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Language is a symbolic system of meanings evoked by linguistic forms. The choice of forms in communication is non-arbitrary. Rather, speakers pick those forms whose meanings best convey their discourse intention. The meaning of the Mandarin ba-construction, argues Jing-Schmidt, is discourse dramaticity, a concept that includes high conceptual salience and subjectivity. The ba-construction and its "syntactic variations" are never interchangeable because contrast in their meanings determines difference in their functions. Quantitative analyses based on authentic data validate the postulation of

The African Music Society, and African musicians everywhere have suffered a great loss this year (1961) in the sudden death of the composer Ba Joseph Kiwele in Elizabethville, Katanga. At the time of his death (it is understood from heart failure) he was Minister of Education in the Katanga Government of President Tshombe. The Society also records the death on July 9th, 1961, of Mrs. E. M. Dougall, who for many years has been a good friend of the African Music Society through her interest in and work for the Tom Osborn Memorial.

Introduction : Ba Jin's fiction and twentieth-century Chinese history -- Mingfeng : the life of a Chinese slave girl -- The patriarch : Chengdu's gentry -- Juexin's city : the Chengdu economy -- Sedan-chair bearers, beggars, actors, and prostitutes : the worlds of the urban poor -- Students, soldiers, and warlords : protest and warfare in the city -- Qin : Chengdu and the "new woman" -- Juehui : revolution, reform, and development in Chengdu -- Epilogue : family and city in China's twentieth-century revolutions

In 2003, an erstwhile successful state apparatus - the security party-state of Ba`athist Iraq - collapsed as a result of the US-led Operation Iraqi Freedom. The breakdown of the state apparatus was then exacerbated by early occupational policy, which swept away the foundations of both the armed forces and the civil services. As a result, Iraq was faced with a condition of near-total anarchy, as US occupational institutions proved themselves unequal to replacing the state structures they had eliminated.That governance vacuum enabled non-state coercive actors to compete for authority in the shadow of the US occupation. In much of the country, the result was protracted, multi-sided struggle, but in al Anbar tribal leaders were able to establish themselves as the supreme authorities, carving out a tribal quasi-state in the governorate.This dissertation examines the process of state failure and the nature of politics in the absence of stable state structures, and in doing so concludes that the institutional configuration of the non-state coercive power competitors is the crucial deciding factor separating winners from losers. In al Anbar, it was two characteristics of the tribes - their hierarchical authority, forged out of long-term historical forces, and the more recent legacy of collusion with the Ba'athist state in the two decades prior to the US-led invasion. The central government in Iraq, like the proverbial stranger in the Alps, has been buffeted by blows from all directions, with unsure governance even in its core territories, while the tribes of western Iraq have only each other as significant rivals.The paper concludes with thoughts on generalizing this framework beyond al Anbar to the other regions of Iraq, and to other failed states.