Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Yaadahalli-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 662 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 597 ha (90%) in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 7 ha (1%) by rock outcrops and 58 ha (9%) by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 11 soil series and 21 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units. The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture. About 32 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are very deep (>150 cm), 28 per cent soils are deep (100 to 150 cm), 20 per cent soils are moderately deep (75-100 cm), 2 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50-75 cm) and 8 per cent soils are shallow (25-50 cm). About 22 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 49 per cent loamy soils and 19 per cent clayey soils at the surface. About 86 per cent area of the microwatershed has non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity. An area of about 6 per cent is nearly level (0-1%) and 84 per cent area in the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands. An area of about 6 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 84 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded in the microwatershed. An area of about 2 per cent is slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5), 44 per cent is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 22 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8), 20 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4) and 2 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) in reaction. The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire area of the microwatershed is 0.75%) in organic carbon. About 62 per cent area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 28 per cent area is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus. About 88 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 2 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium. Available sulphur is low (<10 ppm) in an area of about 75 per cent and 15 per cent of the soils are medium (10-20 ppm) in the microwatershed. Available boron is low (<0.5 ppm) in an area of about 74 per cent and medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) in an area of 16 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available iron is sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed. Available manganese is sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed. Available copper is sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed. Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in all the soils of the microwatershed. The land suitability for 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 455(69) 87(13) Guava - 130(20) Maize 58(9) 433(65) Sapota - 131(20) Bajra 109(16) 433(65) Pomegranate - 528(80) Groundnut - 138(21) Musambi 389(59) 139(21) Sunflower 389(59) 139(21) Lime 389(59) 139(21) Redgram - 528(80) Amla 66(10) 475(72) Bengal gram 397(60) 81(12) Cashew - 66(10) Cotton 389(59) 88(13) Jackfruit - 131(20) Chilli - 542(82) Jamun - 397(60) Tomato 58(9) 401(60) Custard apple 476(72) 65(10) Brinjal 120(18) 421(64) Tamarind - 397(60) Onion 161(24) 101(16) Mulberry - 131(20) Bhendi 299(45) 242(37) Marigold - 542(82) Drumstick - 528(80) Chrysanthemum - 542(82) Mango - 46(7) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY The survey was conducted in Yaadahalli-2 is located at North latitude 160 49' 50.825" and 160 48' 22.582" and East longitude 770 10' 36.282'' and 770 8' 22.441" covering an area of about 661.39 ha coming underYaddalli, Bandhalli and Honagera villages of Yadagiri taluk. Socio-economic analysis of Yaadahalli-2 micro watersheds of Hattikuni subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 36 farmers were sampled in Yaadahalli-2 micro-watershed among households surveyed 19 (52.78%) were marginal, 6 (16.67%) were small and 5 (13.89 %) were semi medium farmers. 6 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey. The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 127 (55.70%) men and 101 (44.30 %) were women. The average population of landless was 6.7, marginal farmers were 6.5, semi medium farmers were 5.7 and medium farmers were 6. Majority of the respondents (56.14%) were in the age group of 16-35 years. Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 74.12 per cent illiterates, 25.44 per cent pre university education and 2.63 per cent attained graduation. About, 77.78 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 2.78 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers. Agriculture was the major occupation for 60.09 per cent of the household members. In the study area, 52.78 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 33.33 per cent possess pucca house. The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 61.11 per cent possess TV, 2.78 per cent possess mixer grinder, 94.44 per cent possess mobile phones and 33.33 per cent possess motor cycles. Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 22.22 per cent of the households possess plough, 5.56 per cent possess tractor, 5.56 per cent possess bullock cart and 13.89 per cent possess sprayer. Regarding livestock possession by the households, 8.33 per cent possess local cow and 2.78 per cent possess buffalo. The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.89, women available in the micro watershed was 1.69, hired labour (men) available was 7.83 and hired labour (women) available was 5.97. Further, 19.44 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season. 2 In the study area, about 2.63 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 1150.00 kms for about 12.00 months. Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 65.61 per cent (24.20 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 30.71 per cent area is irrigated land. There were 9.00 live bore wells and 9.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households. Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 25.00 per cent of the households. The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut, Paddy and Green gram and cropping intensity was recorded as 107.16 per cent. Out of the sample households 77.78 percent possessed bank account and 47.22 per cent of them have savings in the account. About 38.89 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources. Among the credit borrowed by households, 14.29 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 64.29 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank. Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose. Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 92.31 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations. The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut, Paddy and Green gram was Rs.50570.78 , 33213.31, 61554.52, 57120.33, and 40238.12 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.03, 1: 2.90, 1: 2.30, 1: 1.40, and 1:1.50, respectively. Further, 30.56 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate. The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 230574.94 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 62213.89 comes from agriculture. Sampled households have grown 14 horticulture trees and 44 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards. Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 15694.44 for land development and Rs. 27083.33 for irrigation facility. Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 2.78 per cent depends on own funds and 11.11 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities. Regarding marketing channels, 61.11 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 25.00 per cent have sold in regulated markets. Further, 80.56 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity. 3 Majority of the farmers (55.56%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 77.78 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing. Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 83.33 per cent of the households and 16.67 per cent households has LPG connection. Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 83.33 per cent of the households. Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households. In the study area, 41.67 per cent of the households possess toilet facility. Regarding possession of PDS card, 91.67 per cent of the households possessed BPL card and 8.33 per cent of the household's possessed APL card. Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (83.33%), pulses (88.89%) and oilseeds (52.78%) are adequate for consumption. Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by (63.89 %) per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (47.22%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (77.78%), inadequacy of irrigation water (58.33%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (77.78%), high rate of interest on credit (77.78%), low price for the agricultural commodities (77.78 %), lack of marketing facilities in the area (63.89%), inadequate extension services (27.78 %) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (72.22%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Itakal-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 540 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 522 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils and about 18 ha by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 7 soil series and 8 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units. The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture. About 92 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep to very deep (75 - >150 cm) and 4 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50-75 cm). About 4 per cent area of the microwatershed has loamy soils and 92 per cent clayey soils. About of 86 per cent area of the microwatershed has non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 20 per cent medium (101-150 mm/m) and 16 per cent area low (51-100 mm/m) in available water capacity. An area of 13 per cent has nearly level (0-1% slope) lands and 83 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands of the microwatershed. An area of about 65 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded and 31 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded. An area of about 22 per cent is neutral (pH 6.5 to 7.3), 52 per cent slightly alkaline (pH 7.3 to 7.8) and 23 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8 to 8.4) in reaction. The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is dominantly 0.75%), 57 per cent medium (0.50-0.75%) and 9 per cent is low ( 57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus. An area 89 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha) and 8 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in available potassium of the microwatershed. Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) 28 per cent of the microwatershed. Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in 60 per cent and deficient (<4.5 ppm) in 37 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed. Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed. The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 244(45) Guava - 65(12) Maize 65(12) 179(33) Sapota - 65(12) Bajra 65(12) 179(33) Pomegranate - 220(41) Groundnut 65(12) 24(4) Musambi - 220(41) Sunflower - 220(41) Lime - 220(41) Redgram - 220(41) Amla 65(12) 24(4) Bengal gram - 155(29) Cashew - - Cotton - 155(29) Jackfruit - 65(12) Chilli 65(12) 179(33) Jamun - - Tomato 65(12) 24(4) Custard apple 65(12) 179(33) Brinjal 65(12) 24(4) Tamarind - - Onion 65(12) 24(4) Mulberry - 65(12) Bhendi 65(12) 179(33) Marigold 65(12) 179(33) Drumstick - 65(12) Chrysanthemum 65(12) 179(33) Mango - - Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and sub marginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY The survey was conducted in Itakal-1 is located at North latitude 160 54' 13.021" and 160 53' 26.25" and East longitude 770 24' 24.188'' and 770 23' 10.84" covering an area of about 118.39 ha coming under Gurumitkal village of Yadagiri taluk. Socio-economic analysis of Itakal-1 micro watersheds of Mothakapalli subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 farmers were sampled in Itakal-1 micro-watershed among households surveyed 21 (60.00%) were marginal, 4 (11.43%) were small, 3 (8.57 %) were semi medium and 2 (5.71 %) were medium farmers. 5 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey. The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 107 (62.21%) men and 65 (37.79 %) were women. The average population of landless was 6.2, marginal farmers were 4.7, small farmers were 5, semi medium farmers were 4.3 and medium farmers were 4.5. Majority of the respondents (40.12%) were in the age group of 16-35 years. Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 24.42 per cent illiterates, 0.58 percent were functional literates, 70.36 per cent pre university education and 7.56 per cent attained graduation. About, 80.00 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture. Agriculture was the major occupation for 47.67 per cent of the household members. In the study area, 40.00 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 57.14 per cent possess pucca house. The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 80.00 per cent possess TV, 42.86 per cent possess mixer grinder, 91.43 per cent possess mobile phones and 54.29 per cent possess motor cycles. Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 37.14 per cent of the households possess plough, 5.71 per cent possess tractor, 14.29 per cent possess bullock cart and 20.00 per cent possess sprayer. Regarding livestock possession by the households, 5.71 per cent possess local cow and 5.71 per cent possess buffalo. The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.54, women available in the micro watershed was 1.03, hired labour (men) available was 5.14 and hired labour (women) available was 8.86. Further, 25.71 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season. 2 Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 80.49 per cent (29.68 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 19.51 per cent area is irrigated land. There were 3.00 live bore wells and 3.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households. Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 14.29 per cent of the households. The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Groundnut, Cotton, Jowar and Paddy and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent. Out of the sample households 97.14 percent possessed bank account and 14.29 per cent of them have savings in the account. About 102.86 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources. Among the credit borrowed by households, 40.00 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 30.00 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank. Majority of the respondents (90.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose. Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 54.55 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations, while, only 36.36 per cent respondents opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfil their requirement. The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Groundnut, Cotton, Jowar and Paddy was Rs.43067.31, 90445.62, 39213.13, 139598.90 and 48958.89 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.62, 1: 1.29, 1: 1.96, 1: 1.90 and 1:0.80 respectively. Further, 14.29 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.86 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate. The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 137397.14 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 49711.43 comes from agriculture. Sampled households have grown 46 horticulture trees and 14 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards. About 8.57 per cent of the households shown interest to cultivate horticultural crops. Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 7571.43 for land development and Rs. 2857.14 for irrigation facility. Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 42.86 per cent depends on own funds and 5.71 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities. Regarding marketing channels, 82.86 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 2.86 per cent have sold in regulated markets. 3 Further, 62.86 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity. Majority of the farmers (60.00%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 71.43 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing. Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 57.14 per cent of the households and 54.29 per cent households has LPG connection. Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 94.29 per cent of the households. Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households. In the study area, 22.86 per cent of the households possess toilet facility. Regarding possession of PDS card, 94.29 per cent of the households possessed BPL card, 5.71 per cent of the household's possessed APL card. Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (80.00%), pulses (37.14%) and oilseeds (40.00%) are adequate for consumption. Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (77.14%) wild animal menace on farm field (68.57%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (68.57%), inadequacy of irrigation water (68.57%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (68.57%), high rate of interest on credit (80.00%), low price for the agricultural commodities (82.86%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (48.57%), inadequate extension services (28.57%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (48.57%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
El Salvador, has been one of the last countries in the Americas to report COVID-19 cases. Since January 2020, the Government implemented a diversity of preventive measures, even before the reporting of the first cases. One of the foremost measures taken was the home quarantine for people with or without COVID-19 related symptoms. To avoid contagion, measures were taken to forbid the entrance of tourist to the country coming from China and other countries such as Italy, South Korea, Spain, Germany and Iran. Measures were intensified as the COVID-19 cases worldwide and particularly in Latin America were increasing. Testing to detect the COVID-19 was implemented in February 2020. On march 13th 2020, the Government issued a home quarantine at national level for 30 days. During that time, all kind of work, academic or tourism related activities were suspended, with the exception of those activities related to provide supplies for the pandemic. Crowds of people all over the territory were prohibited and the public and private health system external consultations were suspended giving priority to the sanitary emergency. On March 14th, the commercial flights were prohibited, and on March 17th all international borders and non-official points of entries were closed. Lately, and with the increment of positive cases in the central American region, a nationwide state of emergency was pronounced. On March 18th the first COVID-19 positive case was identified in the country, a Salvadorean national coming from abroad. The first quarantine lost effect as of April 11th, being prorogated for four days to give time to the National Legislative Assembly to discuss a new quarantine. A second 15 days quarantine was approved, which was prorogued for another 15 days on April 30th. As of June 16th, the population was allowed to circulate and do some activities with some restrictions and the recommendation to implement biosecurity measures such as the personal distancing, use of masks and hand sanitizers. Measures were applied in commercial establishments, offices, public transportation and public areas, to reduce the infection risk for the population. The public and private industries and academic sectors adopted the strategy of home working for most of their employees. Notwithstanding, every day activities were gradually reestablishing and, for the end of the year 2020, all activities were almost completely regained, except the academic activities of the public and private education sector, which continued in a virtual mode. According to government data, once the house quarantine was over, the contagion increased. During the first week of August, the first epidemiological curve presented a maximum of 449 cases. Lately, a rapid reduction of positive cases started, presenting a very different performance from what was expected. On the second week of September, a new increment was observed, reaching 330 daily cases. All countries around the world presented under reporting of cases and deaths due to the magnitude of the pandemic emergency. Some countries have taken steps to undertake seroprevalence studies to develop an approximation to the real number of deaths by COVID-19. In El Salvador, the official reporting of COVID-19 suspicious deaths has been made based on data from those who died having being tested and confirmed by RT-PRC tests. The epidemiological surveillance of new COVID-19 cases, has been strengthened through the installation of mobile booths for sampling. This can present an impact on cases, given that asymptomatic cases can be easily detected, providing the opportunity to take epidemiological measures when necessary. Nevertheless, distribution and use of tests should be made taking into consideration the epidemiological aspects, priorities, and the identification of suspected cases, populations at risk, age groups and so forth. The impact of the pandemic has bared a toll upon the health system, the economy and the social ways of the population. General consultations were temporarily suspended as well as those related to specialties, being evident in the reporting system, where consultations, controls and new case reports have diminished. The population will be affected if they are not attended in their health needs by an adequate medical consultation or control, and can adopt a self-medication behavior developing other types of illness or worst, the resurgence of contagious diseases which were already controlled under a strict surveillance in pre pandemic time. Despite all preventive measures implemented to reduce the risks of transmission, it is difficult to determine if they have had a positive impact in the pandemic control, due to a diversity of factors such as the pandemic occurrence and intensity, availability of laboratory tests, the characteristics of the country and of the Salvadorean population, which can be different from other countries. Notwithstanding, it is important to continue developing research that can lead to the prevention of the illness. In the following years, no doubt, the social and economic impact will be perceived by the population in general, and particularly by those in conditions of vulnerability; therefore, early mitigation measures are in order to deter the negative sequels of the pandemic. Finally, it is important to highlight the fact that the results concerning the pandemic care in the country should be presented to the attention of different scientific media given that this is the way to scientifically and epidemiologically report it, to contribute to the decision making for a better understanding and a better approach to the pandemic in El Salvador and other countries. Therefore, the country's scientific community must take this opportunity to make the best with the scientific information and platforms for the publication of their research, data and epidemiological analysis. ; Sr. Editor, El Salvador ha sido de los últimos países de América en reportar casos de COVID-19. Desde inicio de enero 2020, el gobierno implementó diversas medidas de prevención antes de confirmarse los primeros casos en el país. Una de las principales medidas tomadas fue la cuarentena domiciliar para personas con o sin síntomas relacionados al COVID-19, procedentes de países que ya reportaban los primeros casos. Con el fin de evitar el contagio, se prohibió el ingreso de turistas procedentes de China y de otros países como Italia, Corea del Sur, España, Alemania e Irán. A medida que los casos de COVID-19 aumentaban en el mundo, y sobre todo en Latinoamérica, las medidas de prevención se intensificaron. Fue así que se iniciaron las pruebas para la detección del COVID-19 en febrero de 2020. El gobierno decretó cuarentena domiciliar a nivel nacional durante 30 días a partir del 13 de marzo de 2020. Durante ese tiempo, se suspendieron todas las actividades laborales, académicas y de turismo, a excepción de las instituciones e industrias indispensables para atender la pandemia. Las aglomeraciones de personas fueron prohibidas en todo el territorio nacional. Se suspendió la consulta externa en todo el sistema de salud público y privado, priorizando la atención de la emergencia sanitaria. El 14 de marzo se prohibió el ingreso de vuelos comerciales al país y el 17 de marzo se cerraron las fronteras terrestres y el control de puntos de ingreso no oficiales. Posterior a estas medidas, y con el incremento de casos en países de la región centroamericana, el 26 de marzo se decretó estado de emergencia a nivel nacional. El 18 de marzo se identificó el primer caso positivo de COVID-19 en el país, un salvadoreño procedente del extranjero. A partir del 11 de abril quedó sin efecto la primera cuarentena, dando paso a una prórroga por 4 días, mientras la asamblea legislativa discutía la aprobación de una nueva cuarentena. De esta forma se aprobó una segunda cuarentena por 15 días, que fue prorrogada por 15 días más el 30 de abril. Al finalizar la prórroga de la segunda cuarentena, entró en vigencia una tercera cuarentena que duró 30 días más. A partir del 16 de junio, la población comenzó a circular con ciertas restricciones y con la recomendación de implementar medidas de bioseguridad como el distanciamiento físico, uso de mascarillas y desinfectantes de mano. En los establecimientos comerciales, empresas, transporte público y espacios públicos se tomaron medidas para disminuir el riesgo de contagio. Una estrategia utilizada por el sector laboral y académico, también fue el trabajo desde casa. Sin embargo, las actividades cotidianas de la población fueron restableciéndose, paulatinamente, y, al final del año 2020, se recobraron casi por completo en todo el país a excepción de las actividades académicas del sistema público y privado que continuaron las actividades de forma virtual. Después de finalizada la cuarentena domiciliar, el número de contagios aumentó, de acuerdo a datos del gobierno salvadoreño. En la primera curva epidemiológica se registró un máximo de 449 casos en la primera semana de agosto. Posteriormente comenzó una disminución rápida del número de casos, teniendo un comportamiento diferente a lo esperado según la tendencia reflejada. La segunda semana de septiembre registró un aumento gradual de casos, alcanzado un diario máximo de 330 casos. El subregistro de casos y de muertes se ha observado en muchos países, debido a la situación de emergencia y la magnitud de la pandemia. Esto ha llevado que algunos países realicen estudios de seroprevalencia para tener una aproximación de la cantidad real de personas infectadas y número real aproximado de personas fallecidas por COVID-19. En el caso de El Salvador el registro de muertes por sospecha de COVID-19 es reportado de manera oficial partiendo de aquellos casos fallecidos con prueba confirmada RT-PCR. La vigilancia epidemiológica de los casos nuevos de COVID-19 fue fortalecida a través de la implementación de cabinas móviles para la toma de muestra. Esto puede influir en el reporte de casos, debido a que tienen la capacidad de detectar casos asintomáticos lo que ofrece la oportunidad de implementar medidas epidemiológicas donde sea necesario. Sin embargo, la distribución y uso de las pruebas debe realizarse de forma priorizada, tomando en cuenta aspectos epidemiológicos, como identificación de sospechosos, poblaciones en riesgo, grupos etarios, entre otros. La pandemia ha tenido un impacto negativo en el sistema sanitario, económico y social. Debido a esta emergencia, las consultas generales y especializadas se suspendieron temporalmente. Esto es evidente en los reportes del sistema público, en el que se observa una disminución de consultas, controles y reporte de casos nuevos de enfermedades de interés epidemiológico para el país. Como consecuencia, puede verse afectada la salud de la población, que, al no recibir una atención médica especializada, pueden optar por la automedicación y esto desencadenar otra serie de problemas de salud o incluso el resurgimiento de enfermedades contagiosas que en tiempos prepandemia se mantenían controladas bajo una estricta vigilancia epidemiológica. A pesar de todas las acciones preventivas realizadas para disminuir el riesgo de transmisión, es difícil establecer si estas tuvieron un impacto positivo en el control de la pandemia, debido a diversos factores como la intensidad y comportamiento de la pandemia, disponibilidad de pruebas de laboratorio, características propias del país y la sociedad salvadoreña, que pueden ser diferentes a otras partes del mundo. Sin embargo, es necesario seguir desarrollando acciones e investigaciones que contribuyan con la prevención de la enfermedad. Sin duda, el impacto económico y social serán percibidos por la población en general, especialmente las poblaciones en condiciones de vulnerabilidad en los próximos años. Es importante tomar medidas tempranas para mitigar los efectos negativos secundarios de la pandemia. Finalmente, es importante que los resultados provenientes de la atención de la pandemia en el país, se den a conocer en los diferentes medios científicos ya que esta es la mejor forma de registrar los sucesos científicamente y epidemiológicamente para contribuir a la toma de decisiones para un mejor abordaje de la pandemia en El Salvador y en otros países del mundo. Por lo tanto, es importante que la comunidad científica del país aproveche las diversas plataformas y fuentes de información científicas para la publicación de resultados de sus investigaciones y análisis epidemiológicos.
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Yadgir Rf2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 576 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 70 per cent in the microwatershed is covered by soils and about 30 ha by rock outcrops, others (Habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 7 soil series and 10 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units. The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. Entire cultivated area is suitable for agriculture in the microwatershed. About 2 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are shallow (25-50 cm), 5 per cent are moderately shallow (50-75 cm), 4 per cent are moderately deep (75-100 cm), 58 per cent are deep (100-150 cm) and 1 per cent soils are very deep (>150 cm) soils in the microwatershed. About 2 per cent are sandy soils at the surface, 54 per cent are loamy soils and 14 percent soils are clayey soils at the surface. Maximum area of about 68 per cent is non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity. About 57 per cent area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands and 14 per cent area is nearly level (0-1% slope) soils. An area of about 57 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded and 14 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) soils in the microwatershed. About an area of 2 per cent in the microwatershed is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 5 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8), 49 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8- 8.4) and 15 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) soils. The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon content. An area of 1 percent is low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus. An area of about 60 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 10 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium. Entire area is low (4.5 ppm) in 59 per cent and deficient (0.6 ppm) in 17 per cent soils. The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 23 (4) 234 (41) Guava - 23 (4) Maize 23 (4) 234 (41) Sapota - 23 (4) Bajra 23 (4) 234 (41) Pomegranate - 23 (4) Groundnut - 52 (9) Musambi - 23 (4) Sunflower - 23 (4) Lime - 23 (4) Redgram - 228 (40) Amla 23 (4) 29 (5) Bengal gram - - Cashew - - Cotton - 23 (4) Jackfruit - 23 (4) Chilli 23 (4) 29 (5) Jamun - - Tomato 23 (4) 29 (5) Custard apple 52 (9) - Brinjal 23 (4) 29 (5) Tamarind - - Onion 23 (4) 29 (5) Mulberry - 23 (4) Bhendi 23 (4) 29 (5) Marigold 23 (4) 29 (5) Drumstick - 23 (4) Chrysanthemum 23 (4) 29 (5) Mango - - Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified 5 LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc. Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY The survey was conducted in Yadgir Rf-2 is located at North latitude 160 51' 34.686" and 160 50' 14.901" and East longitude 770 12' 14.251'' and 770 10' 18.907" covering an area of about 564.17 ha coming under Hattikuni, Katagi Shahapura, Yadahalli and Honageri villages of Yadagiri taluk. Socio-economic analysis of Yadgir Rf-2 micro watersheds of Hattikuni subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 farmers were sampled in Yadgir Rf-2 micro-watershed among households surveyed 12 (34.29%) were marginal, 11 (31.43%) were small, 3 (8.57 %) were semi medium and 3 (8.57 %) were medium farmers. 6 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey. The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 89 (56.33%) men and 69 (43.67 %) were women. The average population of landless was 3.8, marginal farmers were 4.4, small farmers were 4.8, semi medium farmers were 3.7 and medium farmers were 6. Majority of the respondents (39.87%) were in the age group of 16-35 years. Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 50.00 per cent illiterates, 0.63 percent were functional literates, 43.03 per cent pre university education and 2.53 per cent attained graduation. About, 88.57 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 2.86 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers. Agriculture was the major occupation for 33.54 per cent of the household members. In the study area, 54.29 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 2.86 per cent possess pucca house. The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 91.43 per cent possess TV, 82.86 per cent possess mixer grinder, 94.29 per cent possess mobile phones and 11.43 per cent possess motor cycles. Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 20.00 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.86 per cent possess tractor, 11.43 per cent possess bullock cart and 5.71 per cent possess sprayer. Regarding livestock possession by the households, 2.86 per cent possess local cow. The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.53, women available in the micro watershed was 1.42, hired labour (men) available was 7.38 and hired labour (women) available was 6.74. Further, 60.00 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season. 2 In the study area, about 6.96 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 1114.83 kms for about 6.00 months. Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 72.89 per cent (40.31 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 25.10 per cent area is irrigated land. There were 5.00 live bore wells and 5.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households. Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 14.29 per cent of the households. The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Sorghum, Cotton, Groundnut and Maize and cropping intensity was recorded as 89.00 per cent. Out of the sample households 88.57 percent possessed bank account and 82.86 per cent of them have savings in the account. About 82.86 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources. Among the credit borrowed by households. Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 100.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations. The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Sorghum, Cotton, Groundnut and Maize was Rs.37227.18, 25478.65, 34967.43, 43716.27 and 27475.11 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.20, 1: 1.40, 1: 1.50, 1: 0.80 and 1:1.80 respectively. Further, 22.86 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 8.57 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate. The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 69780.00 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 33694.29 comes from agriculture. Sampled households have grown 8 horticulture trees and 42 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards. About 14.29 per cent of the households shown interest to cultivate horticultural crops. Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 5428.57 for land development and Rs. 228.57 for irrigation facility. Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 2.86 per cent depends on own funds and 2.86 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities. Regarding marketing channels, 48.57 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 28.57 per cent have sold in regulated markets. Further, 62.86 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity. 3 Majority of the farmers (74.29%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 74.29 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing. About, 14.29 per cent of farmers practicing summer ploughing as soil and water conservation practice. Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 100.00 per cent of the households and 8.57 per cent households has LPG connection. Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 80.00 per cent of the households. Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households. In the study area, 51.43 per cent of the households possess toilet facility. Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card. Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (97.14%), pulses (68.57%) and oilseeds (28.57%) are adequate for consumption. Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (85.71%) wild animal menace on farm field (65.71%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (60.00%), inadequacy of irrigation water (34.29%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (40.00%), high rate of interest on credit (28.57%), low price for the agricultural commodities (28.57%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (34.29%), inadequate extension services (31.43%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (62.86%), Less rainfall (34.29%) and Source of Agri-technology information (Newspaper/ TV/Mobile) (31.43%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kalagatahundi-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 417 ha in Gundlupet taluk of Chamarajanagar district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 734 mm, of which about 254 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 268 mm during north-east and the remaining 212 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 17 per cent is covered by soils, 83 per cent by forest and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 4 soil series and 7 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units. The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from the 3rd week of June to 3rd week of November. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. About 17 per cent area is suitable for agriculture. About 8 per cent of the soils are moderately deep (75-100 cm) to very deep (>150 cm) and 10 per cent are moderately shallow (50-75 cm). About 7 per cent of the area has clayey soils at the surface and 10 per cent area has loamy soils. About 17 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils and 200 mm/m) available water capacity. About 17 per cent of the area has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands and 0.75%) in organic carbon. About 17 per cent of the soils are low (<23 kg/ha) in available phosphorus. About 17 per cent of the soils are medium (145-337 kg/ha) in available potassium. Available sulphur is low (<10 ppm) in about 17 per cent area. Available boron is low (<0.5 ppm) in about 17 per cent area. Available iron is sufficient in 17 per cent area. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed. Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in 17 per cent area. The land suitability for 27 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable(S1 ) Moderately suitable(S2 ) Highly suitable(S1 ) Moderately suitable(S2 ) Sorghum 27 (7) 45 (40) Sapota 5(1) 9(2) Maize 14 (3) 40 (10) Guava 5(1) 9(2) Redgram 14(3) 18(4) Banana 5(1) 52(12) Horsegra m 14(3) 58(14) Jackfruit 5(1) - Field bean 5(1) 67(16) Jamun 23(6) - Groundnut - 54(13) Musambi 23(6) - Sunflower - 32(8) Lime 23(6) - Cotton 18(4) 49(12) Cashew 5(1) 9(2) Onion 5(1) 67(16) Custard apple 23(6) 49(12) Potato 5(1) 49(12) Amla 23(6) 49(12) French Beans 5(1) 67(16) Tamarind 23(6) - Beetroot 5(1) 49(12) Marigold 14(3) 58(14) Turmeric 5(1) 49(12) Chrysanthemu m 5(1) 67(16) Mango 5(1) - Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 4 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Kalagatahundi 2 micro-watershed (Gopalapur sub-watershed, Gundlupet taluk, Chamarajanagar district) is located in between 11046' – 11048' North latitudes and 76031' – 76033' East longitudes, covering an area of about 417 ha, bounded by Channamallipur, Hongahalli, Maddur villages and Berimbadi State Forest with a length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and eco system services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Kalagatahundi 2 micro-watershed (Gopalapur sub-watershed, Gundlupet taluk, Chamarajanagar district) are presented here. Social Indicators; Male and female ratio is 39.6 to 60.4 per cent to the total sample population. Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 52.1 per cent to the total population. Literacy population is around 88.0 per cent. Social groups belong to scheduled caste (SC) among the all sample households. Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is the source of energy for a cooking among all sample farmers. About 90.0 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card. Majority of farm households (50.0 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employment. Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 90.0 per cent. Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 90.0 per cent of sample households. Institutional participation is only 6.3 per cent of sample households. Women participation in decisions making are around 20.0 per cent of households. 2 Economic Indicators; The average land holding is 1.0 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belonging to marginal and small farmers. The dry land of 59.9 % and irrigated land 40.1 % of total cultivated land area among the sample farmers. Agriculture is the main occupation among 78.2 per cent and agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 9.4 per cent of sample households. The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 10164 per household. Television and mobile are popular media mass communication. The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 159343 per household, among the all sample farmers owned plough. The average value of livestock is around Rs. 25083 per household; about 85.7 per cent of household are having livestock. The average per capita food consumption is around 544.6 grams (1236.5 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Among the all sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation. The annual average income is around Rs.73121 per household. About 60.0 per cent of farm households are below poverty line. The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs.1257. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services; The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use. The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs.721 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 51906 per year for the total area of 416.7 ha. The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 82372/ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in banana (Rs. 212373) followed by turmeric (Rs. 135615), cotton (Rs. 18419), horse gram (Rs. 3089), marigold (Rs.1476) and sorghum (Rs. 2556). The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 2363/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services in horse gram (Rs. 2284) and sorghum (Rs. 2420). The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in banana (Rs. 144748) followed by cotton (Rs. 53496), turmeric (Rs. 57299), sorghum (Rs. 40244) and horse gram (Rs. 18312). 3 Economic Land Evaluation; The major cropping pattern is cotton (42.6 %) followed by banana (16.4 %), sorghum (14.7 %), marigold (6.6 %), turmeric (3.1 %) and horse gram (0.4 %). In Kalagatahundi-2 micro-watershed, major soil of Honnegaudanahalli (HGH) series is having very deep soil depth cover around 1.1 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing banana (14.8 %), cotton (12.2 %), horse gram (36.5%), marigold (12.2%), sorghum (12.2%) and turmeric (12.2 %). Soil of Beemanabeedu (BMB) series are having shallow soil depth cover 4.4 % of area, the crops are cotton (27.6 %), horse gram (63.8 %) and sorghum (8.6 %), Beemanabeedu (BMD) soil series are having deep soil depth cover around 7.8 % of areas, crops are banana (93.0 %) and cotton (7.0 %), Hullipura (HPR) soil series having moderately shallow soil depth cover around 9.6 % of area, crops are marigold (50.0%) and sorghum (50.0 %) and Kannigala (KNG) soil series are having moderately deep soil depth cover around 8.2 % of area. The major crops grown are cotton (81.8 %) and sorghum (18.2 %). The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for sorghum ranges between Rs. 46315/ha in BMB soil (with BCR of 1.0) and Rs. 17152/ha in HGH soil (with BCR of 1.12). In banana the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 141590/ha in HGH soil (with of 3.43) and Rs. 74953/ha in BMD soil (with BCR of 2.47). In cotton the cost of cultivation range between of Rs.78441/ha in BMD soil (with BCR of 1.15) and Rs. 30305/ha in KNG soil (with BCR of 1.82). In marigold the cost of cultivation range between is Rs. 63562/ha in HGH soil (with BCR of 1.02) and Rs. 48846 in HPR soil (with BCR of 1.03). In horse gram the cost of cultivation range between is Rs. 18834/ha in BMB soil (with BCR of 1.72) and Rs. 5418 in HGH soil (with BCR of 1.69). In turmeric the cost of cultivation in HGH soil is Rs. 141025/ha (with BCR of 1.96). The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM. It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications on deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions; Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation. 4 The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices. Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments. By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households. By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in banana (37.8 to 68.4 %), cotton (0 to 27.7 %), horse gram (21.2 to74.7 %) and sorghum (44 to 64.8 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Programa Oficial de Doutoramento en Investigación Agraria e Forestal. 5022V01 ; [Resumo] América Latina e, en particular, Arxentina presentan altas taxas de crecemento da poboación nas últimas décadas; de feito, son superiores ás rexistradas en todo o mundo. Outro fenómeno demográfico a destacar dende mediados do século XX ata a actualidade é a migración da poboación dende as zonas rurais cara as zonas urbanas, xerando un aumento de concentración das persoas que viven nas cidades. Esta situación xera grandes presións e efectos sobre o medio ambiente. O sistema natural serve como soporte físico para todas as actividades humanas: desde a explotación de recursos naturais para obter alimentos, a construción, as necesidades enerxéticas, e a ocupación de terras para apoiar a crecente demanda de vivenda, etc, ata o uso de sitios de eliminación de residuos e a alteración de masas de auga para eliminar os efluentes. Por estes motivos, é necesario considerar o desenvolvemento planificado do territorio como un eixo principal de traballo en calquera administración do goberno, xa que contribuirá a xerar cidades e países sostibles e con resiliencia. Neste contexto, o crecemento de moitas cidades arxentinas acontece territorialmente nun espazo chamado por varios autores como "periurbano". A maior parte das persoas que se dedican ao estudo destes espazos ou territorios están de acordo en definilos como unha franxa marxinal de transición urbano-rural, que só é parcialmente asimilada polo proceso de dispersión urbana e que conserva atributos típicamente rurais. Este espazo xorde como resultado dun proceso aleatorio de crecemento urbano, que fai avances irregulares entre distintos puntos da cidade, xerando así un patrón heteroxéneo de usos do solo que normalmente singularizan esta franxa. O periurbano caracterízase por situacións de especulación, diversidade no uso do solo e polo desenvolvemento de hábitats dispersos que carecen frecuentemente dos servizos e equipamentos necesarios. Nestes espazos de transición, hai problemas socioambientais relevantes derivados da expansión e crecemento das cidades e das formas predominantes de produción agrícola.O periurbano presenta un elevado dinamismo e as rápidas transformacións evidenciadas amosan as limitacións que presenta o seu estudo como se fose só unha dicotomía entre rural e urbano. A complexidade do periurbano, explica que a análise urbano-rural das áreas en expansión baseada no modelo tradicional de oposición campo-cidade, non é suficiente para comprender os procesos que neles se producen. Esta complexidade suxire un proceso que debe ser xestionado por diversos actores, polo que o concepto de gobernanza e é unha posibilidade de enfoque. Vista a necesidade, este proxecto busca estudar os actores presentes no territorio, caracterizalos e analizar as metodoloxías para construír procesos de gobernanza, implicados no proceso de administración e disputa deste territorio particular, considerando procesos democráticos de organización e participación social, que contribuirán a conseguir un crecemento harmónico co medio ambiente, diminuirán as desigualdades sociais e desenvolverán as economías de cidades e vilas do sur de Santa Fe. No estudo identificáronse unha serie de factores da sustentabilidade organizados en seis dimensións. Aínda que ditos factores competen ao análise do periurbano, de feito identificamos que algúns deles están relacionados co urbano (como son as formas de produción e consumo sustentables, orixinadas dende o ámbito urbano), outros co rural (formas de produción industrial de altos insumos externos que afectan a saúde das poboacións e da natureza) e xa outros son soamente propios do periurbano (por exemplo, a tenencia da terra, que pon en risco formas de produción máis sustentables). Corrobórase que o obxecto de análise da sustentabilidade non fai referencia á sustentabilidade económica, social ou ambiental, por separado, senón a un sistema no que o todo é máis que a suma das partes; por tanto a modelación é a ferramenta que permite ilustrar as relacións onde a linguaxe discursiva pode integrar as diferentes dimensións. ; [Abstract] In the last decades Latin America and, particularly, Argentina have shown rates of population growth which are, in fact, higher than those recorded worldwide. Another demographic phenomenon worth highlighting since the middle of the 20th century up to date is the population migration from the rural zone to the urban area. This situation causes significant pressures and effects on the environment. The natural system serves as a physical support for all human activities: from the exploitation of natural resources to satisfy food, construction and energy needs and the occupation of land to support the ever-increasing demand for housing, etc., to the use of final waste disposal sites and the allocation of water bodies to eliminate effluents. For these reasons, there is a need to consider a planned development of the territory as the main axis of work in any government action, as this will contribute to generate sustainable and resilient cities and countries. In this context, the growth of many Argentine cities is verified territorially in a space called "peri-urban" by several authors who have devoted themselves to its study and agree in defining it as a marginal strip of urban-rural transition which is only partially assimilated by the process of urban dispersion and preserves typically rural attributes. This space emerges as a result of a haphazard process of urban growth, which makes irregular advances among different points of the city, thus generating a heterogeneous pattern of land use that, in general, characterizes this strip of land. The peri-urban is characterized by situations of speculation, diversity in the use of the land and the development of the dispersed habitat, frequently lacking the necessary services and equipment. In these transitional spaces, relevant socio-environmental tensions and problems arise from the expansion and growth of the cities and the main methods of agricultural production. It shows a high dynamic and its fast transformations account for the limitations of its study as if it merely were a dichotomy between rural and urban. The complexity of the peri-urban explains that the urban-rural analysis of the expanding areas, based on the traditional model of rural-urban opposition, is not enough to understand the processes that take place in them. This complexity suggests a process that should be managed by different actors, so the concept of governance is a possibility of approach. In view of this need, the present project aims to study the actors present in the territory, to characterize them and analyze the methodologies to build governance processes involved in the process of administration and dispute of this particular territory, considering democratic processes of organization and social participation, which will contribute to achieve a growth in harmony with the environment, to reduce social inequalities and to develop the economies of cities and towns in the South of Santa Fe. The study identified a series of sustainability factors organized into six dimensions. Although these factors belong to the study of peri-urban areas, we identified some ones related to urban areas (such as sustainable forms of production and consumption, driven by urbanity), others related to rural areas (forms of industrial production with high external inputs that affect the health of populations and nature) and others specific to peri-urban areas (for example, land tenure, which jeopardizes more sustainable forms of production). It also was confirmed that the object of analysis of sustainability does not refer to economic, social and environmental sustainability separately, but to a system, where the whole is more than the sum of the parts; moreover, modelling is the tool that allows graphing the relationships where the discursive language allows integration of the different dimensions. ; [Resumen] América Latina y, particularmente, Argentina presentan altas tasas de crecimiento poblacional en las últimas décadas; de hecho, son mayores a las registradas a nivel mundial. Otro fenómeno demográfico para destacar desde mitad de siglo XX a la actualidad es la migración de la población desde la zona rural al ámbito urbano generando un aumento y concentración de personas viviendo en ciudades. Esta situación genera grandes presiones y efectos en el ambiente. El sistema natural sirve de soporte físico a todas las actividades humanas: desde la explotación de recursos naturales para satisfacer las necesidades alimenticias, constructivas, energéticas, la ocupación de terrenos para dar sustento a la cada vez mayor demanda habitacional, etc., hasta el uso de sitios de disposición final de residuos y la afectación de los cuerpos de agua para eliminar los efluentes. Por estas razones es necesario considerar el desarrollo planificado del territorio como un eje principal de trabajo en cualquier gestión de gobierno, ya que el mismo contribuirá a generar ciudades y países sostenibles y resilientes. En este contexto, el crecimiento de muchas ciudades argentinas se verifica territorialmente en un espacio denominado por varios autores como "periurbano", los que se han dedicado a su estudio, coinciden en definirlo como una franja marginal de transición urbano-rural, que es asimilada sólo en parte por el proceso de dispersión urbana y que conserva atributos típicamente rurales. Tal espacio emerge como resultado de un proceso azaroso de crecimiento urbano, que efectúa avances irregulares entre distintos puntos de la ciudad, generando así un patrón heterogéneo de usos del suelo que en general singulariza a esta franja. El periurbano se caracteriza por situaciones de especulación, diversidad en el uso del suelo y por el desarrollo del hábitat disperso frecuentemente carente de los servicios y equipamientos necesarios. En estos espacios de transición se manifiestan tensiones y problemas socioambientales relevantes derivados de la expansión y crecimiento de las ciudades y de las formas de producción agrícola imperantes. En el periurbano existe un alto dinamismo y las rápidas transformaciones evidenciadas dan cuenta de las limitaciones que presenta su estudio como si solamente se tratase de una dicotomía entre rural y urbano. La complejidad del periurbano explica que el análisis urbano-rural de las áreas en expansión basado en el modelo tradicional de oposición campo-ciudad no alcance para comprender los procesos que se dan en ellas. Esta complejidad sugiere un proceso que debe ser administrado por diversos actores, por lo que el concepto de gobernanza es una posibilidad de abordaje. Viendo esta necesidad, el presente proyecto busca estudiar los actores presentes en el territorio, caracterizarlos y analizar las metodologías para construir procesos de gobernanza, involucrados en el proceso de administración y disputa de este territorio particular, considerando procesos democráticos de organización y participación social, que contribuirán a lograr un crecimiento armónico con el ambiente, a disminuir las desigualdades sociales y a desarrollar economías de ciudades y pueblos del Sur de Santa Fe. En el estudio se identificaron una serie de factores de la sostenibilidad organizados en seis dimensiones. Si bien estos factores pertenecen al estudio del periurbano, identificamos algunos más relacionados con lo urbano (como son las formas de producción y consumo sostenibles, traccionadas desde la urbanidad), otros con lo rural (formas de producción industrial de altos insumos externos que afectan la salud de las poblaciones y de la naturaleza) y otros propios del periurbano (por ejemplo, la tenencia de la tierra, que pone en riesgo formas de producción más sostenibles). Se corrobora que el objeto de análisis de la sostenibilidad no hace referencia a la sostenibilidad económica, social o ambiental, por separado, sino a un sistema en el que el todo es más que la suma de las partes y la modelización es la herramienta que permite graficar las relaciones donde el lenguaje discursivo integra las diferentes dimensiones.
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Bachanahalli-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 39 ha out of total area of 639 ha in Gundlupet Taluk, Chamarajanagar District Karnataka. The remaining area of about 600 ha is under Berambadi State Forest. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 734 mm, of which about 254 mm is received during the south –west monsoon, 26 8mm during north-east and the remaining 212 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 6 per cent is covered by soils, 94 per cent by forests and 150 cm) soils. About 4 per cent area has loamy soils and 2 per cent area has clayey soils at the surface. About 5 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils and 1 per cent gravelly soils (15- 35 % gravel) soils. About 4 per cent area has low (51-100 mm/m) and 2 per cent very high (>200 mm/m) in available water capacity. Entire area of about 6 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands. About 6 per cent area is moderately eroded (e2) lands. About 1 per cent area is slightly acidic (pH 6.0-6.5), about 5 per cent neutral (pH 6.5- 7.3) in soil reaction. The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%). About 6 per cent area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus. Major area of about 5 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium and a small area of about 1 per cent has medium (145-337 kg/ha) Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in about 6 per cent area. Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in an area of about 1 per cent and sufficient in 5 per cent area. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils. The land suitability for 27 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 26 (4) 11 (2) Guava 12(2) 5(1) Maize 12 (2) 11 (2) Banana - 32(5) Red gram 12(2) 19(3) Jackfruit - 17(3) Horsegram 12(2) 25 (4) Jamun 14(2) 17(3) Fieldbean - 38(6) Musambi 14(2) 17(3) Groundnut - 23(4) Lime 14(2) 17(3) Sunflower - 26(4) Cashew - 17(3) Cotton 14(2) 23(4) Custard apple 32(5) 6(1) Onion - 38(6) Amla 32(5) 6(1) Potato - 24(4) Tamarind 14(2) 17(3) Beans - 38(6) Marigold 12(2) 25(4) Beetroot - 24(4) Chrysanthemum - 38(6) Mango - 17(3) Turmeric - 24(4) Sapota 12(2) 5(1) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 3 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc. Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change E SUMMARY Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Bachanahalli-2 Microwatershed (Gopalapur sub-watershed, Gundlupet taluk and Chamarajanagar district) is located in between 11044' – 11046' North latitudes and 76031' – 76034' East longitudes, covering an area of about 639 ha, bounded by Maddur, Berambadi villages and Berambadi State Forest with a length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Bachanahalli-2 Microwatershed (Gopalapur sub-watershed, Gundlupet taluk and Chamarajanagar district) are presented here. Social Indicators; Male and female ratio is 56.4 to 43.5 per cent to the total sample population. Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 56.4 per cent to the total population. Literacy population is around 71.8 per cent. Social groups belong to scheduled caste (SC) and scheduled tribe (ST) were around 22.2 per cent. Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is the source of energy for a cooking among 88.9 per cent. About 88.9 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card. Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 44.5 per cent. Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 66.7 per cent. Institutional participation is only 20.5 per cent. Women participation in decisions making are around 22.2 per cent of sample households. Economic Indicators; The average land holding is 1.9 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to small and medium farmers. The dry land account for 32.9 % and irrigated land is 67.1% of total cultivated land of the sample farmers. 2 Agriculture is the main occupation among 20.6 per cent and agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 53.8 per cent of sample households. The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 12095 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication. The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 35270 per household, about 88.9 per cent of sample farmers are owing drip/sprinkler. The average value of livestock is around Rs. 22050 per household; about 61.1 per cent of household are having livestock. The average per capita food consumption is around 736.4 grams (1778.5 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 66.7 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation. The annual average income is around Rs 77492 per household. About 66.7 per cent of farm households are above poverty line. The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs 1184. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services; The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use. The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs 1856 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs 68674 per year for the total area of 638.8 ha. The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 26259/ ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in garlic (Rs. 101369) followed by sugarcane (Rs. 61120), banana (Rs. 44520), onion (Rs. 42386), beans (Rs. 25263), turmeric (Rs. 18906), beetroot (Rs. 1405), groundnut, ragi and maize are negative returns. The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 7464/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in maize (Rs. 98198) followed by groundnut (Rs. 7348) and ragi (Rs. 4018). The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in beans (Rs. 300723) followed by sugarcane (Rs. 129675), banana (Rs. 115311), turmeric (Rs. 63438), maize (Rs. 62834), groundnut, (Rs 41229), garlic (Rs 29097), ragi (Rs. 18915) and onion (Rs. 14509). 3 Economic Land Evaluation; The major cropping pattern is banana (21.3 %) followed by maize (16.0 %), turmeric (14.0 %), ragi (13.4 %), groundnut (10.7 %), sorghum, sugarcane and beetroot of 5.7 per cent to each and beans is 2.6 per cent. In Bachanahalli-2 micro watershed, major soils are Hullipura (HPR) soil series are having moderately shallow soil depth cover around 0.9 % of area, the crops are banana (52.3 %), sugarcane and turmeric was 23.9 % each. Kallipura (KLP) soil series having deep soil depth cover around 1.9 % of areas, crops are banana (18.7 %) garlic (5.2 %), groundnut (7.8 %), maize (27.7 %), onion (11.1 %), ragi (26.8 %) and turmeric (2.6 %). Maddinahundi (MDH) soil series are having deep soil depth cover around 0.8 per cent of area. The major crops grown are beans (16.7 %), cotton (37.5 %), beetroot (33.3 %), ragi (16.7%) and turmeric (33.3%). The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for banana ranges between Rs. 94462/ha in KLP soil (with BCR of 1.28) and Rs. 79233/ha in HPR soil (with BCR of 1.78). In ragi the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 36905/ha in KLP soil (with of 1.19) and Rs. 34622/ha in MDH soil (with BCR of 1.11). In turmeric the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 599885/ha in KLP soil (with BCR of 1.07) and Rs. 84176/ha in MDH soil (with BCR of 1.58). In sugarcane the cost of cultivation in HPR soil is Rs.93255/ha (with BCR of 1.66). In beans the cost of cultivation in MDH soil is Rs 98237/ha (with BCR of 1.26). In groundnut the cost of cultivation in KLP soil is Rs.60015/ha (with BCR of 1.06). In onion the cost of cultivation in KLP soil is Rs 69634/ha (with BCR of 1.61). In garlic the cost of cultivation in KLP soil is Rs.219731/ha (with BCR of 1.46). In maize the cost of cultivation in KLP soil is Rs 71926/ha (with BCR of 1.6) and beetroot the cost cultivation in MDH soil is Rs.41388/ha (with BCR of 1.03). The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM. It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications on deeper soils to maximize returns. Suggestions; Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation. 4 The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices. Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments. By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households. By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in banana (63.9 to 78.1 %), ragi (59.5 to 61.0 %), turmeric (8.9 to 38.8%), garlic (59.2%), onion (93.0 %), beans (61.3 %), sugarcane (54%) and beetroot (36.7 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Ramapura-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 577 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 549 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 0.05 ha by rock outcrops and about 28 ha by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 12 soil series and 26 soil phases (management units) and 6 land use class. The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture. About 59 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep to very deep (75 - >150 cm) and 36 per cent soils are shallow to moderately shallow (25-75 cm). About 6 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 26 per cent of loamy soils and 64 per cent clayey soils at the surface. About 63 per cent area in the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 2 per cent is medium (101-150 mm/m), 32 per cent area is low (51-100 mm/m) and 4 per cent area is very low (9.0). The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire area of the microwatershed is dominantly 0.75). About 40 per cent area is low in available phosphorus, 50 per is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 5 per cent is high (>57 kg/ha). About 70 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in available potassium and 25 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha). Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in an area of 77 per cent and deficient in 18 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in entire area of the microwatershed. Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in entire area of the microwatershed. The land suitability for 26 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 522(91) Sapota - - Maize - 183(32) Pomegranate - 339(59) Bajra - 522(91) Musambi - 339(59) Groundnut - 183(32) Lime - 339(59) Sunflower - 339(59) Amla - 522(91) Redgram - 339(59) Cashew - - Bengal gram - 522(91) Jackfruit - - Cotton - 522(91) Jamun - 326(57) Chilli - 523(91) Custard apple - 523(91) Tomato - 183(32) Tamarind - 326(57) Drumstick - 339(59) Mulberry - - Mango - - Marigold - 523(91) Guava - - Chrysanthemum - 523(91) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Ramapura-2 micro-watershed (Yadgir taluk and district) is located in between 16033' – 16034'23.736" North latitudes and 77016' – 77019' East longitudes, covering an area of about 576.6 ha, bounded by Ramapura, Balacheda, Rachanalli and Daddala Villages with length of growing period (LGP) 120-150 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Ramapura-2 micro-watershed in Yadgir taluk and district are presented here. Social Indicators; Male and female ratio is 55.4 to 44.6 per cent to the total sample population. Younger age group 18 to 50 of population is around 57.7 per cent to the total population. Literacy population is around 48.8 per cent. Social groups belong to scheduled caste / scheduled tribes are around 36.8 per cent. Fire wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 100 per cent. About 23.7 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card. About 15.8 per cent farm households having MGNREGA card for rural employment. Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 94.7 per cent. Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 36.8 per cent of sample households. Women participation in decisions making are around 94.7 per cent of households were found. Economic Indicators; The average land holding is 1.7 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers. 2 Agriculture is the main occupation among 44.7 per cent and agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour is predominant subsidiary occupation for 30.2 per cent of sample households. The average value of domestic assets is around Rs.12212 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication. The average value of farm assets is around Rs.1944.8 per household, about 38.4 per cent of sample farmers are owing plough. The average value of livestock is around Rs.38265 per household; about 82.7 per cent of household are having livestock. The average per capita food consumption is around 1207.5 grams (3010.2 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition recommendation at 827 gram. Around 30.7 per cent of sample households are consuming more than the NIN recommendation. The annual average income is around Rs. 63498 per household. About 7.6 per cent of farm households are below poverty line. The per capita monthly average expenditure is around Rs.3279. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services; The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use. The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs 2236 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs 1115717 per year for the total area of 576.6 ha. The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 5610/ ha/year. Per hectare food grains production services is maximum in greengram (Rs.8370) followed by redgram (Rs.7306), cotton (Rs.3491) and groundnut is negative return. The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs.3775/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in groundnut (Rs.2400) followed by paddy (Rs.1500), cotton (Rs.1406) and redgram (Rs.270 /ha). The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The value of per hectare water used and value of water was maximum in greengram (Rs. 75812) followed by redgram (Rs. 47218), cotton (Rs. 39009) and groundnut (Rs. 22905). Economic Land Evaluation; The major cropping pattern is redgram (58.8 %) followed by cotton (26.8 %), bengalgram (3.9 %), groundnut (3.9 %), greengram (3.5 %) and paddy (3.1 %). 3 In Ramapura-2 micro watershed, major soils are soil of alluvial landscape of Yalleri (YLR) series are having moderately shallow soil deep cover around 25.57 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing cotton (53.2 %) and redgram (46.8 %). Soil of granite and granite gneiss landscape of Anur (ANR) are also having deep soil deep cover around 0.97 % of area, the crops are cotton (44.4 %) and redgram was 55.6 % each. Hegganakera (HGN) soil series having very deep soil depth cover around 23.42 % of areas, crops are cotton (19.4 %), greengram (18.6 %) and redgram (62.0 %). Halagera (HLG) soil series are having moderately deep soil depth cover around 15.53 per cent of area, respectively. The major crops grown are cotton (46.3%), greengram (4.5 %), groundnut (22.7 %) and redgram (26.5 %). Kudlura (KDR) soil series are having deep soil depth covers around 3.31 % of area, the major crop grown is paddy (70.6 %) and redgram (29.4 %). Kyathanala (KYT) soil series are having shallow soil depth covers around 3.31 % of area, the major crop grown is redgram (100 %). Sowrashtrahalli (SWR) and Tumkur (TMK) soil series having deep and very deep soil depth cover 1.54 % and 0.41 % of areas respectively; crops are cotton, redgram and greengram. The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for red gram ranges between Rs. 43158/ha in YLR soil (with BCR of 1.25) and Rs. 15877/ha in KYT soil (with BCR of 1.95). In cotton the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 43132/ha in HGN soil (with BCR of 1.1) and Rs. 32505/ha in YLR soil (with BCR of 1.12). In greengram the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 40480/ha in HLG soil (with BCR of 1.22) and Rs. 31151/ha in SWR soil (with BCR of 1.19). In groundnut the cost of cultivation in HLG soil is Rs. 33168/ha (with BCR of 1.04) and paddy cultivation in KDR soil is Rs. 28742/ha (with BCR of 1.7). The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM. It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soils to maximize returns. Suggestions; Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation. The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices. 4 Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments. By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households. By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in redgram (9.1 to 61 %), cotton (35.2 % to 50.5 %), paddy (9.1 %) and groundnut (7.4 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Chikkasavanur-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characterstics, classification and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 322 ha in Shirahatti taluk of Gadag district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought prone with an average annual rainfall of 633 mm of which about 363 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 165 mm during north-east and the remaining 105 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 96 per cent is covered by soils, 13 per cent is covered by rocky lands and two percent by mining/ industrial and other miscellaneous lands. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 7 soil series and 17 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units. The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from the 3rd week of June to 1st week of October. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. About 85 per cent area is suitable for agriculture and 15% is not suitable for agriculture. About 80 per cent of the soils are moderately shallow (50-75 cm) to shallow (25-50 cm) and about 5 per cent are very deep (>150 cm) soils. About 59 per cent of the area has loamy soils at the surface and 26 per cent of the area has sandy soils at the surface. About 8 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils, 57 per cent gravelly soils (15-35 % gravel) and 20 per cent very gravelly (35- 60% gravel) soils. About 5 per cent medium (101-150 mm/m) and 80 per cent is low (51-100 mm/m) to very low (9.0). The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of most of the soils are dominantly 19 dsm-1). About 44 per cent of the soils are medium (0.5-0.75%) in organic carbon and low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium. Available sulphur is medium (10-20 ppm) in about 54 per cent area and about 28 per cent area is high (>20 ppm). Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 4 per cent area, medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) in 70 per cent area and high (>1.0 ppm) in 11 per cent area. Available iron is deficient in about 57 per cent area and sufficient in 27 per cent area. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils. Available zinc is sufficient (>0.6 ppm) in 6 per cent and deficient (<0.6 ppm) in 79 per cent area of the microwatershed. The land suitability for 23 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 110 (34) Sapota - 17 (5) Maize - 110(34) Jackfruit - - Cotton - 110(34) Jamun - - Sunflower - 19(6) Musambi - - Onion - 110(34) Lime - - Groundnut - 135(42) Cashew - - Chilli - 110(34) Custard apple - 152(47) Sugarcane - - Amla - 161 (50) Pomegranate - 17 (5) Tamarind - 152(47) Tomato - 110(34) Marigold - 130 (40) Guava 17 (5) Chrysanthem um 130 (40) Mango - - Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 4 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fibre and horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Chikasavanur-1 Microwatershed (Nilogal sub-watershed, Shirahatti taluk, Gadag district) is located in between 1505' – 1507' North latitudes and 75035' – 75037' East longitudes, covering an area of about 322 ha, bounded by Devihal, Nadigatti, Madki Khanapur, Bikonatti, Nadigatti villages with length of growing period (LGP) 150-180 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Chikasavanur-1 Microwatershed (Nilogal sub-watershed, Shirahatti taluk, Gadag district) are presented here. Social Indicators; Male and female ratio is 49.0 to 51.0 per cent to the total sample population. Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 57.2 per cent to the total population. Literacy population is around 79.6 per cent. Social groups belong to other backward caste is around 80 per cent. Fire wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 90 per cent. About 30 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card. Majority of farm households (70 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employment. Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 60 per cent. Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 66.7 per cent of sample households. Women participation in decisions making are around 60 per cent of households were found. Economic Indicators; The average land holding is 1.58 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to marginal and small farmers. The dry land of 51.7 % and irrigated land 48.3 % of total cultivated land area among the sample farmers. 2 Agriculture is the main occupation among 51 per cent and agriculture is the main and agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 32.6 per cent of sample households. The average value of domestic assets is around Rs. 20410 per household. Mobile and television are popular media mass communication. The average value of farm assets is around Rs. 102241 per household, about 31.0 per cent of sample farmers having plough and sprayer (38.1 %). The average value of livestock is around Rs. 26600 per household; about 52.8 per cent of household are having livestock. The average per capita food consumption is around 832.9 grams (1700.8 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 70 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation. The annual average income is around Rs.28389 per household. About 90 per cent of farm households are below poverty line. The per capita average monthly expenditure is around Rs.1205. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services; The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use. The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs.834 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 357009 per year for the total area of 451.5 ha. The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 10000/ ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in red gram (Rs. 35094) followed by onion (Rs. 14993) horse gram (Rs. 10499), chillies (Rs. 9535). The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 2924/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in maize (Rs. 5582) followed by green gram (Rs. 2371) and horse gram (Rs. 2075). The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in redgram (Rs. 67515), cotton (Rs. 59710), greengram (Rs. 42645), maize (Rs. 33853), onion (Rs. 28068), horse gram (Rs. 22808) and chillies (Rs. 12189). Economic Land Evaluation; The major cropping pattern is maize (66.8 %) followed by onion (11.3 %), redgram (6.3 %), cotton (5.3 %), greengram (5.3 %), horse gram (2.7 %) and chillies (2.6%). 3 In Chikasavanur-1 micro-watershed, major soil is Chikkasavanur (CSR) series is having shallow soil depth cover around 33.9 % of area. On this soil farmers are presently growing chillies (15.9 %), maize (49 %) and onion (35.1 %). Kutegoudanahundi (KGH) are also having moderately shallow soil depth cover 33.92 % of area, the crops are cotton (31.3 %), maize (31.3 %) and red gram (37.4 %) each. Mukhadahalli (MKH) soil series having deep soil depth cover around 6.8 % of areas; crops are green gram (30.0 %), horse gram (30%) and maize (39.9 %). Tammadahalli (TDH) soil series having moderately shallow soil depth cover around 5.87 % of area, crops are maize (94.8 %) and onion (5.2 %). Chikka Tanda (CKT) soil series having very deep soil depth cover around 5.40 % of area; crop is maize. The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for maize range between Rs.99160 in CKT soils (with BCR of 0.87) and Rs.19389 in TDH soil (with BCR of 1.24). In onion the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 76776 in CSR soil (with BCR of 1.16) and Rs.74926 in TDH soil (with BCR of 1.25). In red gram the cost of cultivation in KGH soil is Rs.28154 (with BCR of 2.25). In green gram the cost of cultivation in MKH soil is Rs.33961 with (BCR of 0.89). In horse gram the cost of cultivation in MKH soil is Rs.33961 (with BCR of 1.37) and chillies the cost of cultivation in CSR soil is Rs.105320 (with BCR of 1.09). The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM. It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications are deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions; Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation. The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices. Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments. By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households. 4 By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in chillies (88.3 %), onion (57.8 %), maize (42.8 to 80.8 %), horse gram (24.1 %) and green gram (27.7 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Bijjur-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was generated with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification and use potentials of the soils in the micro-wartershed. The present study covers an area of 560 ha in Shirahatti taluk of Gadag district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought prone with an average annual rainfall of 633 mm of which about 363 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 165 mm during north-east and the remaining 105 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 99 per cent is covered by soils, one per cent by rock lands, waterbodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 13 soil series and 25 soil phases (management units) and 7 land management units. The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from the 3rd week of June to 1rd week of October. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. About 99 per cent area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture. About 21 per cent of the soils are deep (100-150 cm), about 30 per cent are moderately deep (75-100 cm) soils, 45 per cent are moderately shallow to shallow (25-75 cm) and two per cent are very shallow (25-75 cm). About 96 per cent of the area has clayey soils and 3 per cent are loamy soils at the surface. About 6 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m) in available water capacity, 56 per cent medium (100-150 mm/m) and about 25 per cent low (50-100 mm/m) and very low (9.0) and only one per cent has soils that are slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8). The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 337 kg/ha) in available potassium. Available sulphur is low (1.0 ppm). Available iron, manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils. About 99 per cent area has soils that are deficient (<0.6 ppm) in available zinc. The land suitability for 21 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 191 (34) 100 (18) Jackfruit - 16 (3) Maize - 40 (7) Jamun - 81 (24) Bengalgram 150 (27) 377 (67) Musambi 57 (10) 216 (39) Groundnut - 16 (3) Lime 21 (4) 252 (45) Sunflower 21 (4) 252 (45) Cashew - - Cotton 150 (27) 249 (45) Custard Apple 150 (27) 123 (22) Banana - 274 (49) Amla 21 (4) 252(45) Pomegranate - 251 (45) Tamarind - 180 (32) Mango - 139 (25) Marigold - 449 (80) Sapota - 16 (3) Chrysanthemum - 449 (80) Guava - 60 (11) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fibre and horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS OF FARM HOUSEHOLDS Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Bijjur-1 Micro-watershed (Kanakvad sub-watershed, Shirahatti taluk, Gadag district) is located in between 1501' – 1503' North latitudes and 75037' – 75040' East longitudes, covering an area of about 560 ha, bounded by Chiksavanur, Govankop, Hosur, Narayanapur and Nagarmaduvu villages with length of growing period (LGP) 150-180 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Bijjur-1 Microwatershed (Kanakvad subwatershed, Shirahatti taluk, Gadag district) are presented here. Social Indicators; Male and female ratio is 58.6 to 41.4 per cent to the total sample population. Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 50 per cent to the total population. Literacy population is around 77.6 per cent. Social groups belong to schedules caste (SC) is around 30 per cent. Fire wood is the major source of energy for a cooking among 80 per cent. About 50 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card. Majority of farm households (50 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employment. Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 90 per cent. Swachha bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 80 per cent of sample households. Institutional participation is only 1.7 per cent of sample households. Rural migration to urban centre for employment is prevalent among 0.5 per cent of farm households. Women participation in decisions making for agriculture production among all sample households was found. 2 Economic Indicators; The average land holding is 1.7 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to small and medium farmers. The total cultivated land of dry land condition among the sample farmers. Agriculture is the main occupation among 9.5 per cent and agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 59.9 per cent of sample households. The average value of domestic assets is around Rs.30526 per household. Mobile and television are popular mass media communication. The average value of farm assets is around Rs.81730 per household, about 60 per cent of sample farmers having plough and bullock cart. The average value of livestock is around Rs. 22800 per household; about 81.3 per cent of household are having livestock. The average per capita food consumption is around 766.3 grams (1601.8 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 80 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation. The annual average income is around Rs.21480 per household. Among all sample farm households are below poverty line. The per capita monthly average expenditure is around Rs.961. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services; The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use. The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs.1068 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 593586 per year for the total area of 560 ha. The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 1075 ha/year. Per hectare food grains production services is maximum in maize (Rs. 3920) followed by sunflower (Rs. 3519), sorghum (Rs. 1654) and horse gram (Rs. 1615), cotton (Rs. 2564) and ground nut is negative returns. The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is Rs. 1505 ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in groundnut (Rs. 4940) followed by maize (Rs. 2142), sorghum (Rs. 1455) and horse gram (Rs. 494/). The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in cotton (Rs.69661) fallowed by maize (Rs. 20545), horse gram (Rs.15205), ground nut (Rs. 20614), sorghum (Rs. 28693) and sunflower (Rs. 27713). 3 Economic Land Evaluation; The major cropping pattern is followed by maize (61.3 %) fallowed by sorghum (17.6 %), sunflower (6.4 %), horse gram (6.3 %), cotton (4.2 %) and groundnut (4.2 %). In Bijjur-1 Microwatershed, major soil are soils of banded ferruginous quartzite landscape of Attikatti (AKT) series is having shallow soil depth cover around 8.6 % of area; on this soil farmers are presently growing maize (92.5 %) and groundnut (7.5 %). Yelisirunj (YSJ) is also having shallow soil depth cover around 5.9 % of area, the crops are sorghum. Venkatapur (VKP) soil series having moderately shallow soil depth cover around 25.6 % of areas, crops are maize. Jelligere (JLG) soil series having moderately deep soil depth cover around 16.6 % of area, crops are horse gram (41.6 %), maize (16.8 %) and sunflower (41.6 %). Varavi (VRV) soil series are having moderately deep soil depth cover around 13.8 % of area; the major crops grown are cotton (32.8 %), maize (18 %) and sorghum (49.2 %). Dhoni (DNI) soil series are having deep soil depth covers around 2.9 % of area, the major crop grown is maize. Kalasapur (KPR) soil series having deep soil depth cover 10.64 % of area; crops are sorghum. The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for maize ranges between Rs. 35712/ha in JLG soil (with BCR of 1.14) and Rs. 1339/ha in VKP soil (with BCR of 2.06). In sorghum the cost of cultivation range between Rs. 16589/ha in VRV soil (with of 1.13) and Rs.14829/ha in YSJ soil (with BCR of 1.22). In groundnut the cost of cultivation in AKT soil is Rs. 43872/ha (with BCR of 0.96). In horse gram the cost of cultivation in JLG soil Rs. 20615/ha (with BCR of 1.14). In sunflower the cost of cultivation in JLG soil is Rs.17064/ha (with BCR of 1.21) and cotton the cost of cultivation in VRV soil is Rs. 40661/ha (with BCR of 1.06). The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM. It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soil to maximize returns. 4 Suggestions; Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation. The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices. Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments. By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households. By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in maize (70.5 to 84.8%), sorghum (64.8 to 68 %), groundnut (56.6 %), horse gram (49.4 %) and sunflower (49.4%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Belhatti-4 microwatershedwas conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characterstics, classification and use potentials of the soils in the microwartershed. The present study covers an area of 400 ha in Shirahatti taluk of Gadag district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought prone with an average annual rainfall of 633 mm of which about 363 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 165 mm during north-east and the remaining 105 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 98 per cent is covered by soils, two per cent by rock lands, waterbodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 11 soil series and 20 soil phases (management units) and 6 land management units. The length of crop growing period is about 150 days starting from the 3rd week of June to 1rd week of October. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. About 98 per cent area is suitable for agriculture and two per cent is not suitable for agriculture but well suited for forestry, pasture, agroforestry, silvi-pasture, installation of wind mills and as habitat for wildlife. About 35 per cent of the soils are very deep (>150 cm) to deep (100 - 150 cm), 27 per cent are moderately shallow to shallow (25-75 cm) and about 36 per cent are moderately deep (75-100 cm) soils. About 86 per cent of the area has clayey soils at the surface and 13 per cent loamy soils. About 15 per cent of the area has non-gravelly soils, 60 per cent gravelly soils (15-35 % gravel) and 24 per cent very gravelly (35- 60% gravel) soils. About 35 per cent of the area has soils that are very high (>200mm/m) in available water capacity, 47 per cent medium (100-150 mm/m) and about 16 per cent low (50-100 mm/m) and very low (9.0). The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 337 kg/ha) in available potassium. Available sulphur is low (20 ppm). Available boron is low (0.5 ppm) in about 58 per cent area, 27 per cent medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) and 13 per cent high (>1.0 ppm). Available iron, manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils. About 70 per cent area has soils that are deficient (0.6 ppm). The land suitability for 21 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 114 (28) 232 (58) Jackfruit - 15 (4) Maize 5 (1) - Jamun - 213 (55) Bengalgram 185 (46) 161 (40) Musambi - 179 (46) Groundnut - 5 (1) Lime 15 (4) 189 (48) Sunflower 88 (22) 180 (45) Cashew - 36 (9) Cotton 90 (22) 268 (65) Custard Apple 17 (4) 225 (58) Banana - 5 (1) Amla 17 (4) 217(56) Pomegranate 5 (1) 312 (78) Tamarind 15 (4) 198 (51) Mango 13 (3) - Marigold 5 (1) 346 (87) Sapota - 144 (36) Chrysanthemum 5 (1) 346 (87) Guava - 113 (28) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 6 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fibre and horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS OF FARM HOUSEHOLDS Baseline socioeconomic characterisation is prerequisite to prepare action plan for program implementation and to assess the project performance before making any changes in the watershed development program. The baseline provides appropriate policy direction for enhancing productivity and sustainability in agriculture. Methodology: Belhatti-4 micro-watershed (Belhatti 4 sub-watershed, Shirahatti taluk, Gadag district) is located in between 1502' – 1504' North latitudes and 75037' – 75039' East longitudes, covering an area of about 390 ha, bounded by Belhatti, Konchigeri, Chikasavanur and Narayanpur villages with length of growing period (LGP) 150-180 days. We used soil resource map as basis for sampling farm households to test the hypothesis that soil quality influence crop selection, and conservation investment of farm households. The level of technology adoption and productivity gaps and livelihood patterns were analyses. The cost of soil degradation and ecosystem services were quantified. Results: The socio-economic outputs for the Belhatti-4 micro-watershed (Belhatti subwatershed, Shirahatti taluk, Gadag district) are presented here. Social Indicators; Male and female ratio is 60.8 to 39.2 per cent to the total sample population. Younger age 18 to 50 years group of population is around 74.5 per cent to the total population. Literacy population is around 80.4 per cent. Social groups belong to other backward caste (OBC) is around 80 per cent. Fire wood is the source of energy for a cooking among 70.0 per cent. About 40 per cent of households have a yashaswini health card. Majority of farm households (50 %) are having MGNREGA card for rural employment. Dependence on ration cards for food grains through public distribution system is around 60 per cent. Swach bharath program providing closed toilet facilities around 80 per cent of sample households. Rural migration to urban centre for employment is prevalent among 10.0 per cent of farm households. Economic Indicators; The average land holding is 2.0 ha indicates that majority of farm households are belong to small and medium farmers. The dry land of 20.1 per cent and irrigated land of 6 per cent of total cultivated land area among the sample farmers. 2 Agriculture is the main occupation among 19.9 per cent and agriculture is the main and non agriculture labour is subsidiary occupation for 60.9 per cent of sample households. The average value of domestic assets is around Rs.12575 per household. Mobile and television are mass popular media mass communication. The average value of farm assets is around Rs.75292 per household, about 40 per cent of sample farmers bullock cart and plough (30 %). The average value of livestock is around Rs. 3600 per household; about 61.5 per cent of household are having livestock. The average per capita food consumption is around 828.0 grams (1796.0 kilo calories) against national institute of nutrition (NIN) recommendation at 827 gram. Around 50 per cent of sample households are consuming less than the NIN recommendation. The annual average income is around Rs.13601 per household. Among all sample farm households are below poverty line. The per capita monthly average expenditure is around Rs.1219. Environmental Indicators-Ecosystem Services; The value of ecosystem service helps to support investment to decision on soil and water conservation and in promoting sustainable land use. The onsite cost of different soil nutrients lost due to soil erosion is around Rs. 866 per ha/year. The total cost of annual soil nutrients is around Rs. 329879 per year for the total area of 389.9 ha. The average value of ecosystem service for food grain production is around Rs. 5059/ha/year. Per hectare food grain production services is maximum in cotton (Rs. 10175) followed by maize (Rs. 8882), horse gram (Rs. 3533), groundnut (Rs 2122) and sorghum (Rs. 582). The average value of ecosystem service for fodder production is around Rs. 954/ ha/year. Per hectare fodder production services is maximum in horse gram (Rs. 1317) followed by sorghum (Rs. 988), maize (Rs. 970), cotton (Rs. 823) and groundnut (Rs. 542). The data on water requirement for producing one quintal of grain is considered for estimating the total value of water required for crop production. The per hectare value of water used and value of water was maximum in cotton (Rs. 39806) followed by sorghum (Rs. 27604), horse gram (Rs. 25342), maize (Rs. 25036), and groundnut (Rs. 21960). Economic Land Evaluation; The major cropping pattern is maize (58.9 %) followed by Groundnut (22.8 %), cotton (6.1 %), horse gram (6.1 %) and sorghum (6.1%). 3 In Belhatti 4 micro-watershed, major soil of alluvial landscape of KLK series is having very shallow soil deep on this soil farmers are presently growing maize and sorghum. BMD soil series are also having shallow soil depth the crops are groundnut (56.2 %) and maize (43.8 %). KPR soil series are having deep soil depth, crops are cotton (50.0 %) and sorghum (50.0 %). BGP and NGT soil series very deep soil depth, crops are maize and groundnut. The total cost of cultivation and benefit cost ratio (BCR) in study area for maize ranges between Rs. 23883/ha in KLP soil (with BCR of 1.33) and Rs.13204/ha in NBP soil (with BCR of 1.50). In groundnut range between Rs. 34464/ha in NGT soil (with BCR of 1.15) and Rs.21051/ha in BLD soil (with BCR of 1.26). In sunflower the cost of cultivation ranges between Rs. 39247/ha in DRL soil (with BCR of 1.1) and Rs. 17619/ha in NSP soil (with BCR of 2.36). In hors gram the cost of cultivation Rs. 26605/ha in NBP soil (with BCR of 1.50). In cotton the cost of cultivation is Rs.30226/ha in KPR soil (with BCR of 1.08). In bengal gram the cost of cultivation rage between is Rs. 26508/ha in DRL soil (with BCR of 1.68) and Rs.18518/ha in NSP soil (with BCR of 1.68). In sorghum the cost of cultivation Rs. 17531/ha in KPR soil (with BCR of 1.08). The land management practices reported by the farmers are crop rotation, tillage practices, fertilizer application and use of farm yard manure (FYM). Due to higher wages farmer are following labour saving strategies is not prating soil and water conservation measures. Less ownership of livestock limiting application of FYM. It was observed soil quality influences on the type and intensity of land use. More fertilizer applications in deeper soil to maximize returns. Suggestions; Involving farmers is watershed planning helps in strengthing institutional participation. The per capita food consumption and monthly income is very low. Diversifying income generation activities from crop and livestock production in order to reduce risk related to drought and market prices. Majority of farmers reported that they are not getting timely support/extension services from the concerned development departments. By strengthing agricultural extension for providing timely advice improved technology there is scope to increase in net income of farm households. By adopting recommended package of practices by following the soil test fertiliser recommendation, there is scope to increase yield in Groundnut (56.6 to 72.8 %), maize (80.9 to 61 %), (8.6 to 11.3 %), cotton (56.6 %), horse gram (42.2 %) and sorghum (15.7 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
