is the formal language in Indonesia. However, it is the exception of English subject which English is most used. Moreover, the location takes place around the researcher's environment that could help the researcher to get the data easier. Data and Sources of Data This present study classifies the data into two types. They are linguistics and information data. The linguistics data is the situation of code switching by the teacher and the students' attitudes toward the code switching. The information data is obtained when the researcher conducted interview of the instructors about the reason of the use of code switching in the classroom and the interview and questionnaire of the students about the acceptability of the code switching by the instructor. The questions of the interview of the teacher was not listed but developed by each situation in each classroom. In the other hand, the interview of the students were listed which can be seen in Appendix 4 and the questionnaire which is adopted from the Likert scale (Arrifin and Husin, 2011) which was drawn below. No. Statement Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree There were three kinds of source of data in the present study. They were people, place, and papers. The people were the instructors and the students of the institutions. The place was in the classroom. The papers were from the related theories which were gotten from the books, previous studies and internet. Research Instrument The instrument is used to facilitate and get the data. In this study, the data were collected by direct observation, questionnaire and interview. In doing the research, some tools were used to save the data by using some notes and video recorder. The gotten data is analyzed and related to the theories/previous studies. Question 1 : Under what situation does the instructor use code switching in the classroom? In order to answer question 1, direct observation and interview were used. Interview was used for the teacher to get more information about the reason of using code switching. In the interview activity, it was not made interview sheet because the interview was done directly based on the situation of code switching in each classroom. See Appendix 1,2 and 3 to get more details information. Question 2: How do the students take attitudes toward the teacher's code switching in the classroom? In order to answer question 2, questionnaire, interview and direct observation were used for the students. Questionnaire sheet was used to answer the Question. The interview and direct observation were also used to strengthen the data. The tools were video recorder. The data from the instrument was analyzed which also needed some theories relating to the study in analyzing the data. However, the researcher was the key instrument to answer those two questions. The researcher as the instrument means that the researcher became the determiner in collecting data. She paid attention, followed, took a note and analyzed the data. Data Collection Technique Data collection technique of this study was done by doing observation, interviewing, and giving questionnaire. Observation Direct observation was used to get the data. It was done to see the phenomenon of code switching by the instructor directly and how the students take attitudes toward the use of code switching by the instructor and to take a note the whole learning activity in the classroom. The direct observation was also video recorded. Interview This study uses spoken interview to collect the data. Both teacher and the students were interviewed. The tool was video recorder. Interview for the teacher (see Appendix 1,2,3) was done after the observation. In contrast, interview for the students (see Appendix 4) was done before the observation. The students who were interviewed was chosen randomly based on their English competence, higher competence and lower competence. The categorization of their English Competence was based on their score. Each instructor has their characteristic of giving score and categorizing the students whether they are less competence or more competence. The teacher of senior high school had requirement that the students who have score under 80, they are categorized as less competence and upper 80 as more competence. The lecturer of English department did say so. Whereas the lecturer of Indonesian department gave score under 70 for less competence and upper 70 for more competent students. Questionnaire Questionnaire was used for the students. There were 8 statements of the questionnaire. The questionnaire was given to all students in the classroom according to their presence when the research was done. Data Analysis In analyzing the data, there are some steps below: The data were classified according to the situation or specific time of the use of code switching by the instructor and the students' attitudes toward the use of code switching. However, the data collections of the interview were transcribed. The data were then analyzed based on the theories and previous studies. The data were interpreted and made conclusion about the result of the study and also provided some suggestion for the future study by the researcher. Results and Discussion The use of code switching The data reveal a clear pattern of instructor's language use in the classroom. All of the institutes above showed the use of code switching English-Indonesian or Indonesian-English by the instructor was common practice phenomenon. The characteristics of each institute also influence the frequent of the use code switching or the languages whether the more frequent was English or Indonesian. Senior high school institute used code switching balance whether English-Indonesian or Indonesian-English. It was different with Indonesian department that the institute used more frequent in Indonesian and unaware in using English. On the other side, the lecturer of English department used English more frequent in the classroom and Indonesian was just used in simply talks or just to give more explanation and example. Eventhough the institutes had their own characteristics, here the results of the code switching use in each institute were summerized into one. Those, code switching by the instructors in the classroom happened under situation below: Code switching happened in explaining the material which was used to make the explanation clearer to be understood by the students. According to Yletyinen (2004: 53), there are different strategies for explaining the material being taught by mentioning repetition, reformulation, clarification and exemplification. In the present data, code switching in explaining material is common which was happened in all the institutions whether in senior high school, Indonesian department and English department of university. This result supports Yletyinen's thesis (2004: 53) and Uys (2000: 44) which they found that the teacher has to clarify his/her message by code switching to the students' mother tongue and thus making the students more understand the material and do what the teacher asks to do. However, the code switching was most used in the senior high school. Code switching was used as the student's requirement. This reason of code switching is the same result with Youkhana (2010: 15) that the students tend to ask the teacher to change the code into mother tongue because they discomfort to the English used because it makes them confused to understand the instructor's speech. Code switching was used in joking. According to Weng, this function of code switching is called as poetic function that the speaker inserted some jokes, stories, some poetic quotation in the conversation. Joking (Uys, 2000: 44) in mother tongue is more understandable and felt rather that in foreign language because mother tongue has stronger role to catch the meaning. This finding is supported by Wardhaugh (2006: 112). He said that code switching can be used for humorous effect. In other words, code switching has purpose of joking. Code switching happened in simply talks which were with unawareness. This phenomenon is often happened. It was found in the three institutes in the research. The code switching was spoken accidentally, since it was not required. According to Yletyinen (2004: 95), this code switching is called lapse. Lapse was most frequent happened in Indonesian department which the instructor delivered her speech most in Indonesian and slipped English words sometimes. It is different with senior high school and English department which are commonly slipped Indonesian words. Code switching was used when the instructor was disappointed with the students. This code switching (Yletyinen: 2004: 89) is called as teacher admonition. She said that the mother tongue sometimes has more power in the foreign language classroom. This is also called as expressive function of code switching (Weng's article: 4) that the teacher uses code switching to express the emotion and mother tongue is often inserted to express the true feelings. This strategy by the instructor will make the students more alert, they response better to their mother tongue. Furthermore, they know that they do not have an excuse by appealing not to understand the teacher. In this case, code switching used when reprimanding students is the effective strategy. Code switching happened to get the students' attention. This is named directive function (Weng's article: 4). In the direct observation, the teacher asked "How many groups that have finished the assignment?" Almost of the students just kept silent. Then, the teacher asked again "berapa banyak group yang sudah menyelesaikan tugasnya?" The students answered the question by raising hands. Implicitly, The use of mother tongue had a purpose that was to get the students attention the teacher's speech. According to Yletyinen's thesis (2004: 70), code switching can be used in helping the less competent students to answer a question that the teacher asks. Yletyinen's statement supports the idea above that the teacher changed the code into Indonesian to help the students who most of them were less competent to understand the teacher's question and answer it. The use of Indonesian here was also aimed to help the students understand the question so that the students could answer the teacher's question. Not only that, code switching (Wardhaugh, 2006: 112) that is by choosing the preferred language of the students, the message will be easier to catch. The students' attitude This study shows that code switching of English and Indonesian is a common communicative behavior in the classrooms. However, this study is aimed to explore students' attitude towards the language of teaching in English class and the effects of the instructors' code switching to the students' English performance. The findings of this study indicate that the students' attitude toward code switching in the English class was largely influenced by the students' English language competence. Although in fact, The classrooms had each characteristics which senior high school class was the neutral one which was not in Indonesian department class or English department class. It is because the students commonly more favor the language they took as their majure than another one. The students of Indonesian department showed their favor to Indonesian much and the students of English department showed their favor to English. It was proved by their decision of taking those majure. So, eventhough they were in English subject classroom, they tended to consider their own majure. In the other hand, the students of senior high school take attitudes about code switching that were purely influenced by the students' English competence. The results show that the students with less proficiency prefer their teacher to use both English and Indonesian in the same capacity or larger use Indonesian. Alenezi (2010: 7) said that the students more desirable and believe that code switching of the teacher makes the course easy to understand. They would get difficulties to catch the meaning of the speech if the instructor used English a lot. Meanwhile the students with higher proficiency prefer their teacher to use more English. The findings are supported by the Arrifin's and Hussin's (2011: 237) study that the students with less English proficiency were more tolerant to the instructors' code switching compared to the more proficient group. The students with higher proficiency might believe that the use of English by the teacher could improve their language competence specifically in vocabulary. Weng's article also found that it can help the students to understand new vocabulary. The results are rather different in the English department which shows that the students were sometimes confused about the use of code switching by their lecturer that did not add their vocabulary. They believed that for adding vocabulary, it depends on their desire and their effort by reading English books, watching movie and listening the musics. They further argued that the use of code switching should be minimized. The argument was also founded in David's article (2008: 78) that it should be minimized because it is bad for the learner. It assumed that if the teacher often used that, it can make the bad behavior to the next generation and will be more difficult to avoid. However, all the students agreed that the use of code switching can increase their comprehension toward the lesson. Riegelhaupth (2000: 210) argued that bilinguals use the language that the people they speak to know best. In this case, the use of code switching has function to repeat the speech for better comprehension. The results also showed that code switching by the teacher had each effect to their psychology aspect. The lower proficient students were not confidence to speak English to the teacher who was using code switching. They tended to use Indonesian because they were afraid of making mistakes or troubles to their speaking if they use English. They thought that they had poor vocabulary and poor understanding of grammar. But if the teacher spoke in English, they would try speaking English too then use Indonesian to the words which they did not know the meaning. Different with the lower proficient students, the higher proficient students were still confidence to speak in English to the teacher who was using code switching even though in a simple sentence. However, sometimes, they tended to use Indonesian or code switching because they did not want to be seen showing off their English competence. Again and again, the students of English department had different results. The lecturer's code switching did not influence their confidence. Whatever language the lecturer used, they were still confident to speak English but sometimes they followed the language the lelcturer used just to respect him. It is supported by Spolsky (1998: 49) that one tends to respect people who are socially superior to one self. Conclusion and Suggestion Conclusion This chapter is summary of the findings in order to make the reader get a better understanding through reading the findings of this thesis. Actually, the main objective of this present study is to investigate the students' attitude toward the instructor's code switching behavior in EFL classroom. After doing the research, the results are: The first finding is the situation of code switching phenomena by the instructor which is about the reason or the purpose of using code switching in the classroom that is drawn commonly below: Code switching happened in explaining the material which was used to make the explanation clearer to be understood by the students' code switching was used as the student's requirement Code switching was used in joking Code switching happened in simply talks which were with unawareness. Code switching was used as admonition which is used when the instructor was disappointed with the students. Code switching happened to get the students' attention. There are also additional findings that the instructors' frequency of using English or the Indonesian is largely influenced by the characteristic of the classroom. Senior high school institute used code switching balance as a mean the same frequency whether English-Indonesian or Indonesian-English. It was different with Indonesian department that the institute used more frequent in Indonesian and unaware in using English. It is influenced by the students' favor toward Indonesian. On the other side, the lecturer of English department used English more frequent in the classroom and Indonesian was just used in simply talks or just to give more explanation and example. The second finding is the students' attitude toward the instructor's code switching in the classroom. The findings of this study indicate that the students' attitude toward code switching in the English class was largely influenced by the students' English language competence. Although in fact, The classrooms had each characteristics which senior high school class was the neutral one which was not in Indonesian department class or English department class. It is because the students commonly more favor the language they took as their majure than another one. The students of Indonesian department showed their favor to Indonesian much and the students of English department showed their favor to English. It was proved by their decision of taking those majure. So, eventhough they were in English subject classroom, they tended to consider their own majure. In the other hand, the students of senior high school take attitudes about code switching that were purely influenced by the students' English competence. The results show that the students with less proficiency prefer their teacher to use both English and Indonesian in the same capacity or larger use Indonesian. They would get difficulties to catch the meaning of the speech if the instructor used English a lot. Meanwhile the students with higher proficiency prefer their teacher to use more English. The students with higher proficiency might believe that the use of English by the teacher could improve their language competence specifically in vocabulary. The results are rather different in the English department which shows that the students were sometimes confused about the use of code switching by their lecturer that did not add their vocabulary. They believed that for adding vocabulary, it depends on their desire and their effort by reading English books, watching movie and listening the musics. The findings also showed that code switching by the teacher had each effect to their psychology aspect. The lower proficient students were not confidence to speak English to the teacher who was using code switching. They tended to use Indonesian because they were afraid of making mistakes or troubles to their speaking if they use English. They thought that they had poor vocabulary and poor understanding of grammar. But if the teacher spoke in English, they would try speaking English too then use Indonesian to the words which they did not know the meaning. Different with the lower proficient students, the higher proficient students were still confidence to speak in English to the teacher who was using code switching even though in a simple sentence. However, sometimes, they tended to use Indonesian or code switching because they did not want to be seen showing off their English competence. Again and again, the students of English department had different results. The lecturer's code switching did not influence their confidence. Whatever language the lecturer used, they were still confident to speak English but sometimes they followed the language the lelcturer used just to respect him. Suggestion The instructor in EFL classroom should know the students' attitude toward the language used well so that she/he can use the right way in teaching English in EFL classroom in order to get the best result of the students' English competence. This study may be far from being perfect. It is hoped that there will be further researchers who conduct the research on the phenomenon of code switching by the instructor in the classroom and the students' attitude toward it for more detail data/explanation and from many points of view. References Alenezi, Abdullah. (2010). Students' Language Attitude Towards Using Code-Switching as a Medium of Instruction in the College of Health Sciences: An Exploratory Study, vol.7, 1-22 Arrifin, Kamisah and Husin, MisyanaSusanti. (2011). "Code Switching and Code Mixing of English and Bahasa Malaysia in Content Based Classrooms: Frequency and Attitudes".The Linguistics Journal.Vol 5 issue 1 David. (Desember, 2008).Understanding Mixed Code and Classroom Code-Switching: Myths and Realities. Ongkong Institute of Education.Hongkong.Vol 56, No.3 Faris, NurulElfatul. 2012. Alih Kode Dalam Proses Belajar-MengajarKelas VII Mts "AL-KAutsar" Srono Banyuwangi.UniversitasJember, Jember. Gardner-Chloros, Penelope. 2009. Code Switching. UK: Cambridge University Press. Litosseteliti, Lia. 2010. Research Methods in Linguistics. New York: Continuum. Riegelhaupth, Florencia. 2000. Code Switching and Language Use in the Classroom. Research on Spanish in the U.S., ed. Ana Roca, 204-217. Somerville,MA: Cascadilla Press. Spolsky, Bernard. 1998. Sociolinguistics. UK: Oxford University Press. Uys, David. 2010. The functions of teachers' code switching in multilingual and multicultural high school classrooms in the Siyanda District of the Northern Cape Province: Stellenbosch University. Wardahugh, Ronald. 2006. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. UK: Blackwell Publishing. Wardani, Devi. (2013), Skapbahasasiswaterhadapbahasa Indonesia: studikasus di SMA Negeri 1 Singaraja. E-Journal Program Pascasarjana Universitas Pendidikan Ganesha, Vol. 2 Weng, Pei-shi. Code Switching as a Strategy Use in an EFL Classroom in Taiwan.Tamkang University, Taiwan. Whatmough, Joshua. 1957. Language: A Modern Synthesis. New York: St. Martin's Press. Yletyinen, Hanna. 2004. The functions of code switching in EFL classroom. University of Jvyoskyl: Finland. Youkhana, Sana. 2010. Code Switching in the Foreign Language Classroom. Ogskolan: Jonkoping.

On 2017 August 17 a binary neutron star coalescence candidate (later designated GW170817) with merger time 12:41:04 UTC was observed through gravitational waves by the Advanced LIGO and Advanced Virgo detectors. The Fermi Gamma-ray Burst Monitor independently detected a gamma-ray burst (GRB 170817A) with a time delay of similar to 1.7 s with respect to the merger time. From the gravitational-wave signal, the source was initially localized to a sky region of 31 deg(2) at a luminosity distance of 40(-8)(+8) Mpc and with component masses consistent with neutron stars. The component masses were later measured to be in the range 0.86 to 2.26 M-circle dot. An extensive observing campaign was launched across the electromagnetic spectrum leading to the discovery of a bright optical transient (SSS17a, now with the IAU identification of AT 2017gfo) in NGC 4993 (at similar to 40 Mpc) less than 11 hours after the merger by the One-Meter, Two Hemisphere (1M2H) team using the 1 m Swope Telescope. The optical transient was independently detected by multiple teams within an hour. Subsequent observations targeted the object and its environment. Early ultraviolet observations revealed a blue transient that faded within 48 hours. Optical and infrared observations showed a redward evolution over similar to 10 days. Following early non-detections, X-ray and radio emission were discovered at the transient's position similar to 9 and similar to 16 days, respectively, after the merger. Both the X-ray and radio emission likely arise from a physical process that is distinct from the one that generates the UV/optical/near-infrared emission. No ultra-high-energy gamma-rays and no neutrino candidates consistent with the source were found in follow-up searches. These observations support the hypothesis that GW170817 was produced by the merger of two neutron stars in NGC4993 followed by a short gamma-ray burst (GRB 170817A) and a kilonova/macronova powered by the radioactive decay of r-process nuclei synthesized in the ejecta. ; Kavli Foundation; Danish National Research Foundation; Niels Bohr International Academy; DARK Cosmology Centre; NSF [AST-1518052, AST-141242, AST-1411763, AST-1714498, AST-1517649, PHY-1607291, AST-1412421, AST-1313484]; Gordon AMP; Betty Moore Foundation; Heising-Simons Foundation; Alfred P. 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California Institute of Technology; Alexander von Humboldt Sofja Kovalevskaja Award; FONDECYT [3160504]; US NSF [AST-1311862]; Quantum Universe I-Core program; Kimmel award; IRC [GOIPG/2017/1525]; Australian Research Council CAASTRO [CE110001020, FT160100028]; Millennium Science Initiative [IC120009]; NASA through Fermi-GBM; Bundesministerium fur Bildung und Forschung (BMBF) via Deutsches Zentrum fur Luft und Raumfahrt (DLR) [50 QV 0301]; Bundesministeriums fur Wirtschaft und Technologie (BMWi) through DLR [50 OG 1101]; Science Foundation Ireland [12/IP/1288]; NASA (United States); DOE (United States); CEA/Irfu (France); IN2P3/CNRS (France); ASI (Italy); INFN (Italy); MEXT (Japan); KEK (Japan); JAXA (Japan); K.A. Wallenberg Foundation; Swedish Research Council; National Space Board (Sweden); INAF (Italy); CNES (France); DOE [DE-AC02-76SF00515]; Office of Naval Research [N00014-07-C0147]; National Science Foundation under University Radio Observatory [AST-1139963, AST-1139974]; ESO Telescopes at the Paranal Observatory [099.D-0382, 099.D-0622, 099.D-0191, 099.D-0116]; REM telescope at the ESO La Silla Observatory [35020]; Department of University and Research (MIUR); Italian Space Agency (ASI); Autonomous Region of Sardinia (RAS); National Institute for Astrophysics (INAF); BIC [114332KYSB20160007]; Hundred Talent Program; Chinese Academy of Sciences [KJZD-EW-M06]; National Natural Science Foundation of China [11673062]; Oversea Talent Program of Yunnan Province; STFC (Science and Technology Facilities Council); Slovenian Research Agency [P1-0188]; Sorbonne Paris Cite [ANR-10-LABX-0023, ANR-11-IDEX-0005-02]; JSPS [15H05437]; JST Consortia; GROWTH (Global Relay of Observatories Watching Transients Happen) - National Science Foundation under PIRE [1545949]; California Institute of Technology (USA); University of Maryland College Park (USA); University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee (USA); Texas Tech University (USA); San Diego State University (USA); Los Alamos National Laboratory (USA); Tokyo Institute of Technology (Japan); National Central University (Taiwan); Indian Institute of Astrophysics (India); Inter-University Center for Astronomy and Astrophysics (India); Weizmann Institute of Science (Israel); Oskar Klein Centre at Stockholm University (Sweden); Humboldt University (Germany); Liverpool John Moores University (UK); Planning and Budgeting Committee; Israel Science Foundation; Large Synoptic Survey Telescope Corporation; National Science Foundation CAREER [1455090]; ERC grant TReX; Naval Research Laboratory (NRL); NRL; Oxford Centre for Astrophysical Surveys; Hintze Family Charitable Foundation; Swedish Research Council (V.R.); Israel Science Foundation, Minerva, Israeli ministry of Science; US-Israel Binational Science Foundation; I-CORE of the Planning and Budgeting Committee; Swedish Research Council (VR) [2016 03657 3]; Swedish National Space Board [Dnr. 107/16]; Gravitational Radiation and Electromagnetic Astrophysical Transients (GREAT) - Swedish Research council (V.R.) [Dnr. 2016-06012]; Science and Engineering Research Board, Department of Science and Technology, India; Indo-US Science and Technology Foundation; US National Science Foundation (NSF); US Department of Energy Office of High-Energy Physics; Laboratory Directed Research and Development (LDRD) program of Los Alamos National Laboratory; Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia (CONACyT), Mexico [271051, 232656, 167281, 260378, 179588, 239762, 254964, 271737, 258865, 243290]; Red HAWC, Mexico; DGAPA-UNAM [RG100414, IN111315, IN111716-3, IA102715, 109916]; VIEP-BUAP; University of Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation; Institute of Geophysics, Planetary Physics, and Signatures at Los Alamos National Laboratory; Polish Science Centre [DEC-2014/13/B/ST9/945]; German Ministry for Education and Research (BMBF); Max Planck Society; German Research Foundation (DFG); Alexander von Humboldt Foundation; Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft; French Ministry for Research; CNRS-IN2P3; Astroparticle Interdisciplinary Programme of the CNRS; U.K. Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC); IPNP of the Charles University; Czech Science Foundation; Polish National Science Centre; South African Department of Science and Technology; National Research Foundation; University of Namibia; National Commission on Research, Science and Technology of Namibia (NCRST); Innsbruck University; Austrian Science Fund (FWF); Austrian Federal Ministry for Science, Research and Economy; University of Adelaide; Japan Society for the Promotion of Science; University of Amsterdam; EGI Federation; China National Space Administration (CNSA); Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) [XDB23040400]; Ministry of Science and Technology of China (MOST) [2016YFA0400800]; U.S. National Science Foundation-Office of Polar Programs; U.S. National Science Foundation-Physics Division; Grid Laboratory of Wisconsin (GLOW) grid infrastructure at the University of Wisconsin-Madison; Open Science Grid (OSG) grid infrastructure; U.S. Department of Energy; National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center; Louisiana Optical Network Initiative (LONI) grid computing resources; Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada; WestGrid and Compute/Calcul Canada; Swedish Research Council, Sweden; Swedish Polar Research Secretariat, Sweden; Swedish National Infrastructure for Computing (SNIC), Sweden; Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation, Sweden; German Ministry for Education and Research (BMBF), Germany; Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG), Germany; Helmholtz Alliance for Astroparticle Physics (HAP), Germany; Initiative and Networking Fund of the Helmholtz Association, Germany; Fund for Scientific Research (FNRS-FWO); FWO Odysseus programme; Flanders Institute; Belgian Federal Science Policy Office (Belspo); Marsden Fund, New Zealand; Japan Society for Promotion of Science (JSPS); Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF), Switzerland; National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF); Villum Fonden, Denmark; Danish National Research Foundation (DNRF), Denmark; Russian Science Foundation [15-1230015, 14-22-00271]; Science and Education Ministry of Kazakhstan [0075/GF4]; RUSTAVELI [FR/379/6-300/14]; ESA Denmark; ESA France; ESA Germany; ESA Italy; ESA Switzerland; ESA Spain; ESA Russia; ESA USA; CEA; CNES; DLR; ESA; INTA; OSTC; ASI/INAF [2013-025-R.1]; German INTEGRAL through DLR [50 OG 1101]; Spanish MINECO/FEDER [ESP2015-65712-C5-1-R]; RFBR [16-29-13009-ofi-m]; JSPS KAKENHI [JP16H02183, JP15H02075, JP15H02069, JP26800103, JP25800103]; Inter-University Cooperation Program of the MEXT; NINS program; Toyota Foundation [D11-R-0830]; Mitsubishi Foundation; Yamada Science Foundation; Inoue Foundation for Science; National Research Foundation of South Africa; NRF [2017R1A3A3001362]; KASI [2017-1-830-03]; Israel Science Foundation [541/17]; Council of Scientific and Industrial Research of India; Department of Science and Technology, India; Science AMP; Engineering Research Board (SERB), India; Ministry of Human Resource Development, India; Spanish Agencia Estatal de Investigacion; Vicepresidencia i Conselleria d'Innovacio Recerca i Turisme; Conselleria d'Educacio i Universitat del Govern de les Illes Balears; Conselleria d'Educacio Investigacio Cultura i Esport de la Generalitat Valenciana; National Science Centre of Poland; Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF); Russian Foundation for Basic Research; Russian Science Foundation; European Commission; European Regional Development Funds (ERDF); Royal Society; Scottish Funding Council; Scottish Universities Physics Alliance; Hungarian Scientific Research Fund (OTKA); Lyon Institute of Origins (LIO); National Research, Development and Innovation Office Hungary (NKFI); National Research Foundation of Korea; Industry Canada and Province of Ontario through Ministry of Economic Development and Innovation; Natural Science and Engineering Research Council Canada; Canadian Institute for Advanced Research; Brazilian Ministry of Science, Technology, Innovations, and Communications; International Center for Theoretical Physics South American Institute for Fundamental Research (ICTP-SAIFR); Council of Hong Kong; National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC); Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS); Ministry of Science and Technology of China (MOST); Leverhulme Trust; Research Corporation; Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST), Taiwan; RIKEN; MEXT; KAKENHI [JP 17H06362]; EVN [RP029]; European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme [653477]; ERC [647208]; Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research through NWO VIDI [639.042.612-Nissanke]; NWO TOP [62002444-Nissanke]; VISIR [60.A-9392]; [MOST104-2923-M-008-004-MY5]; [MOST106-2112-M-008-007] ; (1M2H) We thank J. McIver for alerting us to the LVC circular. We thank J. Mulchaey (Carnegie Observatories director), L. Infante (Las Campanas Observatory director), and the entire Las Campanas staff for their extreme dedication, professionalism, and excitement, all of which were critical in the discovery of the first gravitational-wave optical counterpart and its host galaxy as well as the observations used in this study. We thank I. Thompson and the Carnegie Observatory Time Allocation Committee for approving the Swope Supernova Survey and scheduling our program. We thank the University of Copenhagen, DARK Cosmology Centre, and the Niels Bohr International Academy for hosting D.A.C., R.J.F., A.M.B., E.R., and M.R.S. during the discovery of GW170817/SSS17a. R.J.F., A.M.B., and E.R. were participating in the Kavli Summer Program in Astrophysics, "Astrophysics with gravitational wave detections." This program was supported by the the Kavli Foundation, Danish National Research Foundation, the Niels Bohr International Academy, and the DARK Cosmology Centre. The UCSC group is supported in part by NSF grant AST-1518052, the Gordon & Betty Moore Foundation, the Heising-Simons Foundation, generous donations from many individuals through a UCSC Giving Day grant, and from fellowships from the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation (R.J.F.), the David and Lucile Packard Foundation (R.J.F. and E.R.) and the Niels Bohr Professorship from the DNRF (E.R.). AMB acknowledges support from a UCMEXUS-CONACYT Doctoral Fellowship. Support for this work was provided by NASA through Hubble Fellowship grants HST-HF-51348.001 (B.J.S.) and HST-HF-51373.001 (M.R.D.) awarded by the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., for NASA, under contract NAS5-26555. This paper includes data gathered with the 1 meter Swope and 6.5 meter Magellan Telescopes located at Las Campanas Observatory, Chile.r (AGILE) The AGILE Team thanks the ASI management, the technical staff at the ASI Malindi ground station, the technical support team at the ASI Space Science Data Center, and the Fucino AGILE Mission Operation Center. AGILE is an ASI space mission developed with programmatic support by INAF and INFN. We acknowledge partial support through the ASI grant No. I/028/12/2. We also thank INAF, Italian Institute of Astrophysics, and ASI, Italian Space Agency.r (ANTARES) The ANTARES Collaboration acknowledges the financial support of: Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Commissariat a l'energie atomique et aux energies alternatives (CEA), Commission Europeenne (FEDER fund and Marie Curie Program), Institut Universitaire de France (IUF), IdEx program and UnivEarthS Labex program at Sorbonne Paris Cite (ANR-10-LABX-0023 and ANR-11-IDEX-0005-02), Labex OCEVU (ANR-11-LABX-0060) and the A*MIDEX project (ANR-11-IDEX-0001-02), Region Ile-de-France (DIM-ACAV), Region Alsace (contrat CPER), Region Provence-Alpes-Cite d'Azur, Departement du Var and Ville de La Seyne-sur-Mer, France; Bundesministerium fur Bildung und Forschung (BMBF), Germany; Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN), Italy; Nederlandse organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (NWO), the Netherlands; Council of the President of the Russian Federation for young scientists and leading scientific schools supporting grants, Russia; National Authority for Scientific Research (ANCS), Romania; Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad (MINECO): Plan Estatal de Investigacion (refs.; r r FPA2015-65150-C3-1-P, -2-P and -3-P; MINECO/FEDER), Severo Ochoa Centre of Excellence and MultiDark Consolider (MINECO), and Prometeo and Grisolia programs (Generalitat Valenciana), Spain; Ministry of Higher Education, Scientific Research and Professional Training, Morocco. We also acknowledge the technical support of Ifremer, AIM and Foselev Marine for the sea operation and the CC-IN2P3 for the computing facilities.r (AST3) The AST3 project is supported by the National Basic Research Program (973 Program) of China (Grant Nos. 2013CB834901, 2013CB834900, 2013CB834903), and the Chinese Polar Environment Comprehensive Investigation & Assessment Program (grant No. CHINARE2016-02-03-05). The construction of the AST3 telescopes has received fundings from Tsinghua University, Nanjing University, Beijing Normal University, University of New South Wales, and Texas A&M University, the Australian Antarctic Division, and the National Collaborative Research Infrastructure Strategy (NCRIS) of Australia. It has also received funding from Chinese Academy of Sciences through the Center for Astronomical Mega-Science and National Astronomical Observatory of China (NAOC).r (Auger) The successful installation, commissioning, and operation of the Pierre Auger Observatory would not have been possible without the strong commitment and effort from the technical and administrative staff in Malargue. We are very grateful to the following agencies and organizations for financial support: Argentina-Comision Nacional de Energia Atomica; Agencia Nacional de Promocion Cientifica y Tecnologica (ANPCyT); Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cientificas y Tecnicas (CONICET); Gobierno de la Provincia de Mendoza; Municipalidad de Malargue; NDM Holdings and Valle Las Lenas; in gratitude for their continuing cooperation over land access; Australia-the Australian Research Council; Brazil-Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cientifico e Tecnologico (CNPq); Financiadora de Estudos e Projetos (FINEP); Fundacao de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado de Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ); Sao Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP) grant Nos. 2010/07359-6 and 1999/05404-3; Ministerio da Ciencia, Tecnologia, Inovacoes e Comunicacoes (MCTIC); Czech Republic-grant Nos. MSMT CR LG15014, LO1305, LM2015038 and CZ.02.1.01/0.0/0.0/16_013/0001402; France-Centre de Calcul IN2P3/CNRS; Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS); Conseil Regional Ile-de-France; Departement Physique Nucleaire et Corpusculaire (PNC-IN2P3/CNRS); Departement Sciences de l'Univers (SDU-INSU/CNRS); Institut Lagrange de Paris (ILP) grant No. LABEX ANR-10-LABX-63 within the Investissements d'Avenir Programme Grant No. ANR-11-IDEX-0004-02; Germany-Bundesministerium fur Bildung und Forschung (BMBF); Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG); Finanzministerium Baden-Wurttemberg; Helmholtz Alliance for Astroparticle Physics (HAP); Helmholtz-Gemeinschaft Deutscher Forschungszentren (HGF); Ministerium fur Innovation, Wissenschaft und Forschung des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen; Ministerium fur Wissenschaft, Forschung und Kunst des Landes Baden-Wurttemberg; Italy-Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN); Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica (INAF); Ministero dell'Istruzione, dell'Universita e della Ricerca (MIUR); CETEMPS Center of Excellence; Ministero degli Affari Esteri (MAE); Mexico-Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia (CONACYT) No.; r r 167733; Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico (UNAM); PAPIIT DGAPA-UNAM; The Netherlands - Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap; Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (NWO); Stichting voor Fundamenteel Onderzoek der Materie (FOM); Poland-National Centre for Research and Development, grant Nos. ERA-NET-ASPERA/01/11 and ERA-NET-ASPERA/02/11; National Science Centre, grant Nos. 2013/08/M/ST9/00322, 2013/08/M/ST9/00728, and HARMONIA 5-2013/10/M/ST9/00062, UMO-2016/22/M/ST9/00198; Portugal-Portuguese national funds and FEDER funds within Programa Operacional Factores de Competitividade through Fundacao para a Ciencia e a Tecnologia (COMPETE); Romania-Romanian Authority for Scientific Research ANCS; CNDI-UEFISCDI partnership projects grant Nos. 20/2012 and 194/2012 and PN 16 42 01 02; Slovenia-Slovenian Research Agency; Spain-Comunidad de Madrid; Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional (FEDER) funds; Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad; Xunta de Galicia; European Community 7th Framework Program grant No. FP7-PEOPLE-2012-IEF-328826; USA-Department of Energy, Contract Nos. DE-AC02-07CH11359, DE-FR02-04ER41300, DE-FG02-99ER41107, and DE-SC0011689; National Science Foundation, grant No.r 0450696; The Grainger Foundation; Marie Curie-IRSES/EPLANET; European Particle Physics Latin American Network; European Union 7th Framework Program, grant No. PIRSES-2009-GA-246806; European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant No. 646623); and UNESCO.r (Australian Radio) T.M. acknowledges the support of the Australian Research Council through grant FT150100099. S.O. acknowledges the Australian Research Council grant Laureate Fellowship FL15010014. D.L.K. and I.S.B. are additionally supported by NSF grant AST-141242. P.A.B. and the DFN team acknowledge the Australian Research Council for support under their Australian Laureate Fellowship scheme. The Australia Telescope Compact Array is part of the Australia Telescope National Facility, which is funded by the Australian Government for operation as a National Facility managed by CSIRO. This scientific work makes use of the Murchison Radio-astronomy Observatory, operated by CSIRO. We acknowledge the Wajarri Yamatji people as the traditional owners of the Observatory site. Support for the operation of the MWA is provided by the Australian Government (NCRIS), under a contract to Curtin University administered by Astronomy Australia Limited. We acknowledge the Pawsey Supercomputing Centre, which is supported by the Western Australian and Australian Governments. The Australian SKA Pathfinder is part of the Australia Telescope National Facility, which is managed by CSIRO. Operation of ASKAP is funded by the Australian Government with support from the National Collaborative Research Infrastructure Strategy. ASKAP uses the resources of the Pawsey Supercomputing Centre. Establishment of ASKAP, the Murchison Radio-astronomy Observatory and the Pawsey Supercomputing Centre are initiatives of the Australian Government, with support from the Government of Western Australia and the Science and Industry Endowment Fund. Parts of this research were conducted by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for All-sky Astrophysics in 3D (ASTRO 3D) through project number CE170100013.r (Berger Time-Domain Group) The Berger Time-Domain Group at Harvard is supported in part by the NSF through grants AST-1411763 and AST-1714498, and by NASA through grants NNX15AE50G and NNX16AC22G.r (Bootes) A.J.C.T.; r r acknowledges support from the Spanish Ministry Project AYA 2015-71718-R (including FEDER funds) and Junta de Andalucia Proyecto de Excelencia TIC-2839. I.H.P. acknowledges the support of the National Research Foundation (NRF-2015R1A2A1A01006870). S.J. acknowledges the support of Korea Basic Science Research Program (NRF2014R1A6A3A03057484 and NRF-2015R1D1A4A01020961). The BOOTES-5/JGT observations were carried out at Observatorio Astronomico Nacional in San Pedro Martir (OAN-SPM, Mexico), operated by Instituto de Astronomia, UNAM and with support from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia (Mexico) through the Laboratorios Nacionales Program (Mexico), Instituto de Astrofisica de Andalucia (IAA-CSIC, Spain) and Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU, South Korea). We also thank the staff of OAN-SPM for their support in carrying out the observations.r (CAASTRO) Parts of this research were conducted by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for All-sky Astrophysics (CAASTRO), through project number CE110001020. The national facility capability for SkyMapper has been funded through ARC LIEF grant LE130100104 from the Australian Research Council, awarded to the University of Sydney, the Australian National University, Swinburne University of Technology, the University of Queensland, the University of Western Australia, the University of Melbourne, Curtin University of Technology, Monash University, and the Australian Astronomical Observatory. SkyMapper is owned and operated by The Australian National University's Research School of Astronomy and Astrophysics.r (CALET) The CALET team gratefully acknowledges support from NASA, ASI, JAXA, and MEXT KAKENHI grant numbers JP 17H06362, JP26220708, and JP17H02901.r (Chandra/McGill) This work was supported in part by Chandra Award Number GO7-18033X, issued by the Chandra X-ray Observatory Center, which is operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for and on behalf of the National Aeronautics Space Administration (NASA) under contract NAS8-03060. D.H., M.N., and J.J.R. acknowledge support from a Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) Discovery Grant and a Fonds de recherche du Quebec-Nature et Technologies (FRQNT) Nouveaux Chercheurs Grant. P.A.E. acknowledges UKSA support. J.A.K. acknowledges the support of NASA grant NAS5-00136. D.H. also acknowledges support from the Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR).r (CZTI/AstroSat) CZTI is built by a TIFR-led consortium of institutes across India, including VSSC, ISAC, IUCAA, SAC, and PRL. The Indian Space Research Organisation funded, managed, and facilitated the project.r (DLT40) D.J.S. acknowledges support for the DLT40 program from NSF grant AST-1517649.r (EuroVLBI) The European VLBI Network is a joint facility of independent European, African, Asian, and North American radio astronomy institutes. Scientific results from data presented in this publication are derived from the following EVN project code: RP029. e-MERLIN is a National Facility operated by the University of Manchester at Jodrell Bank Observatory on behalf of STFC. The collaboration between LIGO/Virgo and EVN/e-MERLIN is part of a project that has received funding from the European Unions Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No. 653477.r (ePESSTO) We acknowledge ESO programs 199.D-0143 and 099.D-0376. PS1 and ATLAS are supported by NASA grants NNX08AR22G, NNX12AR65G, NNX14AM74G, and NNX12AR55G. We acknowledge the Leibniz-Prize to Prof. G.; r r Hasinger (DFG grant HA 1850/28-1), EU/FP7-ERC grants 291222, 615929, 647208, 725161, STFC grants ST/P000312/1 and ERF ST/M005348/1, ST/P000495/1. Marie Sklodowska-Curie grant No 702538. Polish NCN grant OPUS 2015/17/B/ST9/03167, Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation. PRIN-INAF 2014. David and Ellen Lee Prize Postdoctoral Fellowship at the California Institute of Technology. Alexander von Humboldt Sofja Kovalevskaja Award. Royal Society-Science Foundation Ireland Vilho, Yrjo and Kalle Vaisala Foundation. FONDECYT grant number 3160504. US NSF grant AST-1311862. Swedish Research Council and the Swedish Space Board. The Quantum Universe I-Core program, the ISF, BSF, and Kimmel award. IRC grant GOIPG/2017/1525. Australian Research Council CAASTRO CE110001020 and grant FT160100028. We acknowledge Millennium Science Initiative grant IC120009.r (Fermi-GBM) B.C., V.C., A.G., and W.S.P. gratefully acknowledge NASA funding through contract NNM13AA43C. M.S.B., R.H., P.J., C.A.M., S.P., R.D.P., M.S., and P.V. gratefully acknowledge NASA funding from cooperative agreement NNM11AA01A. E.B. is supported by an appointment to the NASA Postdoctoral Program at the Goddard Space Flight Center, administered by Universities Space Research Association under contract with NASA. D.K., C.A.W.H., C.M.H., and J.R. gratefully acknowledge NASA funding through the Fermi-GBM project. Support for the German contribution to GBM was provided by the Bundesministerium fur Bildung und Forschung (BMBF) via the Deutsches Zentrum fur Luft und Raumfahrt (DLR) under contract number 50 QV 0301. A.v.K. was supported by the Bundesministeriums fur Wirtschaft und Technologie (BMWi) through DLR grant 50 OG 1101. S.M.B. acknowledges support from Science Foundation Ireland under grant 12/IP/1288.r (Fermi-LAT) The Fermi-LAT Collaboration acknowledges support for LAT development, operation, and data analysis from NASA and DOE (United States), CEA/Irfu and IN2P3/CNRS (France), ASI and INFN (Italy), MEXT, KEK, and JAXA (Japan), and the K. A. Wallenberg Foundation, the Swedish Research Council and the National Space Board (Sweden). Science analysis support in the operations phase from INAF (Italy) and CNES (France) is also gratefully acknowledged. This work performed in part under DOE Contract DE-AC02-76SF00515.r (FRBSG) S.L.L. is supported by NSF grant PHY-1607291 (LIU). Construction of the LWA has been supported by the Office of Naval Research under Contract N00014-07-C0147. Support for operations and continuing development of the LWA1 is provided by the National Science Foundation under grants AST-1139963 and AST-1139974 of the University Radio Observatory program.r (GRAWITA) We acknowledge INAF for supporting the project "Gravitational Wave Astronomy with the first detections of adLIGO and adVIRGO experiments-GRAWITA" PI: E. Brocato. Observations are made with ESO Telescopes at the Paranal Observatory under programmes ID 099.D-0382 (PI: E. Pian), 099.D-0622 (PI: P. D'Avanzo), 099.D-0191 (PI: A. Grado), 099.D-0116 (PI: S. Covino) and with the REM telescope at the ESO La Silla Observatory under program ID 35020 (PI: S. Campana). We thank the ESO operation staff for excellent support of this program. The Sardinia Radio Telescope (SRT) is funded by the Department of University and Research (MIUR), the Italian Space Agency (ASI), and the Autonomous Region of Sardinia (RAS) and is operated as National Facility by the National Institute for Astrophysics (INAF). Z.J. is supported by the External Cooperation Program of BIC (number 114332KYSB20160007). J.M.; r r is supported by the Hundred Talent Program, the Major Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (KJZD-EW-M06), the National Natural Science Foundation of China 11673062, and the Oversea Talent Program of Yunnan Province. R.L.C. Starling, K.W., A.B.H., N.R.T., and C.G.M. are supported by the STFC (Science and Technology Facilities Council). D.K., acknowledges the financial support from the Slovenian Research Agency (P1-0188). S.K. and A.N.G. acknowledge support by grant DFG Kl 766/16-3. D.G. acknowledges the financial support of the UnivEarthS Labex program at Sorbonne Paris Cite (ANR-10-LABX-0023 and ANR-11-IDEX-0005-02). K.T. was supported by JSPS grant 15H05437 and by a JST Consortia grant.r (GROND) Part of the funding for GROND was generously granted from the Leibniz-Prize to Prof. G. Hasinger (DFG grant HA 1850/28-1). "We acknowledge the excellent help in obtaining GROND data from Angela Hempel, Markus Rabus and Regis Lachaume on La Silla."r (GROWTH, JAGWAR, Caltech-NRAO, TTU-NRAO, and NuSTAR) This work was supported by the GROWTH (Global Relay of Observatories Watching Transients Happen) project funded by the National Science Foundation under PIRE grant No. 1545949. GROWTH is a collaborative project among California Institute of Technology (USA), University of Maryland College Park (USA), University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee (USA), Texas Tech University (USA), San Diego State University (USA), Los Alamos National Laboratory (USA), Tokyo Institute of Technology (Japan), National Central University (Taiwan), Indian Institute of Astrophysics (India), Inter-University Center for Astronomy and Astrophysics (India), Weizmann Institute of Science (Israel), The Oskar Klein Centre at Stockholm University (Sweden), Humboldt University (Germany), Liverpool John Moores University (UK). A.H. acknowledges support by the I-Core Program of the Planning and Budgeting Committee and the Israel Science Foundation. T.M. acknowledges the support of the Australian Research Council through grant FT150100099. Parts of this research were conducted by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for All-sky Astrophysics (CAASTRO), through project number CE110001020. The Australia Telescope Compact Array is part of the Australia Telescope National Facility which is funded by the Australian Government for operation as a National Facility managed by CSIRO. D.L.K. is additionally supported by NSF grant AST-1412421. A.A.M. is funded by the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope Corporation in support of the Data Science Fellowship Program. P.C.Y., C.C.N., and W.H.I. thank the support from grants MOST104-2923-M-008-004-MY5 and MOST106-2112-M-008-007. A.C. acknowledges support from the National Science Foundation CAREER award 1455090, "CAREER: Radio and gravitational-wave emission from the largest explosions since the Big Bang." T.P. acknowledges the support of Advanced ERC grant TReX. B.E.C. thanks SMARTS 1.3 m Queue Manager Bryndis Cruz for prompt scheduling of the SMARTS observations. Basic research in radio astronomy at the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) is funded by 6.1 Base funding. Construction and installation of VLITE was supported by NRL Sustainment Restoration and Maintenance funding. K.P.M.'s research is supported by the Oxford Centre for Astrophysical Surveys, which is funded through the Hintze Family Charitable Foundation. J.S. and A.G. are grateful for support from the Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation. GREAT is funded by the Swedish Research Council (V.R.). E.O.O.; r r is grateful for the support by grants from the Israel Science Foundation, Minerva, Israeli ministry of Science, the US-Israel Binational Science Foundation, and the I-CORE Program of the Planning and Budgeting Committee and The Israel Science Foundation. We thank the staff of the GMRT that made these observations possible. The GMRT is run by the National Centre for Radio Astrophysics of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research. AYQH was supported by a National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship under grant No. DGE-1144469. S.R. has been supported by the Swedish Research Council (VR) under grant number 2016 03657 3, by the Swedish National Space Board under grant number Dnr. 107/16 and by the research environment grant "Gravitational Radiation and Electromagnetic Astrophysical Transients (GREAT)" funded by the Swedish Research council (V.R.) under Dnr. 2016-06012.r We acknowledge the support of the Science and Engineering Research Board, Department of Science and Technology, India and the Indo-US Science and Technology Foundation for the GROWTH-India project.r (HAWC) We acknowledge the support from: the US National Science Foundation (NSF); the US Department of Energy Office of High-Energy Physics; the Laboratory Directed Research and Development (LDRD) program of Los Alamos National Laboratory; Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia (CONACyT), Mexico (grants 271051, 232656, 167281, 260378, 179588, 239762, 254964, 271737, 258865, 243290); Red HAWC, Mexico; DGAPA-UNAM (grants RG100414, IN111315, IN111716-3, IA102715, 109916); VIEP-BUAP; the University of Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation; the Institute of Geophysics, Planetary Physics, and Signatures at Los Alamos National Laboratory; Polish Science Centre grant DEC-2014/13/B/ST9/945. We acknowledge the support of the Science and Engineering Research Board, Department of Science and Technology, India and the Indo-US Science and Technology Foundation for the GROWTH-India project.r (H.E.S.S.) The support of the Namibian authorities and of the University of Namibia in facilitating the construction and operation of H.E.S.S. is gratefully acknowledged, as is the support by the German Ministry for Education and Research (BMBF), the Max Planck Society, the German Research Foundation (DFG), the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation, the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, the French Ministry for Research, the CNRS-IN2P3 and the Astroparticle Interdisciplinary Programme of the CNRS, the U.K. Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC), the IPNP of the Charles University, the Czech Science Foundation, the Polish National Science Centre, the South African Department of Science and Technology and National Research Foundation, the University of Namibia, the National Commission on Research, Science and Technology of Namibia (NCRST), the Innsbruck University, the Austrian Science Fund (FWF), and the Austrian Federal Ministry for Science, Research and Economy, the University of Adelaide and the Australian Research Council, the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science and by the University of Amsterdam. We appreciate the excellent work of the technical support staff in Berlin, Durham, Hamburg, Heidelberg, Palaiseau, Paris, Saclay, and in Namibia in the construction and operation of the equipment. This work benefited from services provided by the H.E.S.S. Virtual Organisation, supported by the national resource providers of the EGI Federation.; r r r (Insight-HXMT) The Insight-HXMT team acknowledges the support from the China National Space Administration (CNSA), the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS; grant No. XDB23040400), and the Ministry of Science and Technology of China (MOST; grant No. 2016YFA0400800).r (IceCube) We acknowledge the support from the following agencies: U.S. National Science Foundation-Office of Polar Programs, U.S. National Science Foundation-Physics Division, University of Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation, the Grid Laboratory of Wisconsin (GLOW) grid infrastructure at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, the Open Science Grid (OSG) grid infrastructure; U.S. Department of Energy, and National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center, the Louisiana Optical Network Initiative (LONI) grid computing resources; Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, WestGrid and Compute/Calcul Canada; Swedish Research Council, Swedish Polar Research Secretariat, Swedish National Infrastructure for Computing (SNIC), and Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation, Sweden; German Ministry for Education and Research (BMBF), Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG), Helmholtz Alliance for Astroparticle Physics (HAP), Initiative and Networking Fund of the Helmholtz Association, Germany; Fund for Scientific Research (FNRS-FWO), FWO Odysseus programme, Flanders Institute to encourage scientific and technological research in industry (IWT), Belgian Federal Science Policy Office (Belspo); Marsden Fund, New Zealand; Australian Research Council; Japan Society for Promotion of Science (JSPS); the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF), Switzerland; National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF); Villum Fonden, Danish National Research Foundation (DNRF), Denmark.r (IKI-GW) A.S.P., A.A.V., E.D.M., and P.Y.u.M. acknowledge the support from the Russian Science Foundation (grant 15-1230015). V.A.K., A.V.K., and I.V.R. acknowledge the Science and Education Ministry of Kazakhstan (grant No. 0075/GF4). R.I. is grateful to the grant RUSTAVELI FR/379/6-300/14 for partial support. We acknowledge the excellent help in obtaining Chilescope data from Sergei Pogrebsskiy and Ivan Rubzov.r (INTEGRAL) This work is based on observations with INTEGRAL, an ESA project with instruments and science data center funded by ESA member states (especially the PI countries: Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Switzerland, Spain), and with the participation of Russia and the USA. The INTEGRAL SPI project has been completed under the responsibility and leadership of CNES. The SPI-ACS detector system has been provided by MPE Garching/Germany. The SPI team is grateful to ASI, CEA, CNES, DLR, ESA, INTA, NASA, and OSTC for their support. The Italian INTEGRAL team acknowledges the support of ASI/INAF agreement No. 2013-025-R.1. R.D. and A.v.K. acknowledge the German INTEGRAL support through DLR grant 50 OG 1101. A.L. and R.S. acknowledge the support from the Russian Science Foundation (grant 14-22-00271). A.D. is funded by Spanish MINECO/FEDER grant ESP2015-65712-C5-1-R.r (IPN) K.H. is grateful for support under NASA grant NNX15AE60G. R.L.A. and D.D.F. are grateful for support under RFBR grant 16-29-13009-ofi-m.; r r r (J-GEM) MEXT KAKENHI (JP17H06363, JP15H00788, JP24103003, JP10147214, JP10147207), JSPS KAKENHI (JP16H02183, JP15H02075, JP15H02069, JP26800103, JP25800103), Inter-University Cooperation Program of the MEXT, the NINS program for cross-disciplinary science study, the Toyota Foundation (D11-R-0830), the Mitsubishi Foundation, the Yamada Science Foundation, Inoue Foundation for Science, the National Research Foundation of South Africa.r (KU) The Korea-Uzbekistan Consortium team acknowledges the support from the NRF grant No. 2017R1A3A3001362, and the KASI grant 2017-1-830-03. This research has made use of the KMTNet system operated by KASI.r (Las Cumbres) Support for I. A. and J.B. was provided by NASA through the Einstein Fellowship Program, grants PF6-170148 and PF7-180162, respectively. D.A.H., C.M., and G.H. are supported by NSF grant AST-1313484. D.P. and D.M acknowledge support by Israel Science Foundation grant 541/17. This work makes use of observations from the LCO network.r (LIGO and Virgo) The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the United States National Science Foundation (NSF) for the construction and operation of the LIGO Laboratory and Advanced LIGO as well as the Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC) of the United Kingdom, the Max-Planck- Society (MPS), and the State of Niedersachsen/Germany for support of the construction of Advanced LIGO and construction and operation of the GEO600 detector. Additional support for advanced LIGO was provided by the Australian Research Council. The authors gratefully acknowledge the Italian Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN), the French Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) and the Foundation for Fundamental Research on Matter supported by the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research, for the construction and operation of the Virgo detector and the creation and support of the EGO consortium.; r r The authors also gratefully acknowledge research support from these agencies as well as by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research of India, the Department of Science and Technology, India, the Science & Engineering Research Board (SERB), India, the Ministry of Human Resource Development, India, the Spanish Agencia Estatal de Investigacion, the Vicepresidencia i Conselleria d'Innovacio Recerca i Turisme and the Conselleria d'Educacio i Universitat del Govern de les Illes Balears, the Conselleria d'Educacio Investigacio Cultura i Esport de la Generalitat Valenciana, the National Science Centre of Poland, the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF), the Russian Foundation for Basic Research, the Russian Science Foundation, the European Commission, the European Regional Development Funds (ERDF), the Royal Society, the Scottish Funding Council, the Scottish Universities Physics Alliance, the Hungarian Scientific Research Fund (OTKA), the Lyon Institute of Origins (LIO), the National Research, Development and Innovation Office Hungary (NKFI), the National Research Foundation of Korea, Industry Canada and the Province of Ontario through the Ministry of Economic Development and Innovation, the Natural Science and Engineering Research Council Canada, the Canadian Institute for Advanced Research, the Brazilian Ministry of Science, Technology, Innovations, and Communications, the International Center for Theoretical Physics South American Institute for Fundamental Research (ICTP-SAIFR), the Research Grants Council of Hong Kong, the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC), the China National Space Administration (CNSA) and the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), the Ministry of Science and Technology of China (MOST), the Leverhulme Trust, the Research Corporation, the Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST), Taiwan and the Kavli Foundation. The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the NSF, STFC, MPS, INFN, CNRS, and the State of Niedersachsen/Germany for provision of computational resources. The MAXI team acknowledges the support by JAXA, RIKEN, and MEXT KAKENHI grant number JP 17H06362. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. The European VLBI Network is a joint facility of independent European, African, Asian, and North American radio astronomy institutes. Scientific results from data presented in this publication are derived from the following EVN project code: RP029.r e-MERLIN is a National Facility operated by the University of Manchester at Jodrell Bank Observatory on behalf of STFC. The collaboration between LIGO/Virgo and EVN/eMERLIN is part of a project that has received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No. 653477. We thank Britt Griswold (NASA/GSFC) for graphic arts. P.G.J. acknowledges ERC-Consolidator grant No. 647208. We thank the GMRT staff for prompt scheduling of these observations. The GMRT is run by the National Center for Radio Astrophysics of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research. INAF, Italian Institute of Astrophysics ASI, Italian Space Agency. This work is part of the research program Innovational Research Incentives Scheme (Vernieuwingsimpuls), which is financed by the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research through the NWO VIDI grant No. 639.042.612-Nissanke and NWO TOP grant No. 62002444-Nissanke.; r r We thank ESO for granting full access to all the LVC MoU partners of the observations of GW170817 obtained with NACO and VISIR under the Observatory program 60.A-9392.

Máster Universitario en Ingeniería Industrial ; El clima del planeta lleva sufriendo desde hace varios años importantes cambios. Estas alteraciones se deben fundamentalmente a las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero, que son originadas entre otros, por el uso de combustibles fósiles. A día de hoy existen numerosas pruebas irrefutables de este cambio climático que están afectando negativamente al ecosistema, la salud humana y la economía. La concienciación por este grave problema es cada vez mayor, gobiernos e instituciones a nivel mundial se han unido por la lucha contra el cambio climático y han asumido objetivos de reducción de emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero. Para lograr estas metas, se están impulsando medidas y ayudas económicas que favorezcan la puesta en marcha de prácticas y modelos más eficientes energéticamente. Las ciudades son el punto de partida en esta batalla, si no se consiguen ciudades sostenibles tampoco se conseguirá que lo sea el planeta. El entorno urbano es uno de los retos más importantes dentro del área de la investigación ambiental. El tráfico de vehículos en las grandes ciudades es uno de los principales focos de polución en las mismas, lo que conlleva negativas consecuencias para las personas y el medio. Dentro del tráfico urbano, la flota de servicios urbanos representa una gran parte de los vehículos que circulan por las ciudades, esto ha impulsado unas políticas europeas que tienen como objetivo promover el desarrollo de transportes urbanos más ecológicos. En la actualidad hay ayuntamientos españoles que ya han puesto en marcha estas nuevas medidas y están renovando las flotas urbanas por otras mucho más recomendables desde el punto de vista ecológico. Siguiendo esta línea, el proyecto se centra en medir el impacto ambiental y económico que supondría la renovación parcial o total de la flota de un ayuntamiento por vehículos ecológicos, entendiéndose por vehículos ecológicos, vehículos eléctricos de baterías, vehículos híbridos eléctricos y vehículos convencionales de bajo consumo. Por razones de simplicidad, el estudio se ha llevado a cabo en la ciudad de Valladolid. No obstante la finalidad del mismo es que este proyecto sea una herramienta, no sólo para Valladolid, sino para cualquier individuo o colectivo interesado en la sustitución de un vehículo por otro más eficiente energéticamente. El impacto ambiental se define como la reducción de emisiones de CO2 y de contaminantes que se obtiene al sustituir un vehículo de una flota por su equivalente ecológico; y el impacto económico es el coste que supone esta sustitución. La compra de un nuevo vehículo implica una inversión y esta inversión es por tanto el impacto económico que supondría la renovación de un vehículo.La metodología que se ha seguido para el análisis y renovación de una flota compleja como la de Valladolid es la siguiente: • Identificación de los servicios y vehículos sujetos a renovación: para el caso de una flota tan numerosa como la de Valladolid se ha decidido analizar únicamente aquellos vehículos que están presentes más repetidamente. • Selección de tres vehículos ecológicos equivalentes para cada vehículo sujeto a renovación: a partir de unos criterios de equivalencia, se selecciona un vehículo eléctrico de baterías, un vehículo híbrido eléctrico y uno convencional de bajo consumo. • Elección del vehículo óptimo tanto a nivel ambiental como económico: partiendo de las tres alternativas ecológicas, se realiza un estudio de emisiones de CO2 y contaminantes y del coste de los vehículos y se elige como la solución más adecuada aquel vehículo con el que se reduzcan en mayor cantidad las emisiones de CO2 por euro invertido en el mismo. Para que la comparación sea lo más justa posible, el análisis se lleva a cabo teniendo en cuenta las diferentes etapas del ciclo de vida de un vehículo. • Impacto ambiental y económico de los vehículos: con los nuevos vehículos es posible calcular la reducción de emisiones de CO2 que supondrán las sustituciones y el coste implícito que éstas conllevan. En el siguiente estudio, se han analizado seis vehículos pertenecientes a seis diferentes flotas del ayuntamiento de Valladolid. En todos los casos, el vehículo eléctrico ha sido la opción óptima como alternativa para la renovación de la flota.Debido a la repetición de estos vehículos en sus respectivas flotas, con el análisis de únicamente seis vehículos es posible sustituir setenta y cinco vehículos de la flota del ayuntamiento de Valladolid.Esta renovación parcial de la flota supone una reducción de 4,15 miles de toneladas de dióxido de carbono respecto de las emisiones generadas por los setenta y cinco vehículos actuales durante la vida media en uso de los mismos, fijada en diez años (reducción del 55,4%). Sin embargo, si se tienen en cuenta todas las etapas del ciclo de vida de un vehículo, es decir desde la fabricación hasta el reciclado del mismo, la reducción de emisiones de dióxido de carbono es todavía mayor, alcanzándose las 6 mil toneladas de CO2. La apuesta por esta nueva flota ecológica requiere de una gran inversión. La reducción de emisiones no es a coste cero, sino que implica la adquisición de nuevos vehículos, elevándose a 10.908.300 € en el caso de los setenta y cinco vehículos de la flota de Valladolid. Pese al gran impacto económico, la renovación de las flotas urbanas es un tema primordial y prioritario para la sostenibilidad del planeta. De ello son conscientes organismos e instituciones a nivel mundial, y lo han demostrado con numerosos planes de financiación que fomentan e impulsan el desarrollo de estas tecnologías limpias. En la actualidad existen diversas ayudas económicas impulsadas por el Gobierno que hacen que la inversión inicial requerida se vea mermada. De este modo, el Plan MOVELE 20151 y el Plan PIMA AIRE 42 son programas que conceden financiación económica para incentivar la adquisición de nuevos vehículos con tecnologías limpias. Así mismo, se ha creado recientemente el Fondo de Carbono para una Economía Sostenible (FES-CO2)3. Este fondo es un nuevo instrumento de financiación climático. Tiene como objetivo redirigir la economía hacia modelos bajos en carbono. El fondo ofrecerá la inversión necesaria para el impulso de actividades y desarrollo de tecnologías limpias que favorezcan la atenuación del cambio climático. Para llevar a cabo esta financiación, el fondo adquirirá créditos en forma de reducción de emisiones de carbono de aquellos proyectos o iniciativas que luchan contra el cambio climático en España y que pertenecen a aquellos sectores que no están sujetos al régimen europeo de comercio de derechos de emisión, como es el caso del sector transporte. El Plan MOVELE 2015 es un programa que aplica directamente al caso de la renovación de la flota del ayuntamiento de Valladolid. Debido a que todos los vehículos sustitutos son vehículos eléctricos, se obtendría una financiación de 570.000 € por la renovación de los setenta y cinco vehículos gracia a este plan. Aunque el coste sigue siendo elevado, es ahora el momento de implantar este tipo de proyectos. Los ayuntamientos, empresas, organismos, etc. deben contribuir a la reducción de emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero, y que mejor manera que empezar por uno de los sectores de mayor repercusión en este asunto, el sector transporte. No cabe duda de que la industria del transporte es de gran trascendencia para la economía mundial, pero al mismo tiempo constituye una enorme carga energética y unagran huella ambiental afectando directamente a la salud, la calidad de vida, los ecosistemas y el cambio climático; y todo ello se opone al desarrollo sostenible a nivel local y global. El coste de los efectos secundarios del cambio climático es superior al coste de las renovaciones de las flotas urbanas, y la reducción de emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero que ofrecen estas flotas hacen que este tipo de proyectos merezcan la pena. ; The Earth's climate has been undergoing several changes during the last years. These alterations are mainly due to emissions of greenhouse gases, which are caused among others by the use of fossil fuels. Nowadays there is irrefutable evidence that climate change is negatively affecting the ecosystem, human health and the economy. Awareness about this serious problem is raising, governments and institutions worldwide have joined the fight against climate change and they have assumed emissions reduction targets for greenhouse gases. To achieve these goals, they are driving measures and financial support to encourage the implementation of more energy efficient practices and models. Cities are the departure point in this battle, if sustainable cities are not achieved neither the sustainability of the planet will be achieved. The urban environment is one of the most important challenges in the area of environmental research. Vehicular traffic is one of the main sources of pollution in big cities, which leads to negative consequences for people and the environment. In urban traffic, the fleet of urban services represents a large proportion of vehicles traveling through the cities. This fact has prompted some European policies that aim to promote the development of more environmentally friendly urban transport. Currently there are Spanish municipalities that have already implemented these new measures and they are renewing their urban fleets by others more desirable vehicles from the ecological point of view. Following this line, the project focuses on measuring the environmental and economic impact that would result in the partial or total renewal of a fleet of a municipality. The actual fleet will be renewed with some environmentally friendly vehicles, meaning by environmentally friendly vehicles, battery electric vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles and conventional low consumption vehicles. For simplicity, the study has been carried out in the city of Valladolid. However, the purpose of this project is that this study is a tool, not only for Valladolid, but for any individual or group interested in replacing one vehicle for another more energy efficient vehicle.The environmental impact is defined as the CO2 and pollutant emissions reduction obtained by replacing a vehicle from a fleet for its ecological equivalent; and the economic impact is the cost of this replacement. Buying a new vehicle involves an investment and this investment is therefore the economic impact involved in the renovation of a vehicle. The methodology followed for the analysis of a complex fleet renewal as Valladolid is as follows: • Identification of the services and vehicles subject to renewal: as the fleet of Valladolid is considerably large, only those vehicles that are present over repeatedly will be analyzed. • Selection of three equivalent ecological vehicles for each vehicle subject to renewal: using a criteria of equivalence, an electric vehicle battery, a hybrid electric vehicle and a conventional low consumption vehicle are selected. • Choice of the optimal vehicle both environmentally and economically: having the three ecological alternatives, thanks to a study on the CO2 and pollutants emissions and on the cost of vehicles, the most appropriate vehicle is chosen. That best option will be the vehicle with the largest reduction of CO2 per euro invested in it. To make the comparison as fair as possible, the analysis is carried out taking into account the different stages of the life cycle of a vehicle. • Environmental and economic impact of the new vehicles: with these new vehicles is possible to calculate the reduction in CO2 emissions which will provide these replacements and the implicit cost they entail. In this study, six vehicles belonging to six different fleets in the municipality of Valladolid have been analyzed. In all cases, the electric vehicle is the optimal choice as an alternative for fleet renewal.Because of the repetition of these vehicles in their fleets, with the analysis of only six vehicles, seventy five vehicles of the municipality of Valladolid can be replaced. This partial renewal of the fleet represents a reduction of 4.15 thousand tons of emissions of carbon dioxide from the emissions generated by the current seventy five vehicles during their life in use, set at ten years (reduction of 55,4%). However, when taking into account all stages of the life cycle of a vehicle, from manufacturing to recycling it, the reduction of the emissions of carbon dioxide is even higher, reaching the 6,02 tons of CO2. The commitment to this new ecological fleet requires a large investment. Reducing emissions is not at zero cost, it involves the acquisition of new vehicles, rising to 10.908.300 € in the case of the seventy-five vehicles of the fleet of Valladolid. Despite the huge economic impact, the renewal of urban fleets is a priority issue for the sustainability of the planet. Organizations and institutions worldwide are aware of this topic, and they have demonstrated their consciousness with numerous financing plans that encourage and promote the development of these clean technologies. Currently there are various financial aid promoted by the Government that will reduce the initial investment required. Thus, the "Plan MOVELE 2015"1 and the "Plan PIMA AIRE 4"2 are programs that grant economic funding to encourage the purchase of new vehicles with clean technologies. Futhermore, recently is has been created the "Fondo de Carbono para una Economía Sostenible (FES-CO2)"3. This fund is a new tool for climate funding. It aims to redirect the economy towards low-carbon models. The fund will provide the necessary investment for the support of activities and development of clean technologies that promote climate change mitigation. To carry out this funding, the fund will acquire credits in the form of reduced carbon emissions of projects or initiatives that fight against climate change in Spain and belong to sectors that are not subject to the European emissions trading system, such as the transport sector The "Plan MOVELE 2015" is a program that applies directly to the case of the renewal of the fleet of the city of Valladolid. Since all the proposed vehicles are electric vehicles, 570.000 € in funding would be obtained by the renewal of seventy five vehicles thanks to this plan. Although the cost is still high, it is now time to implement such projects. Municipalities, companies, organizations, etc. should contribute to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases, and the transport sector is the most significant one to start working on since it has the greatest impact on the emissions. There is no doubt that the transportation industry has a great significance in the world economy, but at the same time it is a huge energy charge with a really important environmental impact that affects directly to the health, quality of life, ecosystems and climate change; and all that is opposed to sustainable development both locally and globally.The cost of the side effects of climate change is greater than the cost of the renewals of urban fleets and the reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases that these fleets offer make such projects worthwhile.

The decision where to locate new retail facilities is increasingly more a multi-stakeholder decision instead of a single-actor decision. In the past, the Dutch Government had a strong hand in determining the program and location for new shopping centres. Since the introduction of the newest national policy document on spatial planning, the so called "Nota Ruimte", the Dutch government decided to relax restrictions for all retail categories to be located at peripheral locations. Furthermore, with this new policy the responsibility for planning decisions was delegated to local governments. This change in retail planning policy gave room to real estate developers (often cooperating with retail firms) to initiate peripheral retail development. Thus at the present time, planners, retailers and developers, as main actors involved in retail planning, meet each other at the local policy level, to decide on the location of new retail developments. Previous studies assumed that stakeholders involved in location decisions make independent, sequential decisions. However, since location decisions are made in a larger context of stakeholder interactions, stakeholders have become jointly responsible for the full development process. Nevertheless, the decision behaviour of these stakeholders is neglected within location decision literature. The aim of this study is: (i) to reveal preferences for retail location options of different stakeholder groups, and (ii) to measure the degree in which these preferences are influenced by the preferences of other stakeholders. For this second purpose, the concept of adaptive behaviour is defined as the phenomenon that a decision maker adjusts his/her preferences in accordance with the preferences of other decision makers in order to reach consensus. It is supposed that adaptive behaviour plays a role since stakeholders interact during negotiations and influence each other's viewpoints in order to reach agreement. To meet both purposes an experimental research approach was used. Three stakeholder groups (local governments, developers and retailers) were invited to participate in a Web-based conjoint choice experiment. Before discussing the experiment, the main part of this study, the first chapters of this thesis give a theoretical foundation of the retail planning problem, the retail planning process and multi-actor decision making in general. Chapter 2 of this thesis starts with an explanation of the retail location decision problem. It discusses how retail planning policy in the Netherlands has shifted from a restrictive to a relaxed policy that allows new retail developments to be located at peripheral locations. It also shows that decentralization of planning responsibilities is coherent with more general shifts in planning views. Furthermore, it argues that retail planning decisions have to be made in a very dynamic, constantly changing, decision environment. Consumer behaviour is changing fast, leisure has become more important (often combined with shopping), and the importance of internet as retail channel has increased. On the supply side, increases of scale and internationalization of retail firms have changed the demand for retail property. Finally, market dynamics had a big influence on investor behaviour. Although the interest from institutional investors in shopping centres as an investment asset grew, the financial crisis led to a slowdown of investment and development activities. Chapter 3 takes a closer look at the processes regarding retail planning decisions from both the planner's and developer's perspective. To understand the course of decision making, insight in formal planning procedures and legal instruments is needed. The most important aspect in this perspective is that, since retail planning policies have been decentralized and relaxed, local and regional governments are now in the middle of revising their structure plans with retail being part of it. In the meantime, several new peripheral retail developments have been initiated which anticipate deregulation. Three of these initiatives were discussed in this chapter. These case studies showed the importance of agreement about the best retail structure for a particular area to get new peripheral retail plans that fit this approved retail structure. Missing consensus will certainly lead to frustration during the development process. Moreover, the case studies showed that even if private and public stakeholders jointly agreed on a plan proposal, the political decision making process that follows may frustrate plan development. Subsequently, in Chapter 4 the concept of multi-actor decision making is discussed in more detail. It explains that negotiations on retail plan proposals ought to be joint (cooperative) decisions although decision entities may also show non-cooperative behaviour. During the negotiation process the preferences of each decision maker may be influenced by interactions with other decision makers. When showing cooperative behaviour stakeholders adjust their preferences to reach consensus. This adaptive behaviour is the focus of this study. Preferences can also be influenced by interactions that are not preceded by real actions between the negotiators, such as interactions by media, other stakeholders that are not the negotiators (like pressure groups), or experiences with former interactions. To explain why decision makers may adapt their preferences, different reasons are discussed based on a literature review. These reasons include differences in power positions, interests and perceptions. Choice modelling is proposed to be a suitable approach to measure retail location preferences and adaptive behaviour of stakeholders. It can deal with multiple discrete attributes and can be applied to multi-stakeholder settings. In the next part of the thesis, the research approach to measure preferences and adaptive behaviour, the data-collection and data-analysis are discussed. In Chapter 5 it is first argued that traditional conjoint experiments and choice modelling techniques have to be extended in order to collect data on adaptive behaviour. It is explained how adaptation and context variables can be derived from the data collected with choice experiments. Each respondent had to choose the most preferred alternative (retail plan) from sets of alternative retail plans. The experiment consists of two parts. In contrast to the first part of the experiment, in the second part the preferences of the other stakeholders were added to the decision context. The context variables could be derived by measuring the differences in preferences between the first and the second part of the experiment. The adaptation variables were obtained by assuming positive additional attribute effects for the alternatives chosen by the other stakeholders and negative attribute effects for the other choice alternatives. These adaptation variables measure the degree that preferences of decision makers are affected by the preferences of other the stakeholders. Based on these principles, a Web-based conjoint choice experiment is developed as described in Chapter 6. Three stakeholder groups (local governments, developers and retailers) were invited to participate in a Web-based conjoint adaptation experiment. Stakeholders were asked which retail plan alternative they prefer for expanding the existing retail structure of the imaginary city "Shop City". Expansion of retail supply was possible in three retail categories (Toys and Sporting Goods, Home Electronics & Media, Fashion) and a Restaurant. These four categories represented the attributes of the experimental design. The levels for each category represented possible locations for expansion of these retail categories; 1) adjacent to a sport stadium, 2) an expansion of a furniture strip and 3) the inner city. The choice options reflect typical current retail developments, in nature and size, in the Netherlands. The data-collection procedure and the response have been discussed in Chapter 7. Every respondent had to make two times fifteen choices. Tests with students showed that this number of choices was good to handle without becoming indifferent. A total number of 170 respondents (67 developers, 67 local governments and 36 retailers) made 5100 choices, which was a good base for model estimations. Although the number of retailers that took part in the experiment was relatively small, it reaches the number that was aimed for, resulting in satisfying modelling results. Based on the characteristics of the respondents we can conclude that they were a good representation of the stakeholder groups in practice. The analysis of the results that are discussed in Chapter 8 provides interesting insights that help to explain retail planning decisions. Results show that adaptive behaviour plays an important role in these decisions. Tests showed that for all three stakeholder groups the models including adaptation variables performed significantly better than the models without adaptation variables. Except for some developer's models, including context variables did not lead to significantly better model estimations In general, the results reflect the background of the stakeholders. The group of developers appeared to be the most adaptive. Developers facilitate with their development plans market demand and are willing to adapt their viewpoint to the opinion of the other stakeholders. Retailers turned out to be the most persistent in their viewpoints. They represent market demand and as such do not allow their preferences to be influenced by choices of developers nor local governments. Finally, local governments behave somewhere in between. Almost all adaptive behaviour that was estimated was cooperative, implicating that in general stakeholders are willing to positively adapt their viewpoint to the preferences of others. In general, negative part-worth utilities did not turn positive, but became less extreme, potentially increasing the level of consensus. Regarding the preferences of the different stakeholders concerning the different retail plan options it can be concluded that these are typical for the current Dutch retail market. All stakeholder groups believed that Fashion should not be located at a peripheral retail location. This suits with the general opinion that buying clothes is considered to be a recreational shopping activity and for that reason, Fashion should be located in the inner city shopping areas. Peripheral locations are regarded to be the location for goal-oriented shopping motives. With respect to the location of the retail categories Toys & Sporting Goods and a Restaurant, stakeholders appeared to be rather indifferent. For the developers, however, the most preferable option for locating the Restaurant was the furniture strip. All stakeholders reject the option of locating the retail category Home Electronics & Media near a sports stadium. The group of developers prefer to locate this retail category at the furniture strip while the retailers and local governments are indifferent in locating this retail category at the furniture strip or the inner city. In general, it seems that although retail planning legislations in the Netherlands has been relaxed, public as well as private stakeholders still show conservative opinions in locating non-food branches other than furniture out of the city centre. Including adaptation variables significantly improved the model estimations. The models' performances could even be improved more by taking heterogeneity in consideration. It was found that Mixed Logit models, taking into account taste differences, performed significantly better than standard MNL models, Furthermore, models including variables indentifying subsamples performed significantly better than models without. To conclude, this study showed that extending traditional choice experiment enables researchers to capture behavioural aspects like adaptive behaviour within multi-stakeholder decision models. The results of the experiment do not explain why stakeholders adjusted their preferences, although a literature review gave some suggestions. Future research could explore these motives underlying adaptive behaviour by applying in-depth interviews, for example. Finally, future research could focus on the way information about preferences and adaptive behaviour in retail planning can be used as input for new location decision models that cover several negotiation steps.

Over the past five years, the World Bank has made significant progress supporting governance as a core element in operations to end extreme poverty and boost shared prosperity. To help its clients, the Bank strives to deepen its understanding of the environment through the design and implementation of its projects. Since the inception of the Governance and Anticorruption (GAC) Strategy in 2008, the Governance Partnership Facility (GPF) has played a vital role in the success of its implementation.

Kenya's textile and apparel sector has the potential to play a key role in anchoring the country's deeper movement into middle income status and in serving as a source of gainful employment for its fast growing, young population. As a manufactured good, it offers opportunities for increased value capture and streamlined trade logistics and for the building of skills and experience from the factory floor to management level. Based on these foundations, it therefore serves as a potential gateway to other manufactured goods, offering opportunities for Kenya to capture an increasing share of global trade and to advance economic diversification. The report is structured as follows: chapter two describes global and regional market trends in textile and apparel. Chapter three reviews the evolution, growth, and performance of the apparel sector in Kenya and then analyzes the sector in terms of markets, products, and stakeholders. Chapter four focuses on Kenya's performance in terms of relevant macro indicators and highlights the critical constraints faced by apparel manufacturers and exporters in Kenya. Chapter five concludes with recommendations. Where possible, chapters end with a summary of key points and conclusions.

This report focuses on areas with highest potential efficiency gains to increase the value for money from investments in core public goods and services such as extension, irrigation and rural roads. This is a first attempt to carry out such an analysis in Cambodia, and even in the Greater Mekong sub-region. Based on extensive data gathering and surveys, this chapter analyzes the efficiency and effectiveness of agricultural sector expenditures in Cambodia and assesses various options for increasing the impact of government expenditures on agricultural growth. Other challenges include an excessive focus on rehabilitating primary irrigation infrastructure and a neglect of secondary and tertiary systems, a lack of maintenance of irrigation and rural roads, and the slow pace of developing or adopting new technologies to reduce future maintenance costs. There is also a need to better prioritize agricultural and related infrastructure expenditures, both by type and by geographic location, to maximize their impact on growth. The rest of the report is organized as follows. Chapter two presents recent developments in the agriculture sector of Cambodia. Chapter three gives an overview of sectoral expenditure trends over the last decade. The budget process and its relationship to sectoral development strategies is discussed in chapter three. Chapter four discusses the novel contribution of the AgPER in analyzing the efficiency and effectiveness of government spending using benefit-cost analysis to examine select public investments. Chapter five discusses how likely climate change trends may affect future agriculture expenditures and suggests some priority areas for public spending. The conclusion section summarizes the major findings and policy recommendations of the report.

El libro trata de la economía monetaria y los mercados financieros en la economía abierta, con un enfoque contemporáneo y estudios de caso sobre las economías emergentes. Así mismo, consta de cuatro partes: en las tres primeras se estudian los mercados de dinero, de divisas y de capitales, mientras que en la cuarta se trata sobre la teoría y la política monetaria en una economía pequeña y abierta, este texto ofrece la novedad de agrupar conceptos estándar en un todo coherente además de hacer algunas aplicaciones a las economías emergentes, logrando estudiar tres características distintivas: primero, la economía monetaria en la economía pequeña y abierta; segundo, un enfoque teórico contemporáneo de la teoría y la política monetarias, y tercero, está dirigido a estudiantes de nivel universitario de países en desarrollo.