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The article of record as published may be located at http://www.jstor.org/stable/20044604 ; The remarkable developments in Europe since late 1989--German unification, the collapse of comm Eastern Europe and the expectation of large-scale withdrawals of Soviet and American forces--have upset long assumptions of French security policy. Stable reference points have been displaced by new risks and uncertain preoccupations about the future of Russia, Germany and Europe's political order and institutions have be pressing and more acute.

This is a follow-up report of PEPPER report on the financial participation in Europe organised by Professor Erik Poutsma ( Nijmegen School of Management, Netherland). Le cas français est inclu dans "PRACTICES OF FINANCIAL PARTICIPATION IN EUROPE: Features of Best Practices" DOI:10.13140/RG.2.2.30425.11361 ; France has a pattern that consists of more state regulated (mandatory) broad based deferred profit-sharing with the aim of enhancement of employee savings and wider distribution of wealth and wage flexibility. Financial participation systems are also used for income and employment policies. The corporate governance system of France provide for a limited scope of employee share ownership due to more concentration of capital and the substance of closely held family firms. The system in France has mainly promoted company profit sharing and the build-up of considerable, though very unevenly distributed, employee savings. Even though the government has offered incentives several times since the 1970s, ESO has developed relatively slowly, and the tax system has not done anything to discourage this trend. If ESO appears to be developing at a faster pace these days, it is only because of privatization procedures and stock market developments. But will the current downswing in the stock market and the impending decrease of privatizations slow down the ESO trend? And won't payroll restraints (due mostly to the reduction in work hours) encourage the use of company performance-related bonuses as a supplement to wages? In these conditions, employee saving schemes appear to be the most strategic component of the financial participation system. This is probably why it is central to the 2001 Fabius Act. By creating co-operative business savings schemes (PEI) for the small companies that are excluded from mandatory profit sharing schemes, the law aims to extend the possibility for building employee savings with preferential taxation treatment to all employees except civil servants. And by establishing PPESV schemes, it ...

This is a follow-up report of PEPPER report on the financial participation in Europe organised by Professor Erik Poutsma ( Nijmegen School of Management, Netherland). Le cas français est inclu dans "PRACTICES OF FINANCIAL PARTICIPATION IN EUROPE: Features of Best Practices" DOI:10.13140/RG.2.2.30425.11361 ; France has a pattern that consists of more state regulated (mandatory) broad based deferred profit-sharing with the aim of enhancement of employee savings and wider distribution of wealth and wage flexibility. Financial participation systems are also used for income and employment policies. The corporate governance system of France provide for a limited scope of employee share ownership due to more concentration of capital and the substance of closely held family firms. The system in France has mainly promoted company profit sharing and the build-up of considerable, though very unevenly distributed, employee savings. Even though the government has offered incentives several times since the 1970s, ESO has developed relatively slowly, and the tax system has not done anything to discourage this trend. If ESO appears to be developing at a faster pace these days, it is only because of privatization procedures and stock market developments. But will the current downswing in the stock market and the impending decrease of privatizations slow down the ESO trend? And won't payroll restraints (due mostly to the reduction in work hours) encourage the use of company performance-related bonuses as a supplement to wages? In these conditions, employee saving schemes appear to be the most strategic component of the financial participation system. This is probably why it is central to the 2001 Fabius Act. By creating co-operative business savings schemes (PEI) for the small companies that are excluded from mandatory profit sharing schemes, the law aims to extend the possibility for building employee savings with preferential taxation treatment to all employees except civil servants. And by establishing PPESV schemes, it promotes long-term savings that employees can use to build their personal assets. ESO is only one approach to this saving strategy. The law aims to give ESO a role by incentivizing a minimum 3% ESO holding in company capital and employee involvement in company management. If the system continues to develop, it could energize social dynamics. But it could also remain just another component of company social and payroll policy.

In Friendship and Politics in Post-Revolutionary France, Horowitz brings together the political and cultural history of post-revolutionary France to show how French society responded to and recovered from the upheaval of the French Revolution. The Revolution led to a heightened sense of distrust and divided the nation along ideological lines. In the wake of the Terror, many began to express concerns about the atomization of French society. Friendship was regarded as one bond that could restore trust and cohesion. Because trust and cohesion were necessary to post-revolutionary parliamentary life, politicians turned to friends and ideas about friendship to create solidarity. Relying on detailed analyses of politicians' social networks, new tools from the digital humanities, and examinations of behind-the-scenes political transactions, Horowitz makes clear the connection between politics and emotions in the early nineteenth century, and reevaluates the role of women in political life.

International audience ; Continuous surveillance of acute diarrhea in France has been conducted by Inserm's sentinel network of general practitioners (GP) since 1991. Similar GP-based studies have been performed in the Netherlands, Austria and the UK. The causes of most cases of acute diarrhea are unclear. In case-controlstudies designed to identify viruses in stools, 35 to 40% of cases and virtually none of the controls were positive for one of 4 major viruses (rotavirus, calicivirus, astrovirus and adenovirus). Thus, no viral cause was identified in more than 60% of patients with acute diarrhea. The causative role of viruses such as torovirus, picobirnavirus, picornavirus and enterovirus 22 has rarely been investigated. Further investigations are needed to identify other viral, bacterial fungal or parasitic causes of acute diarrhea. In France, on average, more than 3 million people (predominantly children) visit a GP for acute diarrhea each year. Most of these patients recover spontaneously within a few days, but the medical, social and economic costs of acute diarrhea are sufficiently high to justify a more aggressive public policy to prevent and control epidemics in Europe. ; COMMUNICATION SCIENTIFIQUESéance du 9 novembre 2010Malgré une surveillance permanente et continue des diarrhées aiguës sur le territoire français assurée par les médecins généralistes du réseau Sentinelles de l'Inserm depuis 1991, et la mise en place de systèmes de surveillance similaires ou des études en médecine générale dans d'autres pays d'Europe, notamment aux Pays-Bas, en Autriche et au Royaume-Uni, force est de constater que leur étiologie reste encore largement méconnue. Si des études cas-témoins conduites avec une recherche de virus dans les selles ont permis d'identifier un virus dans 35 à 40 % des cas et chez un faible nombre de témoins, en faveur d'un rôle causal probable de quatre virus principalement retrouvés lors des épidémies (rotavirus, calicivirus, astrovirus et adénovirus), dans plus de 60 % des cas la cause de ces diarrhées aigües hivernales ou estivales reste inconnue. Le rôle de virus actuellement peu ou pas recherchés comme les torovirus, picobirnavirus, picornavirus ou entérovirus 22 mériterait d'être précisé. Des recherches restent donc à conduire, notamment visant à l'identification plus étendue d'agents pathogènes potentiellement responsables, qu'ils soient viraux, bactériens, fongiques ou parasitaires, avant de pouvoir espérer prévenir et contrôler de manière efficace ces épidémies récurrentes en Europe, qui concernent de larges segments de la population. En France environ trois millions de personnes consultent en moyenne chaque année leur médecin généraliste pour un épisode de diarrhée aiguë (ce sont des patients de tous âges, bien que plus souvent des enfants). Si pour l'immense majorité des cas leur évolution favorable est spontanée en quelques jours, le coût sanitaire, social et économique de ces épidémies d'ampleur nationale est très élevé et justifierait une politique de prévention et de lutte plus ambitieuse à l'échelle de l'Europe,.

The height of the French male population of the Ancien Régime is estimated, on the basis of military records, to have been about 162 cm in the 17th century. This extremely short stature implies that, "the crisis of the 17th century" had an immense impact on the human organism itself. The improvement in climatic conditions at the turn of the 18th century had an ameliorating effect on the human organism, increasing in size by nearly 4 cms within a span of 12 years. Improved weather had a beneficial impact on agricultural conditions as well as a direct effect on biological processes. The physical stature of men increased until the birth cohorts of the 1740s, to decline thereafter, in keeping with the European pattern, although the decline of the second half of the 18th century was not more severe than elsewhere in Europe. France was not suffering from a prolonged period of malnutrition of unusual severity, and the threat of a Malthusian crisis was mild compared to 17th-century conditions. Hence, the anthropometric evidence supports the notion that the French economic malaise was not a fundamental cause of the political turmoil. To be sure, there were very large social differences in the biological standard of living, which clearly fuelled the fires of revolution. The height of the French upper classes was 7 cm above average, but, that, too, was standard for contemporary Europe.

International audience ; [After the Soviet collapse and the dismantling of the iron curtain in 1989-1990, Eu-rope as a whole became an area of immigration, less intense than North America. Then, in the middle of 2010, the migratory importance of Europe becomes first. Thus, by 2015, Europe has the highest rate of migratory growth on major continents. It is therefore im-portant to examine the factors explaining this situation. However, in this context of a globally attractive continent, it is necessary to analyze the national varieties in the mi-gratory systems, especially that of France which results from various specificities.] ; Après l'effondrement soviétique et le démantèlement du rideau de fer en 1989-1990, l'Europe dans son ensemble devient une zone d'immigration, d'une intensité tou-tefois moindre qu'en Amérique du Nord. Puis, au milieu des années 2010, l'Europe passe au premier plan en tant qu'espace migratoire puisque, en 2015, elle enregistre le taux d'accroissement migratoire le plus élevé des grandes aires continentales. Il importe donc de s'interroger sur les facteurs explicatifs de cette situation. Toutefois, dans cet es-pace globalement attractif, il faut analyser les variantes nationales des systèmes migra-toires, plus particulièrement celui de la France, qui résulte de diverses spécificités.

International audience ; [After the Soviet collapse and the dismantling of the iron curtain in 1989-1990, Eu-rope as a whole became an area of immigration, less intense than North America. Then, in the middle of 2010, the migratory importance of Europe becomes first. Thus, by 2015, Europe has the highest rate of migratory growth on major continents. It is therefore im-portant to examine the factors explaining this situation. However, in this context of a globally attractive continent, it is necessary to analyze the national varieties in the mi-gratory systems, especially that of France which results from various specificities.] ; Après l'effondrement soviétique et le démantèlement du rideau de fer en 1989-1990, l'Europe dans son ensemble devient une zone d'immigration, d'une intensité tou-tefois moindre qu'en Amérique du Nord. Puis, au milieu des années 2010, l'Europe passe au premier plan en tant qu'espace migratoire puisque, en 2015, elle enregistre le taux d'accroissement migratoire le plus élevé des grandes aires continentales. Il importe donc de s'interroger sur les facteurs explicatifs de cette situation. Toutefois, dans cet es-pace globalement attractif, il faut analyser les variantes nationales des systèmes migra-toires, plus particulièrement celui de la France, qui résulte de diverses spécificités.

Les prairies constituent une composante essentielle des systèmes agricoles français et européens. Une analyse exhausitve de leur place y a été conduite dans le cadre du projet FP7 Multisward coordonné par Jean-Louis Peyraud. Au cours des 50 dernières années, la surface de prairies en Europe a baissé d'environ 10 MHa, mais est restée stable par rapport à la SAU. En France, qui présente une situation très contrastée d'une région à l'autre, l'ensemble prairies temportaires – prairies articifielles s'est profondément recomposé avec une très grande part des surfaces actuelles en mélanges et associations, alors que les cultures pures prédominaient en 1960. En Europe, les niveaux de production varient de 1 à 10 du sud Portugal plutôt très sec à l'Allemagne du nord putôt très bien arrosée. Les gains de productivité zootoechnique ont déterminé ces transformations, par ailleurs encouragées par la politique européenne en trois étapes. Les quotas qui ont limité la production laitière en 1984, le découplage entre production et subvention en 1992 et la supression des quotas en 2015. Si la prairie temporaire a pu résister, la prairie permanente a beaucoup perdu au cours de ces évolutions. La prise en compte des systèmes de production animale est essentielle à une analyse de l'impact du changement climatique sur la prairie. ; Grasslands are a key component of French and European agricultural systems. An exhaustive analysis of their position was made in the FP7 Multisward project coordinated by Jean-Louis Peyraud. During the last 50 years, the grassland surface area declined by 10 MHa and remained stable in proportion of the total agricultural area. In France, which exhibits contrasted situations from a region to the other, both temporary and artificial grasslands now are made of species mixtures, whereas they mainly consisted of pure swards in 1960. In Europe, productivity varies from 1 to 10, from south Portugal under drought up to North Germany, rather well watered. Zootechnical productivity gains determined such transformations, also boosted by European policies, in three steps. Quotas, which controlled the milk production after 1984, uncoupling production and subsidies in 1992 and suppression of quotas in 2015. Where temporary grasslands remain a large part of the agricultural area, natural grasslands directly responded and declined under such policies. Any study on the impact of climate change on grasslands needs taking the conditions of animal production into account.

The DEPS's exploitation of Community surveys on the use of Tic by menages and individuals, coordinated, harmonised and published by Eurostat, makes it possible to draw a comparative and trend picture of the internet access to menings in the EU-27 according to their socio-demographic characteristics. It highlights the increase in the digital uses of individuals, elucidates the factors behind the development of Tic, such as cultural uses and electronic trade in cultural products, as well as the strong link between access to the Tic and electronic trade in the European Union. Finally, trends and factors of converging usage on the internet, television and telephony are established: availability, time of use, generations, practicalities, etc. In this mapping of the acces and use of Tic in the EU, France has an intermediate position: below the EU average in terms of acces or mobile telephony, it is above this average in terms of usage and electronic commerce. ; L'exploitation par le Deps des enquetes communautaires sur l'utilisation des Tic par les menages et les particuliers, coordonnees, harmonisees et publiees par Eurostat, permet de dresser un portrait comparatif et en tendances de l'equipement en Tic, des modes d'acces a l'internet des menages dans l'UE-27 selon leurs caracteristiques socio-demographiques. Elle met en lumiere l'intensification des usages numeriques des particuliers, elucide les facteurs de developpement des Tic que sont les usages culturels et le commerce electronique de produits culturels, mais aussi la forte liaison entre acces aux Tic et commerce electronique dans l'Union europeenne. Enfin, sont etablis des tendances et facteurs d'usages convergents sur l'internet, la television et la telephonie : disponibilite, temps d'usages, generations, praticite, etc. Dans cette cartographie de l'acces et de l'utilisation des Tic dans l'UE, la France occupe une position intermediaire : plutot en dessous de la moyenne de l'UE en termes d'acces ou de telephonie mobile, elle est plutot au-dessus de cette ...