The article deals with the period of the history of Fiume from January 5 to October 5, 1921, using the sources of the Zanella Archive (kept in the Archivio Storico di Fiume in Rome). The elections (April 24) for the constituent Assembly of the new Free State of Fiume, established by the Rapallo Treaty, are the central event. Before the elections, fascists and legionaries committed severe violence. After the unexpected victory of the autonomists, the violence multiplies, and the national-fascists try to establish an excep-tional government. The attempt fails because of the opposition of the plenipotentiary minister to Fiume Caccia Dominioni and the Italian government. However, the situation of public order remains turbulent. Only with the Bonomi government (July 4) and the ap-pointment of General Amantea as Extraordinary Commissioner will the convening of the Constituent Assembly be set for October 5.
The article deals with the period of the history of Fiume from January 5 to October 5, 1921, using the sources of the Zanella Archive (kept in the Archivio Storico di Fiume in Rome). The elections (April 24) for the constituent Assembly of the new Free State of Fiume, established by the Rapallo Treaty, are the central event. Before the elections, fascists and legionaries committed severe violence. After the unexpected victory of the autonomists, the violence multiplies, and the national-fascists try to establish an excep-tional government. The attempt fails because of the opposition of the plenipotentiary minister to Fiume Caccia Dominioni and the Italian government. However, the situation of public order remains turbulent. Only with the Bonomi government (July 4) and the ap-pointment of General Amantea as Extraordinary Commissioner will the convening of the Constituent Assembly be set for October 5.
This research undertakes to provide a typology of multipolar systems. Multipolarity plays a key role in IR theory, for it is strictly associated with the history of European politics since the seventeenth century to the end of World War Two. Despite wide investigation, one can doubt the matter has received a definitive treatment. Trouble is that current studies often consider multipolarity as a one-dimensional concept. They obviously reckon that multipolarism is substantially different from other systems and deserves attention, but generally fail to distinguish between different types of multipolar systems (the few exceptions are listed in chapter one). The history of international politics tells us a different story. Multipolar power systems may share some general characteristics, but they also show a wide array of difference, and understanding this difference requires a preliminary work of classification. That is the purpose of the present study. The work is organized as follows. In chapter one, we provide a cursory review of the literature on multipolarity, with particular reference to the work of Duncan Snidal and Joseph Grieco. Then we propose a four-cell typology of multipolar systems to be tested via historical analysis. The first type, hegemony, is best represented by European international system to the time of Napoleonic France, and is discussed in chapter two. Type number two is the traditional concert of Europe, which history is detailed in chapter three. Type number three is the reversal of alliances, which closest example, the diplomatic revolution of 1756, is discussed in chapter four. Finally, chapter five is devoted to the chain-gang system, and the European politics from Bismarck's late years to World War One represents a good illustration of how it works. In chapter six we proceed to draw a first evaluation of the main results achieved in the previous chapters, in order to see if, and to what extent, our typology serves the purpose of explaining the nature of multipolar systems.
[Italiano]: Aldo Moro segretario della Democrazia cristiana, presidente del Consiglio in una alleanza di centro-sinistra, stratega dell'accordo di governo con il Partito comunista e infine vittima del terrorismo politico. Esaminando due diverse fasi della vita politica italiana – la stagione del centro-sinistra e la tragica vicenda della lotta armata – questo volume ripercorre, da molteplici prospettive, il tormentato percorso del leader politico che meglio riassume la storia d'Italia del secondo dopoguerra ./[English]: Aldo Moro, General Secretary of the Christian Democracy, Prime minister in an alliance of center-left, strategist of the government agreement with the Communist Party and finally victim of the political terrorism. Looking at two different stages of Italian political life - the season of center-left coalition and the tragic story of the armed struggle - this volume traces, from multiple perspectives, the tormented path of the leader politician that best sums up the Italian history of the second post-war period.
This paper intends to describe and contextualize one of the most delicate and controversial moments in the economic and political history of Niger of the past few years: the famine and the food crisis of 2005. This phenomenon has triggered a spiral of disputes and critical reactions among International Organizations such as the World Food Programme, the Government of Niger, first of all the President Tandja, and many NGOs, especially Médicines sans Frontièrs (MSF). In general, the close examination of this crisis allows to better understand the internal politics of Niger, often cryptic for international observers, its twilight zones, its elements of strictness, as well as for the contradictions of international aids to rural development and the local responses, extremely different from one region to another. Such a crisis and its consequences have to be investigated within a national context characterized by a civil society, which stands more and more against the political regime, as well as by high-pitched diatribes about the possibility of a third political mandate of President Tandja and by a spreading influence of fundamentalist associations. ; This paper intends to describe and contextualize one of the most delicate and controversial moments in the economic and political history of Niger of the past few years: the famine and the food crisis of 2005. This phenomenon has triggered a spiral of disputes and critical reactions among International Organizations such as the World Food Programme, the Government of Niger, first of all the President Tandja, and many NGOs, especially Médicines sans Frontièrs (MSF). In general, the close examination of this crisis allows to better understand the internal politics of Niger, often cryptic for international observers, its twilight zones, its elements of strictness, as well as for the contradictions of international aids to rural development and the local responses, extremely different from one region to another. Such a crisis and its consequences have to be investigated within a national context characterized by a civil society, which stands more and more against the political regime, as well as by high-pitched diatribes about the possibility of a third political mandate of President Tandja and by a spreading influence of fundamentalist associations.
Papiers peints (wallpapers) produced in the wake of the French Revolution and the formation of the Napoleonic Empire include representations of contemporary events. For the first time, historic events known to the general public are pasted over interior walls and those who buy them reveal, at least implicitly, their cultural and political leanings. The article focuses on four papiers peints from the 19th-century Parisian firm Dufour & Leroy. They are found in the villa Gradenigo at Carbonera (near Treviso) and depict crucial episodes in the history of the Armée d'Italie: the Passage of the Alps, the Entrance into Milan and two scenes from the Entrance into Rome. It is a unique and hitherto unparalleled find within a private interior, not only in Italy. It speaks to the taste of a particular patron, connected to the Gradenigo family. They are not the ancient patrician family from Rio Marin, but another Venetian family with the same name, who were awarded a title of nobility in the 19th century.
On the basis of the excavation notebooks and letters we reconstruct the difficult history of this excavation, and we attempt to explore, underscore, and to explain the circumstances that conditioned many choices that were made. Regarding the decision to begin digging at this new site, towards the end of the third excavation campaign at Phaistos, we point to hypothetically two particular factors: first, the clear wish of Halbherr to assert the right of the Italian mission to excavate in the area of the Messarà following a diplomatic incident with Cretan authorities that arose from the excavation of the necropolis of Kalivia by S. Xanthoudidis, and secondly the number of finds from Phaistos, relatively small with respect to that from Knossos, something that hurt the sense of dignity or national pride which had always driven the efforts of F. Halbherr outside the borders of Italy. In fact, the decision to begin this new excavation even took by surprise G. De Sanctis, who immediately advised Halbherr not to start anything else in Crete, for fear of interfering with the beginning of explorations in the Cirenaica, which they had already planned.We then review the difficult time that Halbherr spent deciding whether to continue the excavation directly by himself after a brief period of collaboration with R. Paribeni had come to an end. We note how the publication of that excavation became a kind of ordeal. After several limited trenches by L. Banti, there really was a plan for continuation, but it was not followed by D. Levi and C. Laviosa in the 1970 s. By 1977, when the first part of the earlier excavations were being published, a new cycle of projects aimed exclusively at re-excavating what had been excavated for the purpose of resolving many problems (especially with regard to chronology) that remained from the earlier excavations was undertaken (to 1999).In the second part of this paper, we address the motivating criteria and the scientific problems addressed by each excavation cycle: from the iconography of the most important finds, to the problem of political relations with Phaistos (beginning with a letter by F. Halbherr in which he asks whether the two centres did not perhaps constitute an upper and a lower city). We furthermore discuss the influence of Evans upon the reading of stratigraphy, the relations between Minoans and Mycenaeans, the interests of L. Banti in religion, and the most recent hypotheses regarding the complementary roles of Phaistos and Haghia Triada (in the context of the whole island, through which the strategic position of Knossos emerges clearly towards the end of the Middle Minoan III period).In the last part we trace a general history of the site, beginning with the Venetian period and going back to the possible rite of foundation at the beginning of Early Minoan I. For each period we summarize the most important data that has emerged from recent work, and we refer to the detailed contributions for each period, which constitute the primary chapters of a yet unpublished history of the site.This study also presents a new general plan of Haghia Triada in colour, with the indication of each of its chronological phases, and three appendices present, respectively, the texts of the letters sent by F. Halbherr to D. Comparetti regarding the excavations at Haghia Triada, the most important passages from the letters of F. Halbherr to G. De Sanctis regarding this excavation, and two letters by F. Halbherr, one to L. Pernier, the other to L. Pigorini, in which he explains the stratigraphy and the history of the centre Haghia Triada.
ITALIANO: Il saggio si propone di fornire una possibile soluzione a un antico enigma che è al tempo stesso storiografico e archivistico: perché i libri contabili basso medievali e rinascimentali sono presenti negli archivi fiorentini (e più in generale toscani) con una abbondanza quasi straripante, di fronte a un panorama italiano (per non dire europeo) assai magro? Per quale motivo tra Firenze e Prato si conservano, per i secoli XIII-XVI, più libri di conto che in tutta l'Europa messa insieme? E infine, come spiegare che gli archivi familiari dei nobili fiorentini conservassero, ancora in tarda età granducale, mastri, registri di cassa e giornali redatti alcuni secoli addietro, la cui utilità pratica era apparentemente pari a zero? Lavorando su molteplici fronti, quello della storia economica, quello della storia delle tecniche e della formazione culturale, quello della storia politico-sociale, l'autore mette a confronto il caso fiorentino con quello delle altre grandi città mercantili italiane, proponendo infine una immagine di Firenze leggermente diversa da quella stereotipata di culla dell'Umanesimo. / ENGLISH: The essay aims to provide a possible solution to an old historiographical and archival enigma: why are late medieval and Renaissance account books present in Florentine (and more generally Tuscan) archives with an almost overflowing abundance, as compares to the rather scant Italian (not to say European) panorama? Why have more account books dating from the 13th and 16th centuries been preserved between Florence and Prato than in the rest of Europe? And finally, how can we explain that even in the late grand-ducal age the family archives of the Florentine nobles still preserved ledgers, cashbooks and journals written a few centuries earlier, despite these writings seemingly had no practical usefulness whatsoever? By employing multiple perspectives – economic history, the history of techniques and cultural formation, socio-political history – the author compares the Florentine case with other great Italian mercantile cities, in the end yielding a picture of Florence slightly different from the stereotyped image of the cradle of Humanism.
The essay aims to provide a possible solution to an old historiographical and archival enigma: why are late medieval and Renaissance account books present in Florentine (and more generally Tuscan) archives with an almost overflowing abundance, as compares to the rather scant Italian (not to say European) panorama? Why have more account books dating from the 13th and 16th centuries been preserved between Florence and Prato than in the rest of Europe? And finally, how can we explain that even in the late grand-ducal age the family archives of the Florentine nobles still preserved ledgers, cashbooks and journals written a few centuries earlier, despite these writings seemingly had no practical usefulness whatsoever? By employing multiple perspectives – economic history, the history of techniques and cultural formation, socio-political history – the author compares the Florentine case with other great Italian mercantile cities, inthe end yielding a picture of Florence slightly different from the stereotyped image of the cradle of Humanism. ; Il saggio si propone di fornire una possibile soluzione a un antico enigma che è al tempo stesso storiografico e archivistico: perché i libri contabili basso medievali e rinascimentali sono presenti negli archivi fiorentini (e più in generale toscani) con una abbondanza quasi straripante, di fronte a un panorama italiano (per non dire europeo) assai magro? Per quale motivo tra Firenze e Prato si conservano, per i secoli XIII-XVI, più libri di conto che in tutta l'Europa messa insieme? E infine, come spiegare che gli archivi familiari dei nobili fiorentini conservassero, ancora in tarda età granducale, mastri, registri di cassa e giornali redatti alcuni secoli addietro, la cui utilità pratica era apparentemente pari a zero? Lavorando su molteplici fronti, quello della storia economica, quello della storia delle tecniche e della formazione culturale, quello della storia politico-sociale, l'autore mette a confronto il caso fiorentino con quello delle altre grandi città mercantili italiane, proponendo infine una immagine di Firenze leggermente diversa da quella stereotipata di culla dell'Umanesimo.
Abstract: The present work analyses Content Moderation, focusing on ethical concerns and cognitive effects. Starting from a general description and history of the moderation process, it stresses some ethical problems: quality of moderation, transparency, and the working conditions of human moderators. Using some of Facebook leaked slides offering examples of moderation, we define some controversial rules and principles for Commercial Content Moderation. These examples highlight a general lack of coherency and transparency, which has the potential to affect users' cognitive attitudes, their perception of reality, and their freedom of speech. Such effects are studied in comparison to other well-known online cognitive phenomena (bubbles and echo chambers) and in relation to the most recent dedicated legislation in EU countries. The current Content Moderation scheme leaves users at risk of specific cognitive distortions, highlighting the urgent need for greater transparency throughout the moderation process and better working conditions for moderators.Keywords: Content Moderation; Freedom of Speech; Epistemic Bubble; Technology EthicsCommercial Content Moderation: un oscuro labirinto per la libertà d'espressione e le opinioni degli utentiRiassunto: Il presente lavoro offre un'analisi approfondita della moderazione di contenuti, concentrandosi sulle problematiche etiche e sugli effetti cognitivi. A partire da una introduzione ai concetti chiave e alla storia della moderazione di contenuti online, si concentra su alcuni problemi etici primari: la qualità della moderazione, la sua trasparenza e le condizioni di lavoro dei lavoratori. Utilizzando dei documenti formativi interni di Facebook, pubblicati da un quotidiano e dagli esempi in essi contenuti, definiremo le controverse regole e i principi della Commercial Content Moderation. Ne emerge una generale mancanza di coerenza organizzativa e di trasparenza nel processo, che mostra potenziali effetti dannosi sulle attitudini degli utenti, sulla loro percezione della realtà e la loro libertà di parola. Tali effetti saranno studiati in confronto con i più conosciuti effetti cognitivi del mondo dei social (epistemic bubble, filter bubble, echo chamber) ed in relazione alle più recenti disposizioni di leggi europee in merito. Gli schemi attualmente in uso producono degli specifici effetti di distorsione cognitiva e conseguentemente mostrano l'importanza di una maggiore attenzione alla trasparenza del processo e alle condizioni di lavoro dei moderatori.Parole chiave: Moderazione di contenuti; Libertà di parola; Bolla epistemica; Etica della tecnologia
ITALIANO: Questo saggio costituisce la prima parte di una più ampia ricognizione della varia presenza del medioevo italiano nella letteratura storiografica britannica tra Risorgimento e primo dopoguerra. Esso si focalizza sui modelli di trattazione del passato italiano riscontrabili nelle opere di taluni specialisti di storie veneziane (R. Brown, H. Yule, H. Brown, W. Miller), autori di storie generali d'ispirazione rankiana (T. Hodgkin, M. Creighton, Lord Acton), sostenitori di un approccio nomotetico volto a innalzare la storia a branca della scienza politica (E. Freeman, J.R. Seeley, J. Bryce, A.J. Toynbee). L'esame degli atteggiamenti assunti da questi studiosi verso l'Italia medievale e rinascimentale si rivela peculiarmente idoneo a porre in luce i contrasti e le incertezze circa il significato della trasformazione della storiografia in disciplina scientifica che ne accompagnarono il processo di professionalizzazione in Gran Bretagna. / ENGLISH: This essay forms the first part of a wider survey of the diverse presence of the Italian Middle Ages in British historical literature between the Risorgimento and the first postwar period. It focuses on the various models of treatment of the Italian past which may be found in the works of some specialists of Venetian history (R. Brown, H. Yule, H. Brown, W. Miller), authors of general histories of Rankean inspiration (T. Hodgkin, M. Creighton, Lord Acton), advocates of a nomothetic approach aiming to make history a branch of the science of politics (E. Freeman, J.R. Seeley, J. Bryce, A.J Toynbee). The attitudes showed by these scholars towards medieval and Renaissance Italy prove peculiarly revelatory of contrasts and uncertainties about the exact meaning of the transformation of historiography into a would-be scientific discipline which accompanied its professionalization in Great Britain.
This essay aims to examine the theme of multiple and "national" loyalties that characterize the political action of the fathers of the Society of Jesus in the Catholic courts of the Seventeenth century. In particular, it analyzes the crisis of the relationship with the Catholic king and the increasingly close relations with the French monarchy, promoted by General Claudio Acquaviva after the conversion of Henry IV. The seventeenth-century history of the Jesuits shows choices consistent with the national interests pursued by the sovereigns at whose courts they worked; I would say rather, their belonging to courtier parties! The idea of the Societatis Jesu as a religious order dependent on the pope is thus redefined. The investigation is also conducted through the analysis of the activity and writings of some Jesuit teachers in Milan and Venice in the second half of the 17th century, interested in the comparison and debate not only with their students but also with exponents of the social classes engaged in political, economic and diplomatic activities. Finally, the essay highlights the intensification of the protest against the Society during the XVIIth century, on the part of other religious orders, the Inquisition and the Roman Curia. ; Il saggio intende affrontare il tema delle fedeltà plurime e "nazionali" che caratterizzano l'agire politico dei padri della Compagnia di Gesù nelle corti cattoliche del XVII secolo. In particolare analizza la crisi del rapporto con il re cattolico e le relazioni sempre più strette con la monarchia francese volute dal generale Claudio Acquaviva a partire dalla conversione di Enrico IV. La storia seicentesca dei gesuiti evidenza scelte coerenti con gli interessi nazionali perseguiti dai sovrani presso le cui corti operarono; direi anzi con i singoli partiti cortigiani. Ne esce così ridimensionata l'idea di una ordine religioso alle dipendenze del papa. L'indagine è condotta anche attraverso l'analisi dell'attività e degli scritti di alcuni docenti gesuiti di Milano e Venezia del ...
The thesis presents some historical episodes concerning the Malagasy antemoro group from a privileged source: the Arabico-Malagasy manuscripts or sorabe from talily genre. The aim is to rediscover the historiographical and anthropological value of a native written tradition often confined to the margins of literature. Taking into consideration the functional details to understand antemoro social organization, and the introduction of writing in Madagascar and Arabico-Malagasy alphabet, three episodes are introduced: the settlement of antemoro ancestors on the banks of the lower Matitanana through the unpublished manuscript HB-6 ( Académie des Sciences d'Outre Mer) in the fifteenth century; the wars of the French general La Case (1659-1663) through the manuscripts published by Gallieni and 61.60.212 of the Musée de l'Homme; the use of writing by antemoro nobles in the merina court service (1790 ca.1828) through diplomatic documents written by the king Radama I (1810-1828) and his collaborators. The episodes are examined in depth thanks to the European archival records, oral traditions and ethnographic reports, to communicate the micro-history of sorabe texts with general historical processes, in the long term (XV-XIX century). This allows the highlighting of historiographical value of the manuscripts and the unique historical information contained therein. At the same time, the anthropological attention permits the pointing out of the social role of the Arabico-Malagasy writing: it has been used by antemoro noble groups as a connecting tool for past, present and future to create a memory aimed at keeping political and cultural dynamics in their favor. ; Cette thèse présente des épisodes historiques concernant le groupe malgache antemoro et fait recours à une source privilégiée: les manuscrits arabico-malgaches ou sorabe du genre talily dans le but de redécouvrir la valeur anthropologique et historique d'une tradition autochtone écrite souvent restée en marge de la littérature. Après avoir précisé les coordonnées ...
I libri penitenziali, fonti rilevanti per esaminare la storia della mentalità, della società, dei costumi e del diritto dell'altomedioevo, consentono di gettare un po' di luce sul lesbismo, fenomeno altrimenti assai poco documentato per quell'epoca. I rapporti lesbici possono essere così colti sia nel loro specifico sia all'interno del più generale tema della considerazione dell'omosessualità nel suo complesso da parte della cultura cristiana del tempo. Attraverso l'analisi delle disposizioni previste dagli autori dei penitenziali per i rapporti sessuali tra donne si cerca di rispondere a diversi quesiti in merito all'entità delle penitenze assegnate alle colpevoli sulla base dei particolari atti compiuti, alla loro eventuale diversificazione secondo lo stato sociale e civile delle stesse o la loro età. Inoltre, allo scopo di meglio precisare la percezione dell'omosessualità femminile si procede pure a un confronto di genere, paragonando quanto sancito per le relazioni fra donne con ciò che veniva invece stabilito per punire i rapporti sessuali tra maschi. ; The penitential books, relevant sources to examine the history of mentality, society, customs and law in the early Middle Ages, help shed some light on lesbianism, a phenomenon otherwise very poorly documented at the time. The lesbian relationships can so be studied both in their specific and within the more general issue of considering homosexuality as a whole by the Christian culture of the time. Through the analysis of the provisions of the authors of penance for sexual relations between women we'll try to answer several questions regarding the kind of penance assigned to guilty on the basis of specific acts and their possible diversification according to the social and civil status or the age of the women involved. Moreover, in order to clarify the perception of female homosexuality we'll proceed in a comparison of gender, comparing what was stipulated for relations between women with what was instead established to punish sexual relations between males.
The following pages are dedicated to one of the central figures in the history of European integration, in its original phase. Although not yet fully recognized as such by the general public, at least in Italy, Johan Willem Beyen, manager, international banker and Dutch Foreign Minister, inspired, by his "Plan" of 1952, the creation of the European Common Market. Such initiative effectively relaunched the European Community process after the stalemate of the EDC. At the same time, together with Spaak and Bech, Beyen contributed to define the physiognomy of that subject that is commonly referred to as "small countries", of which the Netherlands has assumed leadership progressively and systematically. More precisely, the "Beyen Plan" - which drew extensively on experience of regional cooperation in the Benelux and also reflected the Dutch policy agenda priorities, including the preservation of the free market - extended the Community framework within economy as a whole, even resizing the supranational role of the European institutions, which had been the basis of the ECSC Treaty. The concept of "horizontal integration", conceived by the Dutch Minister, induced the Community to overshadow the strictly sectoral approach, introduced by Jean Monnet along with the functionalism, to reach more quickly the goal of economic union, which would be achieved starting from the creation of the customs union. Not surprisingly, according to various scholars, the Beyen's setting would be essential theoretical substrate of the single market of 1993. Now, as regards to the two following texts, the first will introduce the figure of Beyen by a short biography. The second one is a part of the fifth chapter of the book, edited by the writer, Gulliver in Lilliput. The Dutch contribution to European integration (1945-1969), approved for publication by the Department of History, Cultures, Religions of the "Sapienza"
