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Agricultural intensification and associated loss of high-quality habitats are key drivers of insect pollinator declines. With the aim of decreasing the environmental impact of agriculture, the 2014 EU Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) defined a set of habitat and landscape features (Ecological Focus Areas: EFAs) farmers could select from as a requirement to receive basic farm payments. To inform the post-2020 CAP, we performed a European-scale evaluation to determine how different EFA options vary in their potential to support insect pollinators under standard and pollinator-friendly management, as well as the extent of farmer uptake. A structured Delphi elicitation process engaged 22 experts from 18 European countries to evaluate EFAs options. By considering life cycle requirements of key pollinating taxa (i.e. bumble bees, solitary bees and hoverflies), each option was evaluated for its potential to provide forage, bee nesting sites and hoverfly larval resources. EFA options varied substantially in the resources they were perceived to provide and their effectiveness varied geographically and temporally. For example, field margins provide relatively good forage throughout the season in Southern and Eastern Europe but lacked early-season forage in Northern and Western Europe. Under standard management, no single EFA option achieved high scores across resource categories and a scarcity of late season forage was perceived. Experts identified substantial opportunities to improve habitat quality by adopting pollinator-friendly management. Improving management alone was, however, unlikely to ensure that all pollinator resource requirements were met. Our analyses suggest that a combination of poor management, differences in the inherent pollinator habitat quality and uptake bias towards catch crops and nitrogen-fixing crops severely limit the potential of EFAs to support pollinators in European agricultural landscapes. Policy Implications. To conserve pollinators and help protect pollination services, our expert elicitation highlights the need to create a variety of interconnected, well-managed habitats that complement each other in the resources they offer. To achieve this the Common Agricultural Policy post-2020 should take a holistic view to implementation that integrates the different delivery vehicles aimed at protecting biodiversity (e.g. enhanced conditionality, eco-schemes and agri-environment and climate measures). To improve habitat quality we recommend an effective monitoring framework with target-orientated indicators and to facilitate the spatial targeting of options collaboration between land managers should be incentivised.

Agricultural intensification and associated loss of high-quality habitats are key drivers of insect pollinator declines. With the aim of decreasing the environmental impact of agriculture, the 2014 EU Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) defined a set of habitat and landscape features (Ecological Focus Areas: EFAs) farmers could select from as a requirement to receive basic farm payments. To inform the post-2020 CAP, we performed a European-scale evaluation to determine how different EFA options vary in their potential to support insect pollinators under standard and pollinator-friendly management, as well as the extent of farmer uptake.A structured Delphi elicitation process engaged 22 experts from 18 European countries to evaluate EFAs options. By considering life cycle requirements of key pollinating taxa (i.e. bumble bees, solitary bees and hoverflies), each option was evaluated for its potential to provide forage, bee nesting sites and hoverfly larval resources.EFA options varied substantially in the resources they were perceived to provide and their effectiveness varied geographically and temporally. For example, field margins provide relatively good forage throughout the season in Southern and Eastern Europe but lacked early-season forage in Northern and Western Europe. Under standard management, no single EFA option achieved high scores across resource categories and a scarcity of late season forage was perceived.Experts identified substantial opportunities to improve habitat quality by adopting pollinator-friendly management. Improving management alone was, however, unlikely to ensure that all pollinator resource requirements were met. Our analyses suggest that a combination of poor management, differences in the inherent pollinator habitat quality and uptake bias towards catch crops and nitrogen-fixing crops severely limit the potential of EFAs to support pollinators in European agricultural landscapes. Policy Implications. To conserve pollinators and help protect pollination services, our expert ...

Agricultural intensification and associated loss of high-quality habitats are key drivers of insect pollinator declines. With the aim of decreasing the environmental impact of agriculture, the 2014 EU Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) defined a set of habitat and landscape features (Ecological Focus Areas: EFAs) farmers could select from as a requirement to receive basic farm payments. To inform the post-2020 CAP, we performed a European-scale evaluation to determine how different EFA options vary in their potential to support insect pollinators under standard and pollinator-friendly management, as well as the extent of farmer uptake. A structured Delphi elicitation process engaged 22 experts from 18 European countries to evaluate EFAs options. By considering life cycle requirements of key pollinating taxa (i.e. bumble bees, solitary bees and hoverflies), each option was evaluated for its potential to provide forage, bee nesting sites and hoverfly larval resources. EFA options varied substantially in the resources they were perceived to provide and their effectiveness varied geographically and temporally. For example, field margins provide relatively good forage throughout the season in Southern and Eastern Europe but lacked early-season forage in Northern and Western Europe. Under standard management, no single EFA option achieved high scores across resource categories and a scarcity of late season forage was perceived. Experts identified substantial opportunities to improve habitat quality by adopting pollinator-friendly management. Improving management alone was, however, unlikely to ensure that all pollinator resource requirements were met. Our analyses suggest that a combination of poor management, differences in the inherent pollinator habitat quality and uptake bias towards catch crops and nitrogen-fixing crops severely limit the potential of EFAs to support pollinators in European agricultural landscapes. Policy Implications. To conserve pollinators and help protect pollination services, our expert ...

PUBLISHED ; 1. Agricultural intensification and associated loss of high-quality habitats are key drivers of insect pollinator declines. With the aim of decreasing the environmental impact of agriculture, the 2014 EU Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) defined a set of habitat and landscape features (Ecological Focus Areas: EFAs) farmers could select from as a requirement to receive basic farm payments. To inform the post-2020 CAP, we performed a European-scale evaluation to determine how different EFA options vary in their potential to support insect pollinators under standard and pollinator-friendly management, as well as the extent of farmer uptake.2. A structured Delphi elicitation process engaged 22 experts from 18 European countries to evaluate EFAs options. By considering life cycle requirements of key pollinating taxa (i.e. bumble bees, solitary bees and hoverflies), each option was evaluated for its potential to provide forage, bee nesting sites and hoverfly larval resources.3. EFA options varied substantially in the resources they were perceived to provide and their effectiveness varied geographically and temporally. For example, field margins provide relatively good forage throughout the season in Southern and Eastern Europe but lacked early-season forage in Northern and Western Europe. Under standard management, no single EFA option achieved high scores across resource categories and a scarcity of late season forage was perceived.4. Experts identified substantial opportunities to improve habitat quality by adopting pollinator-friendly management. Improving management alone was, however, unlikely to ensure that all pollinator resource requirements were met. Our analyses suggest that a combination of poor management, differences in the inherent pollinator habitat quality and uptake bias towards catch crops and nitrogen-fixing crops severely limit the potential of EFAs to support pollinators in European agricultural landscapes.5. Policy Implications. To conserve pollinators and help protect pollination services, our expert elicitation highlights the need to create a variety of interconnected, well-managed habitats that complement each other in the resources they offer. To achieve this the Common Agricultural Policy post-2020 should take a holistic view to implementation that integrates the different delivery vehicles aimed at protecting biodiversity (e.g. enhanced conditionality, eco-schemes and agri-environment and climate measures). To improve habitat quality we recommend an effective monitoring framework with target-orientated indicators and to facilitate the spatial targeting of options collaboration between land managers should be incentivised.

Agricultural intensification and associated loss of high-quality habitats are key drivers of insect pollinator declines. With the aim of decreasing the environmental impact of agriculture, the 2014 EU Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) defined a set of habitat and landscape features (Ecological Focus Areas: EFAs) farmers could select from as a requirement to receive basic farm payments. To inform the post-2020 CAP, we performed a European-scale evaluation to determine how different EFA options vary in their potential to support insect pollinators under standard and pollinator-friendly management, as well as the extent of farmer uptake. A structured Delphi elicitation process engaged 22 experts from 18 European countries to evaluate EFAs options. By considering life cycle requirements of key pollinating taxa (i.e. bumble bees, solitary bees and hoverflies), each option was evaluated for its potential to provide forage, bee nesting sites and hoverfly larval resources. EFA options varied substantially in the resources they were perceived to provide and their effectiveness varied geographically and temporally. For example, field margins provide relatively good forage throughout the season in Southern and Eastern Europe but lacked early-season forage in Northern and Western Europe. Under standard management, no single EFA option achieved high scores across resource categories and a scarcity of late season forage was perceived. Experts identified substantial opportunities to improve habitat quality by adopting pollinator-friendly management. Improving management alone was, however, unlikely to ensure that all pollinator resource requirements were met. Our analyses suggest that a combination of poor management, differences in the inherent pollinator habitat quality and uptake bias towards catch crops and nitrogen-fixing crops severely limit the potential of EFAs to support pollinators in European agricultural landscapes. Policy Implications. To conserve pollinators and help protect pollination services, our expert elicitation highlights the need to create a variety of interconnected, well-managed habitats that complement each other in the resources they offer. To achieve this the Common Agricultural Policy post-2020 should take a holistic view to implementation that integrates the different delivery vehicles aimed at protecting biodiversity (e.g. enhanced conditionality, eco-schemes and agri-environment and climate measures). To improve habitat quality we recommend an effective monitoring framework with target-orientated indicators and to facilitate the spatial targeting of options collaboration between land managers should be incentivised.

This is the peer reviewed version of the following article: Journal of Vegetation Science 26.3 (2015): 538-551, which has been published in final form at http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jvs.12260. This article may be used for non-commercial purposes in accordance with Wiley Terms and Conditions for Self-Archiving. ; Questions: How do inter-annual fluctuations in water availability affect the functional trait patterns along spatial gradients of resource availability and disturbance? Location: Mediterranean grasslands in central Spain, near Madrid. Methods: We surveyed plant communities from 66 sites under different grazing regimes (from heavy grazing to grazing abandonment) in productive and unproductive habitats (corresponding to upper and lower topographic zones) in 2 yr with contrasting rainfall conditions. Community weighted mean (CWM) and Rao quadratic entropy for three key plant ecological strategy traits (specific leaf area, height and seed mass) were calculated for each community. We used null models to estimate functional richness (FR) and functional divergence (FD), the two components of functional diversity with the highest power to detect changes in community assembly processes across environmental gradients. Results: The patterns of CWM remained rather constant across years, with the only exception being seed mass, which experienced considerable temporal changes that suggested that heavy-seeded species are favoured under stressful conditions. Patterns for FR were consistent across years. They revealed both trait convergence and divergence depending on the niche axis and context. Convergence was observed for vegetative traits in unproductive habitats and seed mass in productive ones, and divergence for seed mass in unproductive habitats and vegetative traits in productive ones. In contrast, the patterns of FD of the vegetative traits changed considerably between years, as shown by increased divergence during the wet year in unproductive habitats and decreased divergence in grazing-abandoned productive habitats. Conclusions: Temporal changes in Mediterranean grassland composition depend on complex interactions between species traits, resource availability and disturbance. Increased rainfall appeared to have contrasting effects on assembly processes in stressful and productive habitats. In stressful habitats we found evidence that increased rainfall promoted niche complementarity, while in productive habitats, especially in the absence of disturbance, it increased trait convergence ; Financial support was received from the Spanish Ministry of Science (Projects CGL2007-63382 and CGL2011-24871), the Madrid Regional Government (Projects REMEDINAL- S0505/AMB-0335 and REMEDINAL2-S2009/AMB-1783), and the Spanish Ministry of Education (FPI for Carlos Pérez Carmona)

Both climate change and habitat modification exert serious pressure on biodiversity. Although climate change mitigation has been identified as an important strategy for biodiversity conservation, bioenergy remains a controversial mitigation action due to its potential negative ecological and socio-economic impacts which arise through habitat modification by land use change. While the debate continues, the separate or simultaneous impacts of both climate change and bioenergy on biodiversity have not yet been compared. We assess projected range shifts of 156 European bird species by 2050 under two alternative climate change trajectories: a baseline scenario, where the global mean temperature increases by 4 °C by the end of the century, and a 2 degrees scenario, where global concerted effort limits the temperature increase to below 2 °C. For the latter scenario, we also quantify the pressure exerted by increased cultivation of energy biomass as modelled by IMAGE2.4, an integrated land use model. The global bioenergy use in this scenario is in the lower end of the range of previously estimated sustainable potential. Under the assumptions of these scenarios, we find that the magnitude of range shifts due to climate change is far greater than the impact of land conversion to woody bioenergy plantations within the European Union, and that mitigation of climate change reduces the exposure experienced by species. However, we identified potential for local conservation conflict between priority areas for conservation and bioenergy production. These conflicts must be addressed by strict bioenergy sustainability criteria that acknowledge biodiversity conservation needs beyond existing protected areas and apply also to biomass imported from outside the European Union.

Context
Impact avoidance and biodiversity offsetting are measures that can be used for alleviating environmental impacts of economic development projects. Offsetting is frequently implemented via habitat restoration. Biodiversity offsets should be designed in a cost-effective manner.

Aims
To investigate how spatial conservation prioritisation methods, most commonly used for reserve network design, could be used for informing impact avoidance and biodiversity offsetting.

Methods
Zonation is a publicly available framework and software for grid-based, large-scale, high-resolution spatial conservation prioritisation. Zonation produces a hierarchical, balanced, and complementarity-based priority ranking through the landscape, identifying areas of both highest and lowest conservation value in one analysis. It is shown how these capabilities can be utilised in the context of impact avoidance and offsetting.

Key results
Impact avoidance can be implemented by focusing environmentally harmful activity into low-priority areas of the spatial priority ranking. Offsets can be implemented via a more complicated analysis setup. First, identify development areas unavailable for conservation, which leads to a decrease in the quality of conservation value achievable in the landscape. Second, develop compensation layers that describe the difference made by allocation of extra conservation action. Running a spatial prioritisation, integrating information about where species are (representation), what areas and features are damaged (reduced condition and negative connectivity effects), and the difference made by remedial action, allows identification of areas where extra conservation effort maximally compensates for damage. Factors such as connectivity and costs can be included in this analysis. Impact avoidance and offsetting can also be combined in the procedure.

Conclusions
Spatial conservation-prioritisation methods can inform both impact avoidance and offsetting design.

Implications
Decision support tools that are commonly associated with reserve selection can be used for planning of impact avoidance and offsetting, conditional on the availability of high-quality data about the distributions of biodiversity features (e.g. species, habitat type, ecosystem services).

Choosing an appropriate sampling method to study ants is a key factor since distinct sampling methods can capture distinct ant fauna and, therefore, leading to bias in the interpretation and conclusion of the patterns observed. Despite it is well known that the ant fauna is vertically stratified, some of the sampling methods cannot be used throughout the whole vertical stratum (e.g., fogging and Winkler extractor). Here we compared the complementarity of hand collecting and baiting (with tuna or honey) in ant surveys focused on the stratification of the ant fauna in a tropical rainforest in Mexico. We found a total of 44 ant species, belonging to 17 genera and five subfamilies. The three sampling methods were clearly complementary at both the forest floor and canopy levels, even with as little as 10 minutes of search time for hand collecting. The ant species composition differed among sampling methods at both vertical strata. Hand collecting yielded higher ant species richness and more exclusive species than either bait at both vertical strata, but both tuna and honey baits also led to the detection of some (though fewer) exclusive ant species. The combination of hand collecting, tuna, and honey baits should thus be considered complementary tools for ant inventories, since using the two methods together yielded more complete inventories at both vertical strata. An additional advantage is that both methods can be used in both strata, ensuring that data in different vertical strata are comparable and allowing more reliable comparisons among these different habitats.

The aim of this Phd work is to identify and characterize agropastoral rhythms and dynamics in the "Hautes-Chaumes du Forez". This theme is linked with the appreciation of socio-economic modalities of grazing as it has been practiced by mountain communities for the last 2000 years. Understanding how worked this activity and its environmental implication required a systemic and diachronic approach. Thereby, it was possible to link the issue of society-environment interactions with an archaeological approach of land use. The main purpose is to replace this information in a suitable historical and paleoecological framework in the way to highlight the major phases of lands use and anthropization. In this way, a multidisciplinary confrontation has been a prime factor in order to estimate the variability and the intensity of the socio-economic flows, themselves reflections of practices and policies fluctuating in time and space. Replaced in a global framework, these events reintegrate the "Haut Forez" in a regional dynamic where the mountain finds both its role and its legitimacy as an integrated margin. During Antiquity, the first real changes took place. Short-lived, however, this dynamic confirms new management methods that work for the integration of the Hautes-Chaumes into a complementarity circuit between plains and mountains. This dynamic is the main actor in the initiative of the palaeoenvironmental and economic changes which will follow one another until the dawn of the 19th century. ; Ce travail de thèse s'attache à identifier et à caractériser les rythmes et dynamiques agropastorales sur les Hautes-Chaumes du Forez. Cette thématique est liée à l'appréciation des modalités socio-économiques de l'estive telle qu'elle est pratiquée par les communautés montagnardes depuis 2000 ans. Appréhender les rouages de cette activité et son implication environnementale a nécessité de privilégier une approche systémique et diachronique. Par ce moyen, il a été possible d'intégrer la problématique des interactions sociétés-milieu à une approche purement archéologique de l'occupation du sol. L'objectif a été de replacer ces informations dans un cadre historique et paléoécologique adéquat afin de mettre en évidence les grandes phases de l'anthropisation des territoires. La confrontation pluridisciplinaire induite a constitué un facteur primordial pour estimer la variabilité et l'intensité des flux socio-économiques, reflets de pratiques et de politiques fluctuantes dans le temps et l'espace. Replacés dans une trame globale ces événements réintègrent le haut Forez dans une dynamique régionale où la montagne trouve à la fois son rôle et sa légitimité en tant que marge intégrée. Dès l'époque romaine, de premiers véritables changements interviennent. De courte durée, cette dynamique entérine toutefois des modalités de gestion nouvelles qui œuvrent à l'intégration des Hautes-Chaumes dans un circuit de complémentarité effectif entre plaines et montagne. Celle-ci constituera le principal acteur à l'initiative des changements paléoenvironnementaux et économiques qui se succéderont jusqu'à l'aube du XIXe siècle.

The aim of this Phd work is to identify and characterize agropastoral rhythms and dynamics in the "Hautes-Chaumes du Forez". This theme is linked with the appreciation of socio-economic modalities of grazing as it has been practiced by mountain communities for the last 2000 years. Understanding how worked this activity and its environmental implication required a systemic and diachronic approach. Thereby, it was possible to link the issue of society-environment interactions with an archaeological approach of land use. The main purpose is to replace this information in a suitable historical and paleoecological framework in the way to highlight the major phases of lands use and anthropization. In this way, a multidisciplinary confrontation has been a prime factor in order to estimate the variability and the intensity of the socio-economic flows, themselves reflections of practices and policies fluctuating in time and space. Replaced in a global framework, these events reintegrate the "Haut Forez" in a regional dynamic where the mountain finds both its role and its legitimacy as an integrated margin. During Antiquity, the first real changes took place. Short-lived, however, this dynamic confirms new management methods that work for the integration of the Hautes-Chaumes into a complementarity circuit between plains and mountains. This dynamic is the main actor in the initiative of the palaeoenvironmental and economic changes which will follow one another until the dawn of the 19th century. ; Ce travail de thèse s'attache à identifier et à caractériser les rythmes et dynamiques agropastorales sur les Hautes-Chaumes du Forez. Cette thématique est liée à l'appréciation des modalités socio-économiques de l'estive telle qu'elle est pratiquée par les communautés montagnardes depuis 2000 ans. Appréhender les rouages de cette activité et son implication environnementale a nécessité de privilégier une approche systémique et diachronique. Par ce moyen, il a été possible d'intégrer la problématique des interactions sociétés-milieu à une approche purement archéologique de l'occupation du sol. L'objectif a été de replacer ces informations dans un cadre historique et paléoécologique adéquat afin de mettre en évidence les grandes phases de l'anthropisation des territoires. La confrontation pluridisciplinaire induite a constitué un facteur primordial pour estimer la variabilité et l'intensité des flux socio-économiques, reflets de pratiques et de politiques fluctuantes dans le temps et l'espace. Replacés dans une trame globale ces événements réintègrent le haut Forez dans une dynamique régionale où la montagne trouve à la fois son rôle et sa légitimité en tant que marge intégrée. Dès l'époque romaine, de premiers véritables changements interviennent. De courte durée, cette dynamique entérine toutefois des modalités de gestion nouvelles qui œuvrent à l'intégration des Hautes-Chaumes dans un circuit de complémentarité effectif entre plaines et montagne. Celle-ci constituera le principal acteur à l'initiative des changements paléoenvironnementaux et économiques qui se succéderont jusqu'à l'aube du XIXe siècle.

The aim of this Phd work is to identify and characterize agropastoral rhythms and dynamics in the "Hautes-Chaumes du Forez". This theme is linked with the appreciation of socio-economic modalities of grazing as it has been practiced by mountain communities for the last 2000 years. Understanding how worked this activity and its environmental implication required a systemic and diachronic approach. Thereby, it was possible to link the issue of society-environment interactions with an archaeological approach of land use. The main purpose is to replace this information in a suitable historical and paleoecological framework in the way to highlight the major phases of lands use and anthropization. In this way, a multidisciplinary confrontation has been a prime factor in order to estimate the variability and the intensity of the socio-economic flows, themselves reflections of practices and policies fluctuating in time and space. Replaced in a global framework, these events reintegrate the "Haut Forez" in a regional dynamic where the mountain finds both its role and its legitimacy as an integrated margin. During Antiquity, the first real changes took place. Short-lived, however, this dynamic confirms new management methods that work for the integration of the Hautes-Chaumes into a complementarity circuit between plains and mountains. This dynamic is the main actor in the initiative of the palaeoenvironmental and economic changes which will follow one another until the dawn of the 19th century. ; Ce travail de thèse s'attache à identifier et à caractériser les rythmes et dynamiques agropastorales sur les Hautes-Chaumes du Forez. Cette thématique est liée à l'appréciation des modalités socio-économiques de l'estive telle qu'elle est pratiquée par les communautés montagnardes depuis 2000 ans. Appréhender les rouages de cette activité et son implication environnementale a nécessité de privilégier une approche systémique et diachronique. Par ce moyen, il a été possible d'intégrer la problématique des interactions sociétés-milieu à une approche purement archéologique de l'occupation du sol. L'objectif a été de replacer ces informations dans un cadre historique et paléoécologique adéquat afin de mettre en évidence les grandes phases de l'anthropisation des territoires. La confrontation pluridisciplinaire induite a constitué un facteur primordial pour estimer la variabilité et l'intensité des flux socio-économiques, reflets de pratiques et de politiques fluctuantes dans le temps et l'espace. Replacés dans une trame globale ces événements réintègrent le haut Forez dans une dynamique régionale où la montagne trouve à la fois son rôle et sa légitimité en tant que marge intégrée. Dès l'époque romaine, de premiers véritables changements interviennent. De courte durée, cette dynamique entérine toutefois des modalités de gestion nouvelles qui œuvrent à l'intégration des Hautes-Chaumes dans un circuit de complémentarité effectif entre plaines et montagne. Celle-ci constituera le principal acteur à l'initiative des changements paléoenvironnementaux et économiques qui se succéderont jusqu'à l'aube du XIXe siècle.

The aim of this Phd work is to identify and characterize agropastoral rhythms and dynamics in the "Hautes-Chaumes du Forez". This theme is linked with the appreciation of socio-economic modalities of grazing as it has been practiced by mountain communities for the last 2000 years. Understanding how worked this activity and its environmental implication required a systemic and diachronic approach. Thereby, it was possible to link the issue of society-environment interactions with an archaeological approach of land use. The main purpose is to replace this information in a suitable historical and paleoecological framework in the way to highlight the major phases of lands use and anthropization. In this way, a multidisciplinary confrontation has been a prime factor in order to estimate the variability and the intensity of the socio-economic flows, themselves reflections of practices and policies fluctuating in time and space. Replaced in a global framework, these events reintegrate the "Haut Forez" in a regional dynamic where the mountain finds both its role and its legitimacy as an integrated margin. During Antiquity, the first real changes took place. Short-lived, however, this dynamic confirms new management methods that work for the integration of the Hautes-Chaumes into a complementarity circuit between plains and mountains. This dynamic is the main actor in the initiative of the palaeoenvironmental and economic changes which will follow one another until the dawn of the 19th century. ; Ce travail de thèse s'attache à identifier et à caractériser les rythmes et dynamiques agropastorales sur les Hautes-Chaumes du Forez. Cette thématique est liée à l'appréciation des modalités socio-économiques de l'estive telle qu'elle est pratiquée par les communautés montagnardes depuis 2000 ans. Appréhender les rouages de cette activité et son implication environnementale a nécessité de privilégier une approche systémique et diachronique. Par ce moyen, il a été possible d'intégrer la problématique des interactions sociétés-milieu à une approche purement archéologique de l'occupation du sol. L'objectif a été de replacer ces informations dans un cadre historique et paléoécologique adéquat afin de mettre en évidence les grandes phases de l'anthropisation des territoires. La confrontation pluridisciplinaire induite a constitué un facteur primordial pour estimer la variabilité et l'intensité des flux socio-économiques, reflets de pratiques et de politiques fluctuantes dans le temps et l'espace. Replacés dans une trame globale ces événements réintègrent le haut Forez dans une dynamique régionale où la montagne trouve à la fois son rôle et sa légitimité en tant que marge intégrée. Dès l'époque romaine, de premiers véritables changements interviennent. De courte durée, cette dynamique entérine toutefois des modalités de gestion nouvelles qui œuvrent à l'intégration des Hautes-Chaumes dans un circuit de complémentarité effectif entre plaines et montagne. Celle-ci constituera le principal acteur à l'initiative des changements paléoenvironnementaux et économiques qui se succéderont jusqu'à l'aube du XIXe siècle.

Aim: Animal movement is an important determinant of individual survival, population dynamics and ecosystem structure and function. Nonetheless, it is still unclear how local movements are related to resource availability and the spatial arrangement of resources. Using resident bird species and migratory bird species outside the migratory period, we examined how the distribution of resources affects the movement patterns of both large terrestrial birds (e.g., raptors, bustards and hornbills) and waterbirds (e.g., cranes, storks, ducks, geese and flamingos). Location: Global. Time period: 2003–2015. Major taxa studied: Birds. Methods: We compiled GPS tracking data for 386 individuals across 36 bird species. We calculated the straight‐line distance between GPS locations of each individual at the 1‐hr and 10‐day time‐scales. For each individual and time‐scale, we calculated the median and 0.95 quantile of displacement. We used linear mixed‐effects models to examine the effect of the spatial arrangement of resources, measured as enhanced vegetation index homogeneity, on avian movements, while accounting for mean resource availability, body mass, diet, flight type, migratory status and taxonomy and spatial autocorrelation. Results: We found a significant effect of resource spatial arrangement at the 1‐hr and 10‐day time‐scales. On average, individual movements were seven times longer in environments with homogeneously distributed resources compared with areas of low resource homogeneity. Contrary to previous work, we found no significant effect of resource availability, diet, flight type, migratory status or body mass on the non‐migratory movements of birds. Main conclusions: We suggest that longer movements in homogeneous environments might reflect the need for different habitat types associated with foraging and reproduction. This highlights the importance of landscape complementarity, where habitat patches within a landscape include a range of different, yet complementary resources. As habitat homogenization increases, it might force birds to travel increasingly longer distances to meet their diverse needs. ; National Trust for Scotland; Penguin Foundation; The U.S. Department of Energy, Grant/Award Number: DE-EE0005362; Australian Research Council; NASA's Arctic Boreal Vulnerability Experiment (ABoVE), Grant/Award Number: NNX15AV92A; Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research, Grant/Award Number: VIDI 864.10.006; BCC; NSF Award, Grant/Award Number: ABI-1458748; U.K. Department for Energy and Climate Change; 'Juan de la Cierva ‐ Incorporación' postdoctoral grant; Irish Research Council, Grant/Award Number: GOIPD/2015/81 ; DECC; Goethe International Postdoctoral Programme, People Programme (Marie Curie Actions) of the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme FP7/2007‐2013/ under REA grant agreement no [291776]; German Aerospace Center Award, Grant/Award Number: 50JR1601; Scottish Natural Heritage; Solway Coast AONB Sustainable Development Fund; COWRIE Ltd.; Heritage Lottery Fund; Robert Bosch Stiftung; NSF Division of Biological Infrastructure Award, Grant/Award Number: 1564380; Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness, Grant/Award Number: IJCI-2014-19190; Energinet.dk; NASA Award, Grant/Award Number: NNX15AV92A; MAVA Foundation; Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia, Grant/Award Number: SFRH/BPD/118635/2016; National Key R&D Program of China, Grant/Award Number: 2016YFC0500406; Green Fund of the Greek Ministry of Environment

Locally-established marine protected areas (MPAs) have been proven to achieve local-scale fisheries and conservation objectives. However, since many of these MPAs were not designed to form ecologically-connected networks, their contributions to broader-scale goals such as complementarity and connectivity can be limited. In contrast, integrated networks of MPAs designed with systematic conservation planning are assumed to be more effective-ecologically, socially, and economically-than collections of locally-established MPAs. There is, however, little empirical evidence that clearly demonstrates the supposed advantages of systematic MPA networks. A key reason is the poor record of implementation of systematic plans attributable to lack of local buy-in. An intermediate scenario for the expansion of MPAs is scaling up of local decisions, whereby locally-driven MPA initiatives are coordinated through collaborative partnerships among local governments and their communities. Coordination has the potential to extend the benefits of individual MPAs and perhaps to approach the potential benefits offered by systematic MPA networks. We evaluated the benefits of scaling up local MPAs to form networks by simulating seven expansion scenarios for MPAs in the Verde Island Passage, central Philippines. The scenarios were: uncoordinated community-based establishment of MPAs; two scenarios reflecting different levels of coordinated MPA expansion through collaborative partnerships; and four scenarios guided by systematic conservation planning with different contexts for governance. For each scenario, we measured benefits through time in terms of achievement of objectives for representation of marine habitats. We found that: in any governance context, systematic networks were more efficient than non-systematic ones; systematic networks were more efficient in broader governance contexts; and, contrary to expectations but with caveats, the uncoordinated scenario was slightly more efficient than the coordinated scenarios. Overall, ...