Suchergebnisse

Las analogías entre el ámbito de las relaciones interpersonales y el plano de los vínculos internacionales son corrientes en el mundo griego clásico. En este caso, a partir de un reexamen del discurso Eginéticode Isócrates, se procura dar cuenta de un interesante uso metafórico de los conceptos de cercanía y amistad: tratándose de un debate sobre la ley aplicable a un conflicto testamentario, la asistencia brindada al enfermo por el cliente de Isócrates reproduce el vocabulario de la coexistencia pacífica de legislaciones domésticas. Este dispositivo literario funciona, además, en un nivel complementario para mostrar en el plano político la importancia de asegurar la cooperación panhelénica. ; Les analogies entre l'àmbit de les relacions interpersonals i el pla dels vincles internacionals són corrents en el món grec clàssic. En aquest cas, a partir d'un reexamen del discurs Eginèticd'Isòcrates, es procura retre compte d'un interessant ús metafòric dels conceptes de proximitat i amistat: tractant-se d'un debat sobre la llei aplicable a un conflicte testamentari, l'assistència brindada al malalt pel client d'Isòcrates reprodueix el vocabulari de la coexistència pacífica de legislacions domèstiques. Aquest dispositiu literari funciona, a més, en un nivell complementari per mostrar en el pla polític la importància d'assegurar la cooperació panhel·lènica. ; The analogies between the field of interpersonal links and the level of international relations have been widespread across the ancient Greek world. The re-examination of Isocrates's speech Aegineticus, in this sense, can be useful to explore an interesting metaphorical use of the concepts of closeness and friendship. Given that the speech deals with a debate on the law applicable to a conflict of succession, the care provided by Isocrates' client reproduces the vocabulary of the peaceful coexistence of domestic legislations. This literary mechanism can show, on a supplementary level, the political importance of ensuring Panhellenic cooperation.

This dissertation deals with the mathematical modelling of sovereign credit risk and its applications. In Chapter 1, motivated by the European sovereign debt crisis, we propose a hybrid sovereign risk model which takes into account both the movement of the sovereign solvency and the impact of critical political events besides the idiosyncratic credit risk. We are interested in the probability that the default occurs at critical political dates, for which we obtain closed-form formulae in a Markovian setting, where we deal with some unusual features, such as a treatment of the CEV model when the elasticity parameter β > 1. We compute explicitly the compensator process of default and show that the intensity process does not exist. In Chapter 2, by studying certain hybrid models in literature on credit risks, we consider a type of random times whose conditional probability distribution is not continuous and by which standard intensity and density hypotheses in the enlargement of filtrations are not satisfied. We propose a generalised density approach, where the hypothesis of Jacod is relaxed, in order to deal with such random times in the framework of progressive enlargement of filtrations We also study classic problems such as the computation of the compensator process of the random time, the decomposition of the Azéma supermartingale, as well as the martingale characterisation. The martingale and semimartingale decompositions in the enlarged filtration show that the H'-hypothesis holds in this generalised framework. In Chapter 3, we display several applications of the models proposed in the previous chapters. The most important application of the hybrid default model and the generalised density approach is the valuation of default claims. The results explain the significant negative jumps in the long-term Greek government bond yield during the sovereign debt crisis. The solvency of Greece tends to fall gradually through time and the bond yield has negative jumps when critical political events are held. In ...

This dissertation deals with the mathematical modelling of sovereign credit risk and its applications. In Chapter 1, motivated by the European sovereign debt crisis, we propose a hybrid sovereign risk model which takes into account both the movement of the sovereign solvency and the impact of critical political events besides the idiosyncratic credit risk. We are interested in the probability that the default occurs at critical political dates, for which we obtain closed-form formulae in a Markovian setting, where we deal with some unusual features, such as a treatment of the CEV model when the elasticity parameter β > 1. We compute explicitly the compensator process of default and show that the intensity process does not exist. In Chapter 2, by studying certain hybrid models in literature on credit risks, we consider a type of random times whose conditional probability distribution is not continuous and by which standard intensity and density hypotheses in the enlargement of filtrations are not satisfied. We propose a generalised density approach, where the hypothesis of Jacod is relaxed, in order to deal with such random times in the framework of progressive enlargement of filtrations We also study classic problems such as the computation of the compensator process of the random time, the decomposition of the Azéma supermartingale, as well as the martingale characterisation. The martingale and semimartingale decompositions in the enlarged filtration show that the H'-hypothesis holds in this generalised framework. In Chapter 3, we display several applications of the models proposed in the previous chapters. The most important application of the hybrid default model and the generalised density approach is the valuation of default claims. The results explain the significant negative jumps in the long-term Greek government bond yield during the sovereign debt crisis. The solvency of Greece tends to fall gradually through time and the bond yield has negative jumps when critical political events are held. In ...

This dissertation deals with the mathematical modelling of sovereign credit risk and its applications. In Chapter 1, motivated by the European sovereign debt crisis, we propose a hybrid sovereign risk model which takes into account both the movement of the sovereign solvency and the impact of critical political events besides the idiosyncratic credit risk. We are interested in the probability that the default occurs at critical political dates, for which we obtain closed-form formulae in a Markovian setting, where we deal with some unusual features, such as a treatment of the CEV model when the elasticity parameter β > 1. We compute explicitly the compensator process of default and show that the intensity process does not exist. In Chapter 2, by studying certain hybrid models in literature on credit risks, we consider a type of random times whose conditional probability distribution is not continuous and by which standard intensity and density hypotheses in the enlargement of filtrations are not satisfied. We propose a generalised density approach, where the hypothesis of Jacod is relaxed, in order to deal with such random times in the framework of progressive enlargement of filtrations We also study classic problems such as the computation of the compensator process of the random time, the decomposition of the Azéma supermartingale, as well as the martingale characterisation. The martingale and semimartingale decompositions in the enlarged filtration show that the H'-hypothesis holds in this generalised framework. In Chapter 3, we display several applications of the models proposed in the previous chapters. The most important application of the hybrid default model and the generalised density approach is the valuation of default claims. The results explain the significant negative jumps in the long-term Greek government bond yield during the sovereign debt crisis. The solvency of Greece tends to fall gradually through time and the bond yield has negative jumps when critical political events are held. In ...

El mito de Troya es uno de los motivos literarios que Joanot Martorell recicla en su Tirant lo Blanc, novela cuyo punto de partida es otro motivo recurrente de las letras medievales: el conflicto greco-turco. La Constantinopla de Martorell, asediada por los turcos, se convierte en un revival de la Troya atacada por los griegos. Así se deduce del cotejo del Tirant con la Historia destructionis Troiae, de Guido delle Colonne, de cuya traducción catalana Martorell se sirve profusamente. Las concomitancias entre ambas obras conciernen, fundamentalmente, a los esquemas narrativos amoroso y militar, así como al desenlace trágico. Martorell logra un singular desarrollo novelesco del prestigioso topos medieval del conflicto greco-turco, mediante la fusión productiva de éste con ingredientes del no menos prestigioso topos clásico de la guerra de Troya, originando, así, el nacimiento de un nuevo mito superador de los originarios de que procede. ; The Trojan myth is one of the literary motifs that Joanot Marlorell recycles in his Tirant lo Blanc, a novel that takes its cue from another usual motif of the medieval literature: the Greco-Turkish war. Martorell's Constantinople, besieged by the Turks, develops into a revival of the city of Troy attacked by the Greeks. This is deduced thanks to the comparison between Tirant and the Historia destructionis Troiae, by Guido delle Colonne, whose Catalan translation was used by Martorell in a profuse way. The concommittances between both works are related, fundamentally, to the narrative loving and military schemes, as well as to the tragic conc1usion. Martorell achieves a singular fictional development of a prestigious medieval topos of the Greco-Turkish conflict, by means of the productive merger of this one with ingredients of equally prestigious classic topos of the Trojan war, originating, this way, the birth of a new myth superior over the original ones from which it comes.

Teniendo en cuenta la relación entre sujeto, verdad y poder formulada y reformulada a lo largo del trabajo de Foucault, el presente escrito intenta analizar un doble enfoque de la subjetividad y del bíos en el trabajo del francés: en primer término, el bíos considerado a la luz del discurso científico moderno que objetiva una vida biológica a la que constituye como blanco de intervención biopolítica y, en segundo lugar, el bíos como objeto de una obra de arte producida a través de prácticas de subjetivación que encuentran sus manifestaciones clásicas en la Antigüedad grecorromana. En ese marco, nos preguntaremos en qué medida las techné tou biou analizadas por Foucault pueden permitir pensar una política de la vida que no la vuelva objeto de normalización y control por parte de un poder heterónomo. ; Bearing in mind the relationship between Subjetivity, Truth and Power elaborated and re-elaborated by Michel Foucault during his work, this essay tries to analyze a double approach on Subjectivity and Bíos in Foucault: First, Bíos considered in the light of modern scientific discourse that objectifies a biological life and constitutes it as target of biopolitical intervention. Second, Bíos as object of a work of art produced through practices of subjectivation that find their classic examples in Greek and Roman Antiquity. In that context, we will ask ourselves to which extent the techné tou bioi analyzed by Foucault can enable to think a politics of life that does not turn it into an object of normalization and control by a heteronomous power. Keywords: Biopolitics, Techné tou biou, Genealogy, Bíos, Power, Subjectivation. ; Fil: Sacchi, Emiliano. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Patagonia Norte; Argentina ; Fil: Saidel, Matías Leandro. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Santa Fe; Argentina

1571 yılında Osmanlılar tarafından fethedilen Kıbrıs, Osmanlı Devleti'nin klasik yönetim sisteminin bir parçası olarak, 1878'de İngiltere'nin ada üzerindeki himayesine kadar yaklaşık 307 yıl Osmanlı hakimiyetinde kalmıştır. O günkü şartların gereği olarak geçici bir süreliğine İngiltere'ye terk edilen Kıbrıs'ın, İngiltere tarafından 1914 tarihinde resmen kendi topraklarına ilhak edilmesiyle, adada yeni bir süreç başlamıştır. Silahlanma, toprak paylaşımı ve sömürgecilik hareketlerinin Dünya siyasi ve ekonomik konjonktürünü belirlediği bir ortamda Avrupa devletlerinin Kıbrıs üzerine olan ilgileri daha da artmıştır. Adanın büyük bir sömürge imparatorluğu kuran İngiltere'nin yönetiminde ve İngiliz çıkarlarına hizmet eder bir staratejik mevkide bulunması, başta Yunanistan olmak üzere adayı ilhak etmek isteyen veya Kıbrıs'ı kendi ulusal çıkarlarının bir parçası olarak gören bazı devletleri (İngiltere, Rusya ve Amerika Birleşik Devletleri gibi) ve uluslararası kuruluşları harekete geçirmiştir. Yunanistan bulduğu her fırsatta "Magali İdea" ve "Enosis" yoluyla ulusal ve uluslararası platformlarda adayı kendisine ilhak etmek isterken, Türkiye Kıbrıs üzerindeki tarihi, kültürel, siyasi ve stratejik haklarını gerekçe göstererek buna karşı çıkmıştır. Başlangıçta Rumlar ile adadaki İngiliz yönetimi arasında tırmanan gerilim, başta İngiltere olmak üzererinde çıkarları olan devletlerin usta manevraları sayesinde bir süre sonra Rum-Türk çatışması haline dönüşmüş ve ada üzerinde siyasi çıkar hesapları yapan NATO ve BM'nin de işin içine karışmalarayla sorun uluslararası bir boyut kazanmıştır. Tezimizde 1960-1965 yılları arasında Kıbrıs konusunun taraflarca nasıl istismar edildiği, siyasi, kültürel ve askeri, gelişmeler ışığında periyodik ve somut olaylar bazında ele alınıp irdelenmektedir. ; Cyprus was conquered by the Ottomans in 1571, the classic management system as part of the Ottoman Empire, in 1878 the British protectorate on the island remained under Ottoman rule until about 307 years . As part of the conditions of that day temporarily abandoned Cyprus England, United Kingdom in 1914 by the annexation of its territory was officially on the island began a new process. Armaments, territorial and colonial movements in an environment of world political and economic conjuncture has further increased the interest of European states on Cyprus. The island is the management of a large colonial empire, and the British established to serve the interests of England there is a staratejik locality, especially wanting to annex the island to Greece or Cyprus as part of their own national interests, which in some states (Britain, Russia and the United States, such as ), and international organizations mobilized. Greece finds every opportunity "Megali Idea" and "Enosis" through the national and international platforms while trying to annex the island to him , Turkey, Cyprus, on the historical, cultural, political, and strategic opposed it, citing their rights. Initially, the escalating tension between the Greeks and the British rule on the island, particularly the United States to became skillful maneuvers with the interests of the Greek - Turkish conflict after a period of political interest on the accounts and the island has been transformed into the UN, NATO, and has gained an international dimension to the problem involved. Our thesis is the abuse of 1960-1965 between the parties of the Cyprus issue, the political, cultural and military, handled and examined in light of developments on the basis of periodic and concrete events.

The participation of free men in the movements led by rebellious slaves sets a complex problem in terms of the importance of the freedom/slavery antinomy in the thinking of the ancient Greeks and Romans. The chattel-slaves, defined as things, were represented as foreigners. The slaves served as the 'Others' against which all citizens, from the rich slave owners to the poor artisans and peasants, defined themselves as a unity. The contrast between the slave and the citizen made it possible to shade, from an ideological point of view, the relations of exploitation and the differences of wealth between the citizens. This tended to suppress the social conflict between them. Despite the significant legal and political differences between the free and the enslaved, and the ideological representation that was made of it, the sources narrate that some free men not only did not repress the rebel slaves in the great servile revolts, in solidarity with their rich fellow citizens, but they plundered these last ones or joined the fugitives. In the present work, we study the participation of impoverished free men (aporoi) in the late-republican servile wars and the relationship they established with the rebel slaves, a problem that has sometimes been neglected by the historiography or only partially treated. Some historiographical currents neglected the participation of the aporoi in the servile wars, and others overestimate it. In opposition, we revalue a line of investigation that, on the one hand, maintains the servile nature of the insurrections, since, the main role was apparently of the rebel slaves, but on the other hand affirms that the participation of free men was an important element. We believe that this point of view is the most appropriate for the testimonies of the sources and we contribute elements to rethink it. Those elements include: to focus the study within the framework of the classic democratic imaginary that will tend to promote the citizen solidarity facing the servile threat; to analyse each revolt ...

El tema de la Dación en pago (Datio in solutum) es un tema de candente actua-lidad, demandada por amplios colectivos sociales, que prevé la posibilidad de la realización por el deudor de la entrega de su vivienda como sustitutiva del pago de su deuda, ante la imposibilidad de hacer frente al pago del crédito hi-potecario. De esta forma, el deudor pretende la entrega del inmueble al acree-dor con finalidad solutoria ante la carencia de efectivo para ello. En esta apor-tación, se trata de analizar sus orígenes, desde su aparición e influencia en las mas antiguas figuras de las garantías reales del derecho griego, su evolución en el Derecho Romano como continuidad negocial en el Mare Nostrum, su trata-miento en la doctrina clásica, post-clásica y medieval, con una breve referencia a su tratamiento por la doctrina romanística hasta llegar a una visión de la cues-tión en la mas reciente doctrina, en la legislación de la Unión Europea, y en la legislación estatal española actual. ; Dation in payment (Datio in solutum) is a topic subject, demanded by large social groups, that means the possibility for the debtor to deliver the property of the mortgaged real estate in substitution of the debt payment, in case of impossibility of dealing with the mortgage loan payment. Namely, the debt pays with his good instead of with his money. In this contribution, we try to analyze the datio in solutum origin, from its appearance and influences in the old figures of the greek real securities, its evolution in the Roman law as a ne-gocial continuity in the Mare Nostrum, its treatment in the classical, post-classic and medieval doctrine, with a brief reference to the legal treatment by the romanístic doctrine and finishing with a mention to the development of the subject in the recent doctrine, the Europen Union legislation and the Spanish present of the European Union, and in the present spanish state legislation. ; Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha: Facultad de Derecho y Ciencias Sociales. Area de Derecho Romano de Ciudad-Real

The members of the Library Committee vary. ; Imprint varies slightly. ; Title from added t.p.; each part also has special t.p. ; The volume numbers in this set have been assigned from the "Summary of the series", v. 61, p. viii-xv. ; memoirs. Annals, by J.W. von Goethe.--[51] The Divine comedy of Danta Alighieri.--[52] Jerusalem delivered, by T. Tasso.--[53] The Nibelungenlied.--[54-56] History of the popes, by Leopold von Ranke.--[57] History of Florence, by N. Machiavelli.--[58] The republic of Plato.--[59] The Federalist.--[60] Ideal commonwealths; comprising More's Utopia, Bacon's New Atlantis, Campanella's City of the sun, and Harrington's Oceana.--[61] Index. ; [36-37] The literature of Persia. The literature of Japan.--[38] The literature of India.--[39] The literature of China. The literature of Arabia.--[40] Sacred books of the East.--[41] Moorish literature. Malayan literature.--[42] Egyptian literature.--[43] Turkish literature.--[44] Hebrew literature.--[45] Babylonian and Assyrian literature. Armenian literature.--[46-47] Chronicles of England, France, Spain and the adjoining countries, by Sir J. Froissart. History of Charles XII, by F.M.A. Voltaire.--[48-50] Classic ; Aristotle.--[18] Advancement of learning and Novum organum, by F. Bacon.--[19] Critique of pure reason, by I. Kant.--[20] The philosophy of history, by G.W.F. Hegel.--[21] Orations of Demosthenes.--[22] Orations of M.T. Cicero.--[23-24] Orations of British orators.--[25-26] Orations of American orators.--[27] Essays of French, German and Italian essayists.--[28-29] Essays of British essayists.--[30] Essays of American essayists.--[31-32] Plays, by Greek, Spanish, French, German and English dramatists.--[33-35] History of English literature, by H.A. Taine. ; [1] Ancient history, by G. Rawlinson.--[2-4] History of Europe during the Middle Ages, by H. Hallam. Modern history, by J. Michelet.--[5-7] A short history of the English people, by J.R. Green. History of civilization in Europe, by F.P.G. Guizot.--[8-9] The French revolution, by T. Carlyle.--[10] Decisive battles of the world, by E.S. Creasy.--[11-12] The spirit of laws, by Baron de Montesquieu. Physics and politics, by W. Bagehot.--[13-14] Principles of political economy, by J.S. Mill.--[15-16] Democracy in America, by A. de Tocqueville.--[17] Dialogues of Plato. The politics of ; Mode of access: Internet.

Diateichismata sind Befestigungsmauern, die durch bebautes oder unbebautes Areal ummauerter Siedlungen verlaufen und dieses in zwei Gebiete teilen; sie bilden mit den jeweiligen Umfassungsmauern meist komplexe Verteidigungssysteme. Die vorliegende Arbeit behandelt das Phänomen des Diateichisma als Befestigungsbauwerk und seinen Einfluß auf die urbanistische Organisation des Stadtbildes. Die Darstellung der Forschungsgeschichte und der antiken Schriftquellen zum Thema Diateichisma bilden die Einleitung der Arbeit. Einen zentralen Punkt bildet dabei die Analyse der Siedlungen mit Diateichisma nach siedlungstypologischen Gesichtspunkten. Weitere wesentliche Fragestellungen betreffen das Verhältnis des Diateichisma zum urbanen Raum sowie die Ursachen, die zur Errichtung der Diateichismata geführt haben. Die Siedlungen mit Diateichisma werden detailliert in einem Katalog erfaßt. Die technischen Daten zu den Siedlungen werden tabellarisch dargestellt, die Testimonien zu Diateichisma sind mit Auszügen der relevanten Textpassagen wiedergegeben. In der Forschung wurden Diateichismata als militärische Zweckbauten behandelt, sie wurden aber nie systematisch untersucht. Für eine vergleichende Analyse der Siedlungen mit Diateichisma wurde die Auswertung des bauchronologischen Verhältnisses von Diateichisma und Umfassungsmauer als am meisten geeignetes Kriterium herangezogen, weil nur dieses Verhältnis Aufschluss über die Entwicklung der Siedlungsgröße geben kann. Zu unterscheiden sind: 1. gleichzeitig mit der Umfassungsmauer errichtete Diateichismata; 2. nachträglich errichtete Diateichismata; 3. Diateichismata, die durch Erweiterung des befestigten Stadtgebietes entstanden sind. In den meisten der untersuchten Siedlungen (23 Beispiele) wurde Diateichisma nachträglich errichtet. Durch Stadterweiterung entstandene Diateichismata finden sich in 19 Städten. Gleichzeitig wurden die wenigsten Diateichismata erbaut (14 Beispiele); bei 4 Siedlungen ist das Verhältnis zwischen Diateichisma und Umfassungsmauer unklar. Diateichismata lassen sich vom 7. bis zum 2. Jhd. v. Chr. in griechischen Siedlungen nachweisen. Bei der chronologischen Verteilung der einzelnen Siedlungen zeigt sich, dass in klassischer und hellenistischer Zeit die meisten Diateichismata errichtet wurden. Innerhalb des griechischen Kulturraumes sind Diatechisma-Siedlungen weit gestreut. In wenigen Gebieten lassen sich Häufungen erkennen: Vermehrt treten nachträglich errichtete Diateichismata im westgriechischen, durch Stadterweiterung entstandene vor allem im nordwestgriechischen Bereich auf. Generell liegt die Funktion von Diateichismata darin, Feinde, die in das Stadtgebiet eingedrungen sind, an einem weiteren Vordringen zu hindern oder bei siedlungsinternen Konflikten als Barrieren zwischen den Streitparteien zu dienen. Trotz der militärischen Funktion verfügt nur eine geringe Anzahl von "militärischen" Diateichisma-Siedlungen über ein Diateichisma, das hier zur Abtrennung von Fluchtbezirken diente. Die überwiegende Mehrzahl an Diateichismata wurde in selbständigen Poleis, sind aber im Gegensatz zu Umfassungsmauern weder Zeichen noch Garant politischer Autonomie. Die Bedeutung von Diateichismata ist in Poleis im griechischen Koloniegebiet aufgrund des Spannungsfeldes unterschiedlicher Bevölkerungsgruppen von besonderem Interesse. Am häufigsten treten Stadterweiterungen bis zur Mitte des 3. Jhs. v. Chr. auf, die möglicherweise mit den Umsiedlungen größerer Bevölkerungsgruppen in archaischer und klassischer Zeit sowie mit Neugründungen von Städten im Zusammenhang stehen. Im Gegensatz zu den Vergrößerungen des Siedlungsraumes wurde meist durch kriegerische Auseinandersetzungen oder siedlungsinterne Konflikte begründet, in Teilbereichen des westgriechischen Raumes vor allem in der zweiten Hälfte des 5. Jhs v. Chr. der Siedlungsraum verkleinert. Diateichismata verändern das Stadtbild nachhaltig und verfügen durch ihre prominente Stellung innerhalb des Stadtgebietes auch über repräsentative oder abschreckende Funktion. Sie werden nur selten intentionell vollständig entfernt und bleiben oft im Stadtbild weiterhin bestehen, auch wenn ihre ursprüngliche Funktion nicht mehr erfüllt ist. Sie werden in der Folge in andere Bauwerke integriert oder dienen der einfachen Steingewinnung. Als Trennmauern innerhalb des Siedlungsgebietes sind Diateichismata eng mit der urbanistischen Planung verbunden und sind sichtbare Grenzmarken zwischen Stadtteilen. Diese wurde in den meisten Siedlungen als Wohnbereiche genutzt, bei einigen wurden auch explizit Hafen- und Handelszonen abgetrennt. Weniger häufig treten abgeteilte Militärzonen auf. Generell haben in allen Arten von Diateichismata Siedlungen nicht besiedelte Areale innerhalb eines Diateichisma die Funktion von Fluchtbezirken. Als hauptsächliche Ursachen und Anlässe, die zur Errichtung von Diateichismata führten, sind die Fortschritte der Angriffstaktik in klassischer Zeit mit gleichzeitigem, bereichsweise festzustellenden Bevölkerungsrückgang zu nennen: Diateichismata wurden daher v.a. in hellenistischer Zeit als Mittel der Siedlungsraumverkleinerung eingesetzt. Im gleichen Zeitraum stehen diesen Tendenzen regional Vorgänge Der Siedlungsraumvergrößerung v. a. in Nordwestgriechenland und Westgriechenland - gegenüber, die mit Siedlungszusammenlegung und wirtschaftlichem Aufschwung in Zusammenhang zu bringen sind. ; A Diateichisma is part of a city´s fortification system. Unlike a city wall it was built within the urban area dividing a city in two parts. This study focuses on two aspects. On the one hand, the phenomenon of diateichismata is considered as part of fortification architecture, on the other hand the influence of diateichism on the organisation of the urban space is pointed out. Furthermore, the reasons, why diateichismata were build are considered as a focal point of the study. The settlement are displayed in a catalogue, technical data is in charts. Written sources mentioning diatechisma are put together including relevant passages of the text. In scientific research diateichismata have been regarded as mere functional buildings, however, they have been studied systematically. In this study, the significance of diateichismata is analysed beyond the aspects of fortification; in particular, the impact of diateichismata on the development and utilisation of urban space is a spezial interest. A comparative analysis of settlements with diateichisma has needs of comparable criteria. The most applicable term, after which settlements with diateichisma can be discerned and put in order, is the chronological relation of diateichisma and city wall, because here chronology is the only variable giving valuable information on settlement development. Hence three variations of settlements with diateichisma can be discerned: 1. Settlements with diateichisma built together with the enceinte. 2. Settlements with secondarily but diateichisma. 3. Settlements with diateichisma which originate after expansion of walled urban space. Most of the studied settlements have diateichismata which were built after the enceinte (23 examples) or which origins from expansion of walled city space (19 settlements). Contemporaneous diateichismate are rare (14 settlements), only in a few cities the relation between diateichisma and city wall remains unclear. The earliest diateichismata be dated in late 7th cent. B.C., the latest was build in the middle of the 2nd cent. B.C. Within this chronological frame the highest concentration of diateichismata can be traced in classical and hellenistic times. The distriution of cities is spead from the Iberian Peninsula to Greek parts of modern Afghanistan (Graeco-bactria). Only any regions do show concentrations of settlements with diateichisma. In the Western Mediterranean there are more cities with secondarily built diateichisma, in the area of north-western Greek in a lot of cities the walled urban space was enlarged establishind diateichismata between the original city area and the newly acquired space. Generally, diateichismata serve as obstacles to enemies which conquered the enceinte already or as barrier wall for hostile parties fighting within the boundaries of the city wall. Despite of the clear military function only cities of military character have a diateichisma; there it always serves as a barrier wall protecting free space Meant to host soldiers when attacked. The predominate group of settlements with dateichisma are free poleis. Concerning poleis in Greek cities in a non-Greek environment, the significance of diateichismata gains more interest, envolving the conflicts of different ethnical groups. In these cities ("colonies") one can detect mostly enlargement of urban space with covers the period of the 5th to the middle 3rd centuries B.C. Probably this process is conneted with the moving of large groups of people by the Western Greek tyrants in late archaic classical times and with the renewed founding of cities in the 4th cent. B.C. Contrary of the processs of enlargement of city space, in some areas of the Western Mediterranean cities were diminished insize. Diateichismata have a deep impact on the organisation of the urban space and also have representative and determine function. In most cities diateichismata remain standing as a ruin, detached from their original function of a barrier wall, or they integrated in newly erected buildings. As barrier walls, however, they are always organisation of urban space and remain as a visible borderline between different city quaters. Most of these partitioned off areas were used as dwelling space, but also in quite a lot of settlements explicitly the trading harbour zones were separated and protected by a diateichisma. Only a few cities divided military areas. Generally, empty space seperated by diateichisma was kept free for people escaping when being attacked. A main reason or occasion to build a diateichisma is the development of sieging techniques from late classical times onwards, being accompanied by a regional declining population density. Hence, especially in late classic and hellenistic times the erection of a diateichisma is a proved method to protect a city. However, a regional visible contemporanous development of urban space, probably connected with regional economic upturns, shows that the phenomenon of cities divided by a diateichisma is not a uniform development of military architecture. Rather a diateichisma is a mirror of the economic and political situation of a settlement and in special cases also of a region.

У розвідці здійснено періодизацію процесу зародження, становлення та розвитку вищої освіти на території України, виокремлено протоуніверситетський, докласичний, класичний, модернізаційний, радянський, сучасний (постмодерний) періоди - від афінської системи в полісах Північного Причорномор'я, шкіл підвищеного типу в Київській Русі для підготовки представників державної та духовної еліти, братських шкіл, Острозької та Києво-Могилянської академій до функціонування мережі університетів, спеціальних вищих навчальних закладів, народних університетів. Визначено історичні, суспільно-політичні, економічні, соціокультурні, ментальні, освітні, наукові чинники, що детермінували динаміку кількісних та якісних змін і нововведень у вищій школі. ; In the article the periodization of higher education development in the territory of Ukraine has been carried out and the following main periods have been distinguished: proto¬university (V century BC - XV century), which involves origination of schools of the higher level, oriented towards the Greek-Byzantine models of scholarship; pre-classical (XVI - late XVIII century), marked by the activity of brotherhood schools, Ostroh and Kyiv-Mohyla Academies, based on the synthesis of the national tradition with the European humanistic paradigm; classic (late XVIII - late XIX century) was marked by orientation of the higher school to the German university supporting the freedom of scientific creativity, in combination with the elements of the French model, which envisaged unification and centralization. At the beginning of the XX century the modernization period was initiated, aimed at the implementation of the idea of a free higher school, a combination of universal human values and national values, academic autonomy, freedom of teaching and learning, self-realization of the personality of a student and a teacher. Nevertheless, in the Soviet period (1921-1990), a radical reorganization of the higher school took place on the basis of class values and Marxist-Leninist methodology, the elimination of academic autonomy, unification, and centralization. The modern postmodern development of higher education in Ukraine is based on a innovative paradigm in the conditions of globalization. Among the number of factors that influenced development of higher education in Ukraine, the author has distinguished: historical (deep traditions of functioning of the institutions of higher level, openness of the Ukrainian educational space to the extrapolation of positive foreign experience, indigenous peoples' desire for higher education, practice of "educational tourism"); socio-political (external and internal policy of the state; democratization and formation of civil society institutions; growth of national consciousness and civil culture of the population), economic (scientific-technological progress, modernization of the economy, industrialization, urbanization, growing need for qualified specialists), socio-cultural (deepening of social differentiation, activization of private initiative and public-pedagogical movement, practice of charity and philanthropy; desire of the Ukrainian intelligentsia to develop a national culture; strict censorship and prohibition of Ukrainian language, literature, schools in the Russian Empire); educational (genesis of values, educational ideal and goal of education, transformation of mission of the university, conceptual maturity of different models of higher education, ideas of reformatory pedagogy and free higher education); scientific (structuring of the science, establishment of new methodological approaches, expansion of the nomenclature of specialties, institutionalization of pedagogy as a separate branch of scientific knowledge, integration into the world research space).

RESUMEN: Alejandro Magno ha sido un personaje que ya desde la Antigüedad ha suscitado el interés de muchos historiadores, debido a que sus acciones marcaron la ruptura con el mundo clásico conocido hasta entontes y el inicio de un período histórico totalmente nuevo conocido como Helenismo o época helenística. Es por esto que las biografías sobre su vida y los trabajos dedicados a narrar la campaña de conquista de Oriente que llevo a cabo a finales del siglo IV a.C., han sido muy numerosos dentro del campo de la historiografía moderna. Sin embargo, llama la atención que apenas existen investigaciones actuales sobre las ciudades fundadas por este rey macedonio durante su expedición por Asia. Según las fuentes antiguas, el monarca macedonio ordenó la fundación de múltiples establecimientos urbanos por aquellos territorios del Asia que acaba de conquistar. Las conocidas como "Alejandrías" difundirían el pensamiento y la cultura griegos por aquellos lugares tan remotos de Oriente y jugarían un papel fundamental en la organización territorial y política de los reinos helenísticos. Debido a esto, en nuestro trabajo de investigación vamos a tratar de indagar sobre los testimonios de diversa índole (literarios, arqueológicos, epigráficos, etc.) que poseemos acerca de estas ciudades fundadas por Alejandro, con el objetivo de poder aportar algo más de luz sobre su localización, morfología e importancia en tiempos de Alejandro. Sin duda, este es un tema sobre el que faltan muchos interrogantes a los que dar respuesta y en el que la arqueología todavía no ha dicho la última palabra. ABSTRACT: Alexander the Great has been a historical character who, since Antiquity has awoken the interest of many historians, due to the fat that his actions supposed a break between the classic world known until then and the starting point of a totally new historic period known as Hellenism. Due to this, biographies on Alexander the Great, and works dedicated to explain the campaign of the conquest of Orient he carried out at the end of 4th Century, have been abundant within the field of modern historiography. However, it is worth mentioning to say that current investigations about the cities founded by this Macedonian king during his expedition through Asia seldom exist. According to ancient sources, the Macedonian monarch ordered the foundation of multiple urban establishments throughout the new conquered territories of Asia. The cities known as 'Alexandrias' would spread the Greek culture and philosophy through those remote places of Orient, and would play a principal role in the territorial and political organization of the Hellenistic kingdoms. Due to this, our dissertation aims to investigate the different testimonies we possess (such as literary, archaeological, epigraphical, etc.) about those cities founded by Alexander, with the objective of contributing a clearer testimony about their localization, morphology and importance in Alexander times. With no doubt, this is a topic which still has many questions to be answered and about which archaeology has not said his last word.

A talk by Anthony Pym in a course in variation in English. - Transcript below: What is diglossia? It's from Greek: di- means two; gloss, the tongue. Two languages. Not to be confused, however, with bilingualism, which is from Latin: bi-, two: lingua, the tongue. Two languages. There is, however, in English social linguistics a systematic difference between the two terms, diglossia and bilingualism. Usually, bilingualism is the capacity of the individual, of a person, to speak one, two, or three—more than one—language, let's say: bilingualism, okay? You could call them polyglots, that's a nice term for describing people, and French and French-inspired social linguistics talks about plurilingualism for the capacity of the individual. Now, diglossia is something quite different. Diglossia is a social situation; it's not concerning individuals, it concerns a society in which there are two languages related in such a way that they have different social functions. Okay? That's diglossia: a social situation; bilingualism, plurilingualism is concerned with the capacities of the individual. Now, a standard definition of diglossia—this is [Charles] Ferguson, 1959—oh, it's long and complicated, but anyway, diglossia is a relatively stable language situation. And that's important; it's not a transitory thing, it's not a bad thing, it's something that we observe occurring over centuries in many parts of the world. So, a situation in which, in addition to the primary dialects of the language, there is a very divergent, highly codified (often grammatically more complex) superposed variety. So we have these two kinds of varieties happening within the same language; one would be spoken—the dialects, etc.—and the other would be learned, standardized, the language of literature. Then he goes on of written literature either of an earlier period or in another speech community, which is learned largely by formal education—so you get to this other one by going to school—and is used for written and formal spoken purposes but is not used by any section of the community for ordinary conversation. So it's easier to understand if you go to Zurich, for example, where you've got people speaking Swiss German in the street and on television, on local television, and then going and studying in standard German and learning to write standard German, and they wouldn't write down their spoken language. These two varieties of the language with different social functions, and they are highly separate. Another classic example would be Arabic in Morocco, where we do have classical Arabic for religious functions, certainly for the King, and then spoken Moroccan Arabic in the street, although Moroccan Arabic does get into the press in that case, okay, So those are cases where the one language has varieties with different social functions. The functions are traditionally called H and L in English. H stands for high, but you don't say high; H stands for the written, official social functions. L stands for the spoken, non-official, vernacular social functions; low, okay. We try to avoid high and low because that was Charles Darwin's mistake, when he talked about the higher species, that led to all sorts of racism and misunderstandings. H and L are there not in the sense of H being superior but of them simply being different. That's why the decision has been made to use H and L as letters rather than as descriptors. Now that's a strict definition of diglossia. There's a more relaxed definition, and that would be when the two varieties in question don't have to belong to the same language, okay? So in parts of the complex society around us here, we find Spanish being used for official functions. Certainly, here, 50 years ago, Spanish would be absolutely the H variety and Catalan would be the L variety. They are different languages—cognate, but different—and yet they would satisfy most non-demanding definitions of diglossia. So that would be the relaxed definition, or the loose definition: the two varieties, two different functions. The varieties don't have to belong to the same language; they can, but they don't have to, okay. I'll point out that now with the standardization of Catalan—so it's become very much the H variety around us here—we find situations where Catalan occupies H functions in official society, certainly Barcelona. Spanish can move to L for many of the immigrant groups and occupy those functions, and then we have another Catalan, which is that of the farmers and the traditional working class, with its many regional varieties, and that's becoming an L as well. So it needn't be just H and L. There can be other languages, or the same language can move into those two positions if, uh, if the society takes on that sort of form. Um, when we— when we use— Catalan linguists don't like the theory of diglossia and the basic reason is this: diglossia sort of accepts asymmetries; it accepts that language is going to have different power relations, and that this is a stable and normal thing. Whereas their fight has long been for Catalan to assume full H functions, and the official language policy in Spain is for all co-official languages to have full H functions. So they want a situation that they call bilingüisme, which is H and H full capacity in everything. Why not? That can happen; there's no law against it. The simple observation in English-language social linguistics is that it needn't happen, that we have long-term stable asymmetries in language functions. So, if you find that you haven't got it, it's not because you're an aberration, it's just because your societies tend to suggest that we can have asymmetric language functions without any disaster befalling anybody. The other thing that, um, that my students will say is that "we don't want our language to have an L function—L means powerless; H means power. Give me power, empower me, make my language big and strong and written and standardized." Which, of course, is what any linguist would do because linguists are the people who do that sort of work. Great work for ourselves, yeah. All right, but be careful. Over history, the languages that die are often those that are in the H position. Look no further than classical Greek or Latin. All the romance languages that we speak had an L function in relation to H-variety Latin. Which one won out over history? The L varieties, not the H. English itself is the result of a diglossic situation where we had Old French in H we had Anglo-Saxon varieties in L. And did H repress L and kill L over time? Quite the opposite. The result, the English that we have is a merger of the two but with a rising influence, I suspect over time, of the L. The L came up and absorbed the H. So it's not true that it's bad, historically, to be in an L position. An L position is close to where the people are and economic activity is and where people vote, after all. In our course we look, of course, at certain things that depend on diglossia. Diglossia is like the basic social situation that sets up the possibility of, for example, a lot of code-switching that we find. And then if you think of the example of Oberwart where, uh, Hungarian and German were in contact we found that the language shift that we saw there was a classic case of what we now know and would call diglossia, where German had the official function, the H functions, Hungarian had the social life, the association with territory over time. And in that particular case, because of the political shift of the village, the H took over and displaced L in that particular situation. There are no fatalities. It's not always bad to be in the L position, and H and L relations in diglossia can continue and be stable for many centuries. That's the lesson, at least, of English social linguistics. You're welcome to find counter-examples.

In this paper, I read Myriam Ben's Leïla, poème scénique en deux actes et un prologue as a reinterpretation of Sophocles' Antigone. I contend that this blend of Algerian theatre, history and Greek tragedy yields a variety of 'minor theatre' that sets out to undermine established dramaturgical structures and prevailing historical narratives about the Algerian Revolution (1954-1962). Working in the outline of a canonical work, the playwright decentres the classic tragedy by way of a thought-provoking technical adaptation while, at the same time, refuting the fictions shrouding the events of the liberation struggle, the Front de Libération Nationale (FLN) and, especially, the military overthrow of President Ahmed Ben Bella by his Defence Minister Houari Boumediene in 1965. Despite the specificity of its context, however, the allegorical nature of the play allows for a sense of universality. While its milieu is undoubtedly post-revolution Algeria, the story it communicates might take place in any country past or present -dictatorships not being limited to North Africa. ; La obra de Myriam Ben Leïla, poème scénique en deux actes et un prologue me ha parecido una reinterpretación de la Antígona de Sófocles. Considero que esta fusión entre el teatro argelino, la historia y la tragedia griega da prioridad a una variedad de "teatro menor" que se establece con el fin de debilitar las estructuras dramaturgas ya implantadas y las narrativas históricas prevalecientes sobre la Revolución Argelina (1954-1962). Al trabajar en la línea de una obra canónica, la dramaturga resta importancia a la tragedia clásica mediante una adaptación técnica que nos evoca al pensamiento, mientras que, al mismo tiempo, rebate las narrativas sumergiéndose en los acontecimientos de la lucha por la liberación, el Front de Libération Nationale (FLN) y, en particular, en el derrocamiento militar del presidente Ahmed Ben Bella por el ministro de Defensa Houari Boumediene en 1965. A pesar de la concreción del contexto, la alegoría natural de esta obra cuenta con un gran sentido de la universalidad. Mientras que el entorno en el que se enmarca es indudablemente la Argelia posrevolucionaria, la historia que transmite podría tener lugar en cualquier país tanto del pasado como de la actualidad: las dictaduras no se han limitado al norte de África. ; En aquest article, llegeixo Leïla, poème scénique en deux actes et un prologue de Myriam Ben com a reinterpretació de l'Antígona de Sòfocles. Sostinc que aquesta barreja de teatre algerià, història i tragèdia grega generen una varietat de «teatre menor» que es proposa soscavar les estructures dramatúrgiques establertes i les narracions imperants de la història de la Revolució Algeriana (1954-1962). Treballant des de l'esbós d'una obra canònica, la dramaturga descentralitza la tragèdia grega mitjançant una adaptació tècnica estimulant i, alhora, refuta les ficcions que embolcallen els esdeveniments de la lluita per l'alliberament, el Front d'Alliberament Nacional (FLN) i, especialment, l'enderrocament militar del President Ahmed Ben Bella a mans del seu ministre de Defensa, Houari Boumediene, l'any 1965. Malgrat que el context és específic, la naturalesa al·legòrica de l'obra dóna una idea d'universalitat. Tot i que l'entorn és indubtablement l'Algèria de la postrevolució, la història que transmet pot tenir lloc a qualsevol país -al passat o al present- ja que les dictadures no es limiten al nord d'Àfrica. ; Artikulu honetan, Myriam Benen Leïla, poème scénique en deux actes et un prologue (Leila, antzez poema bi ekitaldi eta sarrera batean) Sofoklesen Antigona lanaren berrinterpretaziotzat hartu dut. Aljeriar antzerkigintza, historia eta tragedia greziarraren nahaste honek 'antzerki minoritario' mota bat sortzen duela esan nahi dut, honen eraginak Aljeriako iraultzari (1954-1962) buruzko antzerki egitura ezarriari eta orokorrean dabiltzan narrazio historikoei azpiak jaten dizkiolarik. Lan kanonikoaren mugatik at ekinez, antzerkigilea tragedia klasikoaz gain doa, pentsatu arazten digun moldapen tekniko baten bidez eta, era berean, askatasun borrokaren inguruan dauden fikzioak ukatzen ditu, Front de Libération Nationale (FLN) eta, bereziki, 1965ean Houari Boumediene defentsa ministroaren esku, Ahmed Ben Bella presidentea kargutik kendu zuen estatu kolpe militarra. Testuinguru honen berezitasuna gora behera, hala ere, antzezlanaren izaera alegorikoak unibertsaltasun zentzua baimentzen du. Ingurunea, zalantzarik gabe, iraultza osteko Aljeria den arren, eskaintzen duen istorioa edozein herrialdetan eta edozein denboratan gerta daiteke, diktadurak ez baitira Ipar Afrikan mugatzen.